MDCAT

Biology
Quick Practice Book
www.nearpeer.org

Oldest, Largest and Most Credible Platform

 Unit 1: The Cell
Learning Outcomes
• Compare the structure of typical animal and
plant cell
• Compare and contrast the structure of
prokaryotic cells with eukaryotic cells
• Outline the structure and function of the
following organelles:
o Nucleus, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi
Apparatus and Mitochondria
• Discuss fluid mosaic model of cell membrane

1
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell

Figure 1.1 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell

PROPERTY PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Nuclear Since there is no nuclear membrane
Present
membrane therefore no distinct nucleus
A nucleus is present in which
The genetic material (DNA) is
Chromatin nuclear material (chromosomes) is
without any nuclear membrane and
material enclosed in double nuclear
freely present in the cytoplasm.
membrane.
Chromosome It is formed of DNA only It is formed of DNA and protein.
Many organelles envelop-bound
Few organelles
organelles present e.g. nucleus,
None are surrounded by an envelope
mitochondria, and chloroplasts.
(two membranes) internal
Organelles Great diversity of organelles
membrane scarce if present usually
bounded by single membrane e.g.
associated with respiration or
lysosomes, vacuoles, micro bodies,
photosynthesis.
endoplasmic, reticulum etc.
Ribosomes are 70S smaller subunit is Ribosomes are 80S smaller subunit
Ribosomes
30S while larger subunit is 50S. is 40S while larger subunit is 60S.
Cell wall is composed of
peptidoglycan or murein. When
The cell wall if present is formed of
polysaccharide chains are bound
Cell wall cellulose is most of the plant cells
covalently to shorter chains of amino
and is formed of chitin in fungi.
acids. Peptidoglycan is formed. The
entire cell wall is considered as a

2
 single complex molecule called
sacculus.
In prokaryotes mitosis is missing and
Cell division Cell division by mitosis.
the cell divided by binary fission.
Organisms possessing prokaryotic Organism possessing eukaryotic
Organelles
cells are called prokaryotes. cells is called eukaryotes.
Origin/ Prokaryotes present primitive stage Eukaryotes probably evolved from
Evaluation of evaluation. prokaryotes.
Complex, with 9 + 2 arrangement
Simple, lacking microtubules
of microtubules intracellular
Flagella extracellular (not enclosed by cell
(surrounded by cell surface
surface membrane) 20 nm diameter.
membrane) 200 nm diameter
Mesosomes in bacteria except
Mitochondria for aerobic
Respiration cytoplasmic membrane un blue
respiration.
green algae.
Chloroplasts containing
No chloroplasts no membrane
Photosynthesis membranes which are usually
stacking
stacked into lamellae or grana.
Nitrogen
Mainly unicellular Mainly have the ability
fixation
Mainly multi-cellular (except
Form Mainly unicellular Protoctista, many of which are
unicellular)
10-100 µm diameter common
Cell size Average diameter 0.5 – 20 µm commonly 1000-10000 times
volume of prokaryotic cells.
Eukaryotes include all other
Prokaryotes include bacteria and unicellular or multi-cellular
Examples
blue green algae (cyanobacteria) organisms such as animals, plants
fungi and Protista.

3
Comparison of Animal and Plant Cell

Figure 1.2 Differences between plant and animal cell

The figure above shows the features and differences between plant and animal cells

Animal Cell Plant Cell

1. Usually smaller in size. 1. Comparatively larger in size.

2. Enclosed by plasma membrane 2. In addition to plasma membrane
only. mostly surrounded by a thick cell
3. Plastids absent. wall.
4. Cytoplasm consists largely of 3. Plastids (chloroplast and
smaller vacuole. chromoplast) are very common.
5. Prominent and highly complex 4. Cytoplasm peripheral, central
Golgi bodies. space occupied by a large vacuole.
6. Possess centrosome with one 5. Contain several subunits of Golgi
of two centrioles. bodies called dictyosomes.
6. No centrioles present, instead two
small clear area called polar caps
are present.

4
 Large
Small Nucleus. Vacuole
Vacuoles Plasma
membrane.
Mitochondria. Plastids e.g.
Rough ER. chloroplasts
Centrioles Golgi bodies.
Lysosomes.
Cell wall

Figure 1.3 The comparison between plant and animal cells.

The union shows the features present in both the type of cells while the intersection
depicts the characteristics specific to each of the organelle.

