INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Week 1

I. Introduction to the Introduction to the syllabus

course Google Classroom
Course assessment:
- Class attendance and participation: 10%
- Mid-unit assessment: 30%
+ Write a research critique of one article
+ Individual work
+ Word limit: 500 - 700 words (+/- 10%)
- Final assignment: 60%
+ Develop a research proposal
+ Pair/Group work
+ Word limit: 2000 - 2500 words (+/- 10%)
II. What is research?
1. Definitions
Function of research “Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of
existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new
concepts, methodologies and understandings. This could include
synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to
new and creative outcomes”
_Australian Government_
 Components of a “… research is a systematic process of inquiry consisting of 3 elements or
research components:
(1) a question, problem, or hypothesis,
(2) data,
(3) analysis and interpretation of data.”
_Nunan_
The procedure of “… research in applied linguistics can be defined as an investigation,
doing research and its examination or inquiry that requires planning, organizing and ethical
qualities considerations as well as systematic and careful analysis of data, sound
interpretations and conclusion on the basis of evidence and inferences
being made.”
_Phakiti & Paltridge_
Summary Research is a process that:
- Function is done to create new knowledge, methods, or understandings.
- Components includes (1) a question/problem/hypothesis; (2) data; and (3)
analysis and interpretation of data.
- Qualities is implemented in a systematic, careful, ethical, evidence-based,
and sound manner.
- Nature can be primary (with primary data) or secondary (review of existing
literature), conducted individually or collaboratively.

2. Approaches to Qualitative research: an in-depth understanding of social and human behavior

research + reasons behind
 understanding, exploring new ideas, discovering patterns of behavior
Quantitative research: experiments + other systematic methods  measure 
 connections between empirical observation & mathematical expressions of
relations
 development and testing of hypotheses  generating models and theories
to explain behavior
Quantitative research Qualitative research
Quantitative research - Focus on testing theories and - Focuses on exploring ideas and
vs Qualitative research hypotheses formulating a theory or hypothesis
- Analyzed through math and - Analyzed by summarizing,
statistical analysis categorizing and interpreting
- Mainly expressed in numbers, - Mainly expressed in words
graphs and tables - Requires few respondents
- Requires many respondents
To uncover and contrast trends in opinions
When to choose the To understand the purpose behind people’s actions
Qualitative research To get a deeper insight into a problem
method? To develop ideas or hypotheses for future quantitative research
For competitive analysis techniques
For one’s experience analysis
To test a hypothesis
When to choose the When you need statistical analysis
Quantitative research For extensive data sampling
method? To generate graphs and charts representative of a specific problem
For laboratory-based research
For scientific research

Quantitative research collection Qualitative research collection

3. Research methods methods methods
of data collection - Experiment: Controlling or - Interviews: personally asking
manipulating an independent people questions in one-on-one
variable to measure its effect on a conversations
dependent variable - Focus groups: asking questions
- Survey: Asking questions of a and generating discussion among a
group of people in-person, over the group of people
phone or online. - Observations: recording what you
- (Systematic) observation: have seen, heard or encountered in
Identifying a behavior or occurrence detailed field notes
of interest and monitor it in its - Surveys: distributing
natural setting questionnaires with open-ended
- Secondary research: Collecting questions
data that has been gathered for other - Secondary research: collecting
purposes, for example: national existing data in the form of texts,
surveys or historical records images, audio or video recording,
etc.,

A research question is:

