Divine Word College of Bangued

Bangued, Abra
College Department

Genesis B. Palangi
BSED 1 (Science)
1. What is Earth Science?
The Division of Earth Sciences supports proposals for research geared toward improving the
understanding of the structure, composition, and evolution of the Earth, the life it supports,
and the processes that govern the formation and behavior of the Earth's materials.  The
results of this research will create a better understanding of the Earth's changing
environments, and the natural distribution of its mineral, water, biota, and energy resources
and provide methods for predicting and mitigating the effects of geologic hazards such as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, landslides.
Earth science is the study of the Earth's structure, properties, processes, and four and a half
billion years of biotic evolution.  Understanding these phenomena is essential to
maintenance of life on the planet.  The expanding world population demands more
resources; faces increasing losses from natural hazards; and releases more pollutants to the
air, water, and land.   Sustaining our existence requires scientific understanding of the
natural materials and processes linking the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and
biosphere.  Life prospers or fails at the surface of the Earth where these environments
intersect.
The knowledge gained and the services provided by earth scientists help society cope with
its environment in many ways.  Their knowledge about the structure, stratigraphy, and
chemical composition of the earth's crust helps us locate resources that sustain and
advance our quality of life.  Understanding the forces in the crust, and the natural processes
on the surface allows us to anticipate natural disasters such as volcanoes and earthquakes,
and geologic environments, such as damaging mining practices or improper waste disposal,
gives us information to correct such practices and design more benign procedures for the
future.  Finally, a comprehensive perception of planetary physics will allow us to anticipate
major changes in global environmental conditions and control or acclimate to those
changes. 
In general use, the term "earth science" often includes the study of the earth's atmosphere
(meteorology or atmospheric science), the water flowing on and beneath the surface of
continents (hydrology), and the earth's seas and oceans (oceanography or ocean sciences).
The NSF organizational taxonomy defines earth science as including the fields of "solid-
earth" science (geology, geochemistry, and geophysics (plus continental hydrology. It
excludes the "fluid-earth" sciences of oceanography and atmospheric science, which have
their own respective divisions in the organization, and are covered in other reports in this
series. The NSF Division of Earth Sciences is part of the Geosciences Directorate that also
includes the divisions of Atmospheric Sciences and Ocean Sciences. The term
"geosciences" is similarly used to represent only the "solid-earth" sciences or solid and fluid
sciences depending on the context, so care must be always exercised when interpreting
data regarding the earth science fields from various sources.
https://www.nsf.gov/geo/ear/about.jsp#:~:text=Earth%20science%20is%20the%20study,of
%20life%20on%20the%20planet.
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Earth Science is the study of the Earth and its neighbors in space. It is an exciting science
with many interesting and practical applications. Some Earth scientists use their knowledge
of the Earth to locate and develop energy and mineral resources. Others study the impact of
human activity on Earth's environment, and design methods to protect the planet. Some use
their knowledge about Earth processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and hurricanes to
plan communities that will not expose people to these dangerous events.
https://geology.com/articles/what-is-earth-science.shtml

Obviously, the 'study of the earth' is quite a broad concept, so there are many subdisciplines
within the Earth sciences. In general, geology is the scientific study of the earth- the material
of which it is made, the processes that act on these materials, the products formed, and the
history of the planet and its life forms since origin. Geology now includes the study of other
planets as well. And geophysics focuses on the application of physical laws and principles to
a study of the earth.
However, these two very broad categories can be broken down futher into many
subdisciplines. Listed below is a brief description of some of the major research areas
currently being conducted in our department.
Biomagnetism :   The study of magnetic bacteria and their relationship to the earth's
magnetic field.
Environmental Geology :   The interdisciplinary study of the interaction of humans with the
geologic environment including the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and to
some extent the atmosphere.
Exploration Geophysics : Application of seismology, gravity and magnetics to the location of
petroleum and ore deposits.
Fluid Dynamics : Application of physics and mathematics to the flow of fluids and solids.
Geobiology : The study of processes at the interface between organic and inorganic
materials, and the role of microbes on the origin of life.
Geochemistry : The study of the distribution and amounts of chemical elements and their
isotopes in minerals, ores, rocks, soils, waters, and the atmosphere.
Geochronology :   Study of time in relationship to the history of the earth.
Geofluids : Study of fluids in and on Earth and other planets.
Geologic Mapping and Resource Evaluation :   Determining the distribution of different rocks
at the earth's surface and economic implications.
Geostatistics :   Application of statistics to the analysis of geological and geophysical data.
Hydrogeology :   The study of water flow and chemistry at and below the earth's surface.
Limnology :   The study of lake sediments, most often used to determine past climate and
ecological environments.
Mineral Physics : The study of how minerals respond to forces.
Mineralogy : The study of minerals: formation, occurrence, properties, composition, crystal
structure, and classification.
Numerical Modeling : Supercomputer applications to a wide variety of problems involving
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College Department

flow of geological materials.