§ A large proportion of the inside of the cell is taken up with a fluid-filled compartment
known as the vacuole. Together the wall and vacuole maintain the shape of the whole
cell.
§ Plant cells have specialized organelles, the chloroplasts, which enable them to make their
own food by photosynthesis.

Cell Membrane
Plasma membrane or cell membrane is the outer most boundary of the cell. However, in most
plant cells, it is covered by a cell wall.

Structure
Under electron microscope it is a bi-
layered structure, this structure is
delicate and elastic it has some ability
to repair itself.
Models of Cell Membrane Structure
There are two models of cell
membrane structure:
Unit Membrane Model According to
this model the cell membrane
is composed of lipid bilayer
and sandwiched between two
protein layers. This structure is
present in all cell organelles
(for example, mitochondria,
chloroplast etc.) 5
Figure 1.4 Unit Membrane
Fluid Mosaic Model According to the fluid mosaic model the cell membrane consists of a double
layer of phospholipid molecules, known as a lipid bi-layers. It has proteins and other molecules.
The name fluid mosaic is used because the bi-layer is a very fluid structure and it contains a mosaic
of protein molecules.

Figure 1.5 Fluid Mosaic Model

Chemical Composition
Cell membrane contains phospholipids 20-40% proteins, 60-80% cholesterol and
polysaccharides.
• It is about 7 nm thick
• The basic structure is a phospholipid bilayer.
• The hydrophilic phosphate heads of the phospholipids face outwards. The result is the
aqueous environment inside and outside the cell.
• The hydrocarbon tails face inwards and create a hydrophobic interior.
• Most protein molecules float about in the phospholipid bilayer forming a fluid mosaic pattern.
• The proteins stay in the membrane because they have regions of hydrophobic amino acids
which interact with the fatty acid tails to exclude water.
• Some proteins and lipids have short branching carbohydrate chains like antennae forming
glycoproteins and glycolipids respectively.
• Membrane also contains cholesterol. Like unsaturated fatty acids cholesterol disturbs the
close packing of phospholipids and keeps them more fluid. This can be important for
organisms living at low temperatures when membranes can solidify. Cholesterol also
increases flexibility and stability of membranes, without it membrane break up.
• The two sides of a membrane differ in composition and function.

Functions of Membrane
• The phospholipid bilayer provides the basic structure of membrane. It also restricts entry and
exit of polar molecules and ions.
• Channel protein and carrier proteins are involved in the selective transport of polar
molecules and ions across the membrane.

6
 Point to
Ponder
Remem
ber, dif
• Some proteins act as receptor molecules for chemical signaling between and pas fusion
transpo sive
cells. rt
two nam are the
es
• Some proteins act as an antigen these act as cell identity markers. same p of the
rocess
• Glycolipids and glycoproteins help cells to recognize each other – allowing
the immune system to tell the difference between body cells and invading
bacteria.
• Energy transfer ion photosynthesis and respiration proteins take part in the
energy transfer system.

Transport Across The Cell Membrane

Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of molecules Some substances enter and leave cells
or ions from a region of their high much faster than you would expect it
concentration to a region of their low only diffusion occurred. We now know
concentration. The process is passive that some membrane proteins facilitate
(does not require energy and happens the diffusion of some substances across
spontaneously). the cell membrane.

Two factors affect the rate of diffusion Two types of proteins are responsible
for facilitated diffusion.
a) Difference in concentration between • Specific carrier protein takes
point A and point B. The steeper the particular substance from the
gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion. membrane to the other.
b) The greater the surface area of a • Ion channels are proteins that
membrane through which diffusion is open and close to control the
taking place the greater the rate of passage of selected charged
diffusion. articles.
• Channel proteins have a fixed
shape

7
Osmosis
Osmosis is a passage of water molecules from a region of their high concentration to a
region of their low concentration through a partially permeable membrane. We can say
that it is a form of diffusion in which only water molecules move.

Active Transport
Active transport is the energy-consuming transport of molecules or ions across a
membrane against a concentration gradient. Movement are usually in one direction only.
Unlike diffusion which is reversible. The energy is supplied in the form of ATP made in
respiration. Without respiration, active transport is therefore impossible.

Q. What is the difference between active and

passive transport?

