School of Electrical, Electronics & Communication Engineering

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Manipal University Jaipur

LAB MANUAL
Workshop Practice ME11030

B.Tech. Ist Year, Semester-I & II

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 Contents
S. No. Contents Page No.
1. Evaluation Scheme 2
2. Do’s and Dont’s 2
3. Laboratory Instructions 3
4. List of Experiments 4

Evaluation Scheme:
I Semester B. Tech. Evaluation
Branch: ALL Examination Time: Two Hours
Schedule:2 Hours/Week Maximum Marks:100
Credits: 1 [Internal (60) & External (40)]

1. DOS AND DON’TS

2. DOS
 Students should get the record of previous experiment checked before starting the new
experiment.
 Read the manual carefully before starting the experiment.
 Before starting the experiment, get circuit diagram checked by the teacher.
 Before switching on the power supply, get the circuit connections checked.
 Get your readings checked by the teacher.
 Apparatus must be handled carefully.
 Maintain strict discipline.
 Keep your mobile phone switched off or in vibration mode.
 Students should get the experiment allotted for next turn, before leaving the lab.

3. DON’TS
 Do not touch or attempt to touch the mains power supply wire with bare hands.
 Do not overcrowd the tables.
 Do not tamper with equipment.
 Do not leave the lab without prior permission from the teacher.

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 Instructions to the Students
4. General Instructions
 Maintain separate observation copy for each laboratory.
 Observations or readings should be taken only in the observation copy.
 Get the readings counter signed by the faculty after the completion of the
experiment.
 Maintain Index column in the observation copy and get the signature of the
faculty before leaving the lab.

5. Before Entering the Lab

 The previous experiment should have been written in the practical file, without
which the students will not be allowed to enter the lab.
 The students should have written the experiment in the observation copy that
they are supposed to perform in the lab.
 The experiment written in the observation copy should have aim, apparatus
required, circuit diagram/algorithm, blank observation table (if any), formula
(if any), programmed (if any), model graph (if any) and space for result.

6. When Working in the Lab

 Necessary equipment/apparatus should be taken only from the lab assistant by
making an issuing slip, which would contain name of the experiment, names
of batch members and apparatus or components required.
 Never switch on the power supply before getting the permission from the
faculty.

7. Before Leaving the Lab

 The equipment/components should be returned back to the lab assistant in
good condition after the completion of the experiment.
 The students should get the signature from the faculty in the observation copy.
 They should also check whether their file is checked and counter signed in the
index.

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 LIST OF THE EXPERIMENTS

S. NO. EXPERIMENT PAGE

NO.
Introduction to the laboratory equipment and basic
components
Introduction to the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
A
1 (CRO), Function Generator and multi-meter.

B Introduction to Basic electronic components

2 Design of a regulated DC power supply.

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Experiment 1: Introduction to Laboratory Equipment and
Basic Components
OBJECTIVES: This experiment will provide exposure to various equipment used in
electronics experiments. The devices and components will be used include function
generators, oscilloscopes, bread-boards, multimeter, resistors, diodes, capacitors,
inductors and transistors. At the end of this lab you will be able to use the equipment of
measure current, voltage, inductance, capacitance, signal waveform, frequency, period,
phase. You will also learn to recognize basic electronic components like resistors,
capacitors, inductors, diodes and transistors.

A) Introduction to Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), Function Generator and

Multimeter.

Apparatus and Components Required: Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes, Function

Generators, Multimeter, Resistors, Breadboard, connectors and probes

Theory :

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

The oscilloscopes are basically a graph displaying device. It draws the graph of an
electrical signal. It is employed for the study of several types of wave-forms. Some of
the waveform are displayed in figure 1. It can measure various quantities such as peak
voltage, frequency, phase difference, pulse-width, delay time, rise time, and fall time.
The CRO comprises of a cathode-ray tube (CRT), and input circuitry for focusing and
amplification.

Figure 1. Common electrical waveform

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Oscilloscopes can be classified as analog and digital types. Analog oscilloscope works
by applying the measured signal voltage directly to the vertical axis of an electron beam
that moves from left to right across the oscilloscope screen – usually a cathode - ray
tube. The picture of a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is shown in the figure 2.

Figure 2: Snapshot of a CRO.