Oceanography :   The study of the ocean, including its boundaries and bottom topography,
the physics and chemistry of sea water, the types of currents, and the many phases of
marine biology.
Paleoclimatology :   The study of past climatic and ecological environments.
Paleomagnetism : The study of the magnetic record in rocks and implications for plate
tectonics and the origin of the earth's magnetic field.
Paleontology :   The study of life in past geologic time, based on fossil plant and animals,
their relationships to existing plants, animals and environments, and the chronology of
Earth's history.
Petrology :   The study of the formation of rocks at depth in the earth.
Rock and Mineral Magnetism :   The study of how rocks and minerals record magnetic
information.
Sedimentology :   The scientific study of sedimentary rocks and the processes by which they
were formed: the description, classification, and interpretation of sediments. Includes basin
analysis, river studies, surface processes, stratigraphy, and geochronology.
Seismology : Study of seismic waves to determine the internal structure of the earth and the
origin and location of earthquakes.
Structural Geology and Tectonics :   The study of mountain building, movement of tectonic
plates, and deformation of the earth's crust.
Volcanology :   The scientific study of the dynamics of volcanoes.
These sciences are interdisciplinary in nature as geoscientists need to know the core
sciences of chemistry, physics, and math. Earth is where we live- what affects it, affects us.
Therefore, there are crossovers to many other areas of study, some of which are
Archaeology
Biology
Computer Science
Ecology
Engineering
Geography
Materials Science
Microbiology
Soil Science
Water Resources
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The University of Minnesota is an equal opportunity educator and employer

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2. What are the branches of Earth Science?

Geology
Geology is the study of the Earth’s solid material and structures and the processes that
create them. Some ideas geologists might consider include how rocks and landforms are
created or the composition of rocks, minerals, or various landforms. Geologists consider how
natural processes create and destroy materials on Earth, and how humans can use Earth
materials as resources, among other topics.
Geology has many branches, only a few of which are described. As you learn about each
branch of geology, think of an interesting question that you might like to try to answer.

(a) Mineralogists study the composition and structure of minerals and may look for valuable
minerals. (b) Planetary geologists study the geology of other planets. Lunar geologists study
the Moon. (c) Seismologists study earthquakes and the geologic processes that create them.
They monitor earthquakes worldwide to protect people and property. (d) Scientists interested
in fossils are paleontologists.
Oceanography
The study of water and its movements, distribution and quality is hydrology. Oceanography
is more than just the hydrology of the oceans. Oceanography is the study of everything in
the ocean environment, which covers about 70% of the Earth’s surface. Recent technology
has allowed people and probes to venture to the deepest parts of the ocean, but still much of
the ocean remains unexplored.
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Physical oceanographers study the movements of ocean water such as currents, waves,
and tides.
Marine geologists learn about the rocks and geologic processes of the ocean basins. An
animation of underwater high-resolution sonar can be found
here: http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/02fire/logs/jul06/media/abefly.html. Marine
biologists study life in the oceans.
Climatology and Meteorology
Meteorology includes the study of weather patterns, clouds, hurricanes, and tornadoes.
Using modern technology such as radars and satellites, meteorologists are getting more
accurate at forecasting the weather all the time (Figure below).

Meteorologists forecast major storms to save lives and property.

Climatologists study the whole atmosphere, taking a long-range view. Climatologists can
help us better understand how and why climate changes
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Carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere is causing the global climate to change.

Environmental Science
Environmental scientists study the effects people have on their environment, including the
landscape, atmosphere, water, and living things.

Every action people take has some effect on Earth’s environment.