Endocytosis and Endocytosis

• Endocytosis and exocytosis are active processes involving the bulk transport of
materials through membrane, either into cells (endocytosis) or out of cells
(exocytosis).
• Endocytosis occurs by an enfolding or extension of the cell membrane to form a
vesicle it is of two types.
o Phagocytosis (cell eating) material taken up is in solid form. Cells
specializing in the process are called phagocytes and are said to be
phagocytic. For example, some white blood cells take up bacteria by
phagocytosis. The sea formed during uptake is called a phagocytosis
vacuole.
o Pinocytosis (cell drinking) material taken up is in liquid form. The vesicles
formed are often extremely small, in which case the process is known as
micropinocytosis and the vesicles as micro pinocytosis vesicles.
• Exocytosis is the reverse process of endocytosis. Waste materials may be
removed from cells, such as solid, undigested remain from the pancreas is
achieved in this way. Plant cells use exocytosis to export the material needed to
form cell walls.

8
The Nucleus
§ The nucleus is the largest and most prominent organelles in the animal cell.
§ Almost all eukaryote cells have a nucleus – red blood cells in mammals and phloem cells
in plants are exception.
§ Every nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope. This consists of two membranes that
are separated by gap of 20 to 40 nm.
§ Nucleus may be irregular in shape and about 10 µm in diameter. It contains the cell’s DNA,
which carries information that allows the cell to divide and carry out all its cellular
processes.
§ Nucleus controls the life and activities of the cell.
§ In animal cells nucleus is generally present in the central part. In plant cells nucleus is
pushed towards periphery due to a large central vacuole.
§ DNA/RNA and proteins (including
enzymes) forms the chemical
composition of coleus.
§ Nucleus consists of nuclear
membrane, nucleoli, nucleoplasm
and chromosomes.
§ The number of nuclear pores is
highly variable. For example, the
undifferentiated cells (e.g. eggs)
have many pores (about 30000 per
nucleus) while the differentiated
cells (e.g. erythrocytes) have only 3
or 4 pores/nucleus. Each pore has a
definite structure.

Nucleolus
Nucleolus is a darkly stained structure within the nucleus. It has no membrane.
There are two regions of a nucleolus.
The Peripheral Granular Area
It contains the materials from which ribosomal subunits are formed.
The Central Fibrillar Area
It has large molecular weight RNA and rDNA.
• The heredity material is in the form of chromosomes, which controls all the activities of
the cell. Chromosome is formed of DNA and proteins.
• Nucleus is visible when the cell is in non-dividing stage. It contains chromatin network
and soluble sap called nucleoplasm. Dark staining chromatin, consisting of tightly packed
DNA, is known as Heterochromatin. The lighter, more loosely packed material is called
Euchromatin contains the DNA that is being actively read to produce proteins. In
heterochromatin, the DNA is packed together and is not being read. Nucleus is stained

9
 with the basic dyes because of the chromatin material. During cell division chromatin
material is converted into darkly stained thread like structures called chromosome.
Chromosome is made of arms and centromeres.
• Centromere is the place on the chromosome where spindle fibers are attached during cell
division.
o Each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids at the beginning of cell
division which are held together at centromere.
• A chromatid is exact replica of the chromosome.
• The information to control cell activities is present on the chromosomes in the form of
genes.
• The chromosome number varies which may be 2n = 2 to 2n = 1200 (Pteridophytes).
• The number of chromosomes in all individuals of the same species remains constant
generation after generation.
• Some examples of chromosome No. are: Frog = 26, Chimpanzee = 48. Fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster) = 8, Wheat = 42, Onion = 16, Potato. = 48. Garden pea = 14. Penicillium (a
fungus) has two chromosomes (one pair), corn 20, wheat 42, sugarcane 80, some ferns
have more than 500 pairs, mosquito 6, fruit fly 8, frog 26, honey bee 32, mouse 40 and
human cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
• The number of chromosomes in normal body cells is diploid (2n) while the gem cells
(sperms and eggs) have haploid chromosome number (11). Do you know?
Germ cells have n
number of chromosomes
while somatic cells have
Examples 2n number of
chromosomes
Human germ cells (eggs and sperms) = 23
chromosomes.
Drosophila germ cells = 4 chromosomes.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

The nuclear envelope joins with the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It is a system
of complex network spread throughout the cell.
These are present in Eukaryotic cells & are of two types:
1) RER
2) SER
• On the outside surface of the RER are ribosomes.
• The main function of RER is to keep together and transport the proteins made on the
ribosomes.
• Instead of simply diffusing away into the cytoplasm, newly made proteins enter into RER.
Here they fold into three-dimensional shape.
• A mature cell that makes and secretes large amounts of protein – such as one that makes
digestive enzymes – has RER that occupies as much as 90 per cent of the total volume of
the cytoplasm.
• RER is also a storage unit for enzymes and other proteins.

