Reg.No. .............. Name........................

APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

SIXTH SEMESTER B TECH DEGREE EXAMINATION,APRIL 2018

Course Code: EC 302

Course Name: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Max Marks:100 Duration:3 Hours

PART A

Answer all questions.

1.a)Explain DM system with neat diagrams. What are its draw backs?(7)
b)What is ISI?Explain eye pattern?(5)
c)Write a short note on precoding.(3)

2.a)Explain PCM system with neat diagram. What are its advantages
and disadvantages?(7)
b)Explain the transmission of a random process through an LTI system.(5)
c)Mention the properties of autocorrelation function.(3)

OR

3.a)Describe baseband binary data transmission system with neat diagrams.(7)

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b)Explain ideal and practical solutions for Nyquist pulse shaping criterion.(8)

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Answer all questions.
4. a)Consider the four signals s1(t), s2(t), s3(t) and s4(t) as shown in the figure. Use
Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Procedure to find the orthonormal basis for
this set of signals. Also express the signals in terms of the basis functions.(8)

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 b)Briefly describe DPSK with neat diagrams.(7)

5.a)Briefly describe the conversion of continuous AWGN channel in to a vector

channel.(8)
b)Explain correlation receiver.(7)

OR
6.a)Derive the probability of error for BPSK and QPSK.(7)
b)Briefly describe coherent BFSK system with neat diagrams.(8)

PART C
Answer all questions.

7.a)What is PN sequence?What are the properties of PN sequences. Explain.(5)

b)Write a short note on processing gain of spread spectrum systems.(7)
c)Briefly describe different Diversity techniques.(8)

8.a)What is FHSS.What are its types. Explain.(8)

b) A speech conversation is transmitted by a DS-SS system. The speech is converted

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to PCM using an anti-aliasing filter with a cut-off frequency of 3.4 kHz and using
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256 quantization levels. It is anticipated that the processing gain should not be

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less that 23 dB.. Find the required chip rate.ii. If the speech was transmitted by an
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FH-SS system, what would be the number of hopping channels?(8)

c) Write a short note on gold codes.(4)

OR

9.a)Briefly describe CDMA.What are the advantages and disadvantages of CDMA.(8)

b)What is Rake receiver? Explain.(7)
c)Write a short note on OFDM(5)

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 ANSWERS

1.a)Explain DM system with neat diagrams.What are its draw backs?(7)

ANS.Delta Modulation is a special case of DPCM. In DPCM scheme if the base band
signalis sampled at a rate much higher than the Nyquist rate purposely to increase
thecorrelation between adjacent samples of the signal, so as to permit the use of a
simplequantizing strategy for constructing the encoded signal, Delta modulation (DM)
isprecisely such as scheme. Delta Modulation is the one-bit (or two-level) versions of
DPCM.DM provides a staircase approximation to the over sampled version of an input
base bandsignal. The difference between the input and the approximation is quantized
into only twolevels, namely, ±δ corresponding to positive and negative differences,
respectively, Thus,if the approximation falls below the signal at any sampling epoch, it is
increased by δ.Provided that the signal does not change too rapidly from sample to
sample, we find thatthe stair case approximation remains within ±δ of the input signal.
The symbol δ denotes the absolute value of the two representation levels of the
one-bit quantizer used in the DM. These two levels are indicated in the
transfer characteristic of Figure.
Let the input signal be x(t) and the staircase approximation to it is u(t). Then, the basic
principle of delta modulation may be formalized in the following set of relations:

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In the receiver, shown in fig.3.16, the stair case approximation u(t) is reconstructed by
passing the incoming sequence of positive and negative pulses through an
accumulator ina manner similar to that used in the transmitter. The out-of –band
quantization noise inthe high frequency staircase waveform u(t) is rejected by passing
it through a low-pass filter with a band-width equal to the original signal bandwidth.

Delta modulation offers two unique features:

1. No need for Word Framing because of one-bit code word.
2. Simple design for both Transmitter and Receiver
DISADVANTAGES ARE

Slope overload distortion:

This distortion arises because of large dynamic range of input signal. To reduce this
error, the step size must be increased when slope of signal x(t) is high. Since the step size

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of delta modulator remains fixed, its maximum or minimum slopes occur along straight

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lines. Therefore, this modulator is known as Linear Delta Modulator (LDM).
Granular noise:

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Granular noise occurs when step size is too large compared to small variations in
the input signal. This means that for very small variations in the input signal, the
staircase signal is changed by large amount because of large step size. The error
between the input and approximated signal is called granular noise. The solution to
this problem is to make step size small. Adaptive Delta Modulation.To overcome the
quantization error due to slope overload distortion and granular noise, the step size ( )
is made adaptive to variations in input signal x(t). Particularly in the step segment
of the x(t) , the step size is increased. Also, if the input is varying slowly, the step size
is reduced. Then this method is known as Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM). The
adaptive delta modulators can take continuous changes in the step size or discrete
changes in the step size this problem is to make step size small.

