MODULE 2

LANGUAGE &
COMMUNITY
Notes prepared by:

Ms. Z. BANTON
Communication and Language
HUMAN VS ANIMAL COMMUNICATION

 Humans have the ability to conceptualize and develop

abstract ideas and engage in problem solving
 This ability is facilitated by the use of language
 This ability would not be possible without language
 Language is a complex system of communication
 It is more complex than that used by lower animals

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Communication and
Language
 All animals, like humans have a system of
communication
 This system is used to communicate needs and feelings
 In many ways animal communication lacks the
complexity we associate with human language
 Animal communication is not reflective or descriptive

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Communication and
Language
What is language?
 All language facilitates communication
 BUT not all communication can be classified as language
 There are different forms of communication
 Animal communication cannot be classified as language
 Because of the NATURE and FUNCTION of language,
animals are not thought to have language

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Communication and
Language
 Animal communication is not predominantly vocal
 Animal communication is instinctive

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Communication and
Language THE NATURE OF
LANGUAGE
Language is a uniquely human activity
 Used within societies for the purpose of communication
 It occurs naturally in humans
 Humans do not have to consciously convert their
thoughts into speech

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Communication and
Language THE NATURE OF
LANGUAGE
Language is Non-Instinctive
 Humans are not born possessing a language
 Children naturally learn it through socialization within
groups that speak the same language
 These groups are known as Language Communities
 Humans are born with a Language Acquisition Device
 This predisposes them to acquire language
 The language we speak is culturally determined

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Communication and
Language THE NATURE OF
LANGUAGE
Language is Systematic
 Language consists of rules of grammar, spelling,
pronunciation and sentence structure
 Language systems and rules allow us to create brand
new sentences, never uttered before

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Communication and
Language THE NATURE OF
LANGUAGE
Language is Arbitrary or Symbolic
 There is no fixed association between words and their
meanings
 The meaning of a word is determined by the speakers
within a language community
 If the meanings of the symbols were not arbitrarily
assigned, then the word “book” for example would be
used to represent the same thing in each language

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Communication and
Language THE NATURE OF
LANGUAGE
Language is Dynamic
 Languages are always changing as new words are added
to the lexicon all the time
 The meanings of some words change over time

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Communication and
Language THE NATURE OF
LANGUAGE
Language Acquisition is Maturational
 As a normal human being grows and develops, so does
his ability to construct complex sentences
 The human brain develops the ability to use old words
in new ways and new words in old ways

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Communication and Language
The Linguistic Sign
 Language is composed of signs
 Signs are marks, figures, devices used to express meaning
 Signs may be symbolic, iconic or indexical
 SYMBOLIC SIGN- consists of symbols that are arbitrary in meaning and do
not resemble what they stand for. Eg: a flag, Morse code, etc
 ICONIC SIGN-consists of signals that resemble the idea they stand for. Eg:
Photographs, models, imitative gestures
 INDEXICAL SIGN-consists of signals which are directly connected in some
way to the thing they represent. The relationship between sign and
meaning is not arbitrary in INDEXICAL SIGN.

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Communication and
Language
THE FUNCTIONS OF
THE COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTION
LANGUAG
Language allows E
us to communicate complex and
abstract concepts
 Language allows us to communicate ideas which are
completely new
 It is used to convey information. This means language is
referential.

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Communication and
Language THE EXPRESSIVE
FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE
 Language offers a creative vent for our feelings, ideas
and emotions.(novels, poems, songs, etc)
 Language is used affectively: we select the most
appropriate way to communicate ideas.
 Language is used aesthetically: we use language in very
pleasurable ways especially through the use of literary
devices, rhyme, rhythm, etc.

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Communication and
Language The Reflective
Function of Language
 Language allows us to use past events to process and
impact present situations.
 Because we can reflect on past events and use them to
improve present events, we are able to be inventive,
problem solving and progressive.

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Communication and
Language The Identification
Function of Language
 Language helps us to form our own identity.
 Helps users to bond by forming language communities.
 The language we use makes us unique as individuals and
as communities
 It is used “phatically” because it helps us to socialize
 Language shapes our cultural view of the world.