The heart of the CRO is a Cathode Ray Tube shown schematically in figure 3. Cathode
ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by heated cathode and accelerated towards
the fluorescent screen. The electron gun, which is the assembly of cathode, intensity
grid, focus grid and accelerating anode, generate the electron beam and control its
intensity and focus. There are two pairs of metal plates called as horizontal and vertical
deflection plates lies between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen. One of the
pair of plate provides horizontal deflection of the beam and another gives the vertical
deflection to the beam.
Whenever an electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted
from that point.
The signals to be studied are amplified first and then applied to the vertical deflection
plates to deflect the beam vertically and at the same time a voltage that increases
linearly with time is applied to the horizontal plate thus causing the beam to be
deflected horizontally at a uniform rate. The signal applied to the vertical plate is thus
displayed on the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves as an uniform Page
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time scale.
Sweep generator in the oscilloscope circuitry generates the linear deflection or sweep of
the beam horizontally. The voltage difference between the horizontal plates is a
sawtooth wave as shown in figure 4. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at
points (a) (b) (c), etc. as marked in figure 4, the end of each sweep - the beam flies back
to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated periodically, the
frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by external controls.

Figure 3 : Cathode Ray Tube (a) Schematic (b) Deflection plates

Figure 4: Voltage difference V between horizontal plates as a function of time t.

A simplified block diagram of the oscilloscope is shown in the figure 5.

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 Figure 5 : The architecture of an analog oscilloscope.

When you connect an oscilloscope probe to a circuit, the voltage signal travels through
the probe to the vertical system of the oscilloscope. Depending on how you set the
vertical scale (volts / div control) an attenuator reduces the signal voltage and an
amplifier increases the signal voltage.

Next, the signal travels directly to the vertical deflection plates of the CRT. Voltage
applied to these deflection plates causes a glowing dot to move across the screen. The
glowing dot is created by an electron beam that hits the luminous phosphor inside the
CRT. A positive voltage causes the dot to move up while a negative voltage causes the
dot to move down.
The signal also travels to the trigger system to start, or trigger, a horizontal sweep.
Triggering the horizontal sweep causes the glowing dot to move across the screen from
left to right within a specific time period. The dot may sweep at very high speed up to
500, 000 times per second.
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The controls of the analog oscilloscope is shown in figure 6. Following features are
clearly visible. A basic oscilloscope consists of four different systems. The vertical
system, the horizontal system, trigger system and display system.
Screen - The most recognizable feature is the screen. As previously discussed, in older
analog scopes this is CRT. In newer, digital scopes the screen is a CRT or flat panel
display. The screen usually have the graticule on it of about 1 cm2.
Channels – Channels are the signal inputs, typically called CH1, CH2 etc. and one external
trigger input called as “EXT TRIG”

Vertical Controls – A collection of controls related to the vertical part of the display is
associated with the input signals. These controls the kind of coupling to the input. The amount
of amplification applied to the signal is controlled by the knob.

Horizontal Controls – These controls set the time axis. This determines the time base and
setting is called sweep rate.

Figure 6: Schematic of front panel layout of the analog scope.

Trigger related controls – A collection of controls called the trigger, are used to
synchronize the input signal to the horizontal display. Use the trigger level to stabilize a
repeating signal, or to trigger on a single event.

The front panel of cathode ray oscilloscope comprises of many measurement knob by
which an experimenter can shift the wave form according to need of measuring
parameter.
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 Figure 7: Front Panel Control
section of an oscilloscope.

Controls of An Oscilloscope

Figure 8 is the diagram of dual channel CRO. The following sections will explain the
controls of such an oscilloscope.

Figure 8: Front panel of a generic CRO with numbered controls and display

Label Description
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A Display:- This can be a phosphor screen or an LCD, and is usually about 100 mm
corner to corner.

B Trace: line drawn by scope to represent the signals

C,D Horizontal (C) and vertical lines (D) forming the grid , called the graticule.

E The central horizontal and vertical lines are thicker and are divided into minor
divisions, usually five per major division

Power, Calibration and Display Controls

1 Power On and Off Button

2 The Power indicator

3 Trace Rotation control – This sets the inclination of the flat signal relative to the
graticule.

4 Intensity of the trace. Turning this up increases the brightness of the trace

5 Focus control - The trace can get fuzzy if the electron beam is not focused correctly.
The focus control (5) sets this. Most scopes can focus the beam to form a trace
about 1mm wide

6 Calibration Point - This gives a steady square wave at a set frequency and voltage,
allowing the scaling of the trace to be set accurately. Sometimes, more than one
frequency and voltage is available to give a more representative calibration. The
standard calibration signal is between 0V and 2V at 1KHz.

Vertical Axis Control

7 controls the position of the trace. It can be adjusted to set the voltage relative to a
ground, or it can be adjusted to separate the two signals - perhaps the first channel
in the top half of the screen and the second channel in the bottom

8 inverts the relevant channel. That is, the negative voltage is displayed, and the trace
is upside-down

9 is the vertical scale control, often called the volts/div. control. This sets the height of
the trace. It operates in discrete steps

10 is a variable height control. It can adjust the height of the trace up to the next set
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increment on the volts/div. control. When set to CAL, the height is as stated on the
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 volts/div. control.

