Solar system - is composed of the sun and the eight • About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid

liquid water
planets revolving around it. (hydrosphere) and much of it is in the form of ocean
water.
Temperature – influences how quickly atoms and
molecules move. • Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the
form of ice, and the remaining one-third is present in
Nutrients - Used to build and maintain an organism’s
streams, lakes, and groundwater.
body.
• The oceans are important sinks for CO2 through a
Energy – Organisms use light or chemical energy to run
direct exchange with the atmosphere and indirectly
their life processes.
through the weathering of rocks. Heat is absorbed and
System - is defined as a set of interconnected redistributed on the surface of the Earth through ocean
components that are interacting to form a unified circulation.
whole. The Earth system is essentially a closed system.
The Biosphere
It receives energy from the sun and returns some of this
energy to space. • The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth. It
covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest,
The Earth has four subsystems: the atmosphere,
from mangroves to coral reefs, and from the plankton-
lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
rich ocean surface to the deep sea.
The Atmosphere
• For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food
• The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that chain comprises photosynthetic organisms. During
envelopes the lithosphere. photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the
atmosphere, while oxygen is released as a byproduct.
The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen
(N2), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon (Ar), and a trace The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an
number of other gases. important part of the carbon cycle.

• One of the most important processes by which the The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is
heat on the Earth's surface is redistributed is through transferred among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and
atmospheric circulation. living organisms. Sunlight is not necessary for life.

• There is also a constant exchange of heat and Minerals are naturally occurring, (not man-made or
moisture between the atmosphere and the machine-generated) inorganic, (not a byproduct of
hydrosphere through the hydrologic (water) cycle. living things) solid with an orderly crystalline structure
and a definite chemical composition.
The Lithosphere
Minerals are the basic building blocks of rocks.
• The lithosphere includes the rocks of the crust and
mantle, the metallic liquid outer core, and the solid A. Physical Properties
metallic inner core. It also includes geologic landforms
• Color – The color of a mineral depends on the
such as mountains and hills.
elements which constitute the crystal lattice – the
• Plate Tectonics is an important process that shapes arrangement of atoms, or groups of atoms, in a specific
the surface of the Earth. pattern and with high symmetry. The reflection of
certain wavelengths of light by the crystal lattice results
• The primary driving mechanism is the Earth's internal in the color perceived by the observer.
heat, such as that in mantle convection.
• Streak – refers to the color of the mineral in its
powdered form
The Hydrosphere • Luster – refers to the relative differences in the
opacity and transparency of a mineral as light is
reflected on its surface.
This describes the “sparkles” of the mineral surfaces. lava, which are molten rocks ejected on the surface
through volcanic eruptions. They are fine-grained due to
• Specific gravity – refers to the ratio of the weight of
abrupt cooling on the surface.
the mineral of the water with an equal volume. This
parameter indicates how many times more the mineral B. Sedimentary Rocks
weighs compared to an equal amount of water.
• Clastic sedimentary rocks – are made up of sediments
• Hardness – refers to the measure of the resistance of from preexisting rocks. When preexisting rocks are
a surface to abrasions or scratches. It is generally physically weathered and eroded, they form sediments.
measured using the Mohs Scale of Hardness. When these sediments are transported, deposited, and
lithified, they form the clastic sedimentary rocks. These
• Cleavage – refers to the tendency of the mineral to be
rocks can be identified based on their grain size.
split or broken along flat surfaces
• Non-clastic sedimentary rocks – can be biological,
• Fracture – refers to the texture or shape of the
chemical, or a combination of both.
mineral’s surface when the mineral breaks into forms
other than flat surfaces -Biological sedimentary rocks are lithified accumulation
of dead organisms (e.g. coal formed from carbon-rich
• Tenacity – refers to the behavior of the mineral under
plants and limestone from the remains of calcareous
deformation or stress such as cutting, crushing, bending,
organisms).
or hitting.
-Chemical sedimentary rocks are from chemical
• Crystal habit – refers to the growth crystal pattern of
precipitation (e.g. Rock salt formed when dissolved salts
a mineral as single or aggregated
precipitate from a solution).
B. Chemical Properties

• Solubility – refers to the ability of a substance to

C. Metamorphic Rocks
dissolve in a solvent at a specified temperature.
• Foliated metamorphic rocks – have layered or banded
• Melting point – refers to the temperature at which
appearance produced by exposure to high pressures.
solid turns into liquid. Minerals composed of atoms that
(e.g. slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss); formed through
are tightly bonded within the crystal structure have high
regional metamorphism (pressure)
melting points.
• Non-foliated metamorphic rocks – do not have
Rocks are classified according to how they are formed.
layered appearance. (e.g. Marble, quartzite, and
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling or solidification anthracite); formed through contact metamorphism
of magma or lava. (heat)

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of
cementation of sediments, a process called lithification. rock at or near the Earth's surface.

Metamorphic rocks are formed by preexisting rocks Erosion, on the other hand, is the incorporation and
that are exposed to extreme heat and pressure in the transportation of material by a mobile agent such as
Earth’s interior, a process called metamorphism. water, wind, or ice.

A. Igneous Rocks Weathering occurs in the site, that is, particles stay put
and no movement is involved.
• Intrusive rocks – (or plutonic rocks) are igneous rocks
formed underneath the earth. They are coarse-grained
due to the slow cooling of magma allowing crystal
As soon as the weathering product starts moving (due
growth.
to fluid flow) we call the process erosion.
• Extrusive rocks – (or volcanic rocks) are igneous rocks
formed on the surface of the earth. They are cooled
Deposition occurs when the agents (wind or water) of
erosion lay down sediment to its depositional
environment or final destination.

Deposition changes the shape of the land.

a. Deltas - are formed when the river loses energy as it

flows into an area of slow-moving water, such as a lake
or the sea. When the river meets the sea, clay particles
coagulate and settle in the seabed.

b. Alluvial fans - are formed when a stream reaches a

flat area or gently sloping plain.

c. Flood plain - is a flat wide expanse of alluvium

covering flat areas prone to flooding; a sheet of silts is
deposited after a successive flood.

d. Levees - are formed by successive floods over many

years. When a river overflows, its velocity decreases,
leaving coarse sediments deposited; fine sediments also
are deposited over the valley, forming gentle slopes of
levees.

a. Loess - is the accumulated blanket of silt carried by

wind in suspension and deposited over broad areas.

b. Sand dunes - are deposits of course materials in the

shape of hills or ridges; they are found in deserts or
above low-lying coasts were sand is constantly renewed
by onshore winds flowing across the sandy beaches

Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as

heat is transferred from the core to the crust. The
temperature of the mantle varies depending on
whether it is near the crust or the boundary of the
core.
Magmatism is the activity or the motion of the magma.
Rocks that are subjected to high temperature and
pressure melt and become the magma.

Magma is a semi-liquid molten rock mixture that can be

found in the lower portion of the crust and the upper
part of the mantle.