EVS-SEM-I UNIT-I ENVIRONMENT AND ECOSYSTEM

BY DR. ANIL DHIMDHIME

Environment defined as “surroundings in which an organism operates including air, water, land and
natural resources, flora, fauna, humans and their inter relations.” Environment is the total of all living
(biotic) and non-living (abiotic) factors that compose the surrounding of man.

What lies around us is the environment. The air, with which we are always in touch and breath,
the sky above us, the land on which we live, the water features we come across and the
vegetation we see around us, are all the components of the environment. Environment is a
functioning live system. No organism can live in isolation and have to depend on his natural
environment for air, water and food.

The word environment comprises of an immense network of various living and non-living
components interacting continuously in a complex pattern. We have a naturally formed surrounding
that is called ‘Natural Environment’. Man on the earth is surrounded by Natural Environment as
well as Man-made or Artificial features (Cultural Environment-Anthropogenic).

Thus, Environment is the aggregate of the total conditions and surroundings of mankind, in
which they inhabit, through which they interact and which influences their way of life.
Environment refers to the surroundings in which we live. It includes air, soil, water, plants, birds
and animals around us.

Every factor (cold, heat, rain, humidity) of environment has its effects on our life and our
activities. Environment changes according to time and place. Environment is highly delicate
(fragile) and so we have to live in harmony with it; to protect our rich biodiversity. Environment
holds the key in the economic growth and survival of living things.

The rate of environmental degradation and its impacts has been increased due to the following
causes/reasons.

1) Increasing Population. 2) Development and advances in Science and Technology. 3)

Increasing human knowledge and interference with nature with advance technology.

The natural environment around man is being rapidly degraded at alarming levels. It is getting
consistently polluted due to smoke, dust, sewage, and city refuge. In most part of the world people
lives in unhygienic conditions with poor sanitation. With the present type of living, there is a steady
growing pressure on the resources like lithosphere (land), hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere
(air).

NATURE & SCOPE OF THE ENVIRONMENT

The subject of “Environmental science/studies” is a inter/multidisciplinary, holistic and

comprehensive in nature. It encompasses everything that deals with each and every aspect of
living and non-living. The nature of EVS is dynamic and heterogeneous.

Environment is one subject which is global in nature. For ex. air or water polluted by industrial
waste at one point can be dispersed and transported to many other places. Destruction of forests on
hill-slopes will have long-lasting effects not only on hill-slopes but also in the plain regions. This is

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because, most of the components of the environment are inter-related and interlinked to each
other.

Since EVS deals with the most important global and local issues, such as clean and fresh air to
breath, safe and clean water to drink and hygienic conditions to live, there is a need for trained
manpower to deal with the number of environmental issues.

The nature of environment is quite complex. Because it is a mixture of all the living and non-
living things that surrounds us. Environmental studies include these aspects of human race and
environmental mess.

Man has modified his biotic and physical surroundings by manipulated nature to the fullest. Man
has totally degraded the quality of environment by degrading water, air, land and vegetation.
He has exceeded the carrying capacity of mother earth.

Due to population explosion, major problems arised such as solid waste management,
degradation in agriculture due to pesticide and fertilizers, soil erosion, deforestation, pollution
of air, water and land, extinction of living species, loss of biodiversity, dwindling energy
resources. etc.

SCOPE OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Scope of the environment means ‘an extension of the views or the opportunity of environmental
understanding’. As the environment is composed of ‘whatever lies around us’, it is apparent that
the environment gives us a broad scope. Its comprehensive nature itself suggests its vastness.

However, the most common scope lies in understanding the environment in the following ways:

i)The nature of environment. ii) How it functions. iii) How it is being intervened and exploited
by human action. iv) How these interventions give rise to environmental issues like an
environmental degradation on local and global scale. V) How to mitigate the problems related to
the environmental loss, with the help of appropriate technology and wise action of man.

Scope of the environment includes the following subjects/topics/issues also.

● Natural Resources and its Degradation. ●Ecology and Biodiversity and its Degradation. ● Pollution
and Pollution control. ● Environmental issues in relation to development. ● Population and
Environment. Physical and Biological sciences, social sciences and humanities, economic, political
and psychological environment. ● Environmental perception and awareness. ● Environmental
education and training, control of environmental degradation. ● Conservation and management of
natural resources. ● Conservation of biodiversity. ● Impacts of human population on the environment.
● Environmental impact assessment and ● Sustainable development.

