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ECSE-2010 Fall 2019 Name _____________________

LABORATORY 2: Bridge circuits, Superposition, Thevenin Circuits,

and Amplifier Circuits

Note: If your partner is no longer in the class, please talk to the instructor. 

Material covered:
 Bridge circuits
 Voltage dividers
 Superposition
 Thevenin Circuits
 Amplifier Circuits

Part A: Resistive Bridge Circuits

Vs

R1 R3
R bridge

R2 R4

Wheatstone Bridge

Wheatstone Bridge:
A Wheatstone Bridge can be used to measure the value of an unknown resistor. It
is a basic type of Ohmmeter. The bridge is shown on the in the above figure. When
the bridge is ‘balanced’, no current flows through the Rbridge resistor. If that is the
case, then both the left node and right node for that resistor must have the same
voltage. Additionally, since no current is flowing through Rbridge, the left and
right paths can be treated as voltage divider circuits with two resistors in series.
Circuit analysis then gives us
and

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Again VLeft = VRight, so we can set these two expressions equal, perform some
algebra and obtain a relationship for the resistors when the bridge is balanced (no
current through Rbridge) as

If one of the resistors is unknown, R4 for example, we can then use the bridge to
find that value. Holding R1 and R3 fixed, we can vary R2 until we measure zero
voltage drop (no current) across Rbridge. Once we have found that value for R2,
we apply the above expression and determine R4. Thus, we have an Ohmmeter.

A1: Wheatstone Bridge and Parametric Analysis

We will use the Wheatstone bridge to determine the resistance of an unknown

resistor. Pick up the unknown resistor on the podium (You can of course measure
the resistor directly so that you can verify your experimental results). In the
experiment, a potentiometer is the variable resistor. By adjusting the potentiometer
such that the voltage across Rbridge is zero, the value of Runknown can be
determined. In the LTSpice simulation, parametric analysis allows varying resistor
voltages.

1) Determine the symbolic expression for Runknown when Vbridge is zero

(see laboratory introduction).
2) Using values of R1 = 2.2kΩ, R2 = 4.7kΩ, Rbridge = 100kΩ, and Runknown
= ???. R3 is a 10K potentiometer. Note: Resistors were renamed by right
clicking the given name like R4 and writing “Runknown.”
3) In LTSpice, plot Vbridge vs Rpotentiometer where Rpotentiometer is a
parametric value. In the LTpice simulation, follow the procedure to perform
a parametric analysis (details below). Using the plot and a differential
voltage marker, identify the Rpotentiometer value that results in Vbridge =
0. The LTSpice schematic is shown below.

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a) Parametric analysis: The .step command performs repeated

analysis while stepping through specified values of a model
parameter, global parameter or independent source.
1. Define the component parameter by right clicking the
resistor R3 and entering “{X}” for the value of resistance
(as shown in the diagram below). Note: Runknown is
given the arbitrary value of 1k so the simulation can run.

2. Add a .step command using a SPICE directive (press “s”)

which specifies the steps for a parameter
Example: “.step param X 1 10k 1k” steps the parameter S
from 1 to 100k in 1k increments.

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You may change the increments to a value that will give

you more points.
3. Add .op in the SPICE directive. (Click “.op” far right on
toolbar and add .op then place anyway on circuit)
4. Run the simulation (click “Running man”) go to “DC op
pnt tab” and click “ok”

5. Run the simulation again. (click “Running man”). The

simulation pop up window should show but without
traces with resistor values as the x axis.
6. To specify the differential probes across Rbridge, click
the node to the left of Rbridge (a red probe should
appear), hold and click the right (a black probe should
appear).
7. The trace V(N00n, N00nx) should appear (where n is
some number label of node).
8. Now find the variable resistor value when VRbridge =
0V. Use the cursor function by clicking the trace label at
the top of the diagram “V(N00n, N00nx)”. You can drag
the cursor along the curve by clicking and holding where
the horizontal and vertical lines meet.
9. Include the screenshot/plot of the balanced bridge point
with clear labels in your report.
10.Use the equations in the introduction to calculate the
Runknown value from a balanced bridge circuit.
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4) Build the physical circuit using a 10kΩ Potentiometer, as shown in the

circuit below. Note, one leg of the potentiometer is floating. Turn the
potentiometer such that the measured Vbridge = 0. Once you find that value,
use an Ohmmeter to measure the resistance of the potentiometer (they are on
the center table). Be careful not to turn your potentiometer and make sure
you disconnect the circuit so you don’t measure the other resistors. Compare
your result to part 3).