11 is the AC/DC toggle. When set to AC, any DC component of the voltage is filtered
out by switching a capacitor in series with the input signal, leaving just an AC
voltage. This is useful when the DC component swamps the AC component, making
it either too small to see or driving it off the top of the screen. When set to DC, the
signal is displayed as is.

12 is the GND toggle. By selecting this, the input signal is ignored, and the trace shows
0V. This can be useful to measure a voltage or to eliminate one of the traces from
the display.

13 is the Channel 1 signal input

14 is the Channel 2 input.

15 The way the channels are combined is set using 15, which is usually a sliding
switch. When set to CH. 1, only the trace from Channel 1 is displayed, and likewise
for CH. 2. When DUAL is selected, the traces are shown side by side

This is when the chop/alt control applies. ADD shows the sum of the two traces as
one trace. By inverting the traces, one can be subtracted from the other. This can be
seen in the illustration below. This shows a square wave on one channel and a
sinusoidal wave on the other. On the left, the scope is set to "dual", and the two
traces are shown side by side. On the right, the scope is set to "add", and the trace is
the sum of the two signal

Figure 9: On Left the scope is set to “Dual” and on right it is set to “Add”
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 Horizontal Axis Controls

16 X10 MAG control is a very useful control if you want to quickly zoom in on a
feature without changing the timebase and losing your settings. This buttom
magnifies the central area of the trace by a factor of 10 in the horizontal direction
(but leaves the voltage height unchanged).

17 The position of the trace from side to side is controlled by 17. This is useful if part
of the trace is off the edge of the screen but you don't want to change the time base

18 toggles the mode between the usual voltage vs. time format and the XY mode. This
continuously plots the voltage on Channel 1 along the horizontal axis against the
voltage on Channel 2 (the vertical axis). This can be extremely useful to analyse
frequency or phase relationships

19 When operating in the normal voltage vs. time mode, this axis represents time. The
primary control is the time base selector, 19. The time base is the length of time
displayed per major horizontal division on the screen. This ranges from about 0.1
milliseconds to about 1 second (or more on digital scopes).

20,21 20 and 21 act in much the same way as 10 does on the vertical axis. This diagram
shows it to be slighly different from the vertical control. To select a non-standard
timebase, press 20, and adjust 20 until the correct setting is obtained. To return to a
calibrated time base, press 20 again. Sometimes these controls are the same style as
10, sometimes the vertical controls are like these

22 is the GND terminal of the scope. This is used to set a "datum" voltage against
which to measure the voltages on the input channels

23 toggles between chop-mode and alt-mode. Chop-mode means that when the scope is
drawing two signals side by side it alternates rapidly between the two over the
course of passing across the screen. This action is called chopping. Alt-mode
alternates at the end of each pass, and can appear to flicker at slow speeds

Triggering Controls

26, 29 Triggering source and mode. You will use the scope to observe signals that repeat
frequently. The scope must start the sweep at the same point on the waveform every
time in order to produce a stable image on the screen. This function is called
"triggering". For many common applications you should the source switch on
"internal" and the mode switch to "auto". This lets the scope decide when to trigger.

31 Trigger Slope. Usually the signal voltage will equal the triggering voltage twice,
once going up and once coming down. A trigger slope control enables you to select Page
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 which voltage the scope will trigger on.

25 Trigger Level. This sets an internal voltage which is compared to the voltage of the
input signal. When the input signal voltage equals the trigger voltage, the scope
triggers. If you get an image that seems to be a superposition of many waves, turn
the level knob back and forth slowly until you get a stable image.

28 Trigger coupling is the trigger path counterpart to input coupling on the acquisition
path, typically referred to as AC or DC. DC trigger coupling will deliver the entire
frequency content of the input signal (up to the bandwidth of the trigger system) to
the trigger, including any DC offset, whereas AC coupling will block any DC
component In addition to trigger coupling settings, some scopes also have additional
filtering selections like “Low-Frequency Reject,” “High Pass,” etc. Like AC
coupling, these are essentially just filters, applied in the trigger path only, that can
help isolate the signals you’re interested in.

Waveform Measurements

i) Measurement of peak-to-peak voltage and peak voltage

Figure 10: AC signal

To measure the ac.voltage of sinusoidal waveform. The input ac. signal is applied
from the signal generator to a channel of CRO. The voltage/div switch (Y-plates) and
time base switch (X-plates) are adjusted such that a steady picture of the waveform is Page
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obtained on the screen.
 The vertical height (L) i.e. peak-to-peak height is measured. When this peak-to-peak
height (L) is multiplied by the voltage/div. (voltage deflection sensitivity ‘n’) we get
the peak-to-peak voltage (2Vo). From this we get the peak voltage (Vo).

ii) Measurement of the DC voltage

The trace (horizontal line) is adjusted such that it lie on the X-axis of the screen. The DC
input voltage to be measure is then fed to the input channel of the CRO in the DC mode. The
shift of trace from the horizontal line occurs which gives the measure of the magnitude of the
DC voltage.