However, the common people look at the environment as being composed of only the natural or
physical features. As the components of cultural environment are becoming stronger day by day,
they are being included in the scope.

The structure of population, social composition and human behavior at the individual and a
‘group’ level, influences directly on energy utilization, population health, food security, etc. and
on human life of common people, that we have to consider their study. Therefore, the scope is
broadening and becoming deeper due to the complexity.

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The protection and proper utilization of environmental resources are necessary for the survival
of human civilization. Therefore, scope of environmental studies is extensively wide. Though man
depends upon physical spheres, he always attempts to modify them in desired direction. In doing
so, appropriate steps are not taken. Consequently, natural systems are disturbed.

Interactions between these elements of natural systems must be studied carefully because
interdependence is the foundation of environmental stability. Environmental study enables man
to accept his environmental responsibilities; otherwise, it may lead to environmental
disequilibrium. The role of environmental studies is vital in terms of proper identification of
environmental problems and their precise solutions with proper care and conservation of
resources.

Q. Write in detail about the nature and scope of the environment.

Q. Write short note on Nature of Environment.

Q. Write short note on Scope of Environment.

AIMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Develop an in-depth understanding of various environmental issues and concerns of national and
global importance. Develop a balanced view of the relationship between environment and
development. Understand concepts related to sustainable development vis-à-vis improvement of
quality of life. Develop a deeper concern for the environment and sense of commitment and
responsibility to take proactive action. To appreciate the role of the individual, community,
national and international agencies in resolving environmental problems. Respect customs and
traditions related to local conservation practices and accept indigenous eco-friendly technologies.
Develop skills to undertake investigative studies on various environmental issues. Participate in
activities in dealing with environmental problems.

i) AWARENESS-i.e. acquire sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems.

ii) SKILL- i.e. acquire skills for identifying environmental problems. iii) KNOWLEDGE- to
know conservation of natural resources. iv) EVALUATION ABILITY- to evaluate
environmental measures to control the degradation and education program in terms of social,
economic, ecological and aesthetic factors. v) ATTITUDE AND PARTICIPATION- to change
our careless attitude towards environment and to take part in the environment conservation
and preservation.

Q. Define the term ‘Environment’ and explain in brief the nature, scope and the aim of
Environmental studies.

Q. Write short on Aims of Environmental Studies.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental study becomes important as it helps us to understand the relation between man and
environment. It helps us to understand its components and the interrelation amongst the
components. It also gives an insight how a change, alternation or damage of any component may
gradually affect the entire natural system. EVS is a systematic study of environmental factors
which influence life on the earth and affects the human existence. It is that branch of knowledge

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which involve the better understanding of natural forces that affect the physical and emotional
health of man, and his wellbeing. EVS is a science concerned with all the problems faced by man
in relation to the surrounding totality.

EVS is logical study of complex physical/natural (abiotic and biotic factors), interrupted by man,
creating imbalance in environment. On imparting education, it helps to develop responsible
environmental behavior and bring changes in human attitudes leading to an improved
environment. It has also a Productive value, as it provides us with air, water, food, minerals and
raw materials for industries. The products we get from forests, oceans and from agriculture and
livestock. It has also an Aesthetic/Recreational/beauty value that influences our life. An
appreciation and concern for the ‘environment values’ need to be inculcated during the years of
education.

By imparting or studying the environment, it helps us to understand:

1) How natural environment functions. 2) How it provides us with basic necessities like air, water,
and food. 3) How the environment is getting spoiled by human actions. 4) And therefore, how to
mitigate the problems or environmental damage.

With business going ‘Green’, environment education is opening up career opportunities in the
corporate world, in private industries and as freelance consultants and NGOs who can assess,
analyses and help alleviate several problems related to environmental degradation, poverty and
hunger, public health and sanitation, famine and drought and so on.

Environmental studies in the light of above has a relevant place in the faculty of commerce
where the stakeholders are trained to understand trade, commerce, business, finance,
accounting, auditing and so on. It will be important for them to understand that, healthy
environment will keep business ‘Green’ an important agenda for the environment. It is clear
that good quality of life is greatly dependent on the healthy environment and quality of
interactions of human beings with the environment.