Astronomy
Astronomers are interested in outer space and the physical bodies beyond the Earth. They
use telescopes to see things far beyond what the human eye can see. Astronomers help to
design spacecraft that travel into space and send back information about faraway places or
satellites.
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Bangued, Abra
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjac-earthscience/chapter/earth-science-and-its-
branches/#:~:text=Earth%20science%20is%20made%20of,%2C%20oceanography%2C
%20and%20environmental%20science. http://www.brainpop.com/science/earthsystem/.
3. What is the importance of Earth Science?
Importance of Earth Science

Everything in the world around us is built upon the Earth, grows on the Earth, or depends on
the environment of the Earth in some way. Welcome to this world. Much of human history
has been influenced directly or indirectly by earth science. Today as much as ever, major
opportunities and problems are tied to Earth and to our understanding of it.

VOLCANOES
The word "volcano" comes from the little island of Vulcano in the Mediterranean Sea off
Sicily. Centuries ago, the people living in this area believed that Vulcano was the chimney of
the forge of Vulcan -- the blacksmith of the Roman gods. They thought that the hot lava
fragments and clouds of dust erupting form Vulcano came from Vulcan's forge as he beat
out thunderbolts for Jupiter, king of the gods, and weapons for Mars, the god of war. In
Polynesia the people attributed eruptive activity to the beautiful but wrathful Pele, Goddess
of Volcanoes, whenever she was angry or spiteful. Today we know that volcanic eruptions
are not super-natural but can be studied and interpreted by scientists.
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EARTHQUAKES
One of the most frightening and destructive phenomena of nature is a severe earthquake
and its terrible effects. An earthquake is a sudden movement of the Earth, caused by the
abrupt release of strain that has accumulated over a long time. For hundreds of millions of
years, the forces of plate tectonics have shaped the Earth as the huge plates that form the
Earth's surface slowly move over, under, and past each other. Sometimes the movement is
gradual. At other times, the plates are locked together, unable to release the accumulating
energy. When the accumulated energy grows strong enough, the plates break free. If the
earthquake occurs in a populated area, it may cause many deaths and injuries and
extensive property damage.
Today we are challenging the assumption that earthquakes must present an uncontrollable
and unpredictable hazard to life and property. Scientists have begun to estimate the
locations and likelihoods of future damaging earthquakes. Sites of greatest hazard are being
identified, and definite progress is being made in designing structures that will withstand the
effects of earthquakes.
LAND SLIDES
Landsliding is a significant hazard along many hillslopes. Many factors contribute to slides,
including geology, gravity, weather, groundwater, wave action, and human actions. Typically,
a landslide occurs when several of these factors converge.
For example, many slides on Puget Sound occur in a geologic setting that places permeable
sands and gravels above impermeable layers of silt and clay, or bedrock. Water seeps
downward through the upper materials and accumulates on the top of the underlying units,
forming a zone of weakness.
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FLOODS
Floods kill people and destroy homes in many parts of the United States every year. Federal
agencies estimate that an average of over 125 people die every year in the United States
because of flooding, although losses vary widely from year to year. Property damage ranges
into the billions each year, and has been rising in recent decades.
Of course the live video of a family clinging to their car in a swollen river as rescuers winch
down from a helicopter is so compelling that few viewers can change channels. But flooding
is also worth covering because if people are informed, they can make decisions that will
save lives and reduce property loss.
DINOSAURS

