Main Lab Report1
Main Lab Report1
Jx=I/wt (1)
A current is made to flow through the sample material and the voltage difference between its top
and bottom is measured using a volt-meter. When the applied magnetic field B=0,the voltage
difference will be zero.
We know that a current flows in response to an applied electric field with its direction as
conventional and it is either due to the flow of holes in the direction of current or the movement
of electrons backward. In both cases, under the application of magnetic field the magnetic
Lorentz force, causes the carriers to curve upwards. Since the charges cannot
escape from the material, a vertical charge imbalance builds up. This charge imbalance produces
an electric field which counteracts with the magnetic force and a steady state is established. The
vertical electric field can be measured as a transverse voltage difference using a voltmeter.
In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Mathematically we
can express it as
(2)
Where 'e' the electric charge, 'E' the hall electric field developed, 'B' the applied magnetic field
and 'v' is the drift velocity of charge carriers.
And the current 'I' can be expressed as,
(3)
Where 'n' is the number density of electrons in the conductor of length l ,breadth 'w' and
thickness 't'.
Using (1) and (2) the Hall voltage VH can be written as,
(4)
(5)
3. Switch over the display in the Hall Effect setup to the voltage side.
4. Now place the probe in the magnetic field as shown in fig and switch on the
electromagnetic power supply and adjust the current to any desired value. Rotate the
Hall probe until it become perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage will be
maximum in this adjustment.
5. Measure the hall voltage and tabulate the readings.
6. Measure the Hall voltage for different magnetic fields and tabulate the readings.
8. From the data, calculate the Hall coefficient, carrier mobility and current density.
VH .t
i) Hall coefficient (RH) = × 10 8 cm3 C – 1
IH
where VH = Hall voltage (volt)
t = Thickness of the sample (cm)
I = Current (ampere)
H = Magnetic filed (Gauss)
1
ii) Carrier density ( n ) = cm – 3
RH q
VH .t
(4) The hall coefficient of the sample = RH = × 10 8
IH
= -------------
1
(5) The carrier density of the sample = n=
RH q
= -------------
= ---------------
Result:
1. The Hall coefficient of the given semi conducting material =
References:
Theory:
Aim:
To find the band gap of the material of the given thermistor using post office box.
PTC thermistors can be used as heating elements in small temperature controlled ovens. NTC
thermistors can be used as inrush current limiting devices in power supply circuits. Inrush
current refers to maximum, instantaneous input current drawn by an electrical device when first
turned on. Thermistors are available in variety of sizes and shapes; smallest in size are the beads
with a diameter of 0.15mm to 1.25mm.
There are two fundamental ways to change the temperature of thermistor internally or
externally. The temperature of thermistor can be changed externally by changing the temperature
of surrounding media and internally by self-heating resulting from a current flowing through the
device.
Apparatus Required
Thermistor, thermometer, post office box, power supply, galvanometer, insulating coil
and glass beakers.
Principle and formulae
P R
(1) Wheatstone’s Principle for balancing a network Q S
Of the four resistances, if three resistances are known and one is unknown, the unknown
resistance can be calculated.
(2) The band gap for semiconductors is given by,
2.303 loge RT
Eg = 2k
1
T
Resistance of
Temp. of the
thermistor 1 Resistance Resistance Resistance 2.303 log10
thermistor RT
T in P in Q in R RT
P
T = t+273 = R
Q
Thermistor
dy
2.303 log RT
P Q dx
2V
G
R R
1/T (K )-1
R R
K K
Observation
Calculation
10
= RT ( R ) (or)
1000
5. Thus, the resistance of the thermistor is found out accurately to two decimals, at
room temperature. The lower value may be assumed to be RT (0.01R).
6. Then the thermistor is heated, by keeping it immersed in insulating oil. For every
10 K rise in temperature, the resistance of the thermistor is found out, (i.e) R T’s are
found out. The reading is entered in the tabular column.
1
Graph: A graph is drawn between in X axis and 2.303 log RT in Y axis where
T
T is the temperature in K and RT is the resistance of the thermistor at TK. The graph will be as
shown in the Fig.6.1(a).2.
dy
Band gap (Eg)=2k slope of the graph = 2k ( )
dx
Result
References:
AIM: To study the photoconductive nature of the given light dependent resistor (LDR) and to
plot the V-I characteristics of the LDR.