Figure 11 – Measuring DC voltage

iii) Measurement of frequency

(a) Method 1
From the trace the time period of the input signal is equal to ‘t’ times the value of time/div
setting. Suppose that the time period of the input signal is T. As we know frequency is the
reciprocal of time period. Then, the frequency of the signal =1/T

Figure 12: Measurement of frequency

(b) Method 2

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The Lissajous figure method is the quickest method to measure the frequency. In this method
the standard known frequency signal is applied to horizontal plates and simultaneously
unknown frequency is applied to the vertical plate
Such patterns obtained by applying simultaneously two different sine wave to horizontal and
vertical plates are known as Lissajous figure.
The shape of the Lissajous figure depends on the (a) Amplitudes of two waves (b)Phase
difference between two waves and (c) Ratio of frequencies of two waves.
When two signals having some frequency are applied to input terminal of CRO and get
superimposed perpendicularly (when A/B or B/A is pressed), then a pattern of closed figure
is obtained which is known as LISSAJOUS FIGURE. This is easily done on an oscilloscope
in XY mode. The signal whose frequency to be measured is given on vertical plate and signal
whose frequency is given to horizontal plate. Now the known frequency is adjusted such that
a Lissajous pattern can be obtained, which depends on the ratio of the two frequencies.
Let fy be the frequency of unknown signal (applied at vertical plate) and fx be the frequency of
known signal (applied at horizontal plate)
fV = frequency applied on the vertical plate and is unknown
fH = frequency applied on the horizontal plate and is known.

Using the shift control, stationary Lissajous figure is obtained on screen such that to the
figure vertical and horizontal axes are tangential to one or more points. The pattern depends
on the ratio of two frequencies fV and fH as shown in the figure 13 below.

Figure 13: Few Lissajous patterns and frequencies

The ratio of the two frequencies can be obtained as

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(iv) Measurement of Phase Difference

If two or more signals are being monitored simultaneously, a time delay may occur
between the signals (that is one signal may lead the other or vice-verse), called as phase
difference. Two waves that have the same frequency, have a phase difference that is
constant (independent of t).
When the phase difference is zero, the waves are said to be in phase with each other.
Otherwise, they are out of phase with each other.

Figure 14 : Waveform with Phase Differences.

If the phase difference is 180º (radians), then the two signals are said to be in anti-
phase. If the peak amplitudes of two anti-phase waves are equal, their sum is zero at all
values of time, t.
The phase difference is expressed in terms of radians or degrees.

Method 1) Dual Beam Method

This method is used for determining phase difference between two waveforms of same
frequency and equal or different amplitudes is quite accurate. It involves displaying
both the signals on the CRO simultaneously. The distances between the two identical
points on two traces are measured. This is done through XY mode of the dual slope
oscilloscope. In the XY mode, the x-axis data is taken on one channel, y-axis data is
taken on the other. In that way, Channel I is related with Channel II which is presented
by means of graph, so that the variation of a signal with respect to another can be
observed.

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 Figure 15: Phase difference measured on dual trace CRO

To begin with, obtain traces of both waveforms on the CRO screen. Measure the
horizontal distance D required for one full cycle of either waverform and calculate the
scale factor S = 360 o / D. Next measure the horizontal distance d (cm) between
corresponding positive slopes of two waveforms. The phase angle between two
waveforms is therefore obtained by:

θ = S.d = (d/D) X 360o

In order to obtain two sinusoidal waves of equal frequency but differing in phase a
circuit shown in the figure below may be used.

Figure 16: The network for measuring phase difference.

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Function Generator
A function generator is a very versatile instrument that is used in electronics,
mechanics, bio-engineering, physics and many other fields. A wide variety of
synthesized electrical signals and waveform can be created for testing, repairing and
diagnostic applications. It produces different types of waveform such as sine, square,
triangle and saw-tooth over a wide range of frequencies.

The saw-tooth wave and triangular-wave outputs of function generators are commonly
used for those applications which need a signal that increases (or reduces) at a specific
linear rate. They are also used in driving sweep oscillators in the X-axis of X-Y
recorders oscilloscopes. By providing a square wave for linearity measurements in an
audio-system, a simultaneous saw-tooth output maybe used to drive the horizontal
deflection amplifiers of an oscilloscope, providing visual display of the measurement
result. A triangular wave and a sine wave of equal frequencies can be produced
simultaneously. If the zero crossing of both the waves are made to occur at the same
time, a linearly varying waveform is available which can be started at the point of zero
phase of a sine wave. The various outputs of generator can be made available at the
same time e. g. the generation can provide a square wave to test the linearity of an
amplifier and simultaneously provide a saw-tooth to drive the horizontal deflection
amplifier of the CRO to provide display. A function generator is shown in figure 17.

