Traffic and Transportation

Engineering

(Pre-timed Signal Design)

By
Godfrey Mwesige
BSC (Civil Eng.), Mak; MSC (Trans. Eng.), Illinois, USA
Department of Construction Economics and Management
Faculty of Technology, Makerere University
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 PRE-TIMED SIGNAL DESIGN ............................................................................................................. 1-1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Estimation of Traffic Demand ............................................................................................ 1-1
1.3 Design Period ................................................................................................................. 1-1
1.4 Existing Junction Condition ............................................................................................... 1-1
1.5 Design Procedure ............................................................................................................ 1-2
1.6 Junction Phase Layout Design Considerations ........................................................................ 1-6
2 CO-ORDINATION OF CLOSELY SPACED SIGNALIZED JUNCTIONS...................................... 2-1
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Key Requirements ........................................................................................................... 2-1
3 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES ................................................................................... 3-1
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Maintenance Activities ...................................................................................................... 3-1
3.3 Record Keeping .............................................................................................................. 3-1
3.4 Maintenance Staff Requirements ......................................................................................... 3-1
3.5 Signal Timings Optimization and Continuing Evaluations ......................................................... 3-2

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 1 PRE-TIMED SIGNAL DESIGN

1.1 Introduction

The procedure to develop signal phase designs is based on the methodology described in Traffic
Engineering, Fourth Edition by Roess, Prassas & McShane (2004). Ministry of Works, Housing and
Communications (2005) Road Design Manual, Vol. 1; Section 8 does not detail the process of signal
timing and design. The procedure by Roess et al is for pre-timed control systems using time-
budget concept for development of phase plans for signalized intersections. Time-budget
concept is the allocation of green times to individual phases according to traffic demand. A
phase is a combination of non-conflicting movements using the same green time. The time
between two successive green times of the same phase is equal to the cycle length.

1.2 Estimation of Traffic Demand

Development of phase plans requires estimation of demand at the junctions. In practice,

estimation of demand is through traffic counts at the junction in 15-minute periods over
identified peak periods. The peak day’s peak hour volume is used for development of signal
phases.

1.3 Design Period

The peak hour demand obtained by traffic counts represents existing traffic condition. A design
year is proposed and future demand estimated based on existing demand and annual traffic
growth rate at the junctions. The design year should preferably be 15, 20 or 25 years and the
traffic growth factor at the junctions from records. The estimated future demand is used to
develop phase plans.

1.4 Existing Junction Condition

A condition diagram showing existing lane configurations, width, road reserve and other
restrictions is important in determining the final configuration of the improved junction. Quite
often, there is need for lane addition to cater for different movements at the junction that were
non-existent. Particularly, existing lane configurations, movements and traffic demand are a
starting point for determining the cycle length and then green times.

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1.5 Design Procedure

1) Develop a reasonable phase plan from existing lane and movement configurations. As a
starter, determine whether protected right-turn (RT) lanes are required. Equations 1.1
and 1.2 are a guide to decision-making process. The phase plan also depends on the
junction layout and operational characteristics.
VRT ≥ 200 [1.1]

 Vo 
VRT *  ≥ 50, 000 [1.2]
 No 
Where; VRT = Right-turn volume, vph, Vo = Conflicting through traffic volume, vph,
and No = Number of lanes used by conflicting through traffic stream. However, for
safety considerations protected right-turn phases should be as part of the design.
Protected right-turn phase is where right-turn movements are made from separate lanes
and allocated own green times. The Highway Capacity Manual 2000, Chapter 10
recommends addition of single exclusive right-turn lane if demand is 100 veh/h or more
and double lanes if demand is 300 veh/h or more.

2) Convert all right-turn and left-turn traffic into equivalent through vehicle units. This is
because turns consume more time than through movements, and therefore this has to be
accounted for in design. If protected right-turn is proposed, the equivalent factor is 1.05.
The left-turn factor depends on conflicting pedestrian volumes as follows; 1.18 (0
peds/h), 1.21 (50 peds/h), 1.32 (200 peds/h), 1.52 (400 peds/h), and 2.14 (800 peds/h).