5V

R1
2.2k Rpotentiom eter

Rbridge

100k

R2 Runknow n
4.7k

Compare the LTSpice simulated value to the value obtained from your physical
circuit.

PSpice – Differential vs Nodal Measurements:

In the simulations we have done with LTSpice, we have used nodal
measurements which provides the voltage at a node relative to the
designated ground. In order to determine the voltage across a component, we
then found the voltage difference between the two nodes associated with that
component. In practice, measuring the voltage across a component where
neither of the nodes is connected to ground can be problematic. To safely
make those kind of measurements, we use differential probes. Fortunately
for us, the Discovery Board only makes differential measurements.

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Part B: Analog Discovery Board Variable Sources and Superposition

Discovery Board – Variable Sources:
In the last laboratory, we used the fixed 5V supply. This source is
constant. If we want to vary the source voltage, we need to use the
function generator channels instead. There are two channels available,
labelled W1 (yellow wire) and W2 (yellow striped wire) on the
Discovery Board.

To access the software, when you bring up the Waveforms main menu
a. Select WaveGen, the second item under the Welcome settings.
b. We will want to use both Channels at various times during the course.
(When we use only one Channel, you can turn off the other one if you
want more space on your Desktop.) To enable both Channels, click on
“Channels” pull down menu. Select both Channel 1 (AWG1) and
Channel 2 (AWG2) such that there are check marks by both. Your
window will probably refresh.
c. We will use DC sources for now. Select the straight line from the
column of waveform shapes (it should be the first icon).
d. Go to the Offset pull down menu and set the DC voltage level.
e. To output the voltage on the W1 (AWG1) wire, you need to select
make sure the Channel is both Enabled and running. In the upper right
of the window, make sure “Enabled” is checked. Click Run.
f. Repeat steps c.-f. for AWG2

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B1: Two Sources/Superposition

Construct the following circuit. You will need to use both source channels (AWG1
and AWG2) on the Discovery Board to build the circuit. Note: The diagram below
was created in PSpice but please duplicate this in LTSpice.
R3
R1
1k V+
2.2k V-

V1 V2
R2
2.2k

1) Analytically, obtain an expression for the voltage across R3 in terms of the

voltages V1 and V2. You should use superposition in your analysis (for
practice). You are looking for an expression of the form

VR3 = a(V1)+b(V2)

where a and b are coefficients determined by your circuit analysis.

2) Build the circuit using the AWG wires (yellow and striped yellow) for the
sources. Set V1 to 2 [V] and plot the voltage across R3 as a function of V1
for 0<V1<4Volts (pick a few values for V1 in that range and measure R3).

3) Repeat with V2 set to -2 [V], again plotting the voltage across R3 as a

function of V1 for 0<V1<4Volts.

4) For both plots, compare your results with a plot of your expression from part
1).

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Part C: Amplifier Circuits

Overall notes:
TL072CP chip (dual op-amp):
The data sheet for the chip can be found online from any number of sites. One is
provided below (it is long and contains several chips)

http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/tl071.pdf

A copy of the pin connections is shown below

There are two op-amps on the chip, indicated by the ‘1’ and the ‘2’ pin labels. For
example, 1IN+ is the V+ and 1IN- is the V- of the first op-amp, with 1OUT being
the Vout. Power connections are +Vcc at pin 8 and –Vcc at pin 4.

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In LTSpice, you can use the “UniversalOpamp2” component or “opamp”

component. The “opamp” component does not have power levels and is assumed
ideal. It is useful for simplified drawings, but your simulations will not be the same
as the experiments. As such, please use the “UniversalOpamp2” component, with
LTSpice details shown below.

A summary of the connections for LTSpice “UniversalOpamp2” component:

 input, - (left), inverting input

 input, + (left), non-inverting input
 -(bottom), V-: Negative power, 9 V
 +(top), V+, Positive power, 9V
 Right node: Vout, output voltage

The DC power sources will be the 9 Volt batteries that you have in your kit. Note
the orientation of the batteries when you connect the leads.