Few subjects in the Earth sciences are as fascinating to the public as dinosaurs. The study
of dinosaurs stretches our imaginations, gives us new perspectives on time and space, and
invites us to discover worlds very different from our modern Earth.
From a scientific viewpoint, however, the study of dinosaurs is important both for
understanding the causes of past major extinctions of land animals and for understanding
the changes in biological diversity caused by previous geological and climatic changes of the
Earth. These changes are still occurring today. A wealth of new information about dinosaurs
has been learned over the past 30 years, and science's old ideas of dinosaurs as slow,
clumsy beasts have been totally turned around. We have learned answers to some
frequently asked questions about dinosaurs, with current ideas and evidence to correct
some long-lived popular misconceptions. Although much has been discovered recently
about dinosaurs, there is still a great deal more to learn about our planet and its ancient
inhabitants.
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DIAMONDS
Diamond may well be the world's most versatile engineering material as well as its most
famous gemstone.  The superiority of diamond in so many diverse industrial applications is
attributable to a unique combination of properties that cannot be matched by any other
material.  For example, diamond is the strongest and hardest known material and has the
highest thermal conductivity of any material at room temperature.  Diamond that does not
meet gem-quality standards for color, clarity, size, or shape is used principally as an
abrasive, and is termed "industrial diamond."  Even though it is more expensive than
competing abrasive materials, diamond has proven to be more cost effective in numerous
industrial processes because it cuts faster and lasts longer than any rival material.  Synthetic
industrial diamond is superior to its natural diamond counterpart because it can be produced
in unlimited quantities, and, in many cases, its properties can be tailored for specific
applications.  Consequently, manufactured diamond accounts for more than 90% of the
industrial diamond used in the United States.
GLACIERS
Glaciers are made up of fallen snow that, over many years, compresses into large, thickened
ice masses. Glaciers form when snow remains in one location long enough to transform into
ice. What makes glaciers unique is their ability to move. Due to sheer mass, glaciers flow
like very slow rivers. Some glaciers are as small as football fields, while others grow to be
over a hundred kilometers long.
Presently, glaciers occupy about 10 percent of the world's total land area, with most located
in polar regions like Antarctica and Greenland. Glaciers can be thought as remnants from
the last Ice Age, when ice covered nearly 32 percent of the land, and 30 percent of the
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oceans. An Ice Age occurs when cool temperatures endure for extended periods of time,
allowing polar ice to advance into lower latitudes. For example, during the last Ice Age, giant
glacial ice sheets extended from the poles to cover most of Canada, all of New England,
much of the upper Midwest, large areas of Alaska, most of Greenland, Iceland, Svalbard and
other arctic islands, Scandinavia, much of Great Britain and Ireland, and the northwestern
part of the former Soviet Union.

GOLD
Gold is a gleaming symbol of California's bounty and wealth. It was the lure, the promise of
California for hundreds of thousands of argonauts who overwhelmed California during the
Gold Rush. Gold unleashed the forces that rocketed California to immense growth and
development. It sparked a swirl of hopes and dreams, myths and legends, contributions and
conflicts.
But the legacies of the Gold Rush are complex--sometimes triumphant, sometimes troubled.
It what seemed the blink of an eye, California's first people were overrun by a world rush.
Miners saw nature as a force to be overcome to get at the golden treasure. Other rushes
followed gold: agriculture, oil, real estate, motion pictures, military industry, computers.
California became the nation's industrial, agricultural, and population leader. But the bounty
and beauty of the region have paid a price for these achievements. The scales have not
always been balanced. Immigrants still come, but the gold they seek is mostly metaphorical;
not precious metal but opportunity.
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GEYSERS
Yellowstone National Park is home to some 10,000 thermal features, over 500 hundred of
which are geysers. In fact, Yellowstone contains the majority of the worlds geysers. Within
Yellowstone's thermal features can be seen the product of millions of years of geology at
work. Much of Yellowstone sits inside an ancient volcanic caldera (the exploded crater of a
volcano). The last major caldera forming eruption occurred 600,000 years ago. For hundreds
of thousands of years following that, subsequent lava flows slowly filled in most of the
caldera. Even now, in some places, nearly molten rock resides as little as 2-5 miles below
the surface. Heat from the volcanic activity makes its presence known by heating ground
water and creating the therma features we now see. The four basic types of thermal features
present in the Park are geysers, hot springs, fumaroles, and mudpots. Many of these are
concentrated in Yellowstone's major geyser basins: Upper, Midway, Lower, Norris, West
Thumb, Shoshone and Heart Lake.

PETROLIUM
Oil and natural gas touch our lives in countless ways every day. Together, they supply 65
percent of our nation's energy. They fuel our cars, heat our homes and cook our food.
But did you know that oil and natural gas also help generate the electricity that powers our
daily lives? Or that crude oil supplies the building blocks for everything from dent-resistant
car fenders to soft drink bottles to camping equipment?
Explore this area to learn more about oil and natural gas, how they are produced and how
they become the products you count on. You'll also find useful tips on how to conserve
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energy and use oil and natural gas products in ways that protect you, your family and our
environment.
CAVES
A cave or cavern is any naturally occurring void, recess, or system of interconnecting
passages beneath the earth.  Caves underlie 20% of the United States.  These unique and
sensitive environments harbor rare animal life, fragile mineral formations and valuable
ground water resources.
Cave formations, such as stalactites and stalagmites, take hundreds to thousands of years
to form.  These irreplaceable resources provide aesthetic enjoyment for cave visitors. 
Mineral deposits, such as onyx and amethyst clusters, also give caves their natural beauty.
Clues from past people and past cultures can be found in caves.  Artifacts such as
arrowheads, pottery, woven slippers and tools help archaeologists answer questions about
how past cultures lived.  Caves provided shelter and natural resources for prehistoric
people.  Rock carvings and mudglyphs inside caves also offer us insight into the lives of
these people.