10
• Small vesicles containing newly synthesized proteins pinch off from (the ends of the RER
and either fuse with the golgi complex or pass directly to the cell surface membrane.
• The channels having material present in them which is separated from the cytoplasmic
materials by the spherical or tubular membranes is called cisternae.
• E.R provides mechanical support to the cell.
• In some cells SER transmit impulses. For example, nerve and muscle cells.
• Both RER and SER are involved in the transportation of materials from one part of the cell
to the other.

ER with no ribosomes attached

is known as SER.
Smooth ER is not involved in
protein synthesis but is the site
of steroid (lipid hormone)
production. It also contains
enzymes that detoxify, or
make harmless, a wide variety
of organic molecules, and it
acts as a storage site for
calcium in skeletal muscle Figure 1. Endoplasmic reticulum. The diagram shows both
cells. SER and RER

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

It does not bear ribosomes over the surface of It possesses ribosomes attached to its
its membranes. membranes.
It is mainly formed of, vesicles and tubules. It is mainly formed of cisternae and a few
tubules.
It is engaged in 'the synthesis of glycogen, It takes part in the synthesis of proteins and
lipids and steroids. enzymes

Ribosomes
Ribosomes were discovered by Palade in 1955.
§ Ribosomes are small dense organelles, about 20 nm in diameter present in great numbers in
the cell. Most are attached to the surface of RER but they can occur free in the cytoplasm.
§ Ribosomes are made from a combination of rRNA and protein. Eukaryotic ribosomes are
compose-I of an equal quantity of RNA and protein. Therefore, they are also called as
ribonucleoproteins.
§ Ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis. They assemble amino acids in the right order to
produce new proteins. The ribosome uses the code on' messenger RNA (mRNA) to put amino
acid together in chains to form specific proteins.

11
§ Generally, proteins that are to be used inside the cell are made on free ribosome while those
that are to be secreted out of the cell are made on ribosomes that are bound to ER
membranes.
§ New ribosomes are formed in the nucleolus.
§ Eukaryotic ribosome is 80 S (60 S + 40 S). Mg++ controls this
attachment.
§ A group of ribosomes attached to the same mRNA are called
polysomes.

The Golgi Complex

The Golgi apparatus/Golgi complex was discovered by Camillo Golgi
in 1898. It is found in eukaryotic cells.
• Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of flattened membrane
• bound sacs or flattened cavities or vesicles called Cisternae (5 – 8).
• The whole organelle is a shifting, flexible structure; vesicles are constantly being added at one
side and lost from the other. Generally, vesicles fuse with the forming face (the one nearest
to the nucleus) and leave from the maturing face (the one nearest to the cell surface
membrane).
• Golgi complex has proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins and some enzymes. The Golgi
complex appears to be involved with the synthesis and modification of proteins. lipids and
carbohydrates.
• Major functions of Golgi complex are formation of conjugated molecules and Secretions.
• Proteins made on the ribosomes attached to ER are packaged into the vesicles by the ER.
Some of the vesicles join with the Golgi complex and the proteins they contain are modified
before they are secreted out of the cell.
• Golgi apparatus + Golgi vesicles = Golgi complex
• Secretions are products formed in the cells on ribosomes and then pass to the outside
through endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.
• In plants Golgi apparatus is involved in the synthesis of cell wall.