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1.b)What is ISI?How can we solve this problem?(5)

ANS. Intersymbol interference (ISI) is a form of distortion of a signal in which one

symbol interferes with subsequent symbols. This is an unwanted phenomenon as the
previous symbols have similar effect as noise, thus making the communication less
reliable. The spreading of the pulse beyond its allotted time interval causes it to
interfere with neighboring pulses.[1] ISI is usually caused by multipath propagation
or the inherent linear or non-linear frequency response of a channel causing
successive symbols to "blur" together.The presence of ISI in the system introduces
errors in the decision device at the receiver output. Therefore, in the design of the
transmitting and receiving filters, the objective is to minimize the effects of ISI, and
thereby deliver the digital data to its destination with the smallest error rate
possible.By using Nyquist pulse shaping criterion ,ISI can be eliminated.

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eye pattern

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The quality of digital transmission systems are evaluated using the bit error rate.
Degradation of quality occurs in each process modulation, transmission, and
detection. The eye pattern is experimental method that contains all the information
concerning thedegradation of quality. Therefore, careful analysis of the eye pattern is
important inanalyzing the degradation mechanism.
• Eye patterns can be observed using an oscilloscope. The received wave is
applied to the vertical deflection plates of an oscilloscope and the sawtooth wave
at a rate equal to transmitted symbol rate is applied to the horizontal deflection
plates, resulting display is eye pattern as it resembles human eye.The width of
the eye opening defines the time interval over which the received wave can be
sampled without error from ISI
• The optimum sampling time corresponds to the maximum eye opening
• The height of the eye opening at a specified sampling time is a measure of
the margin over channel noise.
The sensitivity of the system to timing error is determined by the rate of closure of
the eye as the sampling time is varied.
1.c) precoding
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2.a)Explain PCM system with neat diagram.What are its advantages and
disadvantages?(7)
ans.

This above block diagram describes the whole process of PCM. The source of
continuous time message signal is passed through a low pass filter and then
sampling, Quantization, Encoding will be done. We will see in detail step by step.
Sampling
Sampling is a process of measuring the amplitude of a continuous-time signal at
discrete instants, converts the continuous signal into a discrete signal. For example,
conversion of a sound wave to a sequence of samples. The Sample is a value or set of

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values at a point in time or it can be spaced. Sampler extract samples of a continuous

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signal, it is a subsystem ideal sampler produces samples which are equivalent to the

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instantaneous value of the continuous signal at the specified various points.
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Sampling frequency, Fs is the number of average samples per second also known as
Sampling rate. According to the Nyquist Theorem sampling rate should be at least 2
times the upper cutoff frequency. Sampling frequency, Fs>=2*fmax to avoid Aliasing
Effect. If the sampling frequency is very higher than the Nyquist rate it become
Oversampling, theoretically a bandwidth limited signal can be reconstructed if
sampled at above the Nyquist rate. If the sampling frequency is less than the
Nyquist rate it will become Undersampling. Basically two types of techniques are
used for the sampling process. Those are 1. Natural Sampling and 2. Flat- top
Sampling. Quantization

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In quantization, an analog sample with an amplitude that converted into a digital sample
with an amplitude that takes one of a specific defined set of quantization values.
Quantization is done by dividing the range of possible values of the analog samples into
some different levels, and assigning the center value of each level to any sample in
quantization interval. Quantization approximates the analog sample values with the
nearest quantization values. So almost all the quantized samples will differ from the
original samples by a small amount. That amount is called as quantization error. The
result of this quantization error is we will hear hissing noise when play a random signal.
Converting analog samples into binary numbers that is 0 and 1.
In most of the cases we will use uniform quantizers. Uniform quantization is
applicable when the sample values are in a finite range (Fmin, Fmax). The total data
range is divided into 2n levels, let it be L intervals. They will have an equal length
Q. Q is known as Quantization interval or quantization step size. In uniform
quantization there will be no quantization error.
Uniformly Quantized Signal Uniformly Quantized
Signal As we know,
L=2n, then Step size Q = (Fmax – Fmin) / L

Interval i is mapped to the middle value. We will store or send only index value of
quantized value.The solution for this problem is using Non- uniform quantization.
In this Process quantization interval is smaller near zero.
Coding
The encoder encodes the quantized samples. Each quantized sample is encoded into
an 8-bit code word by using A-law in the encoding process.

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Bit 1 is the most significant bit (MSB), it represents the polarity of the sample.

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“1” represents positive polarity and “0” represents negative polarity.
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Bit 2,3 and 4 will defines the location of sample value. These three bits together
form linear curve for low level negative or positive samples. Bit 5,6,7 and 8 are the
least significant bits (LSB) it represents one of the segments quantized value.
Each segment is divided into 16 quantum levels.
Pulse Code Demodulation
Pulse Code Demodulation will be doing the same modulation process in reverse.
Demodulation starts with decoding process, during transmission the PCM signal will
effected by the noise interference. So, before the PCM signal sends into the PCM
demodulator, we have to recover the signal into the original level for that we are
using a comparator. The PCM signal is a series pulse wave signal, but for
demodulation we need wave to be parallel.

Pulse Code Modulation Advantages

• Analog signal can be transmitted over a high- speed digital communication

system.
• Probability of occurring error will reduce by the use of appropriate coding
methods.
• PCM is used in Telkom system, digital audio recording, digitized video
special effects, digital video, voice mail.
• The PCM signal is more resistant to interference than normal
signal. Disadvantages:
1.largr bandwidth is required.

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2.Transmitter and receiver circuitery is complex.

2.b)Explain the transmission of a random process through an LTI system.(5)

ans. A random process X(t) is applied as input to a linear time-invariant filter of

impulse response h(t),

• It produces a random process Y (t) at the filter output

as shown in Figure .

• Difficult to describe the probability distribution of the output

random process Y (t), even when the probability distribution of
the input random process X(t) is completely specified for
−∞ ≤ t ≤ +∞.

• Estimate characteristics like mean and autocorrelation of

the output and try to analyse its behaviour.

• Mean The input to the above system X(t) is assumed

stationary. The mean of the output random process Y (t) can be calculated.

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2. c)Mention the properties of autocorrelation

function.(3) ans:

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3.a)Describe baseband binary data transmission system with neat diagrams.(7).

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Ans. In discrete pulse modulation ,the amplitude(PAM),duration(PDM) or position

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of transmitted pulse(PPM) is varied in accordance with the digital information.

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b)Explain ideal and practical solutions for Nyquist pulse shaping criterion.(8)
ans.
Ideal Nyquist channel

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The practical difficulties are

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4.a)Gram-Schmidt procedure

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4.b)Briefly describe DPSK with neat diagrams.(7)

ans.

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If correlator output is -ve --- A decision is made in favour of symbol '0'
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5.a)Briefly describe the conversion of continuous AWGN channel in to a
vector channel.(8)
ANS.
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5.b)Explain correlation receiver.(7)

Ans.correlation receiver

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6.a)Derive the probability of error fo BPSK andQPSK.(7)

ANS. Probability of error for BPSK

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 FIG.6.3 Signal space Diagram for BPSK

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Probability of error for QPSK

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But,

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6.b)Briefly describe coherent BFSK system with neat diagrams.(8)

ANS. BFSK

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7.a)What is PN sequence?What are the properties of PN sequences.
Explain.(5) ANS.

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7b)Write a short note on processing gain of spread spectrum systems.(7)

ans. processing gain

Digital signal transmission is normally preceded by signal processing such as filtering,

modulation and coding. At the receiver, processing like matched filtering and
detection is used to recover the data.

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7. c) Briefly describe different Diversity techniques.(8)

Ans.Diversity combats fading by providing the receiver with multiple uncorrelated replicas of the
same information bearing signal.

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Two antennas separated by severalwavelengthswill notgenerally experience
fades at thesame time•Space Diversity can be obtained by using two receiving antennas
and switching instant-by-instant to whichever is best.

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Sending an information symbol every L symbol times•Only one symbol can be transmitted
every delay spread•Once one tries to transmit symbols more frequently than the coherence
bandwidth, inter-symbol interference (ISI) occurs. Transmission in which signals
representing the same information are sent over the same channel at different times.Use
coding and interleaving (it breaks the memory of the channel, not all bits of the codeword are
likely to fall into a deep fade).It consumes extra transmission time.