For the students of commerce faculty, it is not just study in terms of surplus and deficit but a
proper and wise use of resources that are to be utilized in industrial process. The large-scale
operations and activities like forestry (lumbering), mining and sand dredging, setting industrial
complexes, road/railway, buildings, dam construction, canal construction etc. cannot bypass the
environmental considerations. Any type of pre-survey for any project has to assess the
environment impact of the project in advance. Environmental studies have a direct relevance to
every section of the society regardless of caste, religion and profession.

Its main aspects are: ● Conservation of nature and natural resources. ● Conservation of
biological diversity. ● Control of environmental pollution. ● Stabilization of human population and
environment. ● Social issues in relation to development and environment. ● Development of non-
polluting renewable energy system and providing new dimension of nation’s security. Environmental
studies do not merely examine the Earth as a system. It encourages the development of a value system
that respects the co-existence of people, culture and environment, so that the world becomes a
better place to live in.

Q. Briefly explain the importance of Environmental studies.

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MAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP

The relationship between man and environment has changed with time. In the early stage of growth
and development, man was wanderer. He was totally dependent on the flora, fauna, climate,
water and terrain (land). His needs were food and security. Therefore, he was a physical/natural
man and his wants were limited. As man progressed, slowly he created his own social and
economic systems. With the development of technology his life improved. There were
improvements in food, shelter, access, and comforts. Development in all these areas changed the
relationship of man and environment over a period of time. Man, and Environment have a reciprocal
relationship. Environment influences man in numerous ways and in turn man also modifies the
environment to suit his requirements.

Environment’s Influence on Man:

Man’s basic needs of food, clothing and shelter are all determined by climate. His occupation,
depends on minerals found in the region and consequently industrialization also is determined
by nature. The availability of all the resources on this earth like air, water, soil, minerals and
climate is determined by natural forces and has a tremendous influence on human life and his
very existence on the planet earth.

Man’s Influence on the Environment:

With advancing and sophisticated technology, man has become more powerful than in the past.
Man having his own will and the developed skill can have his own impact on natural
environment. As per his wish he can change the landscape to his own convenience. He has
almost become a master of nature. He tried to overcome the difficulties arising out of natural
phenomena. In his tryst towards so called progress and growth every nation is modifying and
exploiting the natural environment to suit their individual needs and greed.

This has resulted in major environmental concerns/problems viz:

● Rapid exploitation of renewable resources like forest, fisheries, land etc. beyond their natural
capacity to generate. ● Reduction of biodiversity on the earth due to expansion of agricultural
land, human settlements, industrialization and subsequently urbanization. ● Faster decline of
energy resources for industrial development, transportation and household uses. ● Growth of
unplanned infrastructure in coastal areas, putting stress on fragile ecosystems like mangrove. ●
High levels of Green House Gases emissions and faster pace of Global Warming. ● Use of
chemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers for increasing the food production, but in the process
causing major health risks and environmental contamination. ● Increasing industrialization
causing a major problem of water, soil, air pollution. Man-Environment Relationship is two-
way process wherein both influence each other.

• Man’s lust (greed) for economic development has been mainly responsible for ruthless
exploitation of nature, resulting in environmental deterioration/degradation. • The consequences
of urbanization and industrialization are many although they have helped in development
accompanied by positive impacts. Massive migration of population from rural to urban areas,
unplanned urbanization, growth of slums in urban have resulted in environmental pollution and
social disparities.

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• According to Indian Constitution, development is not simply GDP growth, urbanization and
industrialization, contributing to improvement in material standard of living but means to establish
moral value system such as respect to nation, religion, people, animal, plants and overall
Environment.

Today, awareness and public participation at all levels of environment are the need of the hour. At
national and international levels, activities by the government and NGO can play important role in
reducing harmful effects. Even individuals can contribute towards a healthy environment. It is very
unfortunate that in spite of number of negative effects of tempering with nature, man is refusing to
learn the lessons from his mistakes.

Q. Briefly explain the relationship between Man and Environment.

COMPONENTS & TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTS

Environment has two broad components:

I) Natural or Physical components and II) Human or Anthropogenic components

I) Natural or Physical components

A) Abiotic (Non-living)-a) Location, b) Topography, c) climate, d) size and shape, e) coastline, f)

minerals and g) soil.

B) Biotic (Living)- a) Natural vegetation, b) Animals & Microorganism

II) Human or Anthropogenic components: a) Social and cultural b) Political, c) Economics &
Technological - Super structures (buildings, dams, bridges, roads, rail track).