Figure 1. Golgi Apparatus Figure 1. Ribosomes (Large and small subunits)

12
Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are important organelles of eukaryotic cells. They manufacture and supply
energy to the cell. Therefore, they are also called powerhouse of the cell.
• Mitochondria are particularly abundant in metabolically active cells, tissues such (is muscle
and tissues involved in active transport.
• The size (0.5 – 1.5 µn wide) and number of mitochondria varies and depend upon the
physiological activity of the cell.
• Under compound microscope mitochondria may be rod shaped, vesicles or filaments. In
Electron Microscope, Mitochondria have two membranes, outer smooth and inner with
aristae.
• The inner surface of aristae in the mitochondrial matrix has small knob like structures called
F1 particles. These are involved in ATP formation.
• Mitochondrial matrix contains enzymes, coenzymes and organic and inorganic salts.
Mitochondria also contain DNA and ribosomes.
• Mitochondrial matrix helps in metabolic processes like Kreb's cycle, aerobic respiration and
fatty acid metabolism etc. Their main function is to make ATP via the process of aerobic
respiration. ATP diffuses into the cell and provides instant chemical energy.
• Mitochondria have a double membrane; the outer membrane is smooth while the inner one
is folded. This arrangement gives as large internal surface area on which the complex
reactions of aerobic respiration can take place.
Mitochondrion is a self-replicating organelle.

Centrioles Mitochondria

Centrioles
Centrioles are present in animal cells, some microorganisms and lower plants. They are absent
in higher plants.
§ Centrioles are short bundles of filaments, set at right angles to each other. They are found in
a clear area of cytoplasm known as the centrosome.
§ In a cross section, each centriole consists of a cylindrical array of 9 microtubules, each
microtubule has 3 tubules. The tubules are composed of special protein caned tubulin. The
chemical composition and structure is similar to that of cilia and flagella.

13
 Additional Notes

(a German
Discovery of cell is linked with the Lorenz Oken in 1805
living beings
invention of microscope because most scientist) said "all
of vesicles or
of the cells are microscopic originate from or consist
Robert Brow cells".
n said that
present in th nucleus is A cell is the structural and
e cell and th
an empty sp e cell is not functional unit of life
ace. He disc
nucleus in th overed the
e cells of orc Jean Baptist de-Lamarck (1809) said
hids.
Louis Pasteur (1862) "nobody can have life if it is not
formed by cellular tissue."
said that bacteria
are formed from Cell theory is: "All living organisms
existing bacteria. are composed of cells and cell
products".
A German physician Rudo
lph Virchow
(1855) said "omniscellula
e cellula"
(new cells formed by the
division of
existing living cells). It wa
s opposite to
the idea of Abiogenesis

The main features of Cell Theory in its

present form are:
Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665
under his self-made compound microscope. • All organisms are composed of one
According to Hooke, cell is an empty space or more cells.
surrounded by thick walls. He published his - • All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
work in Micrographia in 1665. • Cell is the basic structural and
n functional unit for all organisms.
lo g is t T he odor Schwan
oo leiden
A German z rm a n botanist Sch The human naked eye can
9 ) a nd a G e n the ce ll
(183 dently o differentiate between two points,
83 8 ) w o rk ed indepen
(1 which are 1.0 mm apart. This is
u nd th a t a ce ll has 3 parts: known as resolution of the eye. This
They fo
Nucleus cleus) and resolution can be increased by
(flu id su rr o unding the nu )
Cytoplasm embrane lenses.
a m e m b ra n e (outer thin m
Plasm that In a compou
st W ei sm an n (1880) said reso
nd microscop
e th
Aug u
ll s h av e a comm o n o ri gin lu ti o n is 2 .0 µm. It is 500 X e
all livin g ce of naked eye. that
h av e b as ic similarity in
because they
mposition.
structure and co
Their function is the formation of spindle (that guides the chromosomes
during cell division). In addition to spindle formation, the centrioles act as
the center of formation for the whole cytoskeleton and they are known as
microtubule organizing centers.

14
 Additional Notes

The process of separation of different parts of the cell into different

layers (on the basis of their size and weight and density of the
medium) in the centrifuge tube using a centrifuge machine at medium
speed is called density gradient centrifugation.

