The Nervous System Support Cells of the PNS

Functions – first-messenger system 1. Satellite cells – protect neuron cell bodies

• Sensory input – gather information and monitor changes 2. Schwann cells – form myelin sheath in the PNS
occurring inside and outside the body ***Neuroglia are not able to transmit nerve impulses but do
• Integration – process and interpret sensory input and not lose their ability to divide, unlike neurons.
decide if action is needed
• Motor output – a response to integrated stimuli which Nervous Tissue: Neurons
activates muscles or glands • Nerve cells – cells specialized to transmit messages
• Major regions of neurons
Organization of the Nervous System 1. Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
2. Processes – fibers that extend from the cell body

Neuron Anatomy
• Cell body or Soma
1. Nissl substance – specialized rough ER
2. Neurofibrils – intermediate cytoskeleton that
maintains cell shape
3. Nucleus
4. Large nucleolus
• Extensions outside the cell body (processes)
1. Dendrites – conduct impulses toward the cell body
2. Axons – conduct impulses away from the cell body

Axons and Nerve Impulses

• Axons end in axonal terminals
• Terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters
• Terminals are separated by a gap
o Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent neurons
Structural Classification of the Nervous System o Synapse – junction between nerves
• Central nervous system (CNS)
 Brain – ventricles Nerve Fiber Coverings
 Spinal cord – central canal • Schwann cells – produce myelin sheaths in jelly-roll like
fashion
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath along the axon;
 Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
responsible for saltatory conduction
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
Neuron Cell Body Location
Functional Classification of the PNS
• Most are found in the CNS in clusters called nuclei
• Sensory (afferent) division
• Bundles of nerve fibers in CNS = tracts
 Nerve fibers that carry information to the central
 Gray matter – cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers
nervous system
 White matter – myelinated fibers
• Motor (efferent) division
• Bundles of nerve fibers in PNS = nerves
 Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the  Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the CNS
central nervous system
 Two subdivisions Functional Classification of Neurons – impulse transport
• Somatic nervous system = voluntary 1. Sensory (afferent) neurons
• Autonomic nervous system = involuntary • Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
2. Motor (efferent) neurons
Nervous Tissue: Support Cells (Neuroglia) • Carry impulses from the CNS
1. Astrocytes 3. Interneurons (association neurons)
• Abundant, star-shaped cells • Connect sensory and motor neurons
• Brace neurons TYPE LOCATION FROM TO
• Form barrier between capillaries and neurons Sensory Dorsal root Receptor CNS
• Control the chemical environment of the brain (DRG)
2. Microglia Motor Ventral horn of gray CNS Effectors
• Spider-like phagocytes matter
• Dispose of debris Association Lateral horn of gray Sensory Motor
3. Ependymal cells matter
• Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
• Circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Structural Classification of Neurons – appearance
• Ciliated 1. Multipolar neurons – many extensions from the cell body;
4. Oligodendrocytes most common
2. Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite; eye and ear
• Produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the
3. Unipolar neurons – have a short single process leaving the
central nervous system
cell body
 Myelin sheath – nerve fiber covering
Functional Properties of Neurons • Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory neuron, to an
• Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli interneuron, to an effector
• Conductivity – ability to transmit an impulse
Types of Reflexes and Regulation
Starting a Nerve Impulse • Autonomic reflexes
• Depolarization – a stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s  Smooth muscle regulation
membrane  Size of eye pupils
• A depolarized membrane allows sodium (Na+) to flow  Heart and blood pressure regulation
inside the membrane  Regulation of glands and sweating
• The exchange of ions initiates an action potential (nerve  Digestive system and elimination regulation
impulse) in the neuron • Somatic reflexes
 Activation of skeletal muscles
The Action Potential • Reflex arcs have a minimum five elements
• If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is  A sensory receptor – reacts to stimuli
propagated over the entire axon – all-or-none response  An effector receptor – muscle or gland stimulated
• Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium ions  Afferent and efferent neurons connecting the two
rush in, which repolarizes the membrane  The CNS integration center
• The sodium-potassium pump restores the original
configuration (requires ATP) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
• Until repolarization occurs, a neuron cannot conduct • Develops from the embryonic neural tube
another impulse • The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord
• The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles
Nerve Impulse Propagation  Four chambers within the brain
• The impulse continues to move toward the cell body  Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
• Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath • Regions of the Brain
 Nerve impulse literally jumps from node to node  Cerebral hemispheres  Brain stem
because it cannot cross myelin insulation  Diencephalon  Cerebellum
• Impulses are unable to cross the synapse to another
nerve
Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)
 Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s axon
• Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain
terminal
 The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that • Include more than half of the brain mass
are stimulated by the neurotransmitter • The surface is made of ridges or elevations (gyri) and
 An action potential is started in the dendrites of grooves or depressions (sulci)
 the next neuron • Lobes of the Cerebrum
• Transmission of an impulse is an electrochemical event  Frontal lobe  Occipital lobe
 Parietal lobe  Temporal lobe
How Neurons Communicate at Synapses • Fissures (deep sulci) divide the cerebrum into lobes
 Frontal and Parietal
o pre-central sulcus
o central sulcus
o post-central sulcus
 Parietal and Occipital
o parieto-occipital sulcus
 Parietal and Temporal
o lateral fissure
 Insula – 5th lobe; located deep into the temporal
 Corpus callosum – white matter fiber that joins the
left and right hemispheres

Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum

• Somatic sensory area in parietal lobe – receives impulses
from the body’s sensory receptors (except special senses)
• Occipital lobe – vision and temporal lobe – auditory
• Primary motor area – sends impulses to skeletal muscles
– frontal lobe
• Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak – base of
the precentral gyrus
• Cerebral areas involved in special senses
 Gustatory area (taste)
 Visual area
 Auditory area
• First order neuron – transmitting neuron
 Olfactory area
• Second order neuron – receiving neuron
• Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
 Speech/language region
The Reflex Arc
 Language comprehension region
• Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to
stimuli
  General interpretation area  Involved in motor control of visceral organs
 Reticular activating system plays a role in
Layers of the Cerebrum awake/sleep cycles and consciousness
• Gray matter  Damage here results in a permanent coma
 Outermost layer
 Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies Cerebellum
 Cerebral cortex • Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
• White matter – fiber tracts inside the gray matter • Provides involuntary coordination of body movements –
• Basal nuclei – internal islands of gray matter of skeletal muscles, balance and equilibrium
 Helps regulate voluntary motor activities by • Arbor vitae – tree of life
modifying instructions sent to the skeletal muscles
Protection of the Central Nervous System
Diencephalon • Scalp and skin • Cerebrospinal fluid
• Sits on top of the brain stem • Skull and vertebral column • Blood brain barrier
• Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres • Meninges`
• Made of three parts
a. Thalamus Meninges
• Surrounds the third ventricle • Dura mater
• The relay station for sensory impulses  Double-layered external covering
• Transfers impulses to the correct part of the • Periosteum – attached to surface of the skull
cortex for localization and interpretation • Meningeal layer – outer covering of the brain
b. Hypothalamus  Folds inward in several areas
• Under the thalamus • Arachnoid layer
• Important autonomic nervous system center  Web-like middle layer
 Helps regulate body temperature • Pia mater
 Controls water balance  Internal layer that clings to the surface of the brain
 Regulates metabolism • Subarachnoid space filled with cerebrospinal fluid
• An important part of the limbic system  Arachnoid villi – projections of arachnoid membrane
• Houses the pituitary gland protruding through the dura matter
c. Epithalamus
• Forms the roof of the third ventricle Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland) • Similar to blood plasma composition
• Includes the choroid plexus – forms  Less protein, more vitamin C, different ions
cerebrospinal fluid • Formed by the choroid plexus
• Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
Brain Stem • Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central
canal of the spinal cord
• Attaches to the spinal cord
• Parts of the brain stem
Blood Brain Barrier
a. Midbrain
• Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers • Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body – only
H2O, glucose, and essential amino acids get through
• The cerebral aqueduct – canal that connects the
• Excludes many potentially harmful substances
3rd ventricle of the diencephalon to the 4th
• Useless against some substances
• Has two bulging fiber tracts – cerebral peduncles
 Fats and fat soluble molecules  Nicotine
– convey ascending and descending impulses
 Respiratory gases  Anesthesia
• Has four rounded protrusions – corpora  Alcohol
quadrigemina – reflex centers for vision and
hearing Traumatic Brain Injuries
b. Pons • Concussion
• The bulging center part of the brain stem  Slight brain injury – dizzy or lose consciousness briefly
• Mostly composed of fiber tracts  No permanent brain damage
• Includes nuclei involved in the control of • Contusion
breathing  Nervous tissue destruction occurs – doesn’t
c. Medulla Oblongata regenerate
• The lowest part of the brain stem  If cortex is damaged, coma for hours or life
• Merges into the spinal cord through the foramen • Cerebral edema
magnum  Swelling from the inflammatory response
• Includes important fiber tracts  May compress and kill brain tissue
• Contains automatic function of internal organs
 Heart rate control Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)
 Blood pressure regulation • Commonly called a stroke
 Breathing • The result of a clot or a ruptured blood vessel supplying a
 Swallowing region of the brain
 Vomiting • Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source
• Reticular Formation dies
 Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem • Loss of some functions or death may result
Alzheimer’s disease • Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae
• Progressive degenerative brain disease  Dorsal root
• Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age • Associated with the dorsal root ganglia –
• Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein collections of cell bodies outside the central
deposits and twisted fibers within neurons nervous system
• Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion  Ventral root
and ultimately, hallucinations and death
Peripheral Nervous System
Spinal Cord
• Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous system
• Extends from medulla oblongata to the region of T 12
• Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
• Below T12 is the cauda equina (collection of spinal nerves) • Neuron fibers are bundled by a connective tissue sheath