I) NATURAL/PHYSICAL COMPONENTS

A) ABIOTIC/NON-LIVING FACTORS: - The factors of natural environment influence on

man’s life and his economics and commercial activities.

1) Location: the term location in Geography has been used since very early days of Romans and
Greeks. This term is derived from the Latin word ‘locus’, meaning place. It is a relative term. It
expresses relative occurrence of space.

Location of a place is a very vital component of environment. It is abiotic and natural. It also
refers to site, situation, and the position of the country on the surface of the earth. The location
of a country is one of the most important factors that influence the climate and also various types of
human activities that will develop in that country.

Location is a key factor in environmental analysis. It influences relative happenings in various

spaces. It plays a fundamental role in providing base for economic and commercial development.
Location of a country with reference to land masses and water bodies is of paramount importance to
their economic and commercial progress.

Q. Write short note on Location.

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2) Topography (Land forms)

Nature of a land of a region/country, like mountains, plains, valleys, plateau etc. forms the
topography. Relief (surface structure) is a basic physical factor which influence environment
vigorously. It denotes the nature of terrain (surface of earth) or the features of landscape, which
influence overall conditions and development in a region. Various types of land forms may give
different characters to natural as well as cultural landscape. Their impact can be seen on climate,
soil, vegetation, animal life, and even on human settlement and economic development.

The relief features broadly are: Mountains, Plains, and Plateaus.

i) Mountain, in general, restrict human settlement because of the rugged nature of terrain.
Transport and communication network and economic activities have restricted development
because of the uneven nature of terrain and the inaccessibility. Hence remained economically
backward. Agriculture is not much developed due uneven structure of terrain and rapid soil
erosion. Due to lack of transport and communication facilities human settlements and
manufacturing industries are not developed. Mountains offer limited opportunities for primitive
activities - such as fruit gathering, animal rearing, agriculture etc. Mountains are rich storehouse
of forest and mineral wealth. Around the mountains - industrial, mining and lumbering
activities are well developed.

Mountains are the birthplace of snow-fed rivers which have perennial water supply and also
provide suitable sites for hydel-power generation. These provide good grazing grounds for cattle
rearing. Mountains serve as tourist centers, hill resorts, health centers because of scenic beauty,
soothing environment and adventure activities (trekking, hiking, paragliding etc.). Mountains block
the passage (route, path, way) of moisture-laden winds (clouds), cause rainfall (orographic rain)
as in the case of Himalayan mountains.

With the rapid revolution in transport and communication technology, research in genetics of
plants, agriculture crops and animal breeding (hybrid varieties), many mountainous regions
which were considered hopeless for the development of economic and commercial activities
have become very useful for man. Today, most of the plantation crops like rubber, tea, coffee
etc. are cultivated along the lower slopes of some mountains and tourism in tropical countries
has developed in the areas of high mountains.

ii) Plains cover only about 50% of earth’s surface, (20% desert, 20% wet and marsh land), available
land is only 10% for agriculture which support 90% of the world population. The river valleys
have fertile rich plains which always attracted human settlement. Plain invites larger human
settlements and attract all types of economic activities, e.g., agriculture, industry because of these
is highly accessible (facility of road and rail route transport) that facilitate very good economic
growth and smooth movements.

Transport and communication networks are dense (thick), because of the even nature of surface,
convenience and low cost of lay out (construction). The concentration of population in plains is
mainly because of fertility of soil, even land, presence of well network of river system and well-
developed transport facilities. Since transport and communication facilities are well developed and
different raw materials are easily available, a number of manufacturing industries are also well
developed. The development of both, agriculture and manufacturing industries helps to develop
trade. Food grains and manufactured products from plains move to mountains and minerals and wood
move to the plains. Thus, develops trade between mountainous region and plain region.

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iii) Plateau is an elevated tract of level land also known as tableland. Plateau can also be defined
as ‘the rolling or flat land at higher elevation’. The development of economic and commercial
activities on plateau depends upon their location, climate, natural vegetation and the availability
of mineral and power resources.

They support the primary activities like mining, grazing or agriculture, and surplus animal
products for trade. e.g. Tibetan plateau, Plateaus of N. America, Central Asia etc. When located in
the interior of the continents, they are less developed. Plateau located close to the sea are easily
accessible and therefore, they develop large number of activities like- plantation agriculture
(coffee, tea, sugarcane), mining, industries, trade etc. For e.g. Deccan Plateau in India, Brazilian
Plateau, Plateau of East Africa etc.

