ISSN 1526-2049

C O M M U N I T Y C O L L E G E R E S E A R C H C E N T E R

NUMBER 15
BRIEF JANUARY 2003

who begin in two-year colleges ever complete a

Community Colleges in the bachelor’s (Schneider & Stevenson, 1999). But since
21st Century: Challenges and many students start two-year programs without a clear
intention of transferring, it is difficult to evaluate any
Opportunities given transfer level. Nevertheless, as the number of
students who want a four-year degree grows, there will
Thomas R. Bailey be more pressure to increase transfer rates.
While policymakers press community colleges to
Community colleges account for a surprisingly large increase their transfer rates, they also introduce
share of American higher education. Nearly one half of measures that will increase the number of poorly
all postsecondary undergraduates in fall 1997 were prepared students who attend these colleges.
enrolled in community colleges (U.S. Department of Developmental education is a central component of the
Education, 2000a), and over the span of any given year,
colleges’ mission to provide access, but large numbers
more for-credit undergraduate students enroll in
of poorly prepared students complicate college efforts to
community colleges than in baccalaureate-granting
improve transfer and graduation rates.
institutions. Community colleges have large and growing
The social and economic environment has also
enrollments in non-credit courses as well. Moreover, the
changed. Other institutions, including public and not-for
types of students who enroll in community colleges—
profit four-year colleges, community-based
first-generation or those from low socioeconomic
organizations, for-profit companies, in-house company
backgrounds (U.S. Department of Education, 2000a)—
trainers, and even other community colleges compete
are precisely the ones who are of most concern to
scholars and policymakers with the colleges in every function that they carry out.
But after several decades of growth, community Many public four-year colleges have expanded their
colleges now face a particularly challenging continuing education offerings in an attempt to reach the
environment. Changes in pedagogic and production adult and part-time students who have traditionally been
technology, state funding policy, the expectations of served by community colleges.
students, parents, and policymakers, demographic The potential effect of computer-based distance
trends; and the growth of new types of educational education is perhaps the greatest unknown in the
institutions and providers are potentially altering the role competitive landscape. To the extent that distance
of community colleges within the wider landscape of education reduces the need for students to be at a
higher education. particular place at a particular time and provides an
education at a reasonable cost, then the educational
Challenges market will be a free-for-all. Research suggests that
distance education is as effective at teaching substance
Increasingly, students expect to earn a bachelor’s as traditional classroom formats, although the students
degree. In 1997, 77 percent of all high school seniors have to be motivated and organized. Community college
stated that they either probably or definitely would professors argue that many of their students need the
graduate from a four-year college program—up from 57 structure provided by the personal contact in the
percent in the early 1980s (U.S. Department of
classroom. Whatever the problems, distance education
Education, 2000a). Among students enrolled in
is growing rapidly, and its growth has created
community colleges in the early 1990s, 70 percent
tremendous uncertainty in higher education. Community
stated that their objective was to earn a bachelor’s
colleges may be at a disadvantage in the online
degree—up from 45 percent in the early 1980s
educational race, since they have much more restricted
(Schneider & Stevenson, 1999). As students focus more
budgets than the four-year public schools, and they lack
on earning four-year degrees, enrollments shift towards
the for-profits’ access to capital markets.
four-year colleges.
Although most community college students state
Positive Trends
that they aspire to a bachelor’s degree, less than one
quarter transfer to four-year programs (U.S. Department Despite the challenges, several developments are
of Education, 2000a), and less than a tenth of students likely to increase the demand for community college

