GROUPS

Compiled by: Nyasha P. Tarakino (Trockers)

+263772978155/+263717267175

[email protected]

26 APRIL 2019

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 SYLLABUS (6042) REQUIREMENTS

 define a binary operation

 define closure, commutation, association,
distribution, identity and inverse element
 define a group
 use the basic properties to show that a
given structure is, or is not, a group
 solve problems involving binary operations
and properties of a group

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 BINARY OPERATION

Definition of a Binary Operation

Binary operations on the set are calculations that combine two elements of the set (called
operands) to produce another element of the same set.

Algebraic Definition
If G is a nonempty set, a binary operation on is a function

NOTES
 A binary operation is represented by
 Binary operations are:
.
 The properties of a binary operation are: Closure, Commutative, Associative, Identity
and Distributive.
 A binary operation can be represented on a table called Cayley table/ Latin square

Modular Arithmetic

Definition

For any integers, and , we write to denote the remainder when is divided
by .

So in this case, the answer is the remainder when it is divided by the modulo number.

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Example

remainder

Example

Find the value of:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Solution

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

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 Properties of a Binary Operation

A binary operation has the following properties: Closure, Associativity, Distribution,

Commutative, Identity and Inverse.

Property 1: Closure
A set is said to be closed under a binary operation if for any two members from the set,
the results of the binary operation returns a member of the same set.
Algebraically we define closure property as follows: If is a set with elements the

Example
Show that addition is closed under the set of real numbers.

Solution
Let and .

This is true for all real numbers, addition is closed under the set of real numbers.
Example
If and . Is closed under ?

Solution
Let

Now and one would say it is closed.

NOTE: When attempting these particular questions on a given binary definition we have to
be very careful before we give a conclusion. To circumvent the problem of giving a false
conclusion, we should construct the Cayley table. If there are no new values in the table then
the set is said to be closed under a binary ( ) operation, otherwise it is not closed.

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How to find the elements?
Remember that
Let .
Now
Members in blue are not contained in is not closed under
Example

If and . Is closed under ?

Solution

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How to find the elements?

Remember that .

Let .

Now

All values in the table are contained in is closed under

Property 2: Commutative
A binary operation defined on set of real numbers is commutative if
for all
Note
Common binary operations which are commutative are addition and multiplication .
Example
(Addition is commutative)
(Multiplication is commutative)
(Subtraction is not commutative)

(Division is not commutative)

Example
Is commutative for all ?

Solution

Since addition and multiplication are commutative then:

Since is commutative.
Note
If a binary operation is commutative and when give a table, the elements must reflect each
other in the leading diagonal.

Example
Is the following binary operation commutative?

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Solution
The elements are reflecting along the leading diagonal therefore it is commutative.

Example
Is the following binary operation commutative?

Solution
The elements are not reflecting along the leading diagonal therefore it is not commutative.

Example
Complete the table so that it is commutative?

Solution
Members should reflect along the leading diagonal. Therefore the table is given by:

Property 3: Associative
A closed binary operation defined on set of real numbers is associative if
for all

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Note
Common binary operations which are associative are addition and multiplication .
Example
and (Addition is associative)
and (Multiplication is associative)
and (Subtraction is not associative)
and (Division is not associative)

Example
If , is associative.
Solution
and
.
Since is not associative.
Example
If , is associative.
Solution

.
Since is associative.

Property 4: Distributive
A closed binary operation and are defined on set of real numbers if
: Left Distributive (LD) and
: Right Distributive (RD).
Then the operator is said to be distributive over the operator .
Note
Common binary operation multiplication is distributive over addition .

Example
and (LD).
Also
and (RD).

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Since both LD and RD hold the operation of multiplication is distributive over addition.

Example
Given the binary operation and where and . Is the operation
distributive over ?
Solution
We have to show that and if they agree then it is distributive.

and

Since it is LD

Also

and

Since it is RD

Since both LD and RD hold the operation distributive over .