Q. Topography/Relief of the area influences development of economic activities. Explain. OR

Q. Write in details about the features of environment like Mountains, Plains, and Plateaus and
its role in economic development.

3) Climate: - Climate of a place / region is the most dominant / fundamental factor / component
of natural / physical environment, depicts general condition of the atmosphere / aerial
environment and affects diversity of plants, animals and its habitat, food, shelter, cloths,
activities and economic development.

‘Climate’ refers to average weather conditions of a region throughout the seasons. The
Changing condition of the atmosphere prevailing for a longer interval of time is referred to as
CLIMATE. Climate is the sum total of the atmospheric conditions experienced over any region
during a long period of time.

It is governed by latitude, altitude, position relative to continents, oceans and local geographical
conditions, etc. Climate influences all the dimensions of human life, ranging from man’s
physical and mental abilities to the choice of his activities. Human settlements, capacities to
undertake work, health condition of human beings and thereby the efficiency. soil types,
vegetation types etc. are all affected by climate. Climate is that factor of our physical
environment which has a profound effect on economic development and activities of man

Climate and soil affect the plant life in different ways and the whole of agricultural sciences.
Temperature, humidity, winds, air-pressure, rainfall, etc. are all the basic elements of climate.
The vegetal cover over the globe depends mostly on climatic condition, soil type, rainfall and
temperature.

Climate influences ecological character of a region. The different forms of ecosystems such as
desert, glacial, coastal, etc., result out of climatic variation. Climate influences land forms, soils,
natural vegetation, animal life and hence to a larger extent, human life and economic and
commercial activities.

The soil types also differ from region to region, and greatly influenced by climate. Agriculture
decisions when to grow and what to grow are influenced by the climate. For e.g. Rubber cannot
be grown anywhere else other than the tropical countries or wheat can be grown worldwide but
the time of cultivating wheat is different. The world is classified into natural regions on the basis
of climatic belts. These are tropical, subtropical, intermediate or temperate and polar. These are

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again sub-divided into natural regions, i.e., Equatorial, Monsoon, Savanna, Mediterranean, etc.
All areas of a natural region show homogeneous conditions.

It also points to the distinct advantage enjoyed by each region in the matter of certain products
and activities. Temperate Grasslands (Prairies of North America and Steppes of Eurasia) are the
‘granaries of the world’. Tea, coffee, cocoa, sugarcane, bananas and rubber, etc. are all crops
grown well in tropical climate. Climatic dissimilarity forms the fundamental basis of global trade.
The distribution of population is influenced by climate. Areas with good climates attract tourism
development.

Accumulated influence of human activities on climate can be seen in the form of Global warming,
acid rain, and smog, etc. Climate also have its impact on typical house types, clothing, food
eating habits. Climatic condition like snowfall, stormy, fog, cloudy and excess rainfall affects
the transport like air, water, road, rail and communication facility.

Q. Climate is the most fundamental components of the environment. Explain. OR

How climate influences / affect diversity of plants, animals and its habitat, food, shelter, cloths,
activities and economic development.

(4) Geological Structure (Lithology) or Rock Structure

It is a composition of underlying rocks in a region. Rocks contains certain economic minerals

and hence such areas are attractive for mining activities. The geological structure (soil & rock)
and physiography (plain, mountain, valleys, sea shore) of an area plays an important role/part in
shaping its environmental conditions and an overall situation.

Most of the plateau regions are found to contain numerous metallic minerals while the sea-basins
and alluvial plains are potentially rich in the fuel minerals like coal, oil and natural gas. The
countries having vast deposits of coal and especially oil and gas have dominated the world
economy (OPEC-Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) like Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq,
Venezuela, Algeria, Indonesia, Nigeria and United Arab Emirates (UAE). While recently the
countries like Australia, Canada, France, Namibia have gained importance due to their richness in the
Uranium ore that is essential for the atomic power generation. The occurrence of the building
stones, sand and clay is also significant at the local level.