MOUNTAINS
Mountains are produced by forces in the earth that cause parts of the earth's crust to rise
while others sink. Uplift of the crust, combined with chemical and physical erosion by air,
water, and ice over millions of years, produces the spectacular scenery found in mountains.
At the very high temperatures and pressures found miles below the earth's surface, rocks
can actually flow when density differences are produced by differential heating and cooling
of parts of the mantle and lithosphere. The flowing of rocks in the mantle and lithosphere
subjects parts of the crust to tension (pulling apart), while other parts are subjected to
compression (squeezing together). Rocks are relatively weak and brittle under tension and,
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consequently, crust under tension tends to break up into giant blocks. Rocks are stronger
under compression but when the compressive forces get very large, rocks deform by
flowing, folding, and breaking. http://www.fresnostate.edu/csm/ees/career/Whygeo.html

The necessity to understand and update our knowledge about geological processes is
increasing in the modern times as we move further ahead because it involves the Earth and
its various processes, which directly or indirectly affect life on it. The incoming challenges for
global sustainability and hazard mitigation will have to be countered with new and innovative
ways of technology and research.
The need to save people from natural disasters, an increase in the demand for various
resources, the scarcity of raw materials and energy requirements for the rapidly increasing
population, particularly in the developing world, will require the earth scientists to shoulder
major responsibilities. Earth scientists understand the Earth processes better and therefore,
can immensely help the rest of the people to understand this planet and to implement the
various ways to build an eco-friendly environment. Thus, these scientists work to understand
the planet and to discover new ways to make it healthier and sustainable. However, such
goals can only be achieved provided we understand the need for focused and applied earth
sciences.
Historically speaking, through most of the past century, Earth Sciences largely served as a
tool for exploitation of natural resources. It is true that industrial output increased by 13-fold
whereas energy use expanded 16 times with an increase in the water consumption by a
factor of seven1. These strategies have helped about 25% of human population to live
comfortably. This, however, is a victory at the cost of the Earth’s environment. The challenge
that haunts mankind in the next century will be to maintain a tidy balance between nature, its
environment and human comfort. To keep and sustain such a balance will be hard. Science
in general and earth sciences in particular will play a key role in the accomplishment of this
complicated objective.
In the past, the realisation to have a sustainable and healthy Earth was grossly overlooked
by the greedy anthropogenic exploitation of resources. However, this was changed during
the 1980s when United Nations set up the Brundtland Commission to assess the Earth’s
health and Its environment. The concept of ‘sustainable development’ was introduced in its
report; ‘Our Common Future’. It was realised that the role of geosciences to promote and
propagate the knowledge of the Earth and its complex interaction with surroundings is
required for a sustainable and healthy planet. Professor Wolfgang Lucht, in one of his recent
publications2 , warns that the current planetary state can be destabilised if human activity
causes critical Earth-system thresholds to be passed. He further stresses that with enough
warning and insight, we might avoid or limit the damages, or adapt to them rather than be
simply suffering the consequences. Yet, the current lack of progress in mitigating climate
change and preserving complex ecosystems does not look promising.
Similarly, the lack of understanding and awareness of natural hazards is demonstrated time
and again, particularly when a natural calamity attacks us. Our knowledge and preparedness
to tackle the natural challenges in the form of earthquakes and tsunamis, which continuously
pose unremitting threats to our 10,000 year-old civilisation, is very little. For example, the
devastations of Acehnese and Thai coasts in 2004, of Kashmir and New Orleans in 2005, of
southwest Java in 2006, of Sumatra again in 2007, western Sichuan and Myanmar in 2008,
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of Haiti in 2010, Japan, New Zealand and Turkey, in 2011, brought about colossal damage
in terms of death toll and destruction. These disasters remind us of a desperate need to
understand the basics of earth sciences and to implement various methods of mitigation and
simultaneously think of various ways, in which the prediction can be made possible. It is
disheartening to know that in some of these events the warning signs were known to exist;
for example, New Orleans and Port au Prince, which had long been recognised as a
catastrophe waiting to happen, but somehow even that awareness did not produce the
desired effect! Similarly, there are several places in the world, for example SE Asia, where
the knowledge about earthquakes is still in its infancy. The repeated earthquakes in Kashmir
and Aceh are tragic examples in which the inability to translate the acquired knowledge into
timely planned action clearly shows the challenges faced by earth scientists today.
