0% found this document useful (0 votes)
118 views47 pages

Main Lab Report1

This document describes a method to determine the band gap of a semiconductor material using a thermistor and the post office box technique. A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance changes significantly with temperature. Its resistance decreases with increasing temperature if it is a negative temperature coefficient thermistor. The experiment involves measuring the resistance of a thermistor at different temperatures, both internally heated and externally heated, to obtain its resistance-temperature curve. From this curve, the band gap of the semiconductor material can be estimated using the post office box method.

Uploaded by

sonal
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
118 views47 pages

Main Lab Report1

This document describes a method to determine the band gap of a semiconductor material using a thermistor and the post office box technique. A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance changes significantly with temperature. Its resistance decreases with increasing temperature if it is a negative temperature coefficient thermistor. The experiment involves measuring the resistance of a thermistor at different temperatures, both internally heated and externally heated, to obtain its resistance-temperature curve. From this curve, the band gap of the semiconductor material can be estimated using the post office box method.

Uploaded by

sonal
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 47

1.

Determination of Hall Coefficient and carrier type for a Semi-conducting Material


Theory:
Aim:
1. To determine the Hall voltage developed across the sample material.
2. To calculate the Hall coefficient and the carrier concentration of the sample material.

If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential


difference will generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic field and
current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall effect is an important
tool to characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It directly determines both the sign
and density of charge carriers in a given sample.

Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness t kept in XY plane. An electric field is applied in


X-direction using Constant Current Generator (CCG), so that current I flow through the sample.
If w is the width of the sample and t is the thickness. There for current density is given by

Jx=I/wt (1)

Fig.1 Schematic representation of Hall Effect in a conductor.


CCG – Constant Current Generator, JX – current density
ē – electron, B – applied magnetic field
t – thickness, w – width
VH – Hall voltage
If the magnetic field is applied along negative z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the charge carriers
(say electrons) toward the y-direction. This results in accumulation of charge carriers at the top
edge of the sample. This set up a transverse electric field Ey in the sample. This develop a
potential difference along y-axis is known as Hall voltage VH and this effect is called Hall Effect.

A current is made to flow through the sample material and the voltage difference between its top
and bottom is measured using a volt-meter. When the applied magnetic field B=0,the voltage
difference will be zero.
We know that a current flows in response to an applied electric field with its direction as
conventional and it is either due to the flow of holes in the direction of current or the movement
of electrons backward. In both cases, under the application of magnetic field the magnetic
Lorentz force, causes the carriers to curve upwards. Since the charges cannot
escape from the material, a vertical charge imbalance builds up. This charge imbalance produces
an electric field which counteracts with the magnetic force and a steady state is established. The
vertical electric field can be measured as a transverse voltage difference using a voltmeter.
In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Mathematically we
can express it as
(2)

Where 'e' the electric charge, 'E' the hall electric field developed, 'B' the applied magnetic field
and 'v' is the drift velocity of charge carriers.
And the current 'I' can be expressed as,
(3)

Where 'n' is the number density of electrons in the conductor of length l ,breadth 'w' and
thickness 't'.
Using (1) and (2) the Hall voltage VH can be written as,

(4)

by rearranging eq(4) we get

(5)

Where RH is called the Hall coefficient.


RH=1/ne (6)
Procedure
1. Connect the widthwise contacts of the hall probe to the terminals marked as ‘voltage’
(i.e. potential difference should be measured along the width) and lengthwise contacts
to the terminals marked (i.e. current should be measured along the length) as shown
in fig.
2. Switch on the Hall Effect setup and adjust the current say 0.2 mA.

3. Switch over the display in the Hall Effect setup to the voltage side.

4. Now place the probe in the magnetic field as shown in fig and switch on the
electromagnetic power supply and adjust the current to any desired value. Rotate the
Hall probe until it become perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage will be
maximum in this adjustment.
5. Measure the hall voltage and tabulate the readings.

6. Measure the Hall voltage for different magnetic fields and tabulate the readings.

7. Measure the magnetic field using Gauss meter

8. From the data, calculate the Hall coefficient, carrier mobility and current density.

By using the Formulae

VH .t
i) Hall coefficient (RH) = × 10 8 cm3 C – 1
IH
where VH = Hall voltage (volt)
t = Thickness of the sample (cm)
I = Current (ampere)
H = Magnetic filed (Gauss)
1
ii) Carrier density ( n ) = cm – 3
RH q

where RH = Hall coefficient (cm3 C – 1 )


q = Charge of the electron or hole (C)
iii) Carrier mobility () = RH cm2V – 1 s – 1
where RH = Hall coefficient (cm3C – 1 )
 = Conductivity (C V – 1 s– 1 cm – 1 )

Measurement of Hall coefficient


Current in the Hall effect setup = ----------mA
Current in the Hall coefficient
Magnetic field (H) Hall Voltage (VH)
constant current (RH)
power supply (A) (Gauss) (volts)
cm3 C – 1

Observations and Calculations

(1) Thickness of the sample =t = cm

(2) Resistivity of the sample = = V C– 1 s cm

(3) Conductivity of the sample =  = CV – 1 s – 1 cm– 1

VH .t
(4) The hall coefficient of the sample = RH = × 10 8
IH

= -------------

1
(5) The carrier density of the sample = n=
RH q

= -------------

(6) The carrier mobility of the sample = R H

= ---------------
Result:
1. The Hall coefficient of the given semi conducting material =

2. The carrier density =

3. The carrier mobility =

Assignment Questions (Self-Evaluation):

1. What is Hall Effect?


2. How to determine the type of semiconductor using Hall Coefficient?
3. Write down any two application of Hall Effect?
4. Calculate the carrier concentration for a P-type Ge semiconductor of thickness 0.3mm.
5. Determine the hall coefficient for a typical N-type Germanium semiconductor having thickness
0.8mm.
6. Determine the hall coefficients for an N-type and P-type Ge semiconductor having same
thickness.
7. Show that the hall coefficient of a material is dependent of its thickness.

References:

1. 18PYB103J Instructional manual


2. Ramsden and Edward Ramsden.Hall-effect Sensors.Amsterdam:Elsevier/Newnes.2006
3. Fundamentals of solid state engineering by ManijehRazeghi.
4. Materials handbook.Berlin:Springer,2008.
2. Band Gap Determination using Post Office Box

Theory:
Aim:
To find the band gap of the material of the given thermistor using post office box.