1
education over the next several years. First, the number Several states and universities are trying to limit
of students of the typical college-going age is projected access to four-year institutions for students who need
to increase sharply over the next decade. Two-year remedial help. CUNY is phasing out remedial education
college enrollments, which stood at roughly 5,700,000 at its four-year colleges. The community college role in
for fall 1999, will grow by 11 to 16 percent over the next providing developmental education will continue and
decade (Gerald & Hussar, 2000). The growing foreign- probably increase.
born population in the United States adds to the Low tuition continues to be one of the community
demand for community college education. Immigration college’s most important assets. Although trends over
has already had an impact on college enrollments in the last 20 years suggest that the community college
California, and The City University of New York (CUNY), tuition advantage over private and public colleges has
New York City’s public higher education system, was weakened slightly, internally financed scholarships grew
almost 50 percent foreign-born fall 1997 (Bailey & at a much faster pace than tuition. Thus, while the
Weininger, 2001). differential may have eroded, in most states, community
Much of the policy and research about college colleges will enjoy a significant tuition advantage for
enrollment has assumed a traditional conceptualization many years.
in which students attend college full-time immediately
after high school and continue their enrollment The Community College Response
uninterrupted until they graduate. By that view, only 17 Community colleges are expected to provide
percent of the students who started college for the first opportunities for transfer to four-year colleges. Indeed, it
time in 1989 were traditional students. Another 17 is through this function that community colleges realize
percent were traditional students in two-year institutions. their mission as the nation’s primary site of equal access
The remaining 66 percent could be considered non- to higher education (Brint & Karabel, 1989; Cohen &
traditional because they attended part-time, interrupted Brawer, 1996; Eaton, 1988). However, although state
their studies, or changed institutions. The share of non- agencies and college faculty and staff have worked hard
traditional students would rise further if we counted to promote transfer, and college presidents articulate
students who delayed their first-time entry into college. their commitment to transfer education, this has not
The growth of the importance of these diverse pathways been the primary or most prominent community college
through postsecondary education may favor community response to their financial and political challenges. Much
colleges, which are much more oriented towards non- of the energy and enthusiasm at the college level is
traditional students than four-year schools. focused on other activities.
Developments in technology and their effects on skill Almost every community college is aggressively
requirements will also create a demand for community developing its non-credit and continuing education
college education. Projections of the growth of programs. In terms of the number of students (not
employment in different occupations and trends in the FTEs), non-credit enrollments often surpass credit
earnings of workers with various levels of education enrollments. Courses outside of the traditional degree
show that at least some education beyond high school streams can be developed with fewer constraints
will be necessary for access to jobs with earnings that associated with accreditation, state regulation, and
might allow an individual to support a family. While faculty prerogatives, and they can generate surpluses.
college graduates earn more than those with an Some non-credit enrollments are generated through
associate degree, the value of one year of community customized training contracts with companies
college education is more or less equivalent to the value (Dougherty & Bakia, 1999). While such contracts
of a year of education at a four-year college. The same represent a minority of non-credit enrollments, they often
can be said for the economic value of credits earned at have a high profile and carry political significance since
the two institutions (Grubb, 1999a; Kane & Rouse, 1995). they solidify partnerships with influential local
Weak high school preparation will also continue to businesses.
create a role for community colleges. Even among Community colleges have also expanded their roles
families with incomes above $75,000 a year, fewer than vertically—providing education to high school students
60 percent of high school graduates were either highly and in some cases post-associate degree students. The
or very highly qualified for admission to a four-year dramatic growth of dual enrollment programs for high
college. Levels of preparation for high school graduates school students has been one of the most talked-about
from families earning less than $25,000 a year were recent trends in community colleges. Since most of the
much worse. Forty-seven percent were not even offerings are in the social sciences and humanities, they
minimally qualified, and only 21 percent were either do not need expensive equipment. Since they are taught
highly or very highly qualified for admission to a four- at the high schools and therefore do not require
year college (U.S. Department of Education, 2000a). additional space, and the instructors are usually
Sixty-three percent of community college students take adjuncts or high school teachers, the colleges incur
at least one remedial course (U.S. Department of extremely low costs and are often reimbursed at the
Education, 2000a). regular FTE rate.