Resistance to the earthquakes also depends upon the geological structure and choosing sites for
large dams. Any wise engineer cannot go ahead with any building activity without taking into
consideration the geological structure of the area/region. Areas of weak structure may experience
earthquakes and volcano eruptions. Occurrence of such type may lead to the formation of folds,
faults and emergence, submergence in coastal lands. The process of denudation (erosion) due to
weathering depends on the strength of rock. The rate of erosion is high in areas with soft rocks
like ‘shale’ and with a steep slope, whereas it is very low in areas with hard rocks like ‘granite’ and
with a gentle slope.

The nature and type of rocks determine mineral availability; affects soil types (soil formation)
and water table. Sedimentary basins of new format contain mineral oil and natural gas but old
block regions with sedimentary rocks show coal availability. Igneous and metamorphic rocks
are usually rich in various minerals. Thus, the geological structure influence human settlement,
agriculture, mining, underground water supply and presence of hot springs.

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Q. Write short note on geological structure.

(5) Minerals – are natural gifts to mankind, indispensable for the modern-day advancement and
growth in all fields. Minerals resources lay a strong foundation in shaping the economy of a
country. The supply of various minerals is a prerequisite for industrial development.

Minerals are unevenly distributed over the surface of the earth depending on the types of rock
and format of the area. Most of minerals are finite in nature and non-renewable and hence call
for a judicious and rational use.

Some countries possess large amounts of the world’s known deposits of minerals and power
resources, while others are completely devoid of those particular minerals. For e.g., 75% of the
world’s coal reserves are concentrated in the USA and Western Europe. About 90% of the
world’s oil reserves are found in the USA and Middle-Eastern countries. This uneven distribution
of minerals and power resources has led to large-scale trade in mineral and power resources. The
economies of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq are entirely dependent on oil export.

(6) Water Bodies: Ocean, rivers, lakes, etc., constitute water bodies, which are important
ecosystems. Oceans constitute an essential part of global life-support system. They sustain nearly
half of all life on earth and provide us with vital resources.

Oceans have a profound effect on climate, living conditions and economic activities. These are not
only a rich storehouse of water but laden with calcium, magnesium, pearls, sponge and other sea
beads, etc. They are a rich source of food (fish), energy (tidal), medicine (sponge, algae) and
promote commerce and recreation. Deep sea fishing accounts for the largest number of fish catch
from oceans. Oceans have rich potential for harnessing tidal energy – a renewable source of
energy. Ocean transport is economically the most viable and convenient means of transport for
international trade, providing accessibility to practically every nook and corner of the world.

i) Rivers constitute one of the major factors of physical environment. Rivers have been
instrumental in creating history and producing geography of the areas. These have aided in
achieving landmarks in man’s progress and civilization through navigation (inland water transport),
irrigation and generation of hydro- electric power. The ancient civilization of mankind
flourished in river valleys. e.g., Indo-Gangetic, Whang-ho, Yangtze Kiang, Tigris-Euphrates
and Nile Valley. Ganga has proved to be a boon for India. Egypt is called the gift of the Nile.

Rivers help in the formation of fertile plains by deposition of silt and mud. Water is the chief
determinant factor of human settlement, as all old human settlements are situated along the banks
of rivers. Lakes and water reservoirs are the sources of water supply to meet various needs of living
beings.

Q. How do geological structure, minerals and water bodies contribute to the economic
development of a country?

2) BIOTIC/LIVING COMPONENTS

Biotic factors are all the living things or their materials that directly or indirectly affect an
organism in its environment. The natural vegetation and animal life are the two most important
factors of the living or the biotic environment. The biotic components of environment are those
which form the living things in a habitat like soils, plants, bacteria, animals and birds and also
the human beings. Biotic components are found in Biosphere.

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Biosphere indicates the realm of living organism and their interactions with the environment, viz.
atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. From the surface, it is extended few kilometers up in the
atmosphere and few kilometers down in the marine water and to some extent in soils. It is a narrow
stretch which support life. This zone supports all the biotic or living components.

1) Soil: - soil is partly living and partly non-living component of the environment. Soil consists of
both organic and inorganic matter. It is an organic matter derived from plants and animals that
get mixed up with the weathered rocks. The top layer of the earth is called soil. It occurs as a thin
layer of loose sediments over land surface.

The color and texture of soil varies from area to area because of different bedrock or parental rock,
their rate of disintegration, amount of rainfall and type of vegetation. It is formed by the weathering
of rocks.

