LESSON 2: THE SELF ACCORDING TO PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy

Philosophy is defined as the study of knowledge or wisdom from its Latin

roots, philo (love) and sophia (wisdom). This field is also considered as “The
Queen of All Sciences” because every scientific discipline has philosophical
foundations.

Various thinkers for centuries tried to explain the natural causes of everything
that exist specifically the inquiry on the self preoccupied these philosophers in the
history. The Greek philosophers were the ones who seriously questioned myths
and moved away from them in attempting to understand reality by exercising the art of questioning that
satisfies their curiosity, including the questions about self. The following lecture will present the different
philosophical perspectives and views about self.

Socrates

 A philosopher from Athens, Greece and said to have the greatest influence
on European thought.
 According to the history he was not able to write any of his teachings and
life’s account instead, he is known from the writings of his student Plato who
became one of the greatest philosophers of his time. Socrates had a unique
style of asking questions called Socratic Method.
 Socratic Method or dialectic method involves the search for the
correct/proper definition of a thing. In this method, Socrates did not lecture,
he instead would ask questions and engage the person in a discussion. He
would begin by acting as if he did not know anything and would get the other person to clarify
their ideas and resolve logical inconsistencies (Price, 2000).
 The foundation of Socrates philosophy was the Delphic Oracle’s that command to “Know Thyself”.
Here, Socrates would like to emphasize that knowing or understanding oneself should be more than
the physical self, or the body.
 According to Socrates, self is dichotomous which means composed of two things: The physical
realm or the one that is changeable, temporal, and imperfect. The best example of the physical
realm is the physical world. The physical world is consisting of anything we sense – see, smell,
feel, hear, and taste. It is always changing and deteriorating. The ideal realm is the one that is
imperfect and unchanging, eternal, and immortal. This includes the intellectual essences of the
universe like the concept of beauty, truth, and goodness. Moreover, the ideal realm is also present
in the physical world. One may define someone as beautiful or truthful, but their definition is
limited and imperfect for it is always relative and subjective. It is only the ideal forms themselves
that are perfect, unchanging, and eternal.
 For Socrates, a human is composed of body and soul, the first belongs to the physical realm because
it changed, it is imperfect, and it dies, and the latter belongs to ideal realm for it survives the death.
Socrates also used the term soul to identify self.
  The self, according to Socrates is the immortal and unified entity that is consistent over time. For
example, a human being remains the same person during their childhood to adulthood given the
fact that they undergone developmental changes throughout their lifespan.

•
Plato
• A student of Socrates, who introduced the idea of a
threepart soul/self that is composed of reason, physical appetite
and spirit or passion.
o The Reason enables human to think deeply, make wise
choices and achieve a true understanding of eternal truths.
Plato also called this as divine essence.
o The physical Appetite is the basic biological needs of
human being such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire. o And
the spirit or passion is the basic emotions of human being such
as love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness and empathy.
• These three elements of the self works in every individual
Image Source: https://www.alamy.com/plato inconsistently. According to Plato, it is always the responsibility
of the reason to organize, control, and reestablish harmonious
relationship between these three elements.
• Plato also illustrated his view of the soul/self in “Phaedrus” in his metaphor: the
soul is like a winged chariot drawn by two powerful horses: a white horse,
representing Spirit, and a black horse, embodying appetite. The charioteer is
reason, whose task is to guide the chariot to the eternal realm by controlling the
two independent-minded horses. Those charioteers who are successful in setting a
true course and ensuring that the two steeds work together in harmonious unity
achieve true wisdom and banquet with the gods. However, those charioteers who
are unable to control their horses and keep their chariot on track are destined to
experience personal, intellectual, and spiritual failure.