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 Figure 17 : A Function Generator with its controls

Waveform Characteristics

The term “wave” can be defined as a pattern of varying quantitative values that repeats
over some interval of time. Waves are common in nature: sound waves, brain waves,
ocean waves, light waves, voltage waves, and many more. All are periodically repeating
phenomena. Signal generators are usually concerned with producing electrical (typically
voltage) waves that repeat in a controllable manner.

Each full repetition of a wave is known as a “cycle.” A waveform is a graphic

representation of the wave’s activity — its variation over time. A voltage waveform is a
classic Cartesian graph with time on the horizontal axis and voltage on the vertical axis.
Note that some instruments can capture or produce current waveforms, power waveforms,
or other alternatives.

Amplitude: A measure of the voltage “strength” of the waveform. Amplitude is

constantly changing in an AC signal. Signal generators allow you to set a voltage range,
for example, —3 to +3 volts. This will produce a signal that fluctuates between the two
voltage values, with the rate of change dependent upon both the wave shape and the
frequency.

Frequency: The rate at which full waveform cycles occur. Frequency is measured in
Hertz (Hz), formerly known as cycles per second. Frequency is inversely related to the
period (or wavelength) of the waveform, which is a measure of the distance between two Page
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similar peaks on adjacent waves. Higher frequencies have shorter periods.

Phase: In theory, the placement of a waveform cycle relative to a 0 degree point. In

practice, phase is the time placement of a cycle relative to a reference waveform or point
in time.

Rise and Fall Time: Edge transition times, also referred to as rise and fall times, are
characteristics usually ascribed to pulses and square waves. They are measures of the time
it takes the signal edge to make a transition from one state to another. (Figure 18)

Pulse Width: Pulse width is the time that elapses between the leading and trailing edges
of a pulse. Note that the term “leading” applies to either positive-going or negative-going
edges as does the term “trailing.” In other words, these terms denote the order in which
the events occur during a given cycle; a pulse’s polarity does not affect its status as the
leading or trailing edge.

Figure 18: Rise and Fall time of a signal.

Offset: Not all signals have their amplitude variations centred on a ground (0 V)
reference. The “offset” voltage is the voltage between circuit ground and the centre of the
signal’s amplitude. In effect, the offset voltage expresses the DC component of a signal
containing both AC and DC values, as shown in Figure 19.

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 Figure 19: Offset to a signal.

Waveforms come in many shapes and forms. Most electronic measurements use one or
more of the following wave shapes, often with noise or distortion added: Sine waves,
Square and rectangular waves, Sawtooth and triangle waves, Step and pulse shapes and
Complex waves (Figure 1)

Controls of the Waveform Generators

 Display Screen: Shows basic information about the signal generated, like
frequency, waveform type, modulation and attenuation information.

 Selection Buttons: The buttons for selecting maximum frequency range, type of
waveform selection, Modulation selection and attenuation etc.

 Knobs – Knobs for controlling duty cycle, fine tuning frequency, amplitude level
(Maximum Vpeak-peak level to 20V)

 Output Terminals: Several output terminals have been provided for serial,
generator output.

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Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument combination of different measuring devices

used to measure resistance, current, voltage. Mainly the multimeter are of two types:
i) Analog multimeter
ii) Digital multimeter

Analog multimeters use a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all
the different measurements that can be made.
Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) display the measured value in numerals, Digital
multimeters are now far more common than analog ones, but analog multimeters are still
preferable in some cases, for example when monitoring a rapidly-varying value.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work,
or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used
to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as
electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring
systems.
The Digital multimeter is a portable professional measuring instrument with large LCD to
show three lines of readings, as well as back light for easily reading.
The digital multimeter can perform measurements of AC/DC voltage and current, resistance,
frequency, duty cycle, capacitance, as well as continuity and diode test.
Both the reading and unit of measurement are displayed on the LCD.
The humidity and temperature functions are suitable for measuring ambient humidity and
temperature, as well as temperature of objects.
The following parts are clearly visible on the Digital Multi-meter
a) LCD (Liquid-crystal display)
b) Auto/manual switch button (RANGE)
c) Relative measurement switch button (REL)
d) Reading hold/back light button (HOLD/B.L.)
e) Hz/duty cycle switch button (Hz/DUTY)
f) Panel
g) Rotary selector
h) 10A input jack
i) mA/μA/TEMP input jack
j) COM input jack
k) V, Ω, Hz, input jack
l) OFF-switch off power
m) Function switch button (SELECT)
n)˚C/˚F switch button(˚C/˚F)

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 Figure 20: The common controls in Digital Multi-meter. This multimeter has 3 ports
labelled 10A, COM and mAVΩ. The probe connections for measuring voltage, resistance and
low current and high current

A multimeter is a combination of a multirange DC voltmeter, multirange AC voltmeter,

multirange ammeter, and multirange ohmmeter. An un-amplified analog multimeter combines
a meter movement, range resistors and switches.