Soils, depending upon the organic matter, climate and underlying rocks shows regional variation.
Such soils are known as residual soils. While the soils deposited in the form of alluvium in the valley
bottoms, lake-beds and the coastal plains are the drifted or alluvial soils. Such soils are more
fertile and moisture retentive. The moisture holding capacity of soils depends upon the texture
of the soils.

Coarse –textured sandy/ gravelly soils do not contain much water while the loamy or clayey soils
hold more water for longer time. Fertility of soils depends upon the mineral contents of the
parent rocks. Organic matter increases its fertility and capacity to hold moisture.

Soils play very important role especially in the activity like farming and horticulture. Each soil
type influences the crop cultivated in a specific area, e.g., black soils are suitable for cotton,
sugarcane etc. alluvial soil for wheat, jute, rice, etc. Thus, the soil cover controls the agricultural
practices.

Soil supports the vegetation. Vegetation in turn adds organic matter to the soil which, makes it
fertile. The preservation of such soil cover is most essential duty of farmers / cultivators and it must
be protected from soil erosion. Soil system is complex, dynamic. Soil is the main source of
nutrients, water supply and anchorage (support, hold) to plants.

Soil is a valuable natural asset which affects agricultural sustainability and natural vegetation
cover over the world areas. Soil formation is very slow but depletion is very fast.

Soil determines crop choice because each crop requires a distinct type of soil for cultivation.
Thus, highly fertile soils like alluvial, chernozem, loamy encourage wheat cultivation. Black soil
encourages cotton cultivation and Terra-Roxa is favorable for coffee cultivation, etc. The serious
problems concerning soils are soil erosion, soil exhaustion and salinity. The permafrost soils of
the tundra are not useful for agricultural practices.

Q. Write short note on soils’ importance.

2) Natural Vegetation / Plants: - vegetation means green cover which present on the surface of
Earth. It is a living factor of natural environment. The natural vegetation occurs on the land in
the form of trees, bushes, grasses and climbers, etc. It grows under suitable environmental
conditions such as the sunlight, water-supply and soil-cover. Ocean bottom are also covered by
another type of vegetation that thrives under sea-water. (Coral reef)

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The vegetal cover forms a biotic component of the physical environment which influences man’s
activities directly. Forests in particular provides timber, wood, fruits, bark, leaves, herbs etc. for
man’s use. Industries like paper and pulp, construction, match box, rayon, sports goods
industry etc. depends on forests for their raw materials. Forests are the habitat of animals.

Forests are the lungs of the Earth. Therefore, their role in the environment is indispensable.
The plants live and grow in the presence of CO2, sunlight and water. Plants are able to form/make
their own food through the process ‘photosynthesis’ and produces carbohydrates as food and
release O2 which is essential for the survival of man, animals and micro-organisms. Plants are
also helpful in the process of recycling organic matter and nutrients in the environment.

Plants influences the local temperature and make the climate moderate. Natural Vegetation is a
controlling and moderating (ability to change) factor of environment. Plants play a major role in
maintaining the ecological balance in the natural environment. The vegetation cover is directly
dependent on climate. Natural vegetation or Plants are true and real friends of mankind.

The survival of different forms of life and ecosystem chain depends on natural vegetation as it
forms the base as producer. Lumbering is an important activity in the areas of softwood
coniferous regions. It has also helped to develop ship building industry.

Natural vegetation is a support base for numerous activities like animal rearing, hunting, and
commercial forestry. The enormous destruction of forests and change in the green cover has led
to environmental deterioration and degradation.

Q. Write short note on Natural Vegetation component.

3) Animal Life: - animal kingdom including man constitutes another biotic component of natural
environment. Animal life is an asset to man, providing him products like milk, meat, eggs, fat,
wool, horns, bones, hides and skin etc. Animals are also used for transport purposes e.g., horse,
cattle (bull /ox), camel etc.

Animal rearing (animal husbandry) has grown all over the world on commercial scale like cattle
farming, sheep/goat farming, poultry farming pig farming (piggery) etc. These are highly
specialized and profit-oriented industry. Animal life forms an invaluable constituent in the
ecosystems. Animals have helped mankind since times immemorial. The contribution of animal
resources is immense and its value exceeds to the total utility obtained out of the entire mineral
wealth.

The distribution and variety of animals differ from area to area, due to differences in
environmental condition. Animal Husbandry is an activity, widely prevalent all over the world
fulfilling various human needs and requirements.