Property 5: Identity Element

For a binary operation , if there exist just one unique element such that:

then is called an identity element for the operation

Common Identity Elements

For a binary operation, addition , the identity element, and for a binary operation,
multiplication , the identity element, .
Example
For addition,

For multiplication,

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Identifying/finding the identity element in a Cayley Table

Look for where the elements match the outer elements i.e. the row that matches the top upper
row in green and the column that matches the outside column in green. The intersection of
the two lines (red) gives the identity element.

The identity element, .

Finding the identity when given a binary definition

Example
If , where , find the identity element .
Solution
We know that
Now and replacing we have:

Also

The identity element is .

Property 6: Inverse Element

An element is called an inverse of a under the binary operation if:

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where is the identity element under the operation

Common Inverse Elements

For a binary operation, addition , where the identity element,

Thus the inverse of is under addition.

If we take any real number, say , the inverse is the negative of that particular number
e.g. The inverse of is – under addition.

ALSO

For a binary operation, multiplication , where the identity element,

Thus the inverse of is under multiplication.

If we take any real number, say , the inverse is the reciprocal of that particular number

e.g. The inverse of is . under multiplication

NB: does not have an inverse under multiplication.

Identifying/finding the identity element in a Cayley Table

We have to find the identity element first (as illustrated under identity element section above)

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Therefore, in this case the identity element .

To find the inverse of each element you identify the position where the identity element ( in
red) is located in that particular row/column, and that is the inverse.

Since we know that thus in our case:

, where .
THEREFORE:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Finding the inverse when given a binary definition

Example
If , where , find , the inverse of .
Solution
NB: We have to find the identity element first.
We know that
Now and replacing we have:

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 The identity element is .
Now let the inverse be and we know that and in our case

GROUP

Definition of a Group

A group is a non-empty set with a binary operation which satisfies the following
properties: Closure, Associativity, Identity and Inverse.

Properties of a Group

A group has 4 properties which are: Closure, Associativity, Identity and Inverse. The other
special property is called Commutative.

Property 1: Closure
For every elements and in , the result must also lie in i.e
where .
Example
Given that then suppose , . Show that is closed under
multiplication modulo .
Solution

Since therefore that is closed under multiplication modulo .

Property 2: Associative

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For every
Example
Show that , under multiplication modulo is associative.
Solution
The Cayley table for is:

For Associativity,
Let ;
LHS

RHS

Since LHS RHS the associative axiom/property holds.

Property 3: Identity element

An element such that , for all , is called an identity element for
.
Example
Find the identity element for , under multiplication modulo
Solution
The Cayley table for is:

If you are asked to find the identity element in an exam you must look for the column which
is identical to the 1st column (in blue). The number or element on the 1st row of that column is
the identity element. OR Look for where the elements match the outer elements i.e. the row

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that matches the top upper row and the column that matches the outside column. The
intersection of that column and the row gives the identity element.

The identity element is .

Property 4: Inverse
Every element has its own inverse.
For every in there exists such that .

Example
Find the inverse element for , under multiplication modulo
Solution
The Cayley table for is:

If you are asked to find the inverse element in an exam you must look for the identity element
(in blue) for each element. The number or element on the 1st row of that column or 1st
column of that row is the inverse of that element.

The inverse of:

is (self inverse)
is (self inverse)
is (self inverse)
is (self inverse).

HOW TO SHOW THAT A GIVEN SET IS A GROUP?

If you are asked to show that something is a group in an exam you must tick off each of the
above criteria one-by-one i.e it has to satisfy all the above properties. If one of the properties
is not met then it is not a group.

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Special Property: Commutative
If a group is commutative, then it’s called an Abelian group.
Definition
A group is abelian if for all elements .
NOTE: When using a Latin Square/ Cayley table, a group is Abelian when it is symmetrical
along the leading diagonal or when the elements are reflected in the leading diagonal.

How to observe symmetry along the leading diagonal?

The elements on the leading diagonal are the same/symmetric

OR

The elements on the leading diagonal are the symmetric

How to identify commutation using the leading diagonal?