THEORY:
Light dependent resistor, LDRs or Photoresistoris a device, which is often used to detect the
presence or the level of light.A LDR is a device component that is sensitive to light. When light
falls upon it then the resistance changes. Values of the resistance of the LDR may change over
many orders of magnitude the value of the resistance falling as the level of light increases.
Principle:
An LDR is made using semiconductor material with a high resistance. When light is incident on
LDR, a photon is absorbed and thereby it excites an electron from valence band into conduction
band. Due to such new electrons coming up in conduction band area, the electrical resistance of
the device decreases. Thus the LDR or photo-conductive transducer has the resistance which is
the inverse function of radiation intensity.
hc
λ0 =
eEω
whereλ0 = threshold wavelength in meters, e = charge on one electron in Coulombs,Eω = work
function of the metal in eV.
Any radiation with wavelength λgreater than threshold wavelength(λ0), will not produceany
change in the resistance of this device. Due to large energy gaps, the LDR materials have
extremely high resistivity at room temperature. So when the device is kept in darkness, its
resistance is called as dark resistance.
The materials used for photoresists are semiconductors and include materials such as CdSe, CdS,
CdTe, InSb, InP, PbS, PbSe, Ge, Is, GaAs. Each material gives different properties in terms of
the wavelength of sensitivity, etc.
PROCEDURE:
Apparatus Required:
Formula:
V
R
By ohm’s law, V IR (or) I ohm
where R is the resistance of the LDR (i.e.) the resistance when the LDR is closed. V and I
represents the corresponding voltage and current respectively.
Determination of Photoresistance:
1. Circuit connections are given in as shown in Fig. 3.2
2. Light source is turnedON and made to fall on the LDR.
3. Corresponding Voltmeter and Ammeter readings are noted.The value of the
resistance can be calculated by Ohm’s law.
4. The procedure is repeated by keeping the light source at different distances away
from the LDR.
5. A graph is plotted between resistance and distance of LDR from the light source.
6. The value of the dark resistance is determined using Voltmeter and Ammeter
readings when the Light source is turnedOFF.
1 k ( 0 - 10 mA) Y
+ _
A
RR
Light (k)
10 V + +
V LDR
_
_
X
Distance (cm)
Fig. 3.2. Circuit diagram Fig. 3.3. Model graph
OBSERVATION:
Voltmeter reading when the LDR is closed = …… V
Ammeter reading when the LDR is closed = ……. A
V
Dark resistance = R = ……. ohm
I
RESULT:
1. What isLDR?
2. What isThreshold Wavelength of LDR
3. What is Dark Resistance?
4. Define Work Function of metal
5. Write down four applications of LDR?
6. Describe how the resistance of an LDR changes in light and dark conditions?
7. Why the resistance of the LDR varies as the distance between the light source and LDR
gets varied?
8. Determine the resistance of the LDR component at 10 cm.
9. Evaluate the dark resistance of the LDR component at room temperature.
References:
Aim
To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor (Germanium) using four probe
method.
In this method, four probes are utilized to measure the resistance of the semiconductor
material. For example, two of the outer probes are used to send the current from the source meter
and other two inner probes are used to measure the voltage drop across the sample. The typical
set up of the four-probe method is shown in Figure. There are four equally spaced tungsten metal
tips supported by springs at one end to mount the sample surface without any damage. Where the
thickness (t) of the materials is much higher than the space between the probes (s), then the
differential resistance due to spherical protrusion of current emanating from the outer probe tips
is
Therefore,
Where V and I are the voltage and current across and through the crystal chip.
2.3026 log10
E g 2k B in eV
1
T
where kB is Boltzmann constant equal to 8.6 × 10 –5
eV / kelvin , and is the resistivity of the
semi-conductor crystal.
Procedure
Apparatus
Probes arrangement (it should have four probes, coated with zinc at the tips). The probes
should be equally spaced and must be in good electrical contact with the sample), Sample
(Germanium or siliconcrystal chip with non-conducting base), Oven (for the variation of
temperature of the crystal from roomtemperature to about 200°C), A constant current generator
(open circuit voltage about 20V, current range0 to 10mA), Milli-voltmeter (range from 100mV
to 3V), Power supply for oven Thermometer.