The function of an organism is due to The process of grinding to get a uniform

activities and interactions of different composition/structure is called
cells and cell components. homogenization.
The source of illumination in compound ed.
microscopes is visible light. In electron pa rt s, m odern techniques are us
To study cell e is cell fractionat
ion.
microscope the source of illumination is er n te ch ni qu
Most mod
a beam of electrons.
Cell size is measured in
The magnification power of microscope is determined by micrometer (µm). One µm is
multiplying X values of ocular lens and X value of objective lens. 0.000,001 meter or 1 x 10 –
For example: A microscope with 10 X ocular lens and 40 X 6 of a metre.
objective lens will have 10 X 40 = 400 X magnifying power. In most plant cells, cell
membrane is surrounded by
A compound microscope has cell wall.
different magnification powers. The
est egg
ocular lenses may he 5 X and 10 X Ostrich's egg is the bigg
while objective lenses may be 20 X,
The electron
Th40 X, 100 X etc.
e re solution of ele
ctron microsc microscope has shown
– 4 Angstrom ope is 2
. It is 500 X g that the cell wall is
of the compo reater than th
und microsco at formed by three main
X greater tha pe and 250,0
n that of the 0 0 layers:
naked eye.
Middle lamella
In multi-cellular organisms there is a Primary cell wall
division of labour. Examples from animals Due to Secondary cell wall
are: differe
have d nt func
ifferen ti
Muscle cells contract and relax t shap ons the cells
Nerve cells transmit impulses e s and siz
Examples fro es .
m animals are
Gland cells secrete Xylem cells c :
onduct wate
Red blood cells carry oxygen soil to the ae r and minera
rial parts of th l salts from
Some stomach cells secrete gastric juice Phloem cells e plant
translocate fo
White blood cells (WBC) produce Sclerenchym od
atous cells giv
antibodies. Chlorenchym e support to
atous cells ca the plants
Eye cells detect and respond to light. Parenchyma rr y out photosy
tous. cells sto nthesis
Meristernati re surplus fo
d are e cells produ o d and
The tissues are taken an and developm
ent of the pla
ce new cells
for g rowth
instruments
homogenized by special nt
(like homogenizers).

15
 Additional Notes

The autophagosomes working on digestive

vacuoles are also known as secondary Lysosomes. TAY-SACH'S disease is due to the absence of an
enzyme that is involved in the catabolism of
The protoplasm of a eukaryotic cell is lipids. Accumulation of lipids in brain cells
divided into nucleus and cytoplasm. leads to mental retardation and even death.

The living lated peroxisomes in

content of De-Duve and coworkers iso
protoplasm the cell is er tissues. These are
. called 1965 from liver cells and oth
(0.5 µm in diameter).
single membrane organelles
Primary wall
is a true wall
and develops Lysosomes are involved in:
newly growin in
g cells. It is m
ainly made u Autophagy/self-eating (Autophagosomes)
of cellulose w p
ith some dep Phagocytosis
and hemicell osition of pect
ulose. in Extra-cellular digestion and autolysis
First of all Middle Lamella is formed between
the primary wall s of the neighboring cells. It is The polysaccharides in bacterial cell wall and
not the true wall and is composed of pectin or cellulose in plant cell wall are carbohydrates.
calcium pectate. If an enzyme that breaks glycogen
into to glucose is absent from
n o f dif fe re n t parts of the cell
separatio ht and Lysosomes, the result is a disease
The process of e b as is o f th e ir size and weig
(on th sing a Glycogenosis type II.
different layers ) in th e ce ntrifuge tube u
e diu m adient
density of the m h ig h sp e e d is called densityIngrthe primary cell wall the cellulose fibers
hine at
centrifuge mac are arranged in a criss-cross manner which
trifugation.
ultracenary give strength to the cell wall.
Second cell wall is formed on Inner
surface of primary wall. It is thick and rigid Cytosol has true solutions and colloidal
than primary wall. Chemically it is solutions. The colloidal solution may be sol or
composed of inorganic salts, silica, wax, gel. Sol is non-viscous and gel is viscous.
cutin and lignin etc.
Cell wall protects the cell from osmotiolysis. The peripheral part of the cell is
like a gel.
Cytoplasm is formed by an aqueous ground substance The free floating cell organelles (e.g.
which contains: Mitochondria) move in the cytoplasm
Many cell organelles due to cytoplasmic streaming
Insoluble wastes and storage products (called inclusions) movements and is called active mass
Cytosol (the soluble part of cytoplasm is called cytosol) movement of cytoplasm.
Cytosol is 90 % water and 10
inorganic and organic molecules. De Duve in 1949 isolated lysosomes. They
are found in most eukaryotic cells
The material present in between Lysosomes are rich in acid phosphatases and
the plasma membrane and the several other hydrolytic enzymes.
nuclear membrane is called
cytoplasm. Cytosol is 90 % water and 10 inorganic and organic molecules

16
 Additional Notes

Peroxisomes have oxidative enzymes such as Amoeboid movements are because of

peroxidase, catalase and glycolic acid oxidase etc. micro filaments.