Resolution and Accuracy

The resolution of a digital multimeter is often specified in the number of decimal digits
resolved and displayed. If the most significant digit cannot take all values from 0 to 9 is often
termed a fractional digit. For example, a multimeter which can read up to 19999 (plus an
embedded decimal point) is said to read 4½ digits.
Digital multimeters generally has greater accuracy as compared to their analog counterpart.
Standard analogue multimeters measure with typically ±3% accuracy, though instruments of
higher accuracy are made. Standard portable digital multimeter are specified to have an
accuracy of typically 0.5% on the DC voltage range.
Accuracy figures need to be interpreted with care. Digital meters usually specify accuracy as a
percentage of reading plus a percentage of full-scale value, sometimes expressed in counts
rather than percentage terms.

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Switch, Buttons and Input Jacks:

Figure 21: Switch, Buttons and Input Jacks

to a Multimeter

Hold button for holding the reading.

Select button for switching among measuring functions.
Range button for switching between auto and manual ranges.
Hz button for switching functions and ranges.
OFF position for turning power off.
10A input jack for measuring current up to 10A.
mA/μA/temp jack for measuring current up to 400mA.
COM input jack is a common input connection for current, voltage, resistance, frequency,
duty, capacitance, diode, continuity, temperature measurements.
VῼHz input jack for measurements of resistance, voltage, diode, continuity, frequency,
capacitance, etc.
Rotary function switch for selecting different functions and ranges.

i) Measuring DC Voltage

 Select the V(—) with the rotary function switch. Insert the black probe in the COM
jack and red test probe in the VῼHz input jack. Connect the ends of probes where you
want to measure the voltage. Note the voltage.

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ii) Measuring AC Voltage

 Select the V(~) with the rotary function switch. Insert the black probe in the COM
jack and red test probe in the VῼHz input jack. Attach the probe tips to the voltage
source. Note the voltage.

iii) Measuring DC/AC current:

 Select the μA/mA with the rotary function switch. Break the circuit point to be
measured. Connect the two test leads to complete the broken circuit. If the measured
current is too high, the display will indicate “OL”. In this case the higher current range
should be selected.

iv) Measuring resistance:

Figure 22: Figure showing the resistance measurement using Multimeter

 Select the ῼ position with rotary function switch. Insert the black test probe in the
COM input jack and red test lead in the VῼHz input jack. Touch the both end of
resistance with the test leads as shown in the figure. Note the resistance from the
screen of multimeter.

v) Checking continuity of the circuit

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  Select ῼ/-))) position with the rotary switch. Press the function key one time. Connect
the both test leads as shown in the figure. A beep sound will be produced.

vi) Diode Testing

 Select diode position with the rotary function switch. Insert the black test lead in the
COM input jack and red test lead in the VῼHz input jack. Touch the both end of diode
with the test leads. Note the result from the multimeter screen.

vii) Frequency

 Select Hz with the rotary function switch.Insert the black test lead in the COM input
jack and red test lead in the VῼHz input jack. Attach the test lead tips to signal source.
Display will read the measured frequency.

viii) Capacitance

Figure 23: Figure showing the measurement of Capacitance.

 Select the ‘capacitance’ position with the rotary function switch. Discharge the
capacitor to be measured. Attach the test lead tips to the capacitor.

Safety Precautions

 Do not measure the voltage in excess of 1000V.

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 Disconnect the test leads from the test points before changing the meter function and
range.
 Be careful not to touch the terminals or probes tip when measuring above 60 VDC or
25 VAC.
 Never attempt a voltage measurement with a test lead into the AMP or mA input
terminal.
 Do not continue measuring high current above 10V for more than 10 seconds.
 Do not attempt a current measurement where the voltage is above 250V.
 Always connect multimeter in series while measuring current.
 Always connect multimeter in parallel while measuring voltage.