1. Connect one pair of probes to direct current source through milliammeter and other
pair to millivoltmeter.
2. Switch on the constant current source and adjust current I, to a described value, say 2
mA.
3. Connect the oven power supply and start heating.
4. Measure the inner probe voltage V, for various temperatures.
Graph
10 3
Plot a graph in and log10 as shown in Fig.6.1(b).2. Find the slope of the curve
T
AB log 10
. So the energy band gap of semiconductor (Germanium) is given by
BC 10 3
T
2.3026 log 10
E g 2k
1T
AB AB AB
2k 2.3026 1000 2 8.6 10 5 2.3026 1000 eV 0.396 eV
CD CD CD
To determine the resistivity of the semi-conductor for various temperatures:
Observations:
Direct Current A
Source
Probes
Oven Power
Supply
Sample
Ge Crystal
OVEN
1
T
Result
Reference:
1. Introduction To Semiconductor Materials And Devices, M.S Thyagi, Publisher John Wiley&
Sons,2008
2. Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 3rd Ed, S.M.Sze, Kwok K .Ng, Publisher John Wiley&
Sons,2008
5. Study of V-I and V-R characteristics of a solar cell and Determination of
efficiency of solar cell
Aim
To study the V-I and V-R characteristics of a solar cell. In addition to that, calculate the
efficiency of the given solar cell using V-I characteristics.
Theory:
Solar cells are typically illuminated with sunlight and are intended to convert the solar
energy into electrical energy. The solar energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation, more
specifically described as "black-body". The sun's spectrum is consistent with that of a black body
at a temperature of 5800 K. The radiation spectrum has a peak at 0.8 eV. A significant part of the
spectrum is in the visible range of the spectrum (400 - 700 nm). The power density is
approximately 100 mW/cm2. Only part of the solar spectrum actually makes it to the earth's
surface. Scattering and absorption in the earth's atmosphere, and the incident angle affect the
incident power density. Therefore, the available power density depends on the time of the day,
the season and the latitude of a specific location. Of the solar light, which does reach a solar cell,
only photons with energy larger than the energy bandgap of the semiconductor generate electron-
hole pairs. In addition, one finds that the voltage across the solar cell at the point where it
delivers its maximum power is less than the bandgap energy in electron volt. Asymmetric of
band structure, it creates separation of electrons and holes and it prevented electron-hole
recombination. Figure 1 provides information on p-n diode solar cell.
The parameter that is of chief concern to researchers and practitioners alike is electrical
efficiency, from here on referred to as efficiency. Although in principle this can be calculated by
the ratio of output power PO to input power PI, in practice it is only calculated under the ideal
condition that PO is a maximum. To satisfy this condition, the resistance across the solar cell or
module under test is varied across a wide enough range for the relationship of voltage against
current to take the form of the curve in Figure 2. At zero resistance the current is at its highest
possible value, called the short-circuit current, ISC, while at maximum resistance the voltage is at
a maximum, referred to as the open-circuit voltage, VOC. Returning to ISC and increasing the
resistance above the impedance of the solar cell, the voltage increases quickly and the current
decreases slowly until the ‘knee’ of the curve. At this point, known as the maximum power point
(MPP), the power (product of voltage and current) is at a maximum and the related values of
voltage and current are referred to as VMPP and IMPP respectively (see Figure 2).
Figure 2 I-V curve showing Maximum Power Point Current and Voltage
The solar cell provides different capacities depending on the actual working point in
which it is operated. The operating point at which the maximum power is provided is called the
Maximum Power Point (MPP). As the power of a working point always corresponds to the
surface V-I, this area must be the maximum in the case of the MPP. This case is shown in
Figure 4.11. The current and voltage values associated with the MPP are called IMPP and VMPP.
The efficiency of a solar cell describes what portion of the optical power P I incident on the cell is
output as electrical energy PMPP again.
Procedure
Apparatus
Solar cell, voltmeter,milliammeter, a dial type resistance box, Keys, illuminating lamps,
connecting wires etc.
When an external circuit is connected through the p-n junction device, a current passes
through the circuit. Therefore, the device generates power when the electromagnetic radiation is
incident on it. The voltmeter is connected in parallel with the given solar cell through a plug key.