St. Augustine
• He is considered as the last of the great ancient
philosophers whose ideas were greatly Platonic. In melding
philosophy and religious beliefs together, Augustine has been
characterized as Christianity’s first theologian.
• Like Plato, Augustine believed that the physical body is
different from the immortal soul. Early in his philosophical
development he described body as “snare” or “cage” of the soul
and said that the body is a “slave” of the soul he even
characterized that “the soul makes war with the body”. Later on
he came to view the body as “spouse” of the soul, with both
attached to one another by a “natural appetite.” He concluded,
“That the body is united with the soul, so that man may be entire
and complete, is a fact we recognize on the evidence of our own
nature.”
 Image Source: http://lexchristianorum.blogspot.com/ According to St. Augustine, the human nature is
composed of two realms:
1. God as the source of all reality and truth. Through mystical experience, man is capable
of knowing eternal truths. This is made possible through the existence of the one eternal
truth which is God. He further added that without God as the source of all truth, man
could never understand eternal truth. This relationship with God means that those who
know most about God will come closest to understanding the true nature of the world.
2. The sinfulness of man. The cause of sin or evil is an act of mans’ freewill. Moral goodness
can only be achieved through the grace of God.
He also stated that real happiness can only be found in God. For God is love and he created humans
for them to also love. Problems arise because of the objects humans choose to love. Disordered
love results when man loves the wrong things which he believes will give him happiness.
Furthermore, he said that if man loves God first and everything else to a lesser degree, then all
will fall into its rightful place.
Rene Descartes
 A French philosopher, mathematician, and considered the founder
of modern philosophy.
 Descartes, famous principle the “cogito, ergo sum—“I think,
therefore I exist” established his philosophical views on “true
knowledge” and concept of self.
 He explained that in order to gain true knowledge, one must doubt
everything even own existence. Doubting makes someone aware that
they are thinking being thus, they exist. The essence of existing as a
human identity is the possibility of being aware of our selves: being self-
conscious in this way is integral to having a personal identity.
Conversely, it would be impossible to be self-conscious if we did not
have a personal identity of which to be conscious. In other words, the
essence of self is being a thinking thing.
 The self is a dynamic entity that engages in metal operations – thinking, reasoning, and perceiving
processes. In addition to this, self-identity is dependent on the awareness in engaging with those
mental operations.
 He declared that the essential self or the self as the thinking entity is radically different from the
physical body. The thinking self or soul is a non-material, immortal, conscious being, independent
of the physical laws of the universe while the physical body is a material, mortal, non-thinking
entity, fully governed by the physical laws of nature.
 He also maintained that the soul and the body are independent of one another and each can exist
and function without the other. In cases in which people are sleeping or comatose, their bodies
continue to function even though their minds are not thinking, much like the mechanisms of a clock.
 He identified the physical self as part of nature, governed by the physical laws of the universe, and
available to scientific analysis and experimentation, and the conscious self (mind, soul) is a part of
the spiritual realm, independent of the physical laws of the universe, governed only by the laws of
reason and God’s will. And because it exists outside of the natural world of cause-and-effect, the
conscious self is able to exercise free will in the choices it makes.
 John Locke
• An English philosopher and physician and famous in his
concept of “Tabula Rasa” or Blank Slate that assumes the
nurture side of human development.

• The self, according to Locke is consciousness. In his

essay entitled On Personal Identity (from his most famous
work, Essay Concerning Human Understanding) he discussed
the reflective analysis of how an individual may experience the
self in everyday living. He provided the following key points:
1. To discover the nature of personal identity, it is important
to find out what it means to be a person.
2. A person is a thinking, intelligent being who has the
abilities to reason and to reflect.
3. A person is also someone who considers themself to be the same thing in
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different times and different places.

4. Consciousness as being aware that we are thinking—
always accompanies thinking and is an essential part of the thinking process.
5. Consciousness makes possible our belief that we are the same identity in
different times and different places.
Although Locke and Descartes believed that a person or the self is a thinking intelligent being who
has the abilities to reflect and to reason, Locke was not convinced with the assumptions of Plato,
St. Augustine and Descartes that the individual self necessarily exists in a single soul or substance.
For Locke, personal identity and the soul or substance in which the personal identity is situated
are two very different things. The bottom line of his theory on self is that self is not tied to any
particular body or substance. It only exists in other times and places because of the memory of
those experiences.

David Hume
•
He was a Scottish philosopher and also an empiricist.
•
His claim about self is quite controversial because he assumed that there
is no self! In his essay entitled, “On Personal Identity” (1739) he said
that, if we carefully examine the contents of [our] experience, we find
that there are only two distinct entities, "impressions" and "ideas".
• Impressions are the basic sensations of our experience, the elemental
data of our minds: pain, pleasure, heat, cold, happiness, grief, fear,
exhilaration, and so on.
• On the other hand, ideas are copies of impressions that include thoughts
and images that are built up from our primary impressions through a
variety of relationships, but because they are derivative copies of
impressions, they are once removed from reality. Image Source: https://www.britannica.com/

• Hume considered that the self does not exist because all of the
experiences that a person may have are just perceptions
and this includes the perception of self. None of these perceptions resemble a
unified and permanent self-identity that exists over time.
 • He further added that there are instances that an individual is limited in
experiencing their perception like in sleeping. Similarly, when someone
died all empirical senses end and according to him, it makes no sense to
believe that self exists in other forms. As an empiricist, Hume provide
an honest description and analysis of his own experience, within which
there is no self to be found.
• Hume explained that the self that is being experienced by an individual
is nothing but a kind of fictional self. Human created an imaginary
creature which is not real. “Fictional self” is created to unify the mental
events and introduce order into an individual lives, but this “self” has
no real existence.

Sigmund Freud
• A well-known Australian psychologist and considered
as the Father and Founder of Psychoanalysis. His
influence in Psychology and therapy is dominant and
popular in the 20th to 21st century.
• The dualistic view of self by Freud involves the
conscious self and unconscious self.
• The conscious self is governed by reality principle.
Here, the self is rational, practical, and appropriate to the
social environment. The conscious self has the task of
controlling the constant pressures of the unconscious
self, as its primitive impulses continually seek for
immediate discharge.
• The unconscious self is governed by pleasure principle.
It
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is the self that is aggressive, destructive, unrealistic and

instinctual. Both of Freud’s self needs immediate gratification
and reduction of tensions to optimal levels and the goal of every individual is to make unconscious
conscious.
Freud proposed how mind works, he called this as provinces or structures of the mind. By illustrating the
tip of the iceberg which according to him represents conscious awareness which characterizes the person
in dealing with the external world. The observable behavior, however, is further controlled by the workings
of the subconscious/unconscious mind.
• Subconscious
serves as the
repository of past
experiences,
repressed
memories,
fantasies, and
urges. The three
levels of the mind
are:
1. Id. This is primarily based on the pleasure principle. It
demands immediate satisfaction and is not hindered by
societal expectations.
2. Ego. The structure that is primarily based on the reality
principle. This mediates between the impulses of the id
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and restraints of the superego.
3. Superego. This is primarily dependent on learning the difference between right and wrong,
thus it is called moral principle. Morality of actions is largely dependent on childhood
upbringing particularly on rewards and punishments.
According to Freud, there are two kinds of instinct that drive individual behavior – the eros or the life
instinct and the thanatos of the death instinct. The energy of eros is called libido and includes urges
necessary for individual and species survival like thrist, hunger, and sex.in cases that human behaior
is directed towards destruction in the form of aggression and violence, such are the manifestations of
thanatos.

Gilbert Ryle
• A British analytical philosopher. He was an important
figure in the field of Linguistic Analysis which focused on the
solving of philosophical puzzles through an analysis of
language.
• According to Ryle, the self is best understood as a pattern
of behavior, the tendency or disposition for a person to behave
in a certain way in certain circumstances.
• He opposed the notable ideas of the previous philosophers
and even claimed that those were results of confused
conceptual thinking he termed, category mistake. The
category mistake happens when we speak about the self as
something independent of the physical body: a purely
Image Source: https://www.jstor.org/ mental entity existing in time but not space
Immanuel Kant
• A German Philosopher who made great contribution to the fields of
metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Kant is widely regarded as the greatest
philosopher of the modern period.
• Kant maintained that an individual self makes the experience of the world
comprehensible because it is responsible for synthesizing the discreet data of
sense experience into a meaningful whole.
• It is the self that makes consciousness for the person to make sense of
everything. It is the one that help every individual gain insight and knowledge.
If the self failed to do this synthesizing function, there would be a chaotic and
insignificant collection of sensations. Additionally, the self is the product of
reason, a regulative principle because the self regulates experience by making
unified experience possible and unlike Hume, Kant’s self is not the object of
consciousness, but it makes the consciousness understandable and unique.
• Transcendental apperception happens when people do not experience self directly,
instead as a unity of all impressions that are organized by the mind through
perceptions. Kant concluded that all objects of knowledge, which includes the self,
are phenomenal. That the true nature of things is altogether unknown and
unknowable (Price, 2000).
• For Kant, the kingdom of God is within man. God is manifested in people’s
lives therefore it is man’s duty to move towards perfection. Kant emphasized
that people should always see duty as a divine command (Price, 2000).

Paul and Patricia Churchland

An American
philosopher interested in the
fields of philosophy of mind,
philosophy of science, cognitive
neurobiology, epistemology, and
perception.
Churchlands’ central
argument is that the concepts and
theoretical vocabulary that people
use to think about the selves —
using such terms as belief, desire,
fear, sensation, pain, joy—
actually misrepresent the reality
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of minds and selves. He claims
that the self is a product of brain
activity.
• The behavior of the self can be attributed to the neuropharmacological states,
the neural activity in specialized anatomical areas.
 • Neurophilosopy was coined by Patricia Churchland, the modern scientific
inquiry looks into the application of neurology to age-old problems in
philosophy. The philosophy of neuroscience is the study of the philosophy of
science, neuroscience, and psychology. It aims to explore the relevance of
neurolinguistic experiments/studies to the philosophy of the mind.
• Patricia Churchland claimed that man’s brain is responsible for the identity
known as self. The biochemical properties of the brain according to this
philosophy of neuroscience is really responsible for man’s thoughts, feelings,
and behavior.
• Paul Churchland is one of the many philosophers and psychologists that
viewed the self from a materialistic point of view, contending that in the final
analysis mental states are identical with, reducible to, or explainable in terms
of physical brain states. This assumption was made due to the physiological
processes of the body that directly affecting the mental state of the person. The
advent of sophisticated technology and scientific research gives hope to
understand the connection between the physical body and the mind/brain
relationship that integrated in the self.
• Being an eliminative materialist, he believes that there is a need to develop a
new vocabulary and conceptual framework that is grounded in neuroscience.
This new framework will be a more accurate reflection of the human mind and
self.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty
• A French philosopher and phenomenologist. He took a very different
approach to the self and the mind/body “problem.” According to him, the
division between the “mind” and the “body” is a product of confused
thinking. The self is experienced as a unity in which the mental and
physical are seamlessly woven together. This unity is the primary
experience of selves and begin to doubt it when an individual use their
minds to concoct abstract notions of a separate mind and body.
Developed the concept of self-subject and contended that perceptions
occur existentially. Thus, the consciousness, the world, and the human
body are all interconnected as they mutually perceive the world.
According to him, the world and the sense of self are emergent phenomena
in the ongoing process of man’s becoming. Phenomenology provides a
direct description of the human experience which serves to guide man’s
conscious actions. He further added that, the world is a field of perception,
and human consciousness assigns meaning to the world. Thus man cannot
separate himself from his perceptions of the world.
• Perception is not purely the result of sensations nor it is purely
interpretations. Rather consciousness is a process that includes sensing as
well as interpreting/reasoning.