The elements are reflecting along the leading diagonal

The order of a group is the number of elements the group contains. If a group contains an
infinite number of elements it is said to be of infinite order.

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
 SUBGROUPS

Definition of a Subgroup

If is a nonempty subset of a group , then is a subgroup of if is a group under the

same operation as .

Properties of a Subgroup

If the following three points are met then we say is subgroup

1. is a nonempty subset of a group of
2. is a group itself
3. and use the same binary operation.

Types of Subgroups

1. Trivial subgroup - A subgroup includes the subset containing just the identity set
2. Improper subgroup – the group itself since is a subset itself.
3. A proper subgroup is any subgroup with order not one or the same as the original
group.
Example
Find all the subgroups for the set , under multiplication modulo .
Solution
The Cayley table for is:

NB: A subgroup has to satisfy the following properties:

1. is a nonempty subset of a group of
2. is a group itself
3. and use the same binary operation.
For the set , the subgroups are:
(i) the identity - trivial subgroup

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(ii) the group itself - improper subgroup

(iii) The proper subgroups are:

a)

b)

c)

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 ASSIGNMENT
ZIMSEC NOVEMBER 2018 PAPER 2

a)(i) Show that the set of integers

under multiplication forms a group. [7]

(ii) Write down any three subgroups. [3]

b) The set under the operation of composition of functions forms a group H,

where

Show the operation table for . [6]

SOLVED QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Question 1

The set of matrices

under matrix multiplication. Construct its Cayley table/Latin square.

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Suggested Solution

The Cayley table for this group is:

NB:

Question 2

The set of complex numbers forms a group under complex number

multiplication. Construct its Cayley table/Latin square.
Suggested Solution

The Cayley table for this group is:

NB:

Question 3

(i)Show that the set of numbers , under multiplication , does not form a
group.
(ii) The set of numbers , under multiplication , forms a group. Write
down the value of .
Suggested Solution

(i) The Cayley table for this set is:

NB: then write down the remainder.

(Check the cell containing a letter with different colour)

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The leading diagonal contains 1’s which are new elements not found in the original set.
Hence the closure property does not hold and therefore it does not form a group.
(ii) The Cayley table for this set is:

If , then closure property holds and the set forms a group.

Question 4

The set S consists of all non-singular real numbers such that , where

(i) Prove that each matrix A must be of the form .

(ii) State clearly the restrictions on the value of such that is in

Suggested Solution

(i) Let and .

Now

Comparing corresponding elements

(a) (b)
(c) (d)

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 (Matrix conforms to the required form).

(ii) Since is non-singular, .

Question 5

The set S consists of the numbers , where . ( denotes the set of integers
). Prove that the element of S, under multiplication forms a commutative
group G. (You may assume that addition of integers is associative and commutative.)

Suggested Solution
(i) hence it is closed under multiplication.
(ii) For Associativity,
LHS

RHS

Since LHS = RHS it is associative.

(iii) The identity element is
(iv) The inverse element is
(v) For commutative property to hold,

Let .

LHS

RHS

Since LHS RHS element of S, under multiplication forms a commutative group G.

or simply it is commutative.

NB: A group which is commutative is called an Abelian group.

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Question 6

A group G of order 6 has the combination table shown below.

(i) State, with a reason, whether or not is commutative.

(ii) Write down the inverse of each element

Suggested Solution
(i) It is not commutative because:
(a) the leading diagonal elements (in yellow) are not symmetric, i.e they are instead of
. or
(b) For commutative property to hold,

Let :
LHS

(in grey)

RHS

(in green)

Since LHS RHS is not commutative

(ii) The identity element is

NB: To find the identity element you look for a column which is identical to the column
outside the table
The inverse of:

is
is
is
is (self inverse)

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 is (self inverse)
is (self inverse).

NB: To find the inverse you look for a cell in every row which contains the identity
element and in this case the identity is .