A milliammeter and a variable resistor are connected in series to the solar cell through a key as
shown in the Fig. The solar cell can be irradiated by sun’s radiation. Instead, it can also be
irradiated by a filament bulb (75 W). The resistance value is adjusted by a resistance box and the
variation of V-I is plotted. From the graph calculate maximum power point.
Distance between solar panel Distance between solar panel
(V) (V)
Observation:
Result:
2. Introduction To Semiconductor Materials And Devices, M.S Thyagi, Publisher John Wiley&
Sons,2008
3. Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 3rd Ed, S.M.Sze, Kwok K .Ng, Publisher John Wiley&
Sons,2008
6. Characteristic of PN junction diode under forward bias and reverse bias
Aim: To plot the characteristics curve of PN junction diode under Forward bias and Reverse bias
Theory:
1. Forward Voltage Drop (VF): Is the forward biasing junction level voltage (0.3V for
Germanium and 0.7V for Silicon Diode )
2. Average Forward Current (IF): It is the forward biased current due to the drift electron
flow or the majority carriers. If the average forward current exceeds its value the diode
gets over heated and may be damaged.
3. Peak Reverse Voltage (VR): It is the maximum reverse voltage across the diode at it
reverse biased condition. Over this reverse voltage diode will go for breakdown due to its
minority carriers.
4. Maximum Power Dissipation (P): It is the product of the forward current and the forward
voltage.
It is only due to the minority carriers. This amount of voltage is sufficient for these minority
carriers to break the depletion region. At this situation sharp current will flow through this
junction. This breakdown of voltage is of two types.
Avalanche Breakdown: it is not properly sharp, rather inclined linear graph i.e. after
break down small increase in reverse voltage causes more sharp current gradually.
Zener Breakdown: This breakdown is sharp and no need to increase reverse bias voltage
to get more current, because current flows sharply.
Procedure:
For the forward bias of a P-N junction, P-type is connected to the positive
terminal while the N-type is connected to the negative terminal of a battery. The potential
at P-N junction can be varied with the help of potential divider. At some forward voltage
(0.3 V for Ge and 0.7V for Si) the potential barrier is altogether eliminated and current
starts flowing. This voltage is known as threshold voltage (Vth) or cut in voltage or knee
voltage .It is practically same as barrier voltage VB. For V<Vth, the current is negligible.
As the forward applied voltage increase beyond threshold voltage, the forward current
rises exponentially.
Observation:
For the reverse bias of p-n junction, P-type is connected to the negative terminal
while N-type is connected to the positive terminal of a battery. Under normal reverse
voltage, a very little reverse current flows through a P-N junction. But when the reverse
voltage is increased, a point is reached when the junction break down with sudden rise in
reverse current. The critical value of the voltage is known as break down (VBR). The
break down voltage is defined as the reverse voltage at which P-N junction breakdown
with sudden rise in reverse current.
Observation:
Reference:
AIM: To study the Illumination Characteristics and V-I Characteristicsof given Photocell.
THEORY:
A device used to convert light energy into electrical energy is called Photo Electric Cell or
Photocell.
Photo-Voltaic Cell is one among the three types of photo cell other than Photo Emissive Cell and
Photo Conductive Cell. Photo-Voltaic Cell works on the principle of Photo-Voltaic Effect. This
is called true cell because it generates emf without the application of any external potential
difference but by only the light incident on it. It consists of a semiconductor layer formed on the
surface of them etal plate. Then a film of semi-transparent metal is coated over the semi-
conductor. This film maintains the electrical contact with the semiconductor and simultaneously
allows the incident light to fall on the semi-conductor.
When light is incident on the semi-conductor, electrons are emitted which flow in a direction
opposite to the light rays. If the circuit is completed between the surface transparent film and
metal base through a low resistance galvanometer (G), the current can be measured. If the
resistance of the circuit is very small, the current is proportional to the intensity of incident light.
The main advantage of this cell is that it requires no external voltage for its operation. This type
of photocell is widely used in photographic exposure meters, photometers and illumination
meters etc.