Peroxisomes contain H2O2 In seeds rich in lipids (such are castor and
producing oxidases and catalase. beans) glyoxysomes break fatty acids to
succinate.
Two important enzymes in glyoxysom
es are The cytosol contains cytoskeletal fabric
glycolic acid oxidase and catalase.
formed of microtubules, microfilaments
In lipid-rich seeds (e.g. castor, bean and soybeans and intermediate filaments. This is
etc.), glyoxysomes are abundant during Cytoskeleton.
germination period. In lipid poor seeds (e.g. pea), Central vacuole is formed by combining the
they are absent. smaller vacuoles during the growth and
In plant seedlings, Glyoxysomes convert development of plant.
stored fatty acids to carbohydrates and
Vacuoles are bounded by a single
provide energy to grow a new plant. This
membrane (tonoplast)
process occurs through glyoxylate cycle.
Enzymes of this cycle are present in the Microtubules are long, unbranched and
glyoxisomes. slender structures, they are composed of
The main protein in cytoskeleton are tubulin proteins.
tubulin (in microtubules) actin, myosin,
u le s are joined in a specific way
The microtu b ples
tropomyosin and other which are also
so m e ce ll org anelles. For exam
to form ioles etc.
found in the muscles.
, fl ag ella , b as al bodies and centr
Microfilaments are cilia
involved In internal
motion also called cell Microfilaments are much more slender.
cyclosis.
They are made up of contractile actin
Intermediate filaments play a role in maintaining protein linked to the inner face of the
the cell shape and are also involved in the linkage plasma membrane.
of the cell parts.
Microtubules Microfilament Cilia Flagella
They are non- They are contractile. The number of cilia per cell The number of flagella
contractile. is usually very large per cell is usually
(300 – 1400) 1–4
A micro tubule contains They do not possess They are smaller in size. They are larger (100-
13 proto filaments. longitudinal subunits. 200 nm in length)
They are hollow tubules. They are solid Cilia are present all over the Flagella are present
structures. surface of the cell. only at end of the cell.
They are formed of α They are mainly made They beat in a coordinated The Flagella beat
and β tubulin proteins. up of protein actin. rhythm either simultaneously independently.
or one after the other.
The diameter is 25 nm. The diameter is 6 nm. They help in locomotion, They help in
aeration, feeding and locomotion.
circulation, etc.
They occur in centrioles, They occur below cell
basal bodies, cilia. membrane and at the
flagella, astral rays, interphase of
spindle fibres etc. plasmagel-plasmasol.

17
 Practice Questions
1) Which of the following are colorless?
a) Chloroplasts c) Leucoplasts
b) Chromoplasts d) None of these
2) Which of the following is most slender in structure?
a) Microtubules c) Intermediate filaments
b) Microfilaments d) Both A and B
3) Soluble part of the cytoplasm is termed as:
a) Cisterna c) Endocytosis
b) Cytosol d) Both A and B
4) Which of the following modifies proteins and lipids by adding carbohydrates?
a) Golgi Apparatus c) Plasma membrane
b) Polysome d) None of these
5) The nucleus contains:
a) Mitochondria b) Cytosol
c) Enzyme d) DNA
6) Another name for Golgi complex is:
a) Dictyosome b) Endoplasmic Reticulum
c) Cyto-membrane system d) None of the above
7) Leucoplasts are a kind of:
a) Lysosomes b) Chloroplasts
c) Plastids d) Grannum
8) Vacuole in plants is responsible for:
a) Photosynthesis b) Cellular excretion
c) Turgor pressure d) Starch storage
9) By which of the following can movements of materials across animal cell
membranes be accomplished?
a) Active transport b) Diffusion
c) Pinocytosis only d) All of the above
10) Cell membranes are composed of:
a) Lipids and proteins b) Phospholipids
c) Proteins and carbohydrates d) Lipids and terpenoids
11) Hydrogen peroxide degradation in a cell is a function of:
a) Peroxisomes b) Ribosomes
c) Mitochondria d) Microbodies