4. Research questions - The actual questions you ask yourself about the topic. It is about some
aspects of the topic that you are interested in and want to find out more
- A starting point of all academic research
e.g. Topic: Women in politics
Research questions:
(1) Why do some countries have more women politicians than
 others?
(2) Does having more women politicians lead to better laws for
women?
A research question:
Why do you need a - Help you focused
research question? - Gives you a specific direction to approach your topic
- Makes your reading and writing more manageable
- Underlies good research
Through 3 common sources of inspiration:
Where can you find - Informal observations
ideas for research - Practical problems
questions? - Previous research
(1) Pick a topic  (2) Narrow the topic  (3) Ask some questions  (4)
Steps of developing a Pick one or two questions  (5) Focus the question
research question (1) Pick a topic
- Jot down a list of issues that interest you. Don’t limit or question yourself
– let your ideas flow
- Go over the list several times and prioritize your ideas. End with no more
than two or three topics
- Use Google and Wikipedia or skim encyclopedia entries for general
information about the topics you are considering
- Consult with friends, colleagues, and your professors and share with them
the topic you are considering
- Choose the topic that will be at the center of your review
(2) Narrow the topic
- Jot down the subtopics that are encompassed in the broad topic
- Choose one of the subtopics as the center of your research. If this
subtopic is still too broad, narrow it further. On the other hand, you may
decide to combine two subtopics in one
- List operational variables that describe the characteristics of the
population you consider as the center of your review
- Select a perspective – a theory, viewpoint, or research approach – from
which to explore the literature
(3) Ask some questions
- Decide whether your question will be framed as a quantitative, a
qualitative, or a mixed-methods question
- Consider what you are aiming to achieve with your question
- Write several versions of your research questions and choose the one that
can help you attain your review goals
e.g. “Women in politics”
- Why do some countries have more women politicians than
others?
- What barriers hinder women entering politics?
- What factors influence women voters in choosing a candidate
to vote for?
(4) Pick one to work with
e.g. “Women in politics”
- Why do some countries have more women politicians than
others?
 (5) Focus the question
Who? What? Where? When?
e.g. “Women in politics”
- Original question: Why do some countries have more women
politicians than others?
- More focused: Why does Sweden have more women politicians
at the national level than Canada?
Research aims Research question formulations
Examples of research Describing and - What are the characteristics of X?
questions exploring - How has X changed over time?
- What are the main factors in X?
- How does X experience Y?
- How was X dealt with Y?
Explaining and - What is the relationship between X and Y?
testing - What is the role of X in Y?
- What is the impact of X on Y?
- How does X influence Y?
- What are the causes of X?
Evaluating and - What are the advantages and disadvantages of X?
acting - How effective is X?
- How can X be achieved?
- What are the most effective strategies to improve X?
- How can X be used in Y?
- Focus on one issue only
How do you know if “Why do some countries have more women politicians and laws for
it’s a good question? women than others?”
- Requires analysis, arguable
“Are there more women in politics in Sweden than in Canada?”
- Not too broad, not too specific
“Why do some countries have more women politicians than others?”
“ What is the current number of women in politics in Canada?”
- No vague words
“How have women politicians been described by the media?”
Week 2

Research
Methodology Secondary research Primary research
- An examination and evaluation of - An empirical study conducted by
the available literature written by you to answer a research question
others to answer a research question  Original research study
 Literature review - Methods: quantitative/ qualitative/
- Method: Read, interpret, analyzed mixed-methods/…
and synthesize relevant information
from the literature
- The starting point of doing
primary research
- Title
Structure of a primary - Abstract
report/article - Introduction
- Literature Review
- Methods
- Discussion of Results
- Conclusion
- Reference list
I. A literature review
1. Definition Review = Examine + Assess
Literature = written works published on a particular subject
e.g. books, journal articles, reports, newspapers, magazines, blog
posts,…
“A literature review is an evaluative report of information found in the
literature related to your selected area of study. The review should clarify,
describe, summarise, and evaluate this literature

2. The purpose of a - To explain the conceptual framework of your chosen topic

literature review - To find the available answer to your research question (What have other
researchers said/concluded about it?)
- To highlight gaps in the existing research (what has been left unanswered)
- To justify the topic you plan to investigate, and the research study you are
conducting (in case of a primary research study)

3. Structure of a - Introduction
literature review - Body (findings from the review of literature)
+ Definitions of terms
+ Findings from previous research
- Conclusion

4. What information to In the Introduction:

conclude in the - The history of the research area
literature review? - The importance of the chosen topic
In the Body:
- Explanation/definition of relevant concepts, models, and theories that help
readers understand your research topic (optional)
- Significant discoveries of findings related to your research question (main
points)
 - Gaps and needs in the existing literature (What has been left unanswered?
What more needs to be done?)
- The gaps can be found in the aspects of the topic covered, the methods in
use, the conceptual/theoretical framework, the contexts, and the subjects of
available research
Introduction - A general description of your topic
- Highlight the importance of the topic (is it interesting? problematic?)
- The aim of paper
- Clarify scope and organisation of literature review
A sample of introduction

Body The body of a literature review should include the following information
- Definition/explanation of key concepts and/or related theories
- Current discoveries about the topic
- Current research studies (to illustrate each discovery)
- General conclusions that are being drawn
- The agreements/disagreements among different studies
- The gaps in the literature (content areas, methods, subjects, context,
theoretical/conceptual framework)
A typical body paragraph should include
- A topic sentence that presents a feature of literature (e.g. a discovery, a
general conclusion being drawn by current authors, a common methodology
in use)
- Supporting sentences that present specific evidence from the literature (e.g.
findings from different studies)
- Your explanation/analysis/interpretation of the evidence
- A concluding statement
A sample body paragraph
 A conclusion should include
Conclusion - A summary of the key findings and gaps in the literature (What has/has not
been found?)
- The reviewer’s opportunity to justify a research proposal (when necessary)
– optional
A sample conclusion