Let ‘IL’ be the Luminous intensity of an electric lamp and ‘E’ be the Illuminance at a point
distance‘d’ from it. According to the inverse square law;
IL
E=
d2
If light from the lamp be incident on the photovoltaic cell placed at a distance ‘d’ from it, then
the photo-current IPh given out is proportional to E.
1
IPh ∝ E ∝
d2
Thus by varying the distance d (or Illumination E) the magnitude of the photo-current IPh
generated in the photo cell can be studied.
PROCEDURE:
Apparatus: Lamp house with lamp, Optical bench, Photocell housed with Red and Black
sockets, Photocell Characteristic Kit, Measuring Scale and connecting wires.
A. Illumination Characteristics:
1. Arrange the optical bench in such a way that both the lamp and the photo cell
are at the same level as shown in the figure.
2. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter as per circuit diagram shown on the
apparatus and set RL to minimum position.
3. A 100 W lamp is arranged over the Photovoltaic Cell such that light falls on it
at normal. Initially, the lamp is placed at maximum distance and is switched
ON.
4. The voltage and the current are noted.
5. The intensity of the lamp is varied in steps by changing the distance of lamp.
The readings are noted in Table 1.
B. Current-Voltage Characteristics :
10
20
30
40
50
References:
Theory
Diffraction is a phenomenon of waves bending when encountering obstacles or slits.
Light diffraction has an analytical application to determine the size of the obstacle. This
analytical method is based on the fact that the angle of diffraction is inversely proportional to the
size of the obstacle. Diffraction of light through a rectangular obstacle is a straight forward
extension of one dimensional diffraction. A circular obstacle is qualitatively similar, but an
accurate quantitative treatment of the pattern requires more complicated mathematics. The
diffraction pattern observed due to circular obstacle is called the "Airy Disk”. Using Mie theory,
the diffraction angle for first minimum is θ = 1.22 λ/D, where D is the diameter of the obstacle
and λ is wavelength of light. On a screen a distance L >> D from the obstacle, the minimum is
seen at a radial distance (r) = 1.22 λL/D from the center of the pattern.
The term LASER is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. It is a mechanism for emitting electromagnetic radiation via the process of stimulated
emission. LASER diffraction is widely used for particle size analysis whose principle depends on
relationship that exists between light scattering (its angle and intensity) and particle size. The
larger the particle, the smaller is the angle and the higher the intensity of the scattering. When
monochromatic light from LASER source is passed through a glass plate coated with thin layer
of lycopodium powder with spherical particles (obstacle), diffraction of light occurs as a result of
particle size (micron or less) which are comparable with wavelength of light. Thus, circular ring
pattern are observed on screen as shown in figure and on measuring radii of the observed rings,
we can calculate the size of the particles.
If “r” is the radius of the first dark ring and “D” is the distance between the obstacle and screen
on which the diffraction pattern is obtained, then
tan
r
, Since (θ) is very small in this experiment we consider tan r
D D
r Laser
Glass plate with
fine particle
spread
Apparatus required: Monochromatic LASER source, a glass plate coated with thin layer of
lycopodium powder, Screen and a meter Scale.
10. Repeat the experiment for different distance (D) between the glass plate and the screen.
Unit m - m m
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
3
2
Mean
Result
The average size of the particles measured using LASER = ………........ μm
References:
Aim
(i) To determine the attenuation for the given optical fiber cable.
(ii) To measure the numerical aperture and hence the acceptance angle of the given fiber cables.
Theory
The optical fiber is a cylindrical, long, thin transparent structure made of glass and
plastic, which is designed to guide the light wave from one end to another. The light inside the
fiber is guided on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (TIR).
The propagation of light down optical fiber bears some similarity to the propagation of
microwaves down metal waveguides. Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels
along the fiber, caused by absorption, scattering and bending loss. It is also called signal loss or
fiber loss which is defined as the ratio of optical input power (Pi) to the output power (Pf). The
degree of attenuation depends on the wavelength of light transmitted. It is measured as
logarithmic ratio of power of incident light at one end (Pi) to the power of remaining light at
other end (Pf) in the given fiber cable of length L as shown in figure. It is measured in decibel
per kilometer (dB/km).