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 B) Introduction to Basic Electronic Components

Basic Electronic Components like Diodes, resistors, capacitors, inductors, transistors,

integrated circuits etc. are the basic building blocks of all the electronic circuits. In this
section we present brief overview of different building blocks

Resistors

A resistor is a component that resists the flow of current. It’s one of the most basic
components used in electronic circuits. Resistors come in a variety of resistance values (how
much they resist current, measured in units called ohms and designated by the symbol Ω and
power ratings (how much power they can handle without burning up, measured in watts).

Figure 24: Resistors

The resistors value are encoded as pattern of different colours as shown above. The value of
resistance can be computed by using the colour code scheme shown in figure 25.

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 Figure 25: Resistor Colour Code

Capacitor

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component

used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e.,
insulator). The conductors can be thin films of metal, aluminum foil or disks, etc. The
'nonconducting' dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be
glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, paper, mica, etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of
electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not
dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field
between its plates
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached
across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge (+Q)
to collect on one plate and negative charge (-Q) to collect on the other plate. If a battery has
been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the

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capacitor. However, if an accelerating or alternating voltage is applied across the leads of the
capacitor, a displacement current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for its capacitance. Capacitance
is expressed as the ratio of the electric charge (Q) on each conductor to the potential
difference (V) between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to one
coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to
about 1 mF (10−3 F).

The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation between conductors and when
the conductors have a larger surface area. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes
a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as the
breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and
resistance.

Figure 26: Few Types of Capacitors

Diodes

Testing Diodes using Multimeter

Digital multimeters can test diodes using one of two methods:
– Diode Test mode: almost always the best approach.
– Resistance mode: typically used only if a multimeter is not equipped with a Diode Test
mode.

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A multimeter’s Diode Test mode produces a small voltage between test leads. The multimeter
then displays the voltage drop when the test leads are connected across a diode when forward-
biased. The Diode Test procedure is conducted as follows:
Make certain a) all power to the circuit is OFF and b) no voltage exists at the diode. Voltage
may be present in the circuit due to charged capacitors. If so, the capacitors need to be
discharged. Set the multimeter to measure ac or dc voltage as required. Turn the dial (rotary
switch) to Diode Test mode. It may share a space on the dial with another function.
Connect the test leads to the diode. Record the measurement displayed.
Reverse the test leads. Record the measurement displayed.

Diode test analysis

A good forward-based diode displays a voltage drop ranging from 0.5 to 0.8 volts for the most
commonly used silicon diodes. Some germanium diodes have a voltage drop ranging from 0.2
to 0.3 V.
The multimeter displays OL when a good diode is reverse-biased. The OL reading indicates
the diode is functioning as an open switch.
A bad (opened) diode does not allow current to flow in either direction. A multimeter will
display OL in both directions when the diode is opened.
A shorted diode has the same voltage drop reading (approximately 0.4 V) in both directions

Figure 27: Diode Testing using Multimeter

A multimeter set to the Resistance mode (Ω) can be used as an additional diode test or, as
mentioned previously, if a multimeter does not include the Diode Test mode.

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 Figure 28 - Diode Terminal Connection for Testing Diodes

A diode is forward-biased when the positive (red) test lead is on the anode and the negative
(black) test lead is on the cathode.
The forward-biased resistance of a good diode should range from 1000 Ω to 10 MΩ.

The resistance measurement is high when the diode is forward-biased because current from
the multimeter flows through the diode, causing the high-resistance measurement required for
testing.
A diode is reverse-biased when the positive (red) test lead is on the cathode and the negative
(black) test lead is on the anode.

The reverse-biased resistance of a good diode displays OL on a multimeter. The diode is bad
if readings are the same in both directions.

Transistors

A transistor is an electronic device having three terminals where small current at one terminal
is used to control current at the other terminals. Transistors are mainly used for the
amplification of the electronic signal.

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Figure 29 Transistors , symbols and different terminals of BC-548 transistor

34
 Experiment No. 2: Design and Development of
Regulated DC Supply

OBJECTIVE: To design and develop regulated DC power supply

INTRODUCTION

Power supply means that provides energy i.e. power. If we use this in terms of electronics, we
can consider it as a source of either voltage or current. A dc power supply is that takes ac as
input and convert it to dc output. It uses a transformer, rectifier, capacitor filter or LC filter
circuit to get the work be done. DC power supplies can be used as a single voltage, dual
voltage and multi-voltage output. Two or more DC power supplies can be connected to get
desired output.DC power supplies are of two types- Regulated and unregulated. Unregulated
dc power supply is the basic and simplest power supply to construct.

Figure 30 - Regulated DC Power supply

(A) PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

This is a specialized signal generator in which the frequency is controlled by varying the
magnitude of current which drives the integrator where in other common instruments,
frequency is controlled by varying the capacitor in the LC or RC circuit.