Hunting and fishing are the oldest occupations of man for food, clothing and other materials
and still it is a primary occupation of several parts of the world. Thus, there is a close relationship
between animals’ products and man. Man’s cruelty and careless attitude towards animals has
resulted in extinction of some of the rare species.

Q. Write short note on Animals life component.

Q. Natural Vegetation and animal life are the two important components of biotic environment.
Explain. OR

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Q. Write in details the role of Natural Vegetation in Environment and Animals in Economic
development.

(B) Anthropogenic or Cultural or Human component

Culture means all those aspects of creations developed by man, such as inventions, discoveries,
knowledge of all types, skill, religion, caste, community, dance, songs, drama, play, politics,
agriculture, medical, engineering, economics, technology, law, knowledge of various subjects
and its branches that is transferred from one generation to other generation. Whatever that is
produced by man and evolved in the process of civilization, form the components of culture
(man-made) environment.

Social, Cultural, Technological, Economic and Political factors, etc., all contribute to
anthropogenic component. These components may be visible as in the case of houses, building,
malls, towers, stations, depots, rail and roads, farms and factories, hotels and hospitals and so
on. But some of the components of cultural environment are invisible (abstract). They occur and
influence indirectly. For example, the government policies and systems, financial concerns and
consultancies.

Laws and libraries, along with the human tendencies related to race, language, religion and
large variety of socio-psychological phenomena are all included in this component. Human will-
power and the skill, knowledge, intelligence, talent used in the developing techniques also form
the part and parcel of cultural environment. Human population gets segregated into different
groups (societies) on the basis of a variety of factors such as religion, ethnic background (caste
identity) and economic class, (poor and rich) etc., Each group evolves its own culture and
ideology and follows their own path. Economic development of a region depends not only on
natural resources but also upon the human resources.

According to Zimmermann, culture is the sum total of all the devices produced by man, with the
aid, advice and consent of nature, to assist him in the attainment of his objectives. Natural
environment determines the extent of opportunities but to what extent these opportunities are
exploited and used by man depends on the level of technological, cultural, economic and social
changes, Government attitudes, population, etc.

Q. Give an account on Anthropogenic or cultural environment or Human component.

a) Socio-Cultural Environment: is a typical man-made environment. It develops as a consequence

of human traits like religion, type of political set up and ethnic character of the population.
Economic and commercial utilization of different resources is also related to religious practices. Asian
countries have limited development of marine and animal resources due to vegetarianism
propagated by the local religious like Buddhism and Jainism. Even Hinduism believes in
worshiping animals which adversely affects leather industry.

High standards of economic development in Europe and America may be attributed due to no
constraints being advocated by the prevailing religion of Christianity. The population is
unevenly distributed on the Earth’s surface. The size of the population affects the flow of world
commerce.

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Densely populated countries of Asia demand large quantity of food grains as their domestic
production is inadequate to feed their population. On the other hand, countries like U.S.A. and
Canada export food grains, owing to their moderate population and large exportable surplus.

The composition of trade is not only determined by the size of the population but also by the
habits, tastes, fashions and religions, etc. of the people in different parts of the world. For e.g.,
Americans prefer coffee as a major beverage and import it from Brazil, whereas the British prefer tea
owing to the habits and tastes, therefore, import tea from India.

Sometimes, even thickly populated regions with high per capita income restrict trade in particular
commodities, as in the case of Middle-East countries like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, etc. ban
trade in wine, as it is prohibited by their religion. India has not developed beef cattle, in spite of the
highest amount of cattle population in the world, as cattle is considered as holy animal.

Q. Write a short note on Socio-cultural Environment.

b) Political Environment

The political environment mainly includes the type of government and its ideological principles which
generate different controls on production and consumption activities. The government setup may
be either democratic, dictatorship, communist, or monarchy, each with its own priorities of
resource use and allocation.

A stable political environment (government together with its institutions) contributes to development
and prosperity of a country by protecting and safeguarding the environment and human rights
framing suitable laws and environment protecting policies, strategies and the mechanism to
implement those policies effectively.

A Government plays a significant role in promoting people’s welfare through economic

development. The political condition prevailing in a country directly affects the flow of commerce of
that country. The countries of the world follow the different political systems such as Democratic,
Communist, Dictatorial, etc.

The countries following the same political system form a Trade Block to regulate their trade and get
more benefits from international trade, e.g., EEC