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DEFINITION OF
LANGUAGE
 “Language is purely human and non-instinctive
method of communicating ideas, emotions, and
desires by means of speech as opposed to, say, sign
language…”
 Edward Sapir (1921)

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Communication and
Language THE
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
 Communication is the process of creating and
transferring meaning via messages between
intelligences or two entities that can communicate.
 Humans, animals and even computers communicate .
 Computers and automatons communicate through the
use of Artificial Intelligence

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Communication and
Language THE
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
 For communication to take place, there must be a
sender (source) and a receiver (audience) ,
environment within which communication takes place
(context) and reason for communicating.

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 Communication and Language
1.
ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION
SENDER- IS THE SOURCE OF THE MESSAGE
2.
PROCESS
MESSAGE- IS WHAT IS BEING CONVEYED OR TRANSMITTED
3. RECEIVER-IS THE AUDIENCE. THE INDIVIDUAL(S) TO WHOM THE
MESSAGE IS INTENDED.
4. CHANNELS- ARE THE MANNER IN WHICH THE MESSAGE IS BEING
TRANSMITTED. EG-the type of marks, figures, devices used to express
message.

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Communication and
Language THE PROCESS OF
COMMUNICATION
1. SENDER
 CONCEPTIALISES THE MESSAGE

 ENCODES THE MESSAGE

 TRANSMITS THE MESSAGE THROUGH LANGUAGE VIA

CHANNELS

 MODIFIES MESSAGE THROUGH NON-VERBAL MEANS

SUCH AS GESTURES AND TONE OF VOICE

 SEMANTIC NOISE MAY AFFECT THE CONTENT OF THE

MESSAGE

 EXTERNAL NOISE MAY AFFECT THE TRANSMISSION OF

THE MESSAGE

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Communication and
Language THE PROCESS OF
COMMUNICATION
 RECEIVER-
 RECEIVES MESSAGE

 DECODES MESSAGE

 INTERPRETS MESSAGE

 REACTS TO MESSAGE IN VERBAL OR NON-VERBAL

WAYS

 PROVIDES FEEDBACK BY BECOMING SENDER

 INTERNAL NOISE MAY AFFECT THE

INTERPRETATION OF THE MESSAGE

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Communication and Language
IMPORTANT JARGON WHEN DISCUSSING THE
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
 CONCEPTUALIZATION-THE
MENTAL PROCESS OF FRAMING
OR FORMULATING THE MESSAGE
 ENCODING-TRANSFORMINGTHE IDEAS INTO A SYSTEM OF
SIGNS AND SYMBOLS THAT IS MUTUALLY UNDERSTOOD
 CHANNEL- THE
PATHWAYS OF THE MESSAGE. VERBAL,
NON-VERBAL, WRITTEN, TELEVISED, ETC

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IMPORTANT JARGON WHEN
DISCUSSING THE
COMMUNICATION

PROCESS
NOISE- ANY INTERFERENCE WITH CLEAR
TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION OF A
MESSAGE DURING THE COMMUNICATION
PROCESS
 EXTERNAL NOISE-EXTERNAL DISTRACTIONS. EG:
INAUDIBILITY, PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT
 INTERNAL NOISE- DISTRACTIONS THAT STEM FROM
THE RECEIVER’S MINDSET, ATTITUDE AND
DISPOSITION
 SEMANTIC NOISE- DISTRACTION BROUGHT ABOUT
BY WORD CHOICE, ORGANIZATION OF
LANGUAGE
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IMPORTANT JARGON WHEN
DISCUSSING THE
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
 RECEIVER-THEPERSON FOR WHOM THE
MESSAGE IS INTENDED
 FEEDBACK-THE
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
IS NOT COMPLETE UNTIL THE SENDER
RECEIVES FEEDBACK
 CONTEXT-WHERE
AND WHY
COMMUNICATION TAKES PLACE

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Barriers to Communication
BARRIERS TO
COMMUNICATIO
N EXPLAINED