2
 As they search for new functions and markets, concept…or to emphasize transfer programs…It may no
colleges try to find opportunities to exploit the skills and longer be possible to have it both ways” (p. 114).
staff that they already have. But often there is little Why have community colleges rejected a more
coordination, particularly between credit and related focused approach in favor of a comprehensive strategy?
non-credit programs. Often they are housed in separate Why has their response to financial pressures been to
buildings, use different faculty, and are managed by seek new markets and sources of revenue rather than to
different administrators. In many cases, credit and non- concentrate on their core functions?
credit programs in similar areas may actually be in First, political factors create incentives to take on
competition for students or even for relationships with new programs and make presidents reluctant to shed
local businesses that could hire graduates and provide old ones. New programs can create new constituencies
equipment. While some educators have argued that that in turn generate state and local political support.
there are important pedagogic benefits to the Thus, even if a program outside of the college’s
coordination of academic and vocational education traditional activities loses money in the short run, it may
(Grubb, 1999b), it is difficult to find well-developed create a political environment that leads to additional
programs that actually put the approach into practice support from the state, county or local government for
(Perin, 1998). the core activities.
As a result, most community colleges now have Second, new programs can generate surpluses, and
multiple missions directed at addressing the needs and even small surpluses can provide presidents with
interests of a wide variety of constituencies. The list of discretionary funds when most of the revenues from the
missions includes transfer to a baccalaureate program, core credit programs are tied up in faculty salaries and
terminal occupational education, developmental other fixed costs. As state funding becomes more
education, adult basic education, English as a second uncertain, these alternative sources of revenue appear
language, education and training for welfare recipients more attractive.
and others facing serious barriers to employment, Third, although most community college
customized training for specific companies, preparation administrators reject the notion that the new activities
for industry certification exams, non-credit instruction in weaken the traditional transfer functions, most colleges
a plethora of areas (including purely avocational do not keep data in such a way that could be used to
courses), small business development, and even evaluate the extent of cross-subsidies or the effects of
economic forecasting. one program or function on others. While it is easy to
count revenues as students enroll in new programs, it is
The Debate about Multiple Missions difficult to measure the costs, especially the strain on
Advocates of the primacy of the transfer function infrastructure and the attention of administrators, of
argue that the growing emphasis on occupational those new programs. Despite the logic of the argument
education draws students into programs that do not that one institution cannot do many things well, there is
encourage transfer. Brint and Karabel (1989) think that no definitive empirical evidence for this negative effect.
occupational education has changed the entire mission Fourth, some experts argue that a wide variety of
of community colleges and turned them into vocational program offerings under one roof is exactly what
schools for low- and middle-class occupations, thus community college students need. According to this
limiting students’ opportunities for advancement. view, students often have ambiguous or unrealistic
Yet other critics object to the comprehensive model educational goals. If properly guided, they could take
because it detracts from vocational education, which advantage of the varied offerings as their interests
they believe should be the core function of the change and as they converge on goals that better
community college (Blocker, Plummer, & Richardson, match their interests and skills.
1965; Clowes & Levine, 1989; Grubb, 1996). Grubb Thus, it is not surprising that colleges have
(1996) argues that: (1) the emphasis on academic continued to move towards a more comprehensive
education implies that there is only one valued strategy. Shedding programs risks losing visible
postsecondary institution, defined by the research enrollments and political support in favor of an abstract
university; (2) community colleges cannot win the goal of focused organizational efficiency, which, though
academic battle because they are not selective; and (3) logical, lacks definitive empirical measurement and
since community colleges mostly fail in large transfer evidence.
numbers, their clientele is left with outcomes of
Outlook and Recommendations
uncertain academic value.
Another argument is that the colleges simply cannot While community colleges will continue to attract
do everything well and therefore must choose a more enrollments, complacency is hardly in order. State and
limited set of objectives on which to focus. Breneman local legislators will continue to put financial pressure on
and Nelson (1981) argued that the “most fundamental the colleges both through general fiscal restraints and
choice facing community colleges is whether to demands for greater accountability. The danger with the
emphasize the community-based learning-center comprehensive strategy employed by colleges is that

3
while new activities may generate enthusiasm and Blocker, C.E., Plummer, R.H., & Richardson, R.C., Jr. (1965).
revenues, they may do so without necessarily improving The two-year college: A social synthesis. New York, NY:
the quality of the core degree-granting transfer and Macmillan.
Breneman, D., & Nelson, S. (1981). Financing community
occupational programs. colleges: An economic perspective. Washington, DC:
Given that community colleges will continue to The Brookings Institution.
pursue a comprehensive strategy, what can Brint, S., & Karabel, J. (1989). The diverted dream:
administrators and state policymakers do to guarantee Community colleges and the promise of educational
that colleges will be effective within that framework? The opportunity in America, 1900-1985. New York, NY:
first and perhaps most obvious approach is to pay Oxford University Press.
particular attention to the core functions of teaching and Clowes, D.A., & Levine, B.H. (1989). Community, technical,
and junior colleges: Are they leaving higher education?
student services, especially student advising. Journal of Higher Education, 60, 349-456.
Second, colleges need to search for and exploit the Cohen, A., & Brawer, F.B. (1996) The American community
complementarities between their different functions. college. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Cooperation and coordination have long-run financial as Dougherty, K.J. & Bakia, M.F. (1999). The new economic
well as substantive benefits, yet they require a significant development role of community colleges. New York, NY:
commitment on the part of the institutional leadership Community College Research Center, Teachers College,
Columbia University.
and investment of resources in the short run.
Eaton, J.S. (Ed.). (1988). Colleges of choice: The enabling
Finally, colleges need better measures of the impact of the community college. New York, NY:
benefits and especially the costs of those programs. As American Council on Education-Oryx.
it is now, administrators in most colleges are not able to Gerald, D.E., & Hussar, W.J. (2000). Projections of education
determine which programs generate surpluses and statistics to 2010. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
which require cross-subsidization. This vagueness about Printing Office.
costs tends to encourage an increase in the number of Grubb, W.N. (1996). Working in the middle. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
programs and activities since the revenues generated by Grubb, W.N. (1999a). Learning and earning in the middle: The
the new enrollments are easier to count than the direct economic benefits of sub-baccalaureate education. New
and indirect costs associated with those programs. York, NY: Community College Research Center, Teachers
Better information will clearly help them achieve desired College, Columbia University.
objectives. There may be many sound economic and Grubb, W.N. (1999b). Honored but invisible: An inside look
social reasons for the multi-function college, but they at teaching in community colleges. New York, NY:
have yet to be measured systematically. Routledge.
Kane, T.J., & Rouse, C.E. (1995). Labor-market returns to
Community colleges make up a large and two- and four-year college. American Economic Review,
fundamentally important sector in higher education. 85, 600-614.
While they face some significant challenges, they Perin, D. (1998). Curriculum and pedagogy to integrate
continue to have significant potential. Because strong occupational and academic instruction in the community
incentives have encouraged them to take on an college: Implications for faculty development. New York,
increasing number of missions and functions, they have NY: Community College Research Center, Teachers
College, Columbia University.
evolved into extremely complex institutions, carrying out
Schneider, B. & Stevenson, D. (1999). The ambitious
a large variety of activities that serve a diverse set of generation: America’s teenagers motivated but
constituencies. Colleges need to do a better job of directionless. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
finding and exploiting complementarities among U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
missions so that they can realize the potential benefits Statistics. (2000a). High school and beyond longitudinal
that coordinated activities can bring. study of 1980: Postsecondary education transcript study.
Datafile.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
REFERENCES Statistics. (2000b). Integrated postsecondary education
data system (IPEDS), fall enrollment 1997-98 survey.
Bailey, T.R., & Weininger, E. (2001). Performance, graduation, Datafile.
and transfer of immigrants and natives in CUNY U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
community colleges. New York, NY: Community College Statistics. (2000c). The condition of education 2000 ed.
Research Center, Teachers College, Columbia University. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

This Brief was based on a paper prepared for a

Thomas R. Bailey is the Director of both the
workshop, The Knowledge Economy and
Community College Research Center and the
Postsecondary Education, the research for
Institute on Education and the Economy. He is also
which was supported by the Alfred P. Sloan
the George and Abby O’Neill Professor of
Foundation. The full report can be seen on the
Economics and Education at Teachers College,
National Academy Press website at
Columbia University.
http://www.nap.edu/.

Community College Research Center Director: Thomas R. Bailey [email protected]

4
Teachers College, Columbia University Managing Editor: Lisa Rothman http://www.tc.columbia.edu/ccrc
525 West 120th Street, Box 174 (212) 678-3091 fax (212) 678-3699
New York, New York 10027