3) Draw a ring diagram for the proposed phase plan, inserting lane volumes in (tvu’s) for
each set of movements. Determine the critical path through the signal phasing, and
determine the sum of critical volumes for the critical path. The sum of critical volumes
(Vc) used to compute the cycle length. Typical numbering of lane movements in a four-
legged junction and two-lane approach is shown in Figure 1-1, and typical ring diagram
and four phases in Figure 1-2.

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 N

5 2

8
3
7
4

6 1

Figure 1-1: Typical Four-Legged Junction and Movement Numbering

1 2 3 4 Ring 1 Movements
Movements in a single Ring
conflict, and therefore can not
use the same green time
5 6 7 8 Ring 2 Movements

φ1 φ2 φ3 φ4

Figure 1-2: Ring Diagram and Possible Phase configurations

4) Determine the yellow or amber (y) and all-red (ar) intervals for each signal phase using
Equations 1.3 and 1.4 respectively. The yellow also known as change interval is a

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 function of breaking distance, speed, and grade of the approach. All-red also known as
clearance interval is a function of the junction width.

S85
y =t+ [1.3]
2a + 2 g * 0.01G
Where; y = length of yellow interval, seconds, t = driver reaction time, assumed at 1.0
seconds, S85 = 85th percentile speed of approaching vehicles or speed limit in metres per
second, a = deceleration rate of vehicles assumed at 3.045 m/s2 (10 ft/s2), G = grade of
the approach, percent, and g = acceleration due to gravity taken as 9.81 m/s2.

 W + L   P + L  
ar = max  
 S   S  
, [1.4]
  15   15  
Where; w = distance from departure stop line to the far side of the farthest conflicting
traffic lane, metres, p = distance from the departure stop line to the farthest conflicting
cross walk, metres, L = length of the standard vehicle assumed 5.4 -6 metres, and S15 =
15th percentile speed of the approaching traffic or speed limit in metres per second.

5) Determine the lost time per phase using Equations 1.5 through 1.7. The lost time is used
to compute the desirable cycle length under time-budget concept.

l2 = Y − e [1.5]

Y = y + ar [1.6]

tL = l1 + l2 [1.7]
Where; l1 = start-up lost time, 2.0 second/phase, e = motorist use of all-red, 2.0
seconds/phase, l2 = clearance lost time, seconds/phase, tL = total lost time per phase,
seconds/phase, ar = length of all-red clearance interval, seconds, y = length of yellow
change intervals, second, and Y = total length of change + clearance interval, seconds.

6) Determine the desirable cycle length, C as in Equation 1.8. The computed cycle length is
then rounded-up to reflect the nearest denominations of cycle length programmed into
the controller. The peak hour factor (PHF) estimated from traffic counts and a
reasonable demand to capacity ratio (V/C) assumed for the model.

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 L
Cdes = [1.8]
 Vc 
1−  
1615* PHF *(V / C ) 

Where; Cdes = desirable cycle length in seconds. It should not preferably exceed 120
seconds, L = total lost time in a cycle, Seconds, which is also the sum of all lost times per
phase, PHF is the peak hour factor, and (V/C) = is demand to capacity ratio assumed at
0.80-0.95 for good operation, and 0.90 common, and Vc = sum of critical volumes,
veh/h. If Equation 1.8 returns a negative cycle length, it means that either Vc has to be
reduced by lane addition at movements with high critical volume, or use a higher (V/C)
ratio. However, often it is lane addition that should be considered, and it is when the
number of lanes is increased for through or right-turn traffic. As a rule of the thumb
(Highway Capacity Manual 2000, Chapter 10), enough lanes should be provided to keep lane
volumes to within 450 veh/h. The value 1615 is the saturation flow rate in through
vehicle equivalent units.