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance strongly depends on temperature. The


word thermistor is a combination of words “thermal” and “resistor”. A thermistor is a
temperature-sensing element composed of sintered semiconductor material and sometimes
mixture of metallic oxides such as Mn, Ni, Co, Cu and Fe, which exhibits a large change in
resistance proportional to a small change in temperature. Pure metals have positive temperature
coefficient of resistance, alloys have nearly equal zero temperature coefficient of resistance and
semi conductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
Thermistors can be classified into two types:
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor:-resistance increase with increase in
temperature.
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor:-resistance decrease with increase in
temperature.
The thermistor exhibits a highly non-linear characteristic of resistance vs. temperature.

PTC thermistors can be used as heating elements in small temperature controlled ovens. NTC
thermistors can be used as inrush current limiting devices in power supply circuits. Inrush
current refers to maximum, instantaneous input current drawn by an electrical device when first
turned on. Thermistors are available in variety of sizes and shapes; smallest in size are the beads
with a diameter of 0.15mm to 1.25mm.
There are two fundamental ways to change the temperature of thermistor internally or
externally. The temperature of thermistor can be changed externally by changing the temperature
of surrounding media and internally by self-heating resulting from a current flowing through the
device.
Apparatus Required
Thermistor, thermometer, post office box, power supply, galvanometer, insulating coil
and glass beakers.
Principle and formulae
P R

(1) Wheatstone’s Principle for balancing a network Q S

Of the four resistances, if three resistances are known and one is unknown, the unknown
resistance can be calculated.
(2) The band gap for semiconductors is given by,
 2.303 loge RT 
 
Eg = 2k  
1
T

wherek = Boltzmann constant = 1.38  10 – 23 J /K


RT = Resistance at T K
Procedure
The connections are given as in the Fig. 6.1(a).1. Ten ohm resistances are taken in P and Q.
Then the resistance in R is adjusted by pressing the tap key, until the deflection in the
galvanometer crosses zero reading of the galvanometer, say from left to right.
1. After finding an approximate resistance for this, two resistances in R, which differ
by 1 ohm, are to be found out such that the deflections in the galvanometer for these
resistances will be on either side of zero reading of galvanometer.
Q 10
2. We know RT =  R  R1 or ( R1  1 ) .This means that the resistance of the
P 10
thermistor lies between R1 and (R1+1). Then keeping the resistance in Q the same,
the resistance in P is changed to 100 ohm.
3. Again two resistances, which differ by one ohm are found out such that the
deflections in the galvanometer are on the either side of zero. Therefore the actual
R2 R 1
resistance of thermistor will be between and 2 .
10 10
To find the resistance of the thermistor at different temperatures

Resistance of
Temp. of the
thermistor 1 Resistance Resistance Resistance 2.303 log10
thermistor RT
T in P in Q in R RT
P
T = t+273 = R
Q

K K-1 ohm ohm Ohm ohm ohm

Thermistor

dy
2.303 log RT

P Q dx
2V
G

R R

1/T (K )-1

R R
K K

Observation

From graph, slope = (dy / dx) = ……

Calculation

Band gap, Eg = 2k(dy / dx) =…..


4. Then the resistance in P is made 1000 ohms keeping same 10 ohms in Q. Again,
two resistances R and (R+1) are found out such that the deflection in galvanometer
changes its direction. Then the correct resistance.

10
= RT  ( R ) (or)
1000

= R+1 = 0.01R (or) 0.01(R+1)

5. Thus, the resistance of the thermistor is found out accurately to two decimals, at
room temperature. The lower value may be assumed to be RT (0.01R).

6. Then the thermistor is heated, by keeping it immersed in insulating oil. For every
10 K rise in temperature, the resistance of the thermistor is found out, (i.e) R T’s are
found out. The reading is entered in the tabular column.

1
Graph: A graph is drawn between in X axis and 2.303 log RT in Y axis where
T
T is the temperature in K and RT is the resistance of the thermistor at TK. The graph will be as
shown in the Fig.6.1(a).2.

dy
Band gap (Eg)=2k  slope of the graph = 2k ( )
dx

where K = Boltzman’s constant.

Result

The band gap of the material of the thermistor = ………eV.

Assignment Questions (Self-Evaluation):

1. What is Energy Gap?


2. What is Thermistor?
3. How Thermistor are classified in to?
4. Write down the balancing condition of the post office box
5. Why for Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor, resistance decreases with
increase in temperature?
6. Determine the Resistance of the Thermistor at 100˚C
7. Determine the Energy Gap of the Thermistor at Room Temperature

References:

1. 18PYB103J Instructional manual


2. B.L.Theraja, Basic Electronics Solid State, Fifth edition: S.Chand and company Ltd.
3. R.S.Sedha, A Textbook of Applied Electronics, Third edition: S.Chand and company Ltd.
3. V-I Characteristics of a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

AIM: To study the photoconductive nature of the given light dependent resistor (LDR) and to
plot the V-I characteristics of the LDR.

THEORY:

Light dependent resistor, LDRs or Photoresistoris a device, which is often used to detect the
presence or the level of light.A LDR is a device component that is sensitive to light. When light
falls upon it then the resistance changes. Values of the resistance of the LDR may change over
many orders of magnitude the value of the resistance falling as the level of light increases.

Principle:

An LDR is made using semiconductor material with a high resistance. When light is incident on
LDR, a photon is absorbed and thereby it excites an electron from valence band into conduction
band. Due to such new electrons coming up in conduction band area, the electrical resistance of
the device decreases. Thus the LDR or photo-conductive transducer has the resistance which is
the inverse function of radiation intensity.

hc
λ0 =
eEω
whereλ0 = threshold wavelength in meters, e = charge on one electron in Coulombs,Eω = work
function of the metal in eV.

Fig. 3.1. Working of LDR

Any radiation with wavelength λgreater than threshold wavelength(λ0), will not produceany
change in the resistance of this device. Due to large energy gaps, the LDR materials have
extremely high resistivity at room temperature. So when the device is kept in darkness, its
resistance is called as dark resistance.
The materials used for photoresists are semiconductors and include materials such as CdSe, CdS,
CdTe, InSb, InP, PbS, PbSe, Ge, Is, GaAs. Each material gives different properties in terms of
the wavelength of sensitivity, etc.