18
12) Movement of substances from lower concentration to higher concentration
across semi-permeable membrane is termed as:
a) Facilitated diffusion b) Diffusion
c) Passive transport d) Active transport
13) Robert Hook was the first person to see cells in:
a) Various plants b) Fungi
c) Animals d) Cork
14) The concept “OMNIS cellula-e-cellula” means that, new cells are formed from:
a) Non-living material b) Pre-existing living cells
c) Dead organic matter d) As a result of chemical reactions
15) In generalized plant cell the nucleus is:
a) Present in the middle of the cell
b) Displaced to the peripheral site of the cell
c) Absent
d) Modified into endoplasmic reticulum
16) Plasma membrane is found in the cells of:
a) Animals only b) Plants only
c) Both in plants and animals d) Bacteria only
17) The semi-circular channels and system of tubes found in the cytoplasm are
known as:
a) Ribosomes b) Endoplasmic reticulum
c) Glyoxysomes d) Vacuoles
18) The structures that are involved in the manufacture and supply of energy to the
cell are:
a) Centrioles b) Nucleolus
c) Plastids d) Mitochondria
19) In a plant cell chlorophyll is present in:
a) Chromoplasts b) Stroma
c) Leucoplasts d) Chloroplasts
20) Ribosomes have equal amount of:
a) DNA and Protein b) mRNA and Protein
c) RNA and Protein d) None
21) Plastids are only found in the:
a) Animals and plants b) Plants
c) Animals d) Viruses
22) The command center of an eukaryotic cell is:
a) Nucleoid b) Small vacuoles
c) Endoplasmic reticulum d) Nucleus
23) Lipids synthesis / metabolism takes place in which of the following organelle?
a) Mitochondria
b) Vacuoles
c) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
d) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

19
24) Pick the odd one out in fungi:
a) Polysome b) Golgi Complex
c) Nucleolus d) Mesosomes
25) Ribosomes exist in two forms, either attached with the RER or freely dispersed
in the:
a) Tonoplasts b) Cytoplasm
c) Golgi bodies d) SER
26) The ribosomal RNA is synthesized and stored in:
a) Endoplasmic reticulum b) Golgi complex
c) Nucleolus d) Chromosomes
27) The ______ model of plasma membrane suggests that proteins are embedded
in lipid bilayer:
a) Unit membrane b) Permeable
c) Fluid mosaic d) Ultracentrifuge
28) Assemblage of _____ occurs in nucleolus:
a) rDNA b) RNA
c) Ribosomes d) Chromosomes
29) The enzymes of lysosomes are synthesized on:
a) RER b) Chloroplast
c) SER d) Golgi Apparatus
30) Centrioles are made up of _____ microtubules triplet.
a) 9 b) 3
c) 27 d) 12
31) Which of the following structure is absent in higher plants and found in animal
cells:
a) Centriole b) Mitochondria
c) Cytoskeleton d) Cytoplasm
32) The soluble part of cytoplasm or fluid that remains when all organelles are
removed is known:
a) Solution b) Cytoskeleton
c) Gelatin material d) Cytosol
33) The outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is at places continuous with the:
a) Golgi apparatus b) Lysozymes
c) Endoplasmic reticulum d) Peroxisomes
34) The process by which unwanted structures within the cell are engulfed and
digested within the lysosome is known as:
a) Endocytosis b) Hydrolysis
c) Exocytosis d) Autophagy

20
35) Detoxification of harmful drugs within the cell is done by:
a) Nucleolus b) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
c) Ribosomes d) Food vacuoles
36) Peptidoglycan or murein is a special or distinctive feature of cell wall in:
a) Algae b) Bacteria
c) Fungi d) Plants
37) The intake of liquid materials across the cell membrane is:
a) Phagocytosis b) Pinocytosis
b) Endocytosis d) Exocytosis
38) Organelle involved in the synthesis of ATP is:
a) Ribosome b) Nucleus
c) Mitochondria d) Centriole
39) Which component of the cell is concerned with cell secretions?
a) Plasma membrane b) Cytoskeleton
c) Golgi complex d) Mitochondria
40) During animal cell division, the spindle fibers are formed from:
a) Mitochondria b) Ribosomes
c) Centriole d) Lysosomes

21
 Key
1. c
2. b
3. b
4. a
5. d
6. a
7. c
8. c
9. d
10. a
11. a
12. d
13. d
14. b
15. b
16. c
17. b
18. d
19. d
20. c
21. b
22. d
23. d
24. d
25. b
26. c
27. c
28. c
29. a
30. a
31. a
32. d
33. c
34. d
35. b
36. b
37. b
38. c
39. c
40. c

22