Reporting verbs can be categorized according to the type of activity they

5. How to write a represent on the part of the cited author (Thomas and Hawes, 1994;
literature review? – Thompson and Ye, 1991)
Reporting verbs -‘Doing’ activities refer to procedures and research findings, for example:
observe, discover, show, illustrate, analyse, conduct, study, examine
- ‘Thinking’ activities refer to an author’s beliefs and thoughts, for example:
believe, view, speculate
- ‘Discussion’ activities refer to what a cited author has said, for example:
argue, discuss, suggest, state, propose, claim, describe
II. Citation/
Referencing
1. What is Referencing: A way of acknowledging the source of other’s ideas used in
referencing? your own writing
In-text citations: Citing sources used in your text
e.g. Fluency is concerned with the ability to link units of speech
together with facility and without strain or inappropriate
slowness (Hedge, 2000).
 According to Hedge (2000), fluency is concerned with the ability
to …
Reference list:
- The final lists of all the sources used
- Only lists sources that have been cited (e.g. referred to in the text) vs
bibliography (listing all relevant sources that you read but were not
necessarily cited)
e.g. Bailey, S. (2011). Academic writing: A handbook for
international students (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Brick, J. (2012). Academic culture: A student’s guide to studying
at university (2nd ed.). Sydney: MacMillan.

2. Why referencing? To give credits to others

To show you have researched widely
To show readers where to find the original information (transparency)
To avoid plagiarism

3. How to reference? DO reference DON’T reference

Direct quotations Your own ideas, arguments,
Paraphrases/summaries theories, images, diagrams or
Tables, figures, graphs or images graphs
from other sources Common knowledge
Information from personal
communication and lectures

4. Styles of There are different referencing systems. Two common ones are:
referencing - Havard style
- American Psychological Association (APA) style
This course, use APA style
APA guide: https://canberra.libguides.com/referencing/apa

5. Qualities of good Accurate: each source is cited with the right details
referencing - Record the details of the source to ensure the author(s) is/are clear
Correct: application of style
- Punctuation, spacing, use of italics and upper to lower case for the reference
style chosen
Complete: each source is cited, and each citation is listed
- Compare reference list with in-text citations
- Ensure all ideas and information are cited to avoid plagiarism
III. Database
researching skill
1. Sources of academic
knowledge
What? Scholarly books
Textbooks
Dictionaries
Academic journals
Official reports (Government, NGOs, world bodies)
Company reports
 (Some) websites (NOT Facebook posts, blogs, Wikipedia entries)
Where? Library: using the library catalog
 But the number of sources are sometimes too limited
The Internet: using searching engines (e.g. Google)
 But there are too many sources

2. Searching for Academic Database: a collection of information that is written or used for
reference materials academic purposes, including access to academic journals
using academic e.g. Google Scholar, ERIC
databases List of free academic databases:
- Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com.vn/
- Education Resources Information Center (ERIC): https://eric.ed.gov/
- Directory of Open Access Journal (DOAJs): https://doaj.org/
- Wiley Online Library: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/

3. Assessing the The reliability of a source can be judged via 5 tests

reliability of sources
a. The AUTHORITY Where does the information come from?
test - Who wrote the text?
- What are the author’s qualifications?
- Who are the publishers?
- Is the source peer-reviewed?
- Is the author associated with a reputable institution (e.g. university,
organizations, etc.)
- Is the information from an official website?
b. The AUDIENCE Whom is the text written for?
test - Academic audience/Professional audience?General public?
- Consider the:
+ Use of terminology and disciplinary language
+ Discussion of theories and principles
+ Use of referencing
+ Type of evidence used:
Statistics, cases studies, research
or
Anecdotes, everyday examples
+ Genre (structure and style of writing)
c. The What evidence is given to support claims?
TRANSPARENCY Can the information be given as evidence be checked?
test Has the data been collected and analyzed in ways that are transparent (you
can see)?
Note: All evidence should be accompanied by an in-text citation
Evidence includes facts and opinions
The full reference for every citation should appear in a final reference list
When primary data is used, the data collection procedure is clearly described
d. The OBJECTIVITY What is the purpose of the text: is it to inform or to advertise?
test If the research was funded, what is the source of that funding?
Is the author(s) have a financial interest in the research, is that
acknowledged?
e. The CURRENCY Check whether the text and content I up to date
test Question to ask:
+ When was the text published?
 + What are the dates of references used in the text?
…
Appropriate currency varies from discipline to discipline. In IT, a 3-year-old
source is likely to be out-of-date; in philosophy, a 300-year-old source may
still be appropriate
Week 3:

I. Action Research
– What is it?
1. Definition Action Research (AR) in the teaching profession:
Action = what you do as a teaching professional in a classroom
Research = methods, habits and attitudes
+ Methods: data collection
+ Habits: observation
+ Attitude: openly searching for new and better ways to teach
II. Purpose of
action researchers
III. Process of an
action research
Extra activity Watch a video: What is an action research (https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Ov3F3pdhNkk)
In Action Research:
Identify a question  Test out a strategy  Gather data  Determine if it works
or not  Result (Innovative, dynamic, etc)
Dissolve the barrier between the researcher and the participants: the teacher
(researcher) actively participates in the situation while also conduct in the
research
Action Research’s process:
Phase I: Planning (Inquiry)
+ Define a specific research question that can be tested
+ Conduct a literature review (better understanding of the issue)
+ Design process (determine data methods, consider ethical issues,
get the required permission, create data headline & setup systems)
Phase II: Action
+ Engage in cycles of experimentation and data collection
(quantitative & qualitative data)
Phase III: Analysis
+ Organize data with illustrated statistics  look for specific trends
+ Write draft
+ Final writing
Phase IV: Conclusion
+ Share your research + Reflect on your own practice  newer
questions may appear
Process of AR (1) Reflection – Problem identification; the need for changes
(2) Collecting data and information
(3) Interpretation of findings, suggestions for changes
(4) Action; changes implementation
(5) Reflecting on the plan of implemented changes; modification of the plan
IV. Data collection
methods of an
action research
1. Understanding Data: anything related to
data Your teaching practice
Student’s learning
Anything that might impact that learning
2. Understanding
data at each stage

Distinction: qualitative & quantitative

a. Before project a. Students work samples, students decuments
begins
- In response to an activity or assignment you gave them
Qualitative data b. Teacher-as-Researchers Journal, Teacher ducuments
collection methods
- Write down in journals  reflection
e.g. lesson plans, grading rubrics, textbooks, websites, etc.
c. Observations, field notes, and other records
- Good teachers = Kid watchers  recognize individual needs &
group/classroom dynamics
- How you know what what you know
- Challenge: write down what you see  attention away from your teaching
d. Interviews and focus group
- The Socratic Method: ask students  get students talking about their
knowledge  teach + assess learning
- One on one = interview; groups of students = focus group  observation =
prepare question + write down what you hear
 any drawbacks?
e. Open-ended surveys
- Same question is in interview
- What kind of questions do we need?
a. Teacher-made tests and Grading rubrics
Quantitative data
collection methods
b. Standardized tests and School records

c. Observational checklists and Tally sheets

d. Forced-choice surveys
Mixed-method
approach

b. While Remember: Your aim = Learning to teach well  AR = support it

conducting Interim Analysis = Looking at these kinds of data + Reflecting on what you see
research within the context of your guiding questions
 What would you do with the gained data?
Snapshot data: only at a single point in time  how the context described by this
c. After data are data affects students’ behavior, learning, and/or attitudes + affects teachers
collected Developmental data: collected at multiple points across time  see changes
e.g. selected purposefully (not like random sampling)

V. Developing an Indentify and formulate a research question

Action Research Conduct a literature review and compose a methodology section to guide your
project action research
Examine and report on data appropriately
Sum up your conclusions and implications for other teachers
Present your action research in a professional format
Example for AR How will using a rubric to self-edit a weekly personal narrative impact students’
question writing skills? (Lauren)
What is the relationship between the incorporation of the arts into vocabulary
instruction and vocabulary achievement? (Alycia)
How will the use of sight word strategies increase reading fluency? (Melissa)
How do drill and repetition affect the retention of math multiplication facts?
(Jesse)
How does adding art to a project enhance student academic performance?
(Melissa)
How does the use of graphic organizers impact paragraph writing? (Kimberly)
What are the impacts of kinesthetic and visual instructional strategies on letter
recognition with kindergarten students? (Molly)
Week 4

I.
Week 5:

Why survey? “Observation gives us information about wha people do. Questioning gives
us information about what people say and the context to help interpret their
observations”
Surveys versus A questionaire is any written set of questions, while a survey is both the set of
Questionaires questions and the process of collecting, aggregating, and analyzing the
responses from those question.
Survey Questionaire
Individual questions х х
Delivery of questionaire х 
Analysis of responses х 
Survey stage

Survey objective Before tackling any objectives, an easy first step is to:
(1) Set a goal for your survey. This is your primary aim for the survey,
essentially what you want to know and why you need a survey. A goal is not
strictly measurable and tangible. Then there are the (2) objectives of your
surveys. Objectives are more specific and they break down the (3) steps to
take in order to achieve the survey goal

Survey mode A survey mode

Sampling techniques 1. Identify sampling technique/frame

Sampling frame: a complete list of all cases in the population from which
your sample will be drawn (tổng số ngươi fnawm trong nhóm mình nghiên
cứu)
2. Deciding sample size
Population/ sampling frame < 50  probability sampling
Sampling frame at least > = 30
Confidence level: the level of certainty that the characterisitcs of the data
collected will represent the characteristics of all
Margin of error: accuracy u require for any estimates made from your sample
(mức độ sai số) 43
Mostlikely: 3-5%
3. Sampling techniques

II.

III.
IV.