PROCEDURE:

Apparatus Required:

LDR, Resistor (1 k), Ammeter (0 – 10 mA), Voltmeter (0 – 10 V), Light source,


Regulated power supply, Measuring Scale.

Formula:
V
R
By ohm’s law, V  IR (or) I ohm

where R is the resistance of the LDR (i.e.) the resistance when the LDR is closed. V and I
represents the corresponding voltage and current respectively.

Determination of Photoresistance:
1. Circuit connections are given in as shown in Fig. 3.2
2. Light source is turnedON and made to fall on the LDR.
3. Corresponding Voltmeter and Ammeter readings are noted.The value of the
resistance can be calculated by Ohm’s law.
4. The procedure is repeated by keeping the light source at different distances away
from the LDR.
5. A graph is plotted between resistance and distance of LDR from the light source.
6. The value of the dark resistance is determined using Voltmeter and Ammeter
readings when the Light source is turnedOFF.

1 k ( 0 - 10 mA) Y
+ _
A
RR
Light (k)
10 V + +
V LDR
_
_

X
Distance (cm)
Fig. 3.2. Circuit diagram Fig. 3.3. Model graph
OBSERVATION:
Voltmeter reading when the LDR is closed = …… V
Ammeter reading when the LDR is closed = ……. A
V
Dark resistance = R  = ……. ohm
I

To determine the resistances of LDR at different distances

S.No Distance Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading RR


(cm) (V) volt (I) mA k
1
2 A
3 (Long
4 Distance)
5
1
2 B
3 (Mid
4 Distance)
5
1
2 C
3 (Short
4 Distance)
5

RESULT:

1. The V-I characteristics of LDR were studied and plotted.


2. The dark resistance of the given LDR is found out to be = …….. ohm

Assignment Questions (Self-Evaluation):

1. What isLDR?
2. What isThreshold Wavelength of LDR
3. What is Dark Resistance?
4. Define Work Function of metal
5. Write down four applications of LDR?
6. Describe how the resistance of an LDR changes in light and dark conditions?
7. Why the resistance of the LDR varies as the distance between the light source and LDR
gets varied?
8. Determine the resistance of the LDR component at 10 cm.
9. Evaluate the dark resistance of the LDR component at room temperature.

References:

1. 18PYB103J Instructional manual


2. U.A Bakshi, A.P Godse, “Electronic Devices. Technical Publications”, India, 2008.
3. Robert Diffenderfer,“Electronic Devices: Systems and Applications”, Thomas Delmer
Learning, USA, 2005.
4. Resistivity Determination for a Semiconductor Wafer using Four Probe Method
Theory:

Aim

To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor (Germanium) using four probe
method.

In this method, four probes are utilized to measure the resistance of the semiconductor
material. For example, two of the outer probes are used to send the current from the source meter
and other two inner probes are used to measure the voltage drop across the sample. The typical
set up of the four-probe method is shown in Figure. There are four equally spaced tungsten metal
tips supported by springs at one end to mount the sample surface without any damage. Where the
thickness (t) of the materials is much higher than the space between the probes (s), then the
differential resistance due to spherical protrusion of current emanating from the outer probe tips
is

Figure Schematic of four-point collinear probe method on bulk material.

Carrying out the integration between the inner probe tips,


where probe spacing is uniform.

Due to the superposition of current at outer tips, R = V / (2I ).

Therefore,

Where V and I are the voltage and current across and through the crystal chip.

The energy band gap, Eg., of semi-conductor is given by

2.3026  log10 
E g  2k B in eV
1
T
where kB is Boltzmann constant equal to 8.6 × 10 –5
eV / kelvin , and  is the resistivity of the
semi-conductor crystal.

Procedure

Apparatus

Probes arrangement (it should have four probes, coated with zinc at the tips). The probes
should be equally spaced and must be in good electrical contact with the sample), Sample
(Germanium or siliconcrystal chip with non-conducting base), Oven (for the variation of
temperature of the crystal from roomtemperature to about 200°C), A constant current generator
(open circuit voltage about 20V, current range0 to 10mA), Milli-voltmeter (range from 100mV
to 3V), Power supply for oven Thermometer.

1. Connect one pair of probes to direct current source through milliammeter and other
pair to millivoltmeter.
2. Switch on the constant current source and adjust current I, to a described value, say 2
mA.
3. Connect the oven power supply and start heating.
4. Measure the inner probe voltage V, for various temperatures.
Graph

10 3

Plot a graph in   and log10 as shown in Fig.6.1(b).2. Find the slope of the curve

 T 
AB log 10 
 . So the energy band gap of semiconductor (Germanium) is given by
BC 10 3
T
2.3026  log 10 
E g  2k 
1T
AB AB AB
 2k  2.3026   1000  2  8.6  10 5  2.3026   1000 eV  0.396  eV
CD CD CD
To determine the resistivity of the semi-conductor for various temperatures:

Current (I) = …………mA

Temperature Voltage (V) Resistivity  10 – 3 / T

S.No. in°C in K (Volts) (ohm. cm) (K) Log10

Observations:

Distance between probes(s) = ……………………..mm


Thickness of the crystal chip (W) = ……………………mm

current (I) = ………………..mA

Direct Current A
Source

Probes

Oven Power
Supply

Sample
Ge Crystal
OVEN

Fig. 4.1. Four Probe Setup


log 10 

1
T

Fig. 4.2. Model Graph

Result

Energy band gap for semiconductor (Germanium) is E g =….eV


Source of error and precautions

1. The resistivity of the material should be uniform in the area of measurement.


2. The surface on which the probes rest should be flat with no surface leakage.
3. The diameter of the contact between the metallic probes and the semiconductor crystal chip
should be small compared to the distance between the probes.
Assignment Questions (Self-Evaluation):

1. What is the principle of four point probe method?


2. Why do we use 4 probes in four probe experiments?
3. Why four probe method is better than two probe methods?
4. What is energy band gap of semiconductor?
5. Why Germanium is used in 4 point probe method?

Reference:
1. Introduction To Semiconductor Materials And Devices, M.S Thyagi, Publisher John Wiley&
Sons,2008

2. Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 3rd Ed, S.M.Sze, Kwok K .Ng, Publisher John Wiley&
Sons,2008
5. Study of V-I and V-R characteristics of a solar cell and Determination of
efficiency of solar cell

Aim

To study the V-I and V-R characteristics of a solar cell. In addition to that, calculate the
efficiency of the given solar cell using V-I characteristics.