8.a)What is FHSS.What are its types.Explain.(8)

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two types
1.slow frequency hopping spread spectrum
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2.fas frequency hopping spread spectrum

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b)A speech conversation is transmitted by a DS -SS system. The speech is converted
to PCM using an anti-aliasing filter with a cut-off frequency of 3.4 kHz and using 256
quantization levels. It is anticipated that the processing gain should not be less that
23 dB.. Find the required chip rate.ii. If the speech was transmitted by an FH-SS
system, what would be the number of hopping channels?(8)
ans.

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c) Write a short note on gold codes.(4)

ans.When performing a CDMA system where multiple users communicate with one
another, it takes several different coding sequences which have the same correlation.
Gold sequence is such a sequence.Gold sequence was developed by Gold. It is generated
by OR operation (EX-OR) two M sequences whose relationship is that of a favorite
pair.Generation circuit using a linear circuit in three stages and is shown .

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9.a)Briefly describe CDMA. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
CDMA?(8) ans.

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Advantages of CDMA
CDMA has a soft capacity. The greater the number of codes, the more the number of users. It has
the following advantages −

• CDMA requires a tight power control, as it suffers from near-far effect. In other words, a user near

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 the base station transmitting with the same power will drown the signal latter. All signals
must have more or less equal power at the receiver

• Rake receivers can be used to improve signal reception. Delayed versions of time (a chip or later)
of the signal (multipath signals) can be collected and used to make decisions at the bit level.

• Flexible transfer may be used. Mobile base stations can switch without changing operator. Two
base stations receive mobile signal and the mobile receives signals from the two base stations.

• Transmission Burst − reduces interference.

Disadvantages of CDMA
The disadvantages of using CDMA are as follows −

• The code length must be carefully selected. A large code length can induce delay or may
cause interference.

• Time synchronization is required.

• Gradual transfer increases the use of radio resources and may reduce capacity.

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• As the sum of the power received and transmitted from a base station needs constant tight

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power control. This can result in several handovers.

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b)What is Rake receiver? Explain.(7)
ans.
By taking the view point that,

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c)Write a short note on OFDM(5)

ans.

OFDM is a form of multicarrier modulation. An OFDM signal consists of a number of

closely spaced modulated carriers. When modulation of any form - voice, data, etc. is
applied to a carrier, then sidebands spread out either side. It is necessary for a
receiver to be able to receive the whole signal to be able to successfully demodulate
the data. As a result when signals are transmitted close to one another they must be
spaced so that the receiver can separate them using a filter and there must be a guard
band between them. This is not the case with OFDM. Although the sidebands from
each carrier overlap, they can still be received without the interference that might be
expected because they are orthogonal to each another. This is achieved by having the
carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period.

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 OFDM SPECTRUM

OFDM advantages & disadvantages

OFDM advantages

OFDM has been used in many high data rate wireless systems because of the
many advantages it provides.

• Immunity to selective fading: One of the main advantages of OFDM is that

is more resistant to frequency selective fading than single carrier systems

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because it divides the overall channel into multiple narrowband signals that

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are affected individually as flat fading sub-channels.

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• Resilience to interference: Interference appearing on a channel may be
bandwidth limited and in this way will not affect all the sub-channels.
This means that not all the data is lost.
• Spectrum efficiency: Using close-spaced overlapping sub-carriers, a
significant OFDM advantage is that it makes efficient use of the
available spectrum.
• Resilient to ISI: Another advantage of OFDM is that it is very resilient to
inter-symbol and inter-frame interference. This results from the low data
rate on each of the sub-channels.
• Resilient to narrow-band effects: Using adequate channel coding and
interleaving it is possible to recover symbols lost due to the frequency
selectivity of the channel and narrow band interference. Not all the data is lost.
• Simpler channel equalisation: One of the issues with CDMA systems was
the complexity of the channel equalisation which had to be applied across the
whole channel. An advantage of OFDM is that using multiple sub-channels,
the channel equalization becomes much simpler.

OFDM disadvantages

Whilst OFDM has been widely used, there are still a few disadvantages to its use

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which need to be addressed when considering its use.

• High peak to average power ratio: An OFDM signal has a noise like
amplitude variation and has a relatively high large dynamic range, or peak to
average power ratio. This impacts the RF amplifier efficiency as the amplifiers
need to be linear and accommodate the large amplitude variations and these
factors mean the amplifier cannot operate with a high efficiency level.

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