To understand the natural events and provide timely measures, one ought to know the
basics of Earth Sciences, potentially the do’s and don’ts of disaster skills. For example, in
Japan this practice has played a huge role in saving lives. There are reports, where a
principle of a school, demolished the school wall to allow the students to freely run to higher
altitudes, before the arrival of a tsunami. All those students were subsequently saved.
However, there are also cases where people went to the protective tsunami wall to see its
arrival, thereby, ignoring its dangerous impact. This happens because civilians do not realise
that tsunami waves can reach enormous heights. It teaches us that dangers and hazards
associated with a tsunami or an earthquake can be much bigger than what we anticipate and
therefore prior preparations should be made for the same. We know that earthquake
scientists around the world are struggling to make prediction a possibility and there is a long
way to go before we can warn people about an impending disaster. However, mitigation
education is available and will immensely help people to overcome the effect of disasters.
Similarly, the volcanic hazards are keeping us on toes, for example, one of Iceland’s
volcanoes known as Eyjafjallajökull erupted on 14 April 2010 for the first time in two
centuries. The ash clouds forced aviation authorities of UK to shut down the airspace
affected by these clouds for six days. It is reported that most northern European countries
also shut their airspace for over a period of 5 days, which affected about 10 million travellers
worldwide with a loss of about 2.1 billion Euros.
It was only recently that some of the events listed above shook the world out of the torpor
that it was in. Now, we are curious to understand the system and its integration with the
other systems. But how far have we been successful in achieving that? To quote an
example, India, a country with over a billion people, is prone to almost all kinds of natural
disasters but the geoscience education is poorly represented in schools, colleges and
universities. Although a few universities offer full earth science degree courses, that is far
less than what is required.
Similarly, Singapore still does not have a full geoscience degree program, at the primary,
secondary and tertiary levels. Although the Earth Observatory of Singapore has been
established to fill this vacuum, more institutes should join this endeavour. The National
University of Singapore has recently started a minor in Geo-Science, which is indeed a good
beginning to contend with.
Likewise, Malaysia is yet to develop a robust earth science program, which can educate and
increase awareness about earth sciences in the next generations. There are very few
institutes which have Earth Sciences onboard and this requires immediate attention.
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The need to have a robust earth science education system around the globe should be
intensified. The ride will be bumpy, steep and often full of hurdles and will require a strong
and motivated workforce. Therefore, all the concerned will have to share the burden of
responsibilities as we proceed further in the evolutionary path. Geologists have to take a
multidisciplinary approach to save the destruction and help mankind to make Earth a
sustainable and healthy planet. A basic earth science education is required to be included in
the academic curriculum across the planet. Thus, a global project aimed to propagate
awareness in earth sciences is very important to avoid mass death tolls and destructions
from earthly catastrophes.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Dr Afroz Ahmad Shah is a research fellow at the Earth Observatory Sciences (EOS),
Nanyang Technological  University, Singapore, working with Prof. Kerry Edward Sieh on
earthquake geology of New Guinea. He obtained his PhD in 2010 (tectono-metamorphic
evolution of Precambrian rocks) with Prof. Tim Bell in School of Earth & Environmental
Sciences, James Cook University, Australia. He obtained an M.Tech. in engineering
geosciences (2006) from IIT Kanpur India. He can be contacted at [email protected]. Find
out more about Dr. Afroz Ahmad Shah by visiting his Scientific Malaysian profile
at http://www.scientificmalaysian.com/members/afrozshah/
REFERENCES:
Paul J. Crutzen., 2002. Geology of mankind. Nature 415:23-23.
Rajendran, C.P., 2010. Challenges in Earth sciences: 21st century. Current Science, 99,
1690-1698.
https://magazine.scientificmalaysian.com/author/scimy/

4. Describe the planet Earth, its composition, properties & characteristics

The Composition and Structure of Earth

Core, mantle, and crust are divisions based on composition. The crust makes up less than 1
percent of Earth by mass, consisting of oceanic crust and continental crust is often more
felsic rock. The mantle is hot and represents about 68 percent of Earth’s mass. Finally, the
core is mostly iron metal. The core makes up about 31% of the Earth. Lithosphere and
asthenosphere are divisions based on mechanical properties. The lithosphere is composed
of both the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves as a brittle, rigid solid.
The asthenosphere is partially molten upper mantle material that behaves plastically and
can flow. This animation by Earthquide shows the layers by composition and by mechanical
properties.
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Crust and Lithosphere