Spinal Cord Anatomy Structure of a Nerve

• Exterior white mater – conduction tracts • Endoneurium surrounds each fiber
 Posterior, lateral, and anterior columns • Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by perineurium
 Each contains a number of fiber tracts make up of • Fascicles are bound together by epineurium
axons with the same destination and function
• Internal gray matter – mostly cell bodies
Classification of Nerves
 Dorsal (posterior) horns
1. Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor fibers
 Anterior (ventral) horns 2. Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses toward CNS
 Lateral horns 3. Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses away from CNS
• Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
• Meninges cover the spinal cord

Cranial Nerves
Name Origin/course Function
I. Olfactory nasal cavity sensory for smell
II. Optic retina to the optic cortex sensory for vision
III. Oculomotor midbrain to the eye motor fibers to eye muscles
IV. Trochlear midbrain to the eye motor fibers to eye muscles
V. Trigeminal pons (three divisions) to the face sensory for the face, nose, mouth; motor fibers to chewing muscles
VI. Abducens pons to the eye motor fibers to eye muscles
VII. Facial pons to the face sensory for taste; motor fibers to the face
VIII. Vestibulocochlear equilibrium and hearing receptors sensory for balance and hearing
of inner ear to the brain stem
IX. Glossopharyngeal medulla to the throat sensory for taste; motor fibers to the pharynx
X. Vagus medulla in the thorax and sensory and motor fibers for pharynx, larynx, and viscera
abdominal cavity
XI. Accessory superior spinal cord (C1-C5) to motor fibers to neck and upper back
muscles of neck and upper back
XII. Hypoglossal medulla to the tongue motor fibers to tongue

Spinal Nerves Anatomy of Spinal Nerves

• There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each • Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal cord
vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs  Dorsal rami – serve the skin and muscles of the
• Spinal nerves are formed by the combination of the posterior trunk
ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord  Ventral rami – forms a complex of networks (plexus)
• Spinal nerves are named for the region from which they for the anterior
arise

Spinal Plexuses
Plexus Origin Important nerves Body areas served Result of damage
Cervical C1-C5 Phrenic Diaphragm; skin and muscles of shoulder and neck Respiratory paralysis
Brachial C1-C8 and T1 Axillary Deltoid muscle and skin of shoulder; muscles and Paralysis and atrophy of
skin of superior thorax deltoid muscle
Radial Triceps and extensor muscles of the forearm; skin Wristdrop – inability to
of posterior upper limb extend hand and wrist
Median Flexor muscles of skin and forearm and some Inability to pick up small
muscles of hand objects
Musculocutaneous Flexor muscles of arm; skin of lateral forearm Decreased ability to flex
forearm on arm
Ulnar Some flexor muscles of skin and forearm; wrist and Clawhand – inability to
many hand muscles; skin of hand spread fingers apart
Lumbar L1-L4 Femoral Lower abdomen, anterior and medial thigh Inability to extend leg and
muscles, skin of anteromedial leg and thigh flex hip; loss of cutaneous
sensation
 Obturator Adductor muscles of medial thigh and small hip Inability to adduct thigh
muscles; skin of medial thigh and hip joint
Sacral L4-L5 and S1-S4 Sciatic (largest Lower trunk and posterior surface of thigh Inability to extend hip and
nerve) flex knee; sciatica
– Common fibular Lateral aspect of leg and foot Footdrop – inability to
dorsiflex foot
– Tibial Posterior aspect of leg and foot Inability to plantar flex and
invert foot; shuffling gait
Superior and Gluteal muscles of hip Inability to extend hip or
inferior gluteal abduct and medially rotate
thigh

Somatic Nervous System • Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful
• Voluntary nervous system effects
• The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to
Autonomic Nervous System develop – contains centers for regulating body
• Involuntary nervous system temperature
• Consists of only motor nerves • No more neurons are formed after birth, but growth and
maturation continues for several years largely due to
• Divided into two divisions
myelination
 Sympathetic division
• The brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult
 Parasympathetic division

Differences between Somatic and Autonomic

• Nerves
o Somatic – one motor neuron
o Autonomic – preganglionic and postganglionic nerves
• Effector organs
o Somatic – skeletal muscle
o Autonomic – smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and
glands
• Neurotransmitters
o Somatic – always use acetylcholine
o Autonomic – use acetylcholine, epinephrine, or
norepinephrine

Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

• Originates from T1 through L2
• Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk (near the spinal
cord)
• Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long postganglionic
neuron transmit impulse from CNS to the effector
• Norepinephrine and epinephrine are neurotransmitters to
the effector organs

Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

• Originates from the brain stem and S1 through S4
• Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs
• Always uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter

Autonomic Functioning
• Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
 Response to unusual stimulus
 Takes over to increase activities
 Remember as the “E” division = exercise, excitement,
emergency, and embarrassment
• Parasympathetic – housekeeping activities
 Conserves energy
 Maintains daily necessary body functions
 Remember as the “D” division - digestion, defecation,
and diuresis

Development Aspects of the Nervous System

• The nervous system is formed during the first month of
embryonic development