7) Allocate the available effective green time within the cycle in proportion to critical lane
volumes to each phase as in Equations 1.9 and 1.10.

gTOT = C − L [1.9]

V 
gi = gTOT  ci  [1.10]
 Vc 
Where; gTOT = total effective green in seconds, gi = effective green time allocated to a
phase, seconds, Vci = critical lane volume for a given phase, veh/h. Other variables as
defined before.

8) Check the pedestrian timing requirements and adjust the signal timing to suit pedestrian
demand using Equations 1.11 or 1.12.
 L   N ped 
G p = 3.2 +   + 2.7 *   , WE > 3m
S
 p   WE  [1.11]
 L 
G p = 3.2 +   + 0.27 * N ped , WE ≤ 3.0m
S
 p  [1.12]

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 Where; Gp = minimum pedestrian crossing time, seconds, L = length of the crosswalk,
Sp = average walking speed, m/s, assumed at 1.2 m/s, Nped = number of pedestrians
crossing per phase in a single crosswalk, and WE = width of the cross walk in metres.

9) Draw final phase layout indicating the green and yellow per phase in addition to crossing
‘WALK’, Flashing- DON’T WALK and ‘DON’T WALK’ times for pedestrians. The
final lane configurations are then drawn and fitted onto the condition diagram. The
minimum green time computed with Equations 1.11 or 1.12 should be less or equal to
the sum of green and yellow times for subject vehicular movement. The minimum
pedestrian times are computed using Equations 1.11 or 1.12 by considering the first and
third components only. The Flashing ‘DONT WALK is computed using the middle term
of either equations appropriately.

1.6 Junction Phase Layout Design Considerations

Junction phase and layout design involves development of suitable phases, movements and
timing based on projected traffic demand in the design year and annual traffic growth. Phase
plans developed basing on the traffic demand, have to be related to the geometric drawing to
determine the actual position of the lanes and other structures. The design year is normally 20
years as in Federal Highway Administration (2004, p.106), Signalized Intersections: Information Guide, and
annual traffic growth factor assumed at 8-percent (Annual average increase in number of registered
vehicles in Uganda since 2000). This yields a compound growth adjustment to existing traffic
demand of 4.66 for a design year traffic demand. That is, in 20 years, traffic at the junctions will
have increased five folds. However, the authority may choose to reduce the design period based
on budget and other constraints.

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 2 CO-ORDINATION OF CLOSELY SPACED SIGNALIZED
JUNCTIONS

2.1 Introduction

Closely spaced (within one kilometre) signalized junctions compel vehicles to arrive at downstream
junctions in platoons or groups in a short time period. As a result, queues build-up at the downstream
signal that may spill over into the upstream junction if the distance is rather short. To overcome the
queue build-ups and spillback effects, such signals should be coordinated.

2.2 Key Requirements

Coordination requires signals to have equal cycle length and if possible equal green times
allocated to the phases in the direction of progression. This is to ensure the beginning of green
occurs at the same time relative to the green at the upstream and downstream junctions. To
effectively co-ordinate two or more signals, a time-space diagram is drawn, and ideal offsets
determined.

The time-space diagram shows the position of a vehicle, in metres and time in seconds. The
time expressed in terms of signal cycle length and distance corresponds to the distance between
the signals as shown in Figure 2-1. At t= t1, the signal turns green at Junction 1 and vehicles start
to move down the road, and reach the second junction at t=t2. The difference between two
green initiation times is the signal offset. The ideal offset is the ratio of the distance and travel
speed between the two intersections as given by Equation 4.1.

d
tideal = [4.1]
s

Where; tideal = ideal offset, d = distance between junctions, metres, and S = average travel speed
between the two junctions. The actual offset would include the start-up lost time if vehicles had
been initially stopped.