Question 7

For the group of matrices of the form under matrix addition, where , state the

identity element and the inverse of

Suggested Solution

(i) The identity element is

(ii) The inverse of

Question 8

consists of the set with the operation of multiplication .

Write down the operation table and, assuming Associativity, show that is a group.

Suggested Solution
(i) The Cayley table for is:

a) Checking for closure: Checking in the Cayley table we see that there are no new values i.e
all values in set are there. Hence it is closed.

b) The associative property holds (from the assumption) OR

For Associativity,

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Let ;
LHS

RHS

Since LHS RHS the associative axiom holds.

c) The identity element is .

d) The inverse of:

is (self inverse)
is (self inverse)
is (self inverse)
is (self inverse).
Since all properties hold is a group.

Question 9
The group G consists of the set combined under multiplication
. Find the inverse of each element.

Suggested Solution
The Cayley table for set G is given by:

a) The identity element is .

b) The inverse of:

is (self inverse)
is
is
is (self inverse)

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 is (self inverse)
is
is
is (self inverse).

Question 10
Elements of the set are combined according to the operation table shown below.

(i) Verify that .

(ii) Assuming that the associative property holds for all elements, prove that the set
, with the operation table shown, forms a group .

Suggested Solution
(i) LHS
.

NB: in purple and in green

RHS
.

NB: in yellow and in grey

Since LHS = RHS it is associative.

(ii) Checking for basic axioms of a group.

a) Checking for closure: Checking in the Cayley table we see that there are no new values i.e
all values in the given set are there. Hence it is closed.
b) The associative property holds (check part (i))

c) The identity element is .

d) The inverse of:

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 is
is
is (self inverse)
is (self inverse).
is (self inverse).
Since all properties hold is a group.

PRACTISE QUESTIONS

Question 1
The function is defined by for . The function g

is defined by .

(i) Show that and that .

It is given that are elements of a group under the operation of composition of

functions.
The element is the identity, where e : for .

(iii) The inverse of the element is denoted by h. Find .

(iv) Construct the operation table for the elements of the group .

Question 2
(i) The operation is defined by , where and are real numbers and is
a real constant.
(a) Prove that the set of real numbers, together with the operation , forms a group.
(b) State with a reason, whether the group is commutative.
(ii) The operation by , where and are positive real numbers. By giving
a numerical example in each case, show that two of the basic groups properties are not
necessarily satisfied.

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Question 3

The set M consists of the six matrices , where . It is given that

forms a group under matrix multiplication, with numerical addition and

multiplication both being carried out .
(i) Determine whether is a commutative group, justifying your answer.

(ii) Write down the identity element of the group and find the inverse of

Question 4
Find all Latin squares of side in standard form with respect to the sequence . For
each square found determine whether or not it is the multiplication table of a group.

Question 5
The set of polynomials , where and , is denoted by . Assuming the
Associativity property holds, prove that , under addition, is a group.

Question 6
Show that the Latin Square

is not the multiplication table of a group.

Question 7
Groups A, B, C and D are defined as follows:

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A: The set under multiplication modulo .
B: The set under multiplication modulo .
C: The set under multiplication modulo .

D: The set under multiplication.

(i) Write the identity element for each of groups A, B, C and D

(ii) Prove the closure property for D

(iii) Elements of the set are combined under

addition. State which of the four basics group properties are not satisfied.
(Justification is not required.)

Question 8

consist of the set of matrices of the form , where and are real and

, combined under the operation of matrix multiplication.

(i) Prove that is a group. You may assume that the matrix is associative.
(ii) Determine whether is commutative.

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ASANTE SANA

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*******DONT BE SATISFIED BY MEDIOCRE WHILST EXCELLENCE
IS THERE*******

CONSTRUCTIVE COMMENTS ON THE FORM

OF THE PRESENTATION, INCLUDING ANY
OMISSIONS OR ERRORS, ARE WELCOME.

***ENJOY***

Nyasha P. Tarakino (Trockers)

+263772978155/+263717267175

[email protected]

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