Earth’s outer surface is its crust; a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. The crust is
very thin, relative to the radius of the planet. There are two very different types of crust, each
with its own distinctive physical and chemical properties.Oceanic crust is composed of
magma that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flows or cools deeper down to create
the intrusive igneous rock gabbro. Sediments, primarily muds and the shells of tiny sea
creatures, coat the seafloor. Sediment is thickest near the shore where it comes off the
continents in rivers and on wind currents.Continental crust is made up of many different
types of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The average composition is granite,
which is much less dense than the mafic igneous rocks of the oceanic crust. Because it is
thick and has relatively low density, continental crust rises higher on the mantle than oceanic
crust, which sinks into the mantle to form basins. When filled with water, these basins form
the planet’s oceans.The lithosphere is the outermost mechanical layer, which behaves as a
brittle, rigid solid. The lithosphere is about 100 kilometers thick. The definition of the
lithosphere is based on how earth materials behave, so it includes the crust and the
uppermost mantle, which are both brittle. Since it is rigid and brittle, when stresses act on
the lithosphere, it breaks. This is what we experience as an earthquake.
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Mantle

The two most important things about the mantle are: (1) it is made of solid rock, and (2) it is
hot. Scientists know that the mantle is made of rock based on evidence from seismic waves,
heat flow, and meteorites. The properties fit the ultramafic rock peridotite, which is made of
the iron- and magnesium-rich silicate minerals. Peridotite is rarely found at Earth’s
surface.Scientists know that the mantle is extremely hot because of the heat flowing outward
from it and because of its physical properties. Heat flows in two different ways within the
Earth: conduction and convection. Conduction is defined as the heat transfer that occurs
through rapid collisions of atoms, which can only happen if the material is solid. Heat flows
from warmer to cooler places until all are the same temperature. The mantle is hot mostly
because of heat conducted from the core. Convection is the process of a material that can
move and flow may develop convection currents.Convection in the mantle is the same as
convection in a pot of water on a stove. Convection currents within Earth’s mantle form as
material near the core heats up. As the core heats the bottom layer of mantle material,
particles move more rapidly, decreasing its density and causing it to rise. The rising material
begins the convection current. When the warm material reaches the surface, it spreads
horizontally. The material cools because it is no longer near the core. It eventually becomes
cool and dense enough to sink back down into the mantle. At the bottom of the mantle, the
material travels horizontally and is heated by the core. It reaches the location where warm
mantle material rises, and the mantle convection cell is complete.
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Convection in the mantle is the same as convection in a pot of water on a stove. Convection
currents within Earth’s mantle form as material near the core heats up. As the core heats the
bottom layer of mantle material, particles move more rapidly, decreasing its density and
causing it to rise. The rising material begins the convection current. When the warm material
reaches the surface, it spreads horizontally. The material cools because it is no longer near
the core. It eventually becomes cool and dense enough to sink back down into the mantle.
At the bottom of the mantle, the material travels horizontally and is heated by the core. It
reaches the location where warm mantle material rises, and the mantle convection cell is
complete.

Core

At the planet’s center lies a dense metallic core. Scientists know that the core is metal for a
few reasons. The density of Earth’s surface layers is much less than the overall density of
the planet, as calculated from the planet’s rotation. If the surface layers are less dense than
average, then the interior must be denser than average. Calculations indicate that the core is
about 85 percent iron metal with nickel metal making up much of the remaining 15 percent.
Also, metallic meteorites are thought to be representative of the core.If Earth’s core were not
metal, the planet would not have a magnetic field. Metals such as iron are magnetic, but
rock, which makes up the mantle and crust, is not. Scientists know that the outer core is
liquid and the inner core is solid because S-waves stop at the inner core. The strong
magnetic field is caused by convection in the liquid outer core. Convection currents in the
outer core are due to heat from the even hotter inner core. The heat that keeps the outer
core from solidifying is produced by the breakdown of radioactive elements in the inner core.

Composition

Earth is the densest major body in the solar system at 5.52 grams per cubic inch. It's
composed of 34.6 percent iron, 29.5 percent oxygen, 15.2 percent silicon, 12.7 percent
magnesium, 2.4 percent nickel, 1.9 percent sulfur and 0.05 percent titanium.