Theory:

Solar cells are typically illuminated with sunlight and are intended to convert the solar
energy into electrical energy. The solar energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation, more
specifically described as "black-body". The sun's spectrum is consistent with that of a black body
at a temperature of 5800 K. The radiation spectrum has a peak at 0.8 eV. A significant part of the
spectrum is in the visible range of the spectrum (400 - 700 nm). The power density is
approximately 100 mW/cm2. Only part of the solar spectrum actually makes it to the earth's
surface. Scattering and absorption in the earth's atmosphere, and the incident angle affect the
incident power density. Therefore, the available power density depends on the time of the day,
the season and the latitude of a specific location. Of the solar light, which does reach a solar cell,
only photons with energy larger than the energy bandgap of the semiconductor generate electron-
hole pairs. In addition, one finds that the voltage across the solar cell at the point where it
delivers its maximum power is less than the bandgap energy in electron volt. Asymmetric of
band structure, it creates separation of electrons and holes and it prevented electron-hole
recombination. Figure 1 provides information on p-n diode solar cell.

Figure 1 Typical silicon solar cell


Electrical Efficiency Calculation

The parameter that is of chief concern to researchers and practitioners alike is electrical
efficiency, from here on referred to as efficiency. Although in principle this can be calculated by
the ratio of output power PO to input power PI, in practice it is only calculated under the ideal
condition that PO is a maximum. To satisfy this condition, the resistance across the solar cell or
module under test is varied across a wide enough range for the relationship of voltage against
current to take the form of the curve in Figure 2. At zero resistance the current is at its highest
possible value, called the short-circuit current, ISC, while at maximum resistance the voltage is at
a maximum, referred to as the open-circuit voltage, VOC. Returning to ISC and increasing the
resistance above the impedance of the solar cell, the voltage increases quickly and the current
decreases slowly until the ‘knee’ of the curve. At this point, known as the maximum power point
(MPP), the power (product of voltage and current) is at a maximum and the related values of
voltage and current are referred to as VMPP and IMPP respectively (see Figure 2).

Figure 2 I-V curve showing Maximum Power Point Current and Voltage

The solar cell provides different capacities depending on the actual working point in
which it is operated. The operating point at which the maximum power is provided is called the
Maximum Power Point (MPP). As the power of a working point always corresponds to the
surface V-I, this area must be the maximum in the case of the MPP. This case is shown in
Figure 4.11. The current and voltage values associated with the MPP are called IMPP and VMPP.

The efficiency of a solar cell describes what portion of the optical power P I incident on the cell is
output as electrical energy PMPP again.

Efficiency of solar cell η = [PMPP/AIo ] x 100

Pmax = Maximum power = IMPP x VMPP Watt

A-Area of the solar panel [7.2 cm x 4.5 cm Single cell only]

Io Intensity of light = Power of the bulb/4πd2

d - Distance between solar panel and bulb

The overall power-conversion efficiency of single-crystalline solar cells ranges from 10 to 30 %


yielding 10 to 30 mW/cm2.

Procedure

Apparatus

Solar cell, voltmeter,milliammeter, a dial type resistance box, Keys, illuminating lamps,
connecting wires etc.

When an external circuit is connected through the p-n junction device, a current passes
through the circuit. Therefore, the device generates power when the electromagnetic radiation is
incident on it. The voltmeter is connected in parallel with the given solar cell through a plug key.
A milliammeter and a variable resistor are connected in series to the solar cell through a key as
shown in the Fig. The solar cell can be irradiated by sun’s radiation. Instead, it can also be
irradiated by a filament bulb (75 W). The resistance value is adjusted by a resistance box and the
variation of V-I is plotted. From the graph calculate maximum power point.
Distance between solar panel Distance between solar panel

and bulb (d) = cm and bulb (d) = cm

Intensity of light Io = Wm-2 Intensity of light Io = Wm-2

Resistance Current Resistance Current (mA)


(Ohm) (mA) (Ohm)
Voltage Voltage

(V) (V)

Observation:

Maximum power point PMPP = ……….Watt


Area of the solar panel = ………. m2

Intensity of the light Io =…………. W/m2

Efficiency of solar cell η = [PMPP/AIo ] x 100

Result:

Efficiency of solar cell η =…………………….

Assignment Questions (Self-Evaluation):

1. What is the working principle of solar cell?


2. How the charge separation occurring in solar cell?
3. Why solar cells are more expansive?
4. What are the types of solar cell materials?
5. What is ISC and VOC in solar cell?
6. What are the applications of solar cell?
Reference:

1. 18PYB103J – Physics: Semiconductor Physics Instructional Laboratory Manual

2. Introduction To Semiconductor Materials And Devices, M.S Thyagi, Publisher John Wiley&
Sons,2008

3. Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 3rd Ed, S.M.Sze, Kwok K .Ng, Publisher John Wiley&
Sons,2008
6. Characteristic of PN junction diode under forward bias and reverse bias
Aim: To plot the characteristics curve of PN junction diode under Forward bias and Reverse bias

Theory:

Forward Biased PN Junction


Similarly due to the negative terminal of source the free electrons in the n-type region will repeal
towards junction where they will find the layer of positive impurity ions and start recombine
with these ions and generate free electrons inside the layer. Consequently, the width of positive
impurity ions is reduced, and finally, it vanishes. In
these ways, both layers of ions disappear, and there
will be no more depletion layer. After the depletion
layer disappeared, free electrons from the n-type
region can easily drift to p-type region and holes from
p-type region to n-type region in the crystal. Hence,
ideally there will be no obstruction of flowing current
and the pn junction behaves as the short circuit.