Physiological
Barrier
Related to the physical
limitations of the
human body and the
human
mind.( memory
attention and
perception). What may
cause Physiological
Barriers?
Physical and
Environmental
Distractions
Related to the physical
things that get in the
way of communicating.
What are
some things in the
environment that may
hinder
communication?
Psychological
Barrier
Psychological factors
such as
misperceptions,
filtering, distrust or
unhappy emotions
may
jeopardize the process
of communication.
How may
Psychological factors
affect communication?
Social Barriers
Social factors such as
age, gender,
socioeconomic
background, race and
marital status may
affect the way in which
we communicate. IIn
your environment, how
do social factors affect
the way in which
people
Communicate with
each other?
This occurs when Cultural Barriers
individuals in one
social group have
developed different
norms, values and
behaviors to those of
another group.
What are some
communication
practices in your
culture that others may
find strange?
Semantic Barriers

Language, slang,
jargon are semantic
factors which may
affect communication.
How may semantic
factors affect
communication?

Linguistic Barriers
The same word may
mean different things
to different people
thereby leading to a
breakdown in
communication.
Have you ever used a
word in one context
that

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misinterpreted by your
listener?
LANGUAGE & COMMUNITY
How Language is produced
 Language is produced in the brain
 Normal human brains have the ability to acquire
language
 Normal brains have the capacity to produce all the
spoken languages on the planet
 Everyone has the capacity to speak any
language…especially infants
 Language has to be learnt during infancy and beyond

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LANGUAGE & COMMUNITY
HOW LANGUAGE CHANGES OVER
TIME
 Language changes when people who speak different
languages are forced to or choose to interact with each
other
 Colonization and imperialism forced contact between
different languages and cultures
 People must develop a lingua franca to serve as a
medium of communication between different peoples

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LANGUAGE & COMMUNITY
HOW LANGUAGE CHANGES OVER
TIME
 The new language that is created on first contact
between different speakers is called a pidgin
 Pidgin consists of features of the different speaker’s
mother tongue and the other languages the speaker is
interacting with
 In situations in which pidgins develop, the speakers
usually become bilingual. They speak the pidgin and
their native tongue.
 As a language, the pidgin is usually limited and lacks
complexity

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LANGUAGE & COMMUNITY
HOW LANGUAGE CHANGES OVER
TIME
 A pidgin becomes a Creole language over time when it
is expanded to meet all the communication needs of its
speakers
 Language also changes because not everyone in a
speech community speaks exactly alike.
 Differences and variations within a speech community is
referred to as dialect
 Speakers of different dialects of a language can
understand each other

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LANGUAGE & COMMUNITY
HOW LANGUAGE CHANGES
OVER TIME
 The ability of different dialect speakers in a language to
understand each other is known as multi intelligibility
 Language variation means that a language is not
homogenous but contains many slightly or strongly
divergent varieties
 A LANGUAGE IS THE SUM TOTAL OF ALL ITS DIALECTS.

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LANGUAGE & COMMUNITY
HOW LANGUAGE CHANGES OVER
TIME
 LANGUAGE- ENGLISH
 Dialects of English: American Standard English

British Standard
English
Jamaican
Standard
English
Trinidadian
Standard
English
ETC…
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OTHER FACTORS THAT
CAUSE LANGUAGE CHANGE:
 Taboo: by designating some words as taboo, society
shows its unease with those words and the words come
out of use
 Euphemism: by replacing the taboo words with words
that are less socially offensive
 Pejoration: when a euphemism has become
contaminated and has lost its fresh and positive
connotation

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OTHER FACTORS THAT CAUSE LANGUAGE
CHANGE:
 Elevation: when words shed a previously negative connotation for a
positive one.
 Jargon: a specialized language associated with a particular profession or
vocation
 Slang: a variety of a language used by a particular group especially the
youth.
 Transliteration: when new words are created where they did not
previously exist.
 Coinage: when a new invention or phenomenon appears that was not
previously named, a new word has to be created for it. Eg. Email, anime.

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Communication and
Language Creolization of
Language
 There is no such thing as a pure language
 Creole languages are linguistic products of contact
between languages as a result of colonization
 The language which dominates in a situation as
colonization is the one which has the military and
economic power.
 The dominant language in colonization is the
superstrate
 The subordinate language in colonization is the
substrate.

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Communication and
Language Creolization of
Language
 In rare cases, when two languages come in contact with
each other and are both equally powerful, they
mutually influence each other and are referred to as
abstrate

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Communication and
Language Creolization of
Language
 Development of a language does not end when a
language becomes Creolized
 A Post Creole Continuum can develop over time
 A Post Creole Continuum is when the Creole gradually
merges with the corresponding standard language which
is a part of the parent language from which the Creole
emerged

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Communication and
Language Creolization of
Language
 As the Creole merges with the standard language, the
process is called decreolization
 There are different phases of decreolization
 The phases of decreolization is seen in a language
continuum
 The phases or levels of the continuum are the Basilect,
Mesolect and Acrolect

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Communication and
Language Creolization of
Language
 Basilect: the purest form of the Creole. Eg: Mi deh goh
nyam i’.
 Mesolect: blends both the Creole and the standard
language. Eg: Me a goh eat it.
 Acrolect: closer to the standard language in structure
and vocabulary and is associated with the educated
upper class. Eg: I’m going to eat it.

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Communication and
Language Types of
Caribbean English
 Foreign English: spoken by tourists, expats from English
speaking countries and individuals who work in tourist
industry who imitate the accent of tourists
 Radio and Television English: heard in newscasts,
music programmes, advertisements
 Erudire English: consists of language that shows that
the speaker is knowledgeable about words, phrases and
idioms which are considered to be difficult

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Communication and
Language Types of
Caribbean English
 Colloquial English: uniquely West Indian without being
Creole English
 Rasta English: refers to the variety of English made
popular by the Rastafarian culture
 Profane English: refers to impolite or shocking
expressions and obscenities

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LANGUAGE
REGISTER
 A speaker’s word choice and sentence structure (syntax)
or speech or writing style in a particular social setting is
referred to as REGISTER.
 The social context is what motivates the choice of
register.
 Register refers to levels of formality and informality and
tone that are correct for a specific context.

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LANGUAGE
REGISTER
 In deciding on which register is suitable, one has to
consider the following: THE AUDIENCE, THE SUBJECT
MATTER, THE MEDIUM, THE WRITER’S ATTITUDE…

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TYPES OF INTENDED CONTENT LINGUISTIC
REGISTER AUDIENCE COMMUNICATION FEATURES

Formal Strangers and General Use of standard

persons in socially information; language;
formal situations carefully complete
such as screened sentences
ceremonies thoughts and
feelings
Casual Acquaintances General Use of standard
and people not information and and non-standard
personally known non-personal structures. Use of
thoughts and slang and ellipsis.
feelings
Intimate Very close Personal thoughts Incomplete
acquaintances and feelings sentences and
and relatives ellipses; use of
slang; use of
coded language
and specialized
vocabulary;
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on non-verbal
elements
TYPES OF INTENDED CONTENT LINGUISTIC
REGISTER AUDIENCE COMMUNICATED FEATURES
Private Intra-personal: Innermost Use of standard
self thoughts, and non-standard
impressions and structures;
feelings kept ellipses and slang
within the self
Frozen Can be Can be May possess
appropriate for appropriate to standard and non-
formal and communicate standard features
informal general of language
situations information or
personal thoughts
Consultative Can be Appropriate for May possess
appropriate for general standard or non-
formal and information as in standard features
informal context of a depending on the
discourse in teacher/pupil context. May
which listener is conversation or involve non-
expected to give personal verbal elements.
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continuous information as in
feedback to the context of a
speaker doctor’s visit or
LANGUAGE REGISTER
CODE SWITCHING
 A CODE is a language or dialect.
 The term CODE includes factors like register and accent
 The ability to move from one language, register or
accent to another is called code switching.
 A speaker may switch code because of the status and
prestige of the audience or possession of a foreign or
second language.

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LANGUAGE REGISTER

 Code mixing is a situation on which words are borrowed

from another language. Eg: Do you understand, si?
 Language Interference occurs when the speaker
involuntarily and subconsciously mixes features of
another dialect or language while in the process of
speaking one language.

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 LANGUAGE REGISTER
ATTITUDES TO LANGUAGE
AND DIALECTAL VARIATIONS
 Different language communities adopt various attitudes towards the
languages spoken by others as well as the language they speak.
 The following factors influence attitudes to language: pride in or shame
on one’s own language, nationalism, personal dignity, status, values, the
international perception of prestige given to some languages

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LANGUAGE REGISTER

 Dialectal Variation refers to the spoken and written

differences in the use of language spoken in a speech
community.
 Standard accents are more likely to be considered
prestigious, intelligible, attractive and associated with
high social status.
 A speaker’s ability to adjust to his or her language use
to sound like others in a conversation or to sound
different from others is called accommodation .

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LANGUAGE REGISTER
Language and Identity
 Identity may be defined as who we are, how we
perceive others and how others perceive us.
 When persons adjust their speech so that they may fit
more closely with others, it is called linguistic
convergence.
 Linguistic divergence is when persons opt to
deliberately affirm differences between themselves and
others in the way they speak.

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LANGUAGE REGISTER
Language Competence
 Grammatical Competence is the ability to correctly and
fluently use grammar and syntax of a language.
 Communicative Competence is the ability to use
language appropriately according to the requirements
of the context.

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Types of Communication

 Communication is inevitable and continuous

 Intra-personal communication-communication with
oneself
 Person-to-person communication- communication
between individuals
 Group communication-communication among people
within a group: Eg: lecture forum or colloquium, open
forum, panel discussion

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Types of Communication

 Mass Communication- communication involving large

numbers of different individuals.
 Institutional Communication- network of
communication within institutions, corporations and
organizations. This may be vertical communication-
information passes from the top of the organization to
the bottom or vice versa. It may also take the form of
horizontal communication in which communication
tends to be among peers.

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Miscommunication,
Misinformation & Disinformation

 Miscommunication occurs when there is a discrepancy

in meaning between what a communicator intends a
message to convey and what the audience actually
perceives the message to mean.
 Misinformation is the giving of false or erroneous
information or impression.
 Disinformation is the deliberate dissemination of
information intended to mislead and give the wrong
impression

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Non-Verbal Communication

 Non-verbal communication refers to a wide array of

behaviours by which we communicate without the use
of words.
 Non-verbal communication is said to be transmitted
through everything we have, do or show.
 Non-verbal communication is imprecise and often
ambiguous.

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Non-Verbal Communication
Use of Posture, Gesture and Movement

 Posture, Gesture and Movement are perhaps the most obvious non-verbal
communication methods.
 Their meanings differ from culture to culture and may vary from place to
place.
 Gestures enhance a verbal presentation and there is hardly an effective
speaker who does not use gestures.

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Non-Verbal Communication

 Artifacts: the use of objects when communicating.

The things we own, use, wear and even discard all
convey messages about us. Eg: our preferences, tastes,
resources, etc
 Proxemics: the use of space when communicating.Our
use of space or proximity to others is a significant
indicator of how close or intimate we feel towards such
persons. People we like can be physically close to us;
those we dislike are kept at a discrete distance.

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Non-Verbal Communication
 Chronemics: Use of time. Being early or late conveys much about our
attitude to the situation.
 Paralanguage: refers to our use of volume, tone, pitch and rate of
speaking to give additional meaning or emphasis to what is spoken.
 Vocalics: Inflection. Inflection, or modulation in the pitch of the voice is
one way of suggesting meaning. Eg: in English we raise our voices at the
end of a statement to indicate that a question is being asked. We slightly
lower our voice to indicate the end of a sentence.

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Functions of Non-Verbal
Communication
 Substituting- to replace speech. Eg: beckoning with our
hands, waving, etc
 Reinforcing- to complement or accompany the verbal
communication. Eg: nodding while saying “Yes”
 Regulating: to guide or control the manner in which
communication takes place. Eg: In class when a student
wishes to participate, he/she may raise his/her hand.

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Functions of Non-Verbal
Communication
 Contradicting: when the verbal communication is not in
concord with the non-verbal communication. Eg: the
use of sarcasm.
 Managing Impressions: used to control other people’s
view of us. That is why we try to dress impressively for
a date or an interview.
 Establish Relationships: used to convey information
about us. Eg: A wedding band indicates the status of the
wearer and determines how we communicate with
him/her.

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GROUP ASSIGNMENTS

 Do ten-minute PowerPoint presentations on the following topics.

 Create at least 8 multiple choice items on the topic
 Group size: 3 persons
 Marking Scheme:

Content =6 marks
Expression= 2
marks
Organization= 2
marks

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GROUP PRESENTATIONS
 GROUP 1- The Social, Political and Cultural Role of
Language
 GROUP 2- Features of Conversation
 GROUP 3- The Linguistic History of the Caribbean
 GROUP 4- The Linguistic History of Caribbean: The
English
 GROUP 5-Caribbean Linguistic Heritage: The French,
Asians and Africans
 GROUP 6- Linguistic Features of Caribbean Creole
English
 GROUP 7-Communication Technology
 GROUP 8-Communication Context and Media
 Group 9- Message Design: Audience Analysis, Oral and
Visual Media
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GUIDELINES FOR THE INTERNAL
ASSESSMENT:
reflection
 A candidate will create ONE sample of original work
which should not exceed 800 words. The sample created
should cover ONE literary genre. The sample created
must relate to the theme selected…
 For this sample, candidates should write a preface of no
more than 200 words specifying:
a) The purpose
b) The intended audience
c) The context

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The Internal Assessment: The
Reflective Segment
 What genre or styles of composition may be used
 POETRY: SONNET, LYRIC, BALLAD, SESTINA, VILLANELLE, DRAMATIC
MONOLOGUE, PASTORAL, EPIC, ELLEGY, LIMERICK, HAIKU, ODE
 PROSE: SHORT STORIES, NOVELLA, EXPOSITORY OR ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY,
PARABLE, ALLEGORY, SATIRE, FABLE, BIOGRAPHY, AUTOBIOGRAPHY,
JOURNAL ENTRIES, REVIEWS OF BOOKS, FILMS & PLAYS.
 DRAMA: RADIO PLAYS( WRITTEN TEXT & AUDIO RECORDING) SCREEN PLAYS
(WRITTEN TEXT & VIDEO RECORDING) , SKITS, STORY BOARDS, CARTOONS
& COMIC STRIPS.

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GUIDELINES FOR THE
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT:
reflection
 INCLUDE TWO OF THE FEATURES YOU INTEND TO
ANALYSE: REGISTER, ATTITUDE TO LANGUAGE, TYPES OF
COMMUNICATION, LANGUAGE AND COMMUNITY,
DIALECTAL VARIATION, COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOUR,
ETC…

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GUIDELINES FOR THE
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT:
reflection
 Marking Scheme
 Preface-4 Marks
Candidate provides an excellent treatment of
purpose, audience and content
 Reflective Sample-10 Marks
Candidate provides an excellent sample in terms
of creativity, organization and expression

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EXAM TIPS

 BE CLEAR ON ALL THE TERMINOLOGIES AND CONTENT OF

THIS MODULE
 WRITE IN CLEAR AND COMPLETE SENTENCES
 ORGANIZE YOUR ESSAYS IN A COHERENT AND COGENT
MANNER
 USE CORRECT SYNTAX, LEXICON AND GRAMMAR
 DO PRACTICE MULTIPLE CHOICE EXERCISES IN
PREPARATION FOR PAPER 1

Prepared by: Z.Y.Banton

CLASS ASSESSMENT

1. CREATE MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS ON THE TOPICS

COVERED
2. COMPLETE MULTIPLE CHOICE TASKS
3. GROUP WORK
4. COMPLETE ESSAY WRITING TASK (Past Paper)
5. FIRST DRAFT OF REFLECTION

 *ALL OF THE ABOVE ARE GRADED PIECES.

 FOURTH WEEK OF EASTER TERM

Prepared by: Z.Y.Banton

End of Presentation
Prepared by: Miss Z. Y. Banton

Prepared by: Z.Y.Banton