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 Figure 31 – Unregulated DC Power Supply

Transformer secondary voltage turns ON the diodes D1 and D4 during positive half-cycle and
diodes D2 and D3 in negative half cycle respectively. The capacitor(C1) is charged up to the
peak of th rectifier output voltage i.e. Eo(max). If there is no load current, the capacitor
voltage remains constant.

If there is a load current drawn from the supply, capacitor partially discharges between
voltage peak that is to Eo (min). This gives an output ripple voltage whose amplitude is Vr.
The capacitor acts as a source (reservoir) to supply load current according to the requirement.

(B) TO GET SMOOTH WAVEFORM

The transformer and bridge rectifier circuit supply recharging current to capacitor as a series
of repetitive pulses as shown in previous slide. The voltage obtained from the power supply
has an average dc level Eav) with the ripple voltage superimposed. The amplitude of the
ripple voltage depends on the size of the reservoir capacitor and the level of load current. If
we do not change in the size of capacitor and increase the load current, the ripple voltage
amplitude is also gets increased.

(C) FOR DC IDEAL VOLTAGE

We can get almost constant dc output by using an inductor together with the reservoir
capacitor; this arrangement is called filter circuit. By doing so, reduction in the amplitude of
output ripple voltage takes place. When there is no output load current, a resistor (called
bleeder resistor R) is required in the circuit to maintain a minimum current flow in the choke
(inductor) . This keeps the choke operating and thus helps to minimize the change in voltage
drop across the choke when load current is demanded. The inductor-capacitor (choke-
capacitor) filtering gives the most constant dc output voltage with the lowest ripple content.

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 Figure 31 – Choke Capacitor Circuit

There are two secondary windings of transformer. These coils can be connected either in
series or in parallel. When windings are connected in series, the dc output voltage is 2V volt.
When windings are in parallel, it gives an output of only V volt. However the 2V volt output
might be capable of supplying current (i), while parallel secondary windings with V volt
output may supply 2i A current.

(D) Block diagram of regulated dc power supply

Figure 32 – Block diagram of Regulated DC power Supply

(E) Working of Regulated DC Power Supply

 AC line Filter: Eliminates noise from the ac line input.

 Transformer: Step the input ac voltage level up or down.
 Rectifier: It converts ac sine wave into fluctuating dc.
 Filter: It removes pulsation and create a constant output.
 Regulator: Helps to maintain a fix or constant output voltage.

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2A - HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

For this part of the experiment, you will require one conventional diode and a 10kΩ
resistor for R1. You will also need to use the Function Generator and oscilloscope for
all the inclusive tests.

Figure33 - Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

Connect up the half-wave rectifier circuit as shown in Figure 33. Switch on the scope,
and prior to making any connections, use the AUTO SET button to initialise both
channels.

Set up VS using the Function Generator, and use the appropriate controls and a BNC-
BNC cable to obtain a sine wave signal with a frequency of 500Hz and a peak to peak
voltage 4.0V, using the 50Ω output. Ensure that the DC OFFSET button on the
frequency generator control panel has been pushed in. Use the SEC/DIV and
VOLTS/DIV dials to obtain a suitable display on the screen, so that you can
adequately see two cycles. Note down the corresponding settings.

Once you have set up VS, draw this signal in your lab book, noting down the
waveform’s dimensions and scope settings.

Apply this signal to your circuit, by connecting a BNC-croc clip cable from the
Frequency Generator to points A (red) and C (black – this is the earth/common point),
and use another lead to observe this signal on CH1 of the scope. On Channel 2,
observe the waveform at B (red) with respect to earth at C (black). Use the same
VOLTS/DIV as you used when setting up VS. Draw VBC in your lab book, noting down
the dimensions (peak-to-peak voltage, period) and scope settings. Note how VBC is
periodic (i.e. repetitive at equal time intervals). Based on your observations, can you
explain why this is called half wave rectification? You should have observed that only
the positive half cycle of the sine wave appears across R1, hence the circuit being
known as a half wave rectifier.

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2B - BRIDGE RECTIFIER

In practice it is more common to use a four-diode bridge rectifier for power supply
applications. Such a circuit is shown in Figure 34, where R1 is a 10kΩ load resistor and
point C is the earth point. Prior to carrying out the tests, ensure that both channels of
the scope have been centred, and that DC coupling has been selected for both
channels. Once this has been done, carefully construct the circuit of Figure 34 on your
breadboard. For this part of the investigation, you do not need to include the capacitor.

Figure34 - Full Wave Bridge Rectifier Circuit

For the same scope set up as described in the previous section, observe the output and
the diode (BC) voltage waveforms VDC and VBC on the oscilloscope. Use the scope
controls to obtain clear waveforms, and draw both waveforms in your lab books, not
forgetting to note the dimensions and settings.

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