Again, for LTSpice simulations, the circuits on the following pages indicate how to
power a uA741 op-amp. The input and output connections depend on the circuit.

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An example of an op-amp reaching saturation is shown below. The input is a

sinusoidal. If the op-amp was ideal, the output would also be a sinusoid with a
scaled amplitude. However, saturation occurs and the output voltage cannot exceed
(positive or negative) the source voltages.

C1: Amplifier Circuits

Build the comparator circuit shown above. V+ and V- will be your inputs and Vout
will be the output. In Analog Discovery experiments, use the TL072CP chip (or

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equivalent. You only need one amplifier for this part). In the LTSpice simulations
use the “UniversalOpamp2” component.
1) We will use W1 and W2 for out amplifier inputs. The Voltmeter channels
inputs will act as the RLarge.
a. Connect W1 (yellow wire) to the V+ op-amp input and ground
(orange striped wire) to the V- op-amp input.
b. Ground the V- op-amp input.
c. To compare input voltage to output voltage, use the Voltmeter to
measure the output voltage (refer to Lab 1).
d. Using the Discovery board, set the W1 output voltage to DC mode
and check the output voltage of the op-amp for the following input
voltages
Vin [V] Vout [V]
2
1
0
-1
-2
e. Comment on your results and expectations when Vin = 0 V.

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2) In LTSpice, build the comparator circuit using a UniveralOpamp2 op-amp.

You will need to add a load resistor at the output node since LTSpice does
not allow nodes to float (be unconnected). A 1E6Ω load is fine (use
exponential notation since M in LTspice is 1E-3). Compare the output
voltages between LTSpice and Analog Discovery. You should see some
differences, what causes these differences?

Vin [V] Vout [V]

2
1
0
-1
-2

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3) Remove the ground connection at V- and use AWG2 (W2, yellow striped
wire) to provide a 1.5V input at the V- opamp input. Effectively, your circuit
will behave as if there was a 1V source at the negative input, as shown
above.

If you didn’t use AWG2 for the 1.5V input, what type of circuit can you use
to produce the 1.5V? (Consider the 5V Discovery board connection from
Lab 1.)
a. Repeat the output voltage measurements again
Vin [V] Vout [V]
2
1
0
-1
-2

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4) Again, compare your Analog Discovery experiment to the LTSpice

simulation.

Vin [V] Vout [V]

2
1
0
-1
-2

Inverting Op-amp, Non-inverting op-amp

Build and test the following circuits. (Again, this schematic was created in PSpice.
Recreate in LTSpice. Remember the power connections. They have been removed
to simplify the drawing but they must still be included in the circuit).
5) Inverting Op-amp with a gain of -2
7

U2
3 5
+ OS2
V+

Vout
6
R1 0 OUT

Vin
2 1
- OS1
4

uA741
V-

R2

a. When considering the saturation voltage, what is the maximum Vin

such that Vout = -2 Vin? Choose appropriate resistors.
Vin [V] Vout [V]
5
b.
3
1
0
-1
-3
-5
Build the circuit in LTSpice and verify that simulation is constant with
experiment (within the limits of the respective saturation voltages).

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Part D: Alpha Laboratories Applications

1) You will have an opportunity in class/lab to discuss and design a
circuit that includes components learned throughout Unit 1. Draw
high level design blocks based on the Building Block components
Lab Requirements: Building Blocks (scroll down to page 10) that include:
1. at least one input stage components,
2. two Milestone 1 stage components,
3. and at least one output stage component.
2) Simulate each individual building block and describe how it should
behave in your circuit.

Each high level design block from 1) should have an associated

schematic created in LTSpice or equivalent. Then the simulation
output should be shown. Highlight how the output you are showing
becomes the correct input for the next stage. (You do not have to
connect the building blocks into one working simulation!!!)

EXTRA CREDIT: Write in your metacognition journal (instructions and template

in the link below, feel free to continue to edit a Google doc throughout the course
to add entries).

https://ecse.rpi.edu/~ssawyer/CircuitsFall2019_all/Labs/
Circuits_OmegaLabDocs/04_Deliverables/05_Circuits_Metacognition
%20and%20Reflections.docx

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