2-1
 First vehicle Last vehicle
Trajectory Trajectory

Junction 2
Red intreval Green Interval

Distance, metres
Band width

Junction 1

Time, seconds
t1 t2

Figure 2-1: Time-space diagram for signal coordination

The other important factor to consider is the bandwidth, defined as the time difference between the first
vehicle that can pass through the entire system of coordinated junctions without stopping and the last
vehicle that can pass through without stopping, measured in seconds. This is illustrated in Figure 2-1.
The bandwidth determines the capacity and progression of the coordinated system.

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3 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ISSUES

3.1 Introduction

Traffic control signals to remain effective after installation, they must be maintained and
operated. Immediate traffic problems result when a signal is not operating or when there is a
malfunction. Therefore, preventive maintenance must be planned and performed to preserve the
intended working condition of the control system. Signal operation and maintenance includes;
inspections, cleanings, replacements, testing, record keeping, signal timings optimization and
continuing evaluations, and inventories. A program and budget plan must be set up to operate
and maintain the installation throughout the service life. There should be consideration on
installation of microprocessor-based control equipments other than electro-mechanical control
equipments, and the controls should be based on Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) technology.
LED lenses consume less power and have a long service life of at least five (5) years.

3.2 Maintenance Activities

There are two types of signal maintenance; preventive (planned on a periodic basis) and
emergency response. A good plan substantially reduces the need for more costly emergency or
maintenance activities. The major activities carried out during preventive maintenance include;
inspection/testing of signal control equipment, alignment of signal heads, replacement of burnt
out lenses, cleaning of lenses and protective paintings, replacement of damaged parts.

3.3 Record Keeping

Maintenance of traffic signals involves a major investment in labour, materials, and funds; it
therefore requires a high degree of management. Service reports should be kept for the entire
period, by a responsible department or contractor. The service reports become a basis for
planning, design and maintenance decisions for future application. The records should include as
built drawings, signal-timing charts and any changes thereafter and maintenance activities since
installation.

3.4 Maintenance Staff Requirements

Well-trained maintenance personnel are essential for any effective maintenance program, and the
training is a pre-requisite to the program. The training is on the basic traffic engineering and
operation of signalized junctions as well as the working environment of the control system. As
part of the procurement process, the manufacturer or supplier may be required to perform

3-1
training sessions on the operation and maintenance of the control equipment. However, training
on the basic traffic engineering and operation of signalized junctions is from institutions or
short-term lectures from experienced personnel. It is important that maintenance staff
understand the basic traffic engineering knowledge prior to control equipment operation
training.

However, contracting maintenance work to a larger agency or private contractor is another

possible option practiced all over the world. The advantages of contracting maintenance are; easy
implementation of minor improvements without formal bidding process, the authority does not
need to maintain an inventory or replacement parts as this rests with the contractor, the
contractor assumes greater liability role if failure to perform or respond within reasonable limits
of time, and reduction in staff and testing equipment requirements. The major drawback to
contracting maintenance works is costs involved compared to in-house operations although this
is offset by perceived efficiency derived from contracting. The contractor’s costs include profits,
overheads, and labour that are not included in in-house operations.

3.5 Signal Timings Optimization and Continuing Evaluations

After a signal is installed and operated over time, field evaluations should be conducted to
determine whether the signal is operating correctly and efficiently. The objective of signal timing
is to alternate the right of way between traffic streams so that the average delays to all vehicles
and pedestrians are minimized. The growth pattern of the neighbourhood over time may
increase demand significantly on one approach than the other necessitating re-timing to cater for
the demand. Signal timing optimization is a continuous effort requiring periodic (at least 2 years)
measurement of traffic volume patterns for purposes of re-computing green times.

Before and after studies should be conducted to determine whether newly installed signal is
operating efficiently and that there are no conflicts in the movements. The studies serve to
define traffic characteristics before and after installation of the signal. The major areas of study
include; traffic volumes, spot speed, travel time and delay, junction delay, capacity and crashes.

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