Solar System Placement

Earth is positioned within the "habitable zone" of the solar system at 92,957,130 miles,
making Earth unique within this solar system. This zone is defined as the distance from the
sun where water can be found in solid and liquid form. If Earth were in Mercury or Venus'
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position, its atmosphere and water would evaporate. If Earth were pushed out to the
position of Mars or further out near the gas giants, it would be too cold to sustain liquid
water or life. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geophysical/chapter/the-composition-and-
structure-of-earth/

Six Properties of the Earth

Dimensions

Around the equator, Earth is 7,926 miles in diameter and 24,902 miles in circumference.
From pole to pole or along the Meridional axis, Earth is slightly smaller at a diameter of
7,899 miles and with a 24,860-mile circumference. This is due to the Earth's rotation,
which causes the Earth to bulge at the equator and flatten at the poles, creating a shape
called an oblate spheroid.

Rotational Properties

Earth leans on a 23.5-degree angle from vertical, rotating on that axis once every 24 hours
at 1,000 miles per hour.

Surface Properties

Earth's surface is covered with 71 percent water. This liquid water is essential for life and
is also responsible for the erosion experienced on Earth's land masses. The effects of
erosion and tectonic plate movement have rendered Earth's surface younger than the
actual age of the planet by about 500,000,000 million years. In other words, the Earth is
believed to be 4.5 to 4.6 billion years old; however, the oldest known rocks are four billion
years old, with rocks older than three billion years being rare.

Earth's Layers

Earth's layers comprise five unique zones called the crust, upper mantle, transition region,
lower mantle and the core. The crust reaches down 24 miles and is composed primarily of
quartz. The upper mantle, where 4.043 of the Earth's 5.52 gram per cubic centimeter mass
is held, is 224 miles thick and is composed of olivene and pyroxene (iron/magnesium
silicates). The transition zone is 250 miles thick and is the region where liquid magma
begins to harden while subducted mantle rock melts into magma. At 403 miles below the
surface, the lower mantel is composed of mostly silicon, magnesium and oxygen with trace
amounts of iron, calcium and aluminum. Found at a depth of 2,167 miles, the core is
composed of iron with some nickel and is the source of Earth's magnetic field due to its
churning.

Hayes, Kelvin. "What Are Six Properties of the Earth?" sciencing.com,

https://sciencing.com/six-properties-earth-8371705.html. 25 March 2021.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

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Kelvin Hayes has been writing professionally since 2009 as a freelance copywriter. He
runs his own online business, writing ebooks, reports and information products.
Completely self-taught, Hayes prides himself on creatively completing writing projects by
pulling from his wide range of life experiences.

https://sciencing.com/six-properties-earth-8371705.html

5. What are the neighbors of the earth?

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All About Earth

Our home planet Earth is a rocky, terrestrial planet. It has a solid and active surface with
mountains, valleys, canyons, plains and so much more. Earth is special because it is an
ocean planet. Water covers 70% of Earth's surface.

Our atmosphere is made mostly of nitrogen and has plenty of oxygen for us to breathe. The
atmosphere also protects us from incoming meteoroids, most of which break up in our
atmosphere before they can strike the surface as meteorites.
Since we live here, you might think we know all there is to know about Earth. Not at all,
actually! We have a lot we can learn about our home planet. Right now, there are many
satellites orbiting Earth taking pictures and measurements. This is how we can learn more
about weather, oceans, soil, climate change, and many other important topics.

Structure and Surface

 Earth is a terrestrial planet. It is small and rocky.

 Earth's atmosphere is the right thickness to keep the planet warm so living things like us
can be there. It’s the only planet in our solar system we know of that supports life. It is
mostly nitrogen, and it has plenty of oxygen for us to breathe.

Time on Earth

 A day on Earth lasts a little under 24 hours.

 One year on Earth lasts 365.25 days. That 0.25 extra means every four years we need
to add one day to our calendar. We call it a leap day (in a leap year).
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Earth’s Neighbors

 Earth has just one Moon. It is the only planet to have just one moon.
 Earth has lots of spacecraft watching it. There is still a lot we can learn about our home
planet.
 Earth is the third planet from the Sun in our solar system. That means Venus and Mars
are Earth’s neighboring planets.

NASA Official: Kristen EricksonProgram

Manager: Heather Doyle

Contact NASA Space Place

https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/about-us

https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/all-about-earth/en/#:~:text=Earth%20is%20the%20third
%20planet,Mars%20are%20Earth's%20neighboring%20planets.