Reverse Biased PN Junction


When positive terminal of a voltage source is
connected to the n-type region and the negative terminal of the source is connected to the p-type
region then the pn junction is said to be in reverse biased condition. When there is no voltage
applied across the p n junction, the potential developed across the junction is 0.3 volts at 25 oC
for germanium pn junction and 0.7 volts at 25oC for silicon p n junction. The polarity of this
potential barrier is same as the polarity of voltage
source applied during reverse biased condition. Now if
reverse biased voltage across the pn junction is
increased the barrier potential developed across the pn
junction is also increased. Hence, the pn junction is
widened. When positive terminal of the source is
connected to the n-type region, the free electrons of
that region are attracted towards positive terminal of
the source because of that more positive impurity ions
are created in the depletion layer which makes the
layer of positive impurity ions thicker. At the same
time since negative terminal of the source is connected
to the p-type region of the junction, electrons are
injected in this region. Due to the positive potential of the n-type region the electrons are drifted
towards the junction and combine with holes adjacent to the layer of positive impurity ions and
create more positive impurity ions in the layer. Hence, the thickness of the layer increases.
In this way over all width of the depletion layer increases along with its barrier potential. This
increment of the width of depletion layer will continue till the barrier potential reaches to applied
reverse biased voltage. Although this increment of barrier potential will continue up to applied
reverse biased voltage but if the applied reverse biased voltage is sufficiently high then the
depletion layer will disappear due Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdowns. It is also to be
noted that after completion of reverse biased depletion layer there is no more drift of charge
carriers (electrons and holes) through the junction as the potential barrier opposes the applied
voltage which has the same value as the potential barrier. Although tiny current flow from n-type
region to p-type region due to minority carriers that is thermally generated electrons in p-type
semiconductor and holes in n-type semiconductor.

Forward Current in PN Junction


When battery voltage is applied across the junction in the forward bias, a current will flow
continuously through this junction.

IS is Saturation Current (10-9 to 10-18 A)


VT is Volt-equivalent temperature (= 26 mV at room temperature)
n is Emission coefficient (1 ≤ n ≤ 2 for Si ICs)
Actually this expression is approximated.

Reverse Current in PN Junction


When a p-n junction is connected across a battery in such a manner that its n-type region is
connected to the positive potency of the battery and the p-type region is connected to the
negative potency of the battery the p n junction is said to be in reverse biased condition and
ideally there is no current flowing through the junction. But practically there will be a tiny
reverse bias current iD which is expressed as.
iD drops to zero value or very small value. iD can be written as i0.

IS is Saturation Current (10-9 to 10-18 A)


VT is Volt-equivalent temperature (= 26 mV at room temperature)
n is Emission coefficient (1 ≤ n ≤ 2 for Si ICs)
Actually this expression is approximated.

General Specification of PN Junction


A p-n junction is specified in four manners.

1. Forward Voltage Drop (VF): Is the forward biasing junction level voltage (0.3V for
Germanium and 0.7V for Silicon Diode )
2. Average Forward Current (IF): It is the forward biased current due to the drift electron
flow or the majority carriers. If the average forward current exceeds its value the diode
gets over heated and may be damaged.
3. Peak Reverse Voltage (VR): It is the maximum reverse voltage across the diode at it
reverse biased condition. Over this reverse voltage diode will go for breakdown due to its
minority carriers.
4. Maximum Power Dissipation (P): It is the product of the forward current and the forward
voltage.

V-I Characteristics of A PN Junction


In the forward bias, the operational region is in the first quadrant. The threshold voltage for
Germanium is 0.3 V and for Silicon is 0.7 V. Beyond this threshold voltage the graph goes
upward in a non linear manner. This graph is for the dynamic Resistance of the junction in the
forward bias. In the reverse bias the voltage increases in the reverse direction across the p-n
junction, but no current due to the majority carriers, only a very small leakage current flows. But
at a certain reverse voltage p-n junction breaks in conduction.

It is only due to the minority carriers. This amount of voltage is sufficient for these minority
carriers to break the depletion region. At this situation sharp current will flow through this
junction. This breakdown of voltage is of two types.

 Avalanche Breakdown: it is not properly sharp, rather inclined linear graph i.e. after
break down small increase in reverse voltage causes more sharp current gradually.
 Zener Breakdown: This breakdown is sharp and no need to increase reverse bias voltage
to get more current, because current flows sharply.

Procedure:

For the forward bias of a P-N junction, P-type is connected to the positive
terminal while the N-type is connected to the negative terminal of a battery. The potential
at P-N junction can be varied with the help of potential divider. At some forward voltage
(0.3 V for Ge and 0.7V for Si) the potential barrier is altogether eliminated and current
starts flowing. This voltage is known as threshold voltage (Vth) or cut in voltage or knee
voltage .It is practically same as barrier voltage VB. For V<Vth, the current is negligible.
As the forward applied voltage increase beyond threshold voltage, the forward current
rises exponentially.

Observation:

S. No Forward Voltage (V) Forward Current (µA)

For the reverse bias of p-n junction, P-type is connected to the negative terminal
while N-type is connected to the positive terminal of a battery. Under normal reverse
voltage, a very little reverse current flows through a P-N junction. But when the reverse
voltage is increased, a point is reached when the junction break down with sudden rise in
reverse current. The critical value of the voltage is known as break down (VBR). The
break down voltage is defined as the reverse voltage at which P-N junction breakdown
with sudden rise in reverse current.

Observation:

S. No Reverse Voltage (V) Reverse Current (mA)

Result: PN junction characteristic is studied and curve is drawn.


Assignment Questions (Self-Evaluation):

1. What is PN Junction diode?

2. What is meant by forward bias and reverse bias?

3. Define: Knee voltage

4. Define: Break down voltage

5. What is meant by avalanche break down?

Reference:

1. 18PYB103J Instructional manual


2. B.L.Theraja, Basic Electronics Solid State, Fifth edition: S.Chand and company Ltd.
3. 2. R.S.Sedha, A Textbook of Applied Electronics, Third edition: S.Chand and company
Ltd.
7. V-I characteristics of Photocell

AIM: To study the Illumination Characteristics and V-I Characteristicsof given Photocell.

THEORY:

A device used to convert light energy into electrical energy is called Photo Electric Cell or
Photocell.

Photo-Voltaic Cell is one among the three types of photo cell other than Photo Emissive Cell and
Photo Conductive Cell. Photo-Voltaic Cell works on the principle of Photo-Voltaic Effect. This
is called true cell because it generates emf without the application of any external potential
difference but by only the light incident on it. It consists of a semiconductor layer formed on the
surface of them etal plate. Then a film of semi-transparent metal is coated over the semi-
conductor. This film maintains the electrical contact with the semiconductor and simultaneously
allows the incident light to fall on the semi-conductor.

When light is incident on the semi-conductor, electrons are emitted which flow in a direction
opposite to the light rays. If the circuit is completed between the surface transparent film and
metal base through a low resistance galvanometer (G), the current can be measured. If the
resistance of the circuit is very small, the current is proportional to the intensity of incident light.
The main advantage of this cell is that it requires no external voltage for its operation. This type
of photocell is widely used in photographic exposure meters, photometers and illumination
meters etc.

Fig. 7.1. Schematic representation of Photo-Voltaic Cell

Let ‘IL’ be the Luminous intensity of an electric lamp and ‘E’ be the Illuminance at a point
distance‘d’ from it. According to the inverse square law;
IL
E=
d2
If light from the lamp be incident on the photovoltaic cell placed at a distance ‘d’ from it, then
the photo-current IPh given out is proportional to E.

1
IPh ∝ E ∝
d2
Thus by varying the distance d (or Illumination E) the magnitude of the photo-current IPh
generated in the photo cell can be studied.

PROCEDURE:

Apparatus: Lamp house with lamp, Optical bench, Photocell housed with Red and Black
sockets, Photocell Characteristic Kit, Measuring Scale and connecting wires.

A. Illumination Characteristics:

1. Arrange the optical bench in such a way that both the lamp and the photo cell
are at the same level as shown in the figure.
2. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter as per circuit diagram shown on the
apparatus and set RL to minimum position.
3. A 100 W lamp is arranged over the Photovoltaic Cell such that light falls on it
at normal. Initially, the lamp is placed at maximum distance and is switched
ON.
4. The voltage and the current are noted.
5. The intensity of the lamp is varied in steps by changing the distance of lamp.
The readings are noted in Table 1.

B. Current-Voltage Characteristics :

1. The Intensity of the lamp is set to Minimum Intensity(I1) at a longest distance


X1.
2. The Voltmeter and Ammeter are switched on.
3. Initially Load Resistance dial is set at 470 ohms. The Voltage and Current are
noted down.
4. ThenLoad Resistance is set to 1 k, 2.2 k, 3.3 k, 4.7 k and 10 k ohms and at
each setting the voltage and current are recorded. The readings are recorded.
5. The Medium Intensity(I2) is achieved by choosing proper distance X2.At this
Intensity, step 3 & 4 is repeated.
6. The Intensity of the lamp is set to its Maximum Intensity (I3) at a shortest
distance X3. At this Intensity, step 3 & 4 is repeated.
7. Graph is plotted between the current and voltage for three distances X1, X2. X3
respectively.
Fig. 7.2. Experimental Setup

Fig. 7.3. Photo Cell and Photo Cell Characteristics Kit


OBSERVATION:

A. Table 1: Illumination Characteristics

Intensity At Minimum RL (kΩ)


Variation
(distance cm) Voltage (V) Current (μA)

10

20

30

40

50

B. Table 2: V-I Characteristics

Minimum Intensity I1 Medium Intensity I2 Maximum Intensity I3


(at longest distance X1) (at mid distance X2) (at shortest distance X3)
RL
(kΩ)
Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage
Current (μA)
(V) (μA) (V) (μA) (V)
Graphical Observation: V-I Characteristics of a Photo Cell

Fig. 7.4. Model graph for V-I Characteristics

RESULT: Illumination andV-I characteristics of Photo cell has been studied.

Assignment Questions (Self-Evaluation):

1. What is the Photo cell?


2. What is Photo-Voltaic effect?
3. How many types of Photocell are available?
4. Define Inverse Square Law of Illumination.
5. Why Photovoltaic cell is known as True cell?
6. Give two applications of Photo cell in daily life
7. Describe the working of the Photo Cell.

References:

4. 18PYB103J Instructional manual


5. BrijeshTripathi, Manoj Kumar,“Solar Energy: From Cells to Grid”, CSFML Publications,
India, 2018.
6. R.C. NevilleAngeleReinders, Pierre Verlinden, Wilfried van Sark, Alexandre Freundlich,
“Photovoltaic Solar Energy: From Fundamentals to Applications”, John Wiley & Sons
Publication, UK, 2017.
7. R.C. Neville, “Solar Energy Conversion: The Solar Cell”, Elsevier Science Publications,
Netherlands, 1995.
8. Alan Fahrenbruch, Richard Bube, “Fundamentals of Solar Cells: Photovoltaic Solar
Energy Conversion” Academic Press INC, UK, 1983.
8. PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION USING LASER
Aim
To determine the size of particles (lycopodium powder) coated on glass plate using
monochromatic LASER source.

Theory
Diffraction is a phenomenon of waves bending when encountering obstacles or slits.
Light diffraction has an analytical application to determine the size of the obstacle. This
analytical method is based on the fact that the angle of diffraction is inversely proportional to the
size of the obstacle. Diffraction of light through a rectangular obstacle is a straight forward
extension of one dimensional diffraction. A circular obstacle is qualitatively similar, but an
accurate quantitative treatment of the pattern requires more complicated mathematics. The
diffraction pattern observed due to circular obstacle is called the "Airy Disk”. Using Mie theory,
the diffraction angle for first minimum is θ = 1.22 λ/D, where D is the diameter of the obstacle
and λ is wavelength of light. On a screen a distance L >> D from the obstacle, the minimum is
seen at a radial distance (r) = 1.22 λL/D from the center of the pattern.

The term LASER is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. It is a mechanism for emitting electromagnetic radiation via the process of stimulated
emission. LASER diffraction is widely used for particle size analysis whose principle depends on
relationship that exists between light scattering (its angle and intensity) and particle size. The
larger the particle, the smaller is the angle and the higher the intensity of the scattering. When
monochromatic light from LASER source is passed through a glass plate coated with thin layer
of lycopodium powder with spherical particles (obstacle), diffraction of light occurs as a result of
particle size (micron or less) which are comparable with wavelength of light. Thus, circular ring
pattern are observed on screen as shown in figure and on measuring radii of the observed rings,
we can calculate the size of the particles.

If “r” is the radius of the first dark ring and “D” is the distance between the obstacle and screen
on which the diffraction pattern is obtained, then
tan  
r
, Since (θ) is very small in this experiment we consider tan     r
D D

Screen with Diffraction Pattern

 r Laser
Glass plate with
fine particle
spread

According to the theory,

The diameter of the particle is given by 2a  1.22nD (meters)


rn

Where, rn = Radius of the nth order dark ring (m)


D = Distance between the particle and screen (m)
λ = Wavelength of the LASER light (Å)
.
Procedure

Apparatus required: Monochromatic LASER source, a glass plate coated with thin layer of
lycopodium powder, Screen and a meter Scale.

Steps to find particle size using LASER


1. The glass plate coated with thin layer of lycopodium powder (obstacle) is taken.
2. A monochromatic LASER source and screen are placed at some distances.
3. Mount the glass plate on a stand and place it between the LASER source and the screen.
4. Switch ON the LASER source and allow the light to pass through the glass plate.
5. Adjust the position of the glass plate to see maximum contrast ring patterns on the screen.
6. Mark the position of dark rings by keeping white paper on screen.
7. Remove the white paper and measure the radii of different order dark rings (r n) using a scale.
8. Measure the distance (D) between the glass plate and screen.

9. Calculate the diameter of particle as 2a  1.22nD (in meters)


rn

10. Repeat the experiment for different distance (D) between the glass plate and the screen.

Table: Determination of particle size using LASER


Distance Diffraction Radius of dark Particle size
S. No.
(D) order (n) ring (rn) (2a)

Unit m - m m

1
1
2

1
2
2

1
3
2

Mean

Result
The average size of the particles measured using LASER = ………........ μm

Assignment (Self Evaluation):


1. The ………… phenomena of light are studied through diffraction effect
2. What is diffraction of light?
3. The source and screen are ………. at distance in Fresnel diffraction and at ……… distance
in Fraunhofer diffraction.
4. Mention four differences between LASER and ordinary light source?
5. Define: Stimulated emission of light
6. What are the characteristics of LASER light?
7. If distance of screen is doubled from LASER source and r n = D then, the size of particle
…………
8. Calculate the size of particle, if the distance between glass plate and screen is 22cm and
radius of first order dark ring is 4mm for wavelength of light is 450 nm.

References:

1. 18PYB103J – Physics: Semiconductor Physics Instructional Laboratory Manual


2. Lasers: Fundamentals and Applications, Ajay Ghatak and K. Thyagarajan, Springer, 2010
3. Introduction to Optics, Frank L. Pedrotti , Leno M. Pedrotti, Leno S. Pedrotti, Cambridge
University Press, 2017
9. STUDY OF ATTENUATION AND PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS OF
OPTICAL FIBER CABLE

Aim
(i) To determine the attenuation for the given optical fiber cable.
(ii) To measure the numerical aperture and hence the acceptance angle of the given fiber cables.

Theory
The optical fiber is a cylindrical, long, thin transparent structure made of glass and
plastic, which is designed to guide the light wave from one end to another. The light inside the
fiber is guided on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (TIR).

The propagation of light down optical fiber bears some similarity to the propagation of
microwaves down metal waveguides. Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels
along the fiber, caused by absorption, scattering and bending loss. It is also called signal loss or
fiber loss which is defined as the ratio of optical input power (Pi) to the output power (Pf). The
degree of attenuation depends on the wavelength of light transmitted. It is measured as
logarithmic ratio of power of incident light at one end (Pi) to the power of remaining light at
other end (Pf) in the given fiber cable of length L as shown in figure. It is measured in decibel
per kilometer (dB/km).

Fiber Optic
AC
Light Source
Fiber
Cable

DMM
Power Meter
(200 mV)

The following equation defines signal attenuation as a unit of length.


P 
10 log  i 
 Pf 
Attenuation = dB / km
L

Where, Pi = Power of light incident at one end of fiber (dB)


Pf = Power of remaining light at other end of fiber (dB)
L = Length of optical cable (km)
Numerical Aperture is the measure of the ability of an optical fiber to collect or confine
the incident light ray inside it. It is also referred as light collecting efficiency of the fiber cable.
Acceptance angle is defined as the maximum value of the angle of incidence at the entrance end
of the fiber, at which the angle of incidence at the core – cladding surface is equal to the critical
angle of the core medium. The light ray should strike the fiber end with in this cone of
acceptance else it is refracted out of the fiber.

Cladding (n2)
Air
n0 = 1

 C


A 

Core(n1)

B Cladding (n2)

Let us consider that a ray of light is launched into the fiber at an angle 1 which is less than the
acceptance angle a for the fiber as shown in figure.
Applying Snell’s law of refraction at A n0 sin 1  n1 sin  2 where (n0 = 1)

 
1
   
If     2 (or)  2    then sin 1  n1 sin      n1 cos  or sin 1  n1 1  sin 
2 2

2 2 2 

 
1
When TIR takes place, θ = θc and θ1 = θa then sin  a  n1 1  sin 2  c 2

sin  c n2 n
Applying Snell’s law of refraction at B  (or) sin  c  2 then
sin 90 n1 n1
1
 n 2
2

 
1
sin  a  n1 1   2    n12  n22 2 (i.e.) N . A  sin  a or  a  sin 1 ( N . A)
  n1  

This is called the numerical aperture (N.A). The numerical aperture is also defined as the sine of
the half of the acceptance angle.
Procedure

Apparatus required: Monochromatic light source, Optical power meter, 1m and 5m fiber cable,
Numerical aperture measurement JIG and Screen.

(i) Steps to find attenuation for optical fiber cable


1. Switch ON the light source and rotate power control to ensure minimum intensity of light.
2. Connect one end of the one meter fiber cable is to light source and other end to the optical
power meter.
3. Switch ON the optical power meter to record power of light (P i) for 1m fiber cable at
different light intensities.
4. Repeat the procedure for 5m fiber cable to record (Pf) at different intensities of light.

P 
10 log  i 
5. Calculate the attenuation for fiber cable at different light intensities as  Pf  dB/km.
L

(ii) Steps to find Numerical aperture and Acceptance angle


1. Connect one end of the one meter fiber cable to light source and the other end to the NA jig.
2. Switch ON the light source and rotate power control to ensure maximum intensity of light.
3. Connect 1m fiber cable such that light appears at other end of fiber connected with NA jig.
4. The white screen having four concentric circles (W = 10, 15, 20 and 25mm) is held vertically
in NA jig and distance is adjusted to coincide light spot with 10mm circle.
5. When diameter of light spot (W) is 10mm, the distance between screen and fiber end (L) is
noted.
6. The procedure is repeated for (W) is equal to15mm, 20mm and 25mm and (L) is noted.
7. Experiment is repeated for 5m cable and readings are tabulated in tabular column.

W
8. Calculate the numerical aperture for fiber cable as (NA) = 4 L2  W 2

9. Calculate the acceptance angle for fiber cable as 2θ = 2 x sin-1(NA)


Table 1: Determination of Attenuation for optical fiber cables
L = 4 m = 4 × 10 – 3 km

P 
10 log  i 
Intensity of Power output for Power output for
Attenuation =  Pf 
Light Source 1m cable (Pi) 5m cable (Pf) L
dB / km

Minimum

Maximum

Table 2: Measurement of Numerical Aperture and Acceptance angle

Diameter of Distance between Acceptance angle


W
Circle the spot (W) source and screen (L) NA = (2θ) = 2 x sin-1(NA)
4L  W
2 2

( mm) (mm) (degree)

- - 1m 5m 1m 5m 1m 5m

Mean

Result
1. Attenuation at source level A = ………….. (dB/km)
2. Attenuation at source level B = ………….. (dB/km)
3. The numerical aperture for fiber cable (1m) = ............. and (5m) = ………….
4. The acceptance angle for fiber cable (1m) =............... (degree) and (5m) = ………. (degree).
Assignment (Self Evaluation):
1. The light inside the optical fiber is guided by the principle of …………..
2. Explain the physical structure of optical fiber.
3. What are the types of light propagation in optical fiber?
4. Define: Attenuation for optical fiber.
5. What is numerical Aperture?
6. Write the expression to relate numerical aperture and acceptance angle.
7. How does light propagation varies in core-cladding interface if light enters above acceptance
angle at air-core interface?
8. Calculate the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of fiber with a core index of 1.52 and
a cladding index of 1.50.

References:

1. 18PYB103J – Physics: Semiconductor Physics Instructional Laboratory Manual.


2. Introduction to Fiber Optics, Ajay Ghatak and K. Thyagarajan, Cambridge University Press,
1998.
3. Fiber Optic Communications, Downing, James N., Clifton Park: Thomson Delmar Learning,
2004
10. Calculation of Lattice Cell Parameters – X-ray Diffraction
Aim

Calculate the lattice cell parameters from the powder X-ray diffraction data.

Theory:

When an X-ray is shined on a crystal, it diffracts in a pattern characteristic of the


structure. In powder X-ray diffraction, the diffraction pattern is obtained from a powder of the
material, rather than an individual crystal. Powder diffraction is often easier and more convenient
than single crystal diffraction since it does not require individual crystals be made. Powder X-ray
diffraction (XRD) also obtains a diffraction pattern for the bulk material of a crystalline solid,
rather than of a single crystal, which doesn't necessarily represent the overall material. A
diffraction pattern plots intensity against the angle of the detector 2ϴ.

Bragg's Law

X-rays are partially scattered by atoms when they strike the surface of a crystal. The part of the
X-ray that is not scattered passes through to the next layer of atoms, where again part of the X-
ray is scattered and part passes through to the next layer. This causes an overall diffraction
pattern, similar to how a grating diffracts a beam of light. In order for an X-ray to diffract the
sample must be crystalline and the spacing between atom layers must be close to the radiation
wavelength.

If beams diffracted by two different layers are in phase, constructive interference occurs and the
diffraction pattern shows a peak, however if they are out of phase, destructive interference occurs
appear and there is no peak. Diffraction peaks only occur if

2d sinϴ = nλ

where

 θ is the angle of incidence of the X-ray,


 n is an integer,
 λ is the wavelength, and
 d is the spacing between atom layers.

Since a highly regular structure is needed for diffraction to occur, only crystalline solids will
diffract; amorphous materials will not show up in a diffraction pattern.

A powder X-ray diffractometer consists


of an X-ray source (usually an X-ray
tube), a sample stage, a detector and a
way to vary angle θ. The X-ray is focused
on the sample at some angle θ, while the
detector opposite the source reads the
intensity of the X-ray it receives at
2θ away from the source path. The
incident angle is than increased over time
while the detector angle always remains
2θ above the source path.

Formula

For a cubic crystal


1 (h 2  k 2  l 2 )

d2 a2

For a tetragonal crystal


1  (h 2  k 2 ) l  
  2
d2  a 2 c 

For a orthorhombic crystal


1  h2   k 2   l 2 
 2    2    2 
d2 a  b  c 
     

The lattice parameter and interplanar distance are given for a cubic crystal as,


a  h2  k 2  l 2 Å
2 sin 

a
d Å
h  k2  l2
2

Where, a = Lattice parameter

d = Interplanner distance

λ = Wavelength of the CuKα radiation (1.5405)

h, k, l= Miller integers

Procedure:

Apparatus required

Powder X-ray diffraction diagram

From the 2 values on a powder photograph, the  values are obtained. The sin2 values are
tabulated. From that the values of sin 2  , sin 2  , sin 2  are determined and are
1 2 3
sin  min
2
sin  min
2
sin 2  min

tabulated. The values of sin 2  are rounded to the nearest integer. This gives the value of
3
sin 2  min
h2+k2+l .From these the values of h,k,l are determined from the Table.6.7.1.

From the h,k,l values, the lattice parameters are calculated using the relation


a  h2  k 2  l 2 Å
2 sin 

a
d Å
h2  k 2  l 2

Value of h2 + k 2 + l2 for different planes


h, k, l h2 + k2 + l2 h, k, l h2 + k2 + l2
100 1 300 9
110 2 310 10
111 3 311 11
200 4 322 12
210 5 320 13
211 6 321 14
220 8 40 16
221 9 410 17

sin 2  sin 2  sin 2 


a d
S. No 2ϴ sin2 ϴ 1 2 3 h2+k2+l2 hkl
sin 2  min sin 2  min sin 2  min
Å Å

Lattice determination

Lattice type Rule for reflection to be observed

Primitive P None

Body centered I hkl : h + k + l = 2 n

Face centered F hkl : h, k, l either all odd or all even

Depending on the nature of the h,k,l values the lattice type can be determined.
Result:

The lattice parameters are calculated theoretically from the powder x-ray diffraction
pattern.

Assignment (Self Evaluation):


1. Why X-Rays produce diffraction in crystals?

2. Define: Bragg’s Law

3. What is meant by Lattice cell parameters?

4. What is cubic crystal system?

5. What are miller indices?

References:

1. 18PYB103J – Physics: Semiconductor Physics Instructional Laboratory Manual.


2. Dann, S.E. Reactions and Characterization of SOLIDS. Royal Society of Chemistry,
USA (2002).
3. Skoog, D.A.; Holler, F.J.; Crouch, S.R. Principles of Instrumental Analysis. Sixth
Edition, Thomson Brooks/Cole, USA (2007).

You might also like