Fiber Optic
AC
Light Source
Fiber
Cable
DMM
Power Meter
(200 mV)
Cladding (n2)
Air
n0 = 1
C
A
Core(n1)
B Cladding (n2)
Let us consider that a ray of light is launched into the fiber at an angle 1 which is less than the
acceptance angle a for the fiber as shown in figure.
Applying Snell’s law of refraction at A n0 sin 1 n1 sin 2 where (n0 = 1)
1
If 2 (or) 2 then sin 1 n1 sin n1 cos or sin 1 n1 1 sin
2 2
2 2 2
1
When TIR takes place, θ = θc and θ1 = θa then sin a n1 1 sin 2 c 2
sin c n2 n
Applying Snell’s law of refraction at B (or) sin c 2 then
sin 90 n1 n1
1
n 2
2
1
sin a n1 1 2 n12 n22 2 (i.e.) N . A sin a or a sin 1 ( N . A)
n1
This is called the numerical aperture (N.A). The numerical aperture is also defined as the sine of
the half of the acceptance angle.
Procedure
Apparatus required: Monochromatic light source, Optical power meter, 1m and 5m fiber cable,
Numerical aperture measurement JIG and Screen.
P
10 log i
5. Calculate the attenuation for fiber cable at different light intensities as Pf dB/km.
L
W
8. Calculate the numerical aperture for fiber cable as (NA) = 4 L2 W 2
P
10 log i
Intensity of Power output for Power output for
Attenuation = Pf
Light Source 1m cable (Pi) 5m cable (Pf) L
dB / km
Minimum
Maximum
- - 1m 5m 1m 5m 1m 5m
Mean
Result
1. Attenuation at source level A = ………….. (dB/km)
2. Attenuation at source level B = ………….. (dB/km)
3. The numerical aperture for fiber cable (1m) = ............. and (5m) = ………….
4. The acceptance angle for fiber cable (1m) =............... (degree) and (5m) = ………. (degree).
Assignment (Self Evaluation):
1. The light inside the optical fiber is guided by the principle of …………..
2. Explain the physical structure of optical fiber.
3. What are the types of light propagation in optical fiber?
4. Define: Attenuation for optical fiber.
5. What is numerical Aperture?
6. Write the expression to relate numerical aperture and acceptance angle.
7. How does light propagation varies in core-cladding interface if light enters above acceptance
angle at air-core interface?
8. Calculate the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of fiber with a core index of 1.52 and
a cladding index of 1.50.
References:
Calculate the lattice cell parameters from the powder X-ray diffraction data.
Theory:
Bragg's Law
X-rays are partially scattered by atoms when they strike the surface of a crystal. The part of the
X-ray that is not scattered passes through to the next layer of atoms, where again part of the X-
ray is scattered and part passes through to the next layer. This causes an overall diffraction
pattern, similar to how a grating diffracts a beam of light. In order for an X-ray to diffract the
sample must be crystalline and the spacing between atom layers must be close to the radiation
wavelength.
If beams diffracted by two different layers are in phase, constructive interference occurs and the
diffraction pattern shows a peak, however if they are out of phase, destructive interference occurs
appear and there is no peak. Diffraction peaks only occur if
2d sinϴ = nλ
where
Since a highly regular structure is needed for diffraction to occur, only crystalline solids will
diffract; amorphous materials will not show up in a diffraction pattern.
Formula
The lattice parameter and interplanar distance are given for a cubic crystal as,
a h2 k 2 l 2 Å
2 sin
a
d Å
h k2 l2
2
d = Interplanner distance
h, k, l= Miller integers
Procedure:
Apparatus required
From the 2 values on a powder photograph, the values are obtained. The sin2 values are
tabulated. From that the values of sin 2 , sin 2 , sin 2 are determined and are
1 2 3
sin min
2
sin min
2
sin 2 min
tabulated. The values of sin 2 are rounded to the nearest integer. This gives the value of
3
sin 2 min
h2+k2+l .From these the values of h,k,l are determined from the Table.6.7.1.
From the h,k,l values, the lattice parameters are calculated using the relation
a h2 k 2 l 2 Å
2 sin
a
d Å
h2 k 2 l 2
Lattice determination
Primitive P None
Depending on the nature of the h,k,l values the lattice type can be determined.
Result:
The lattice parameters are calculated theoretically from the powder x-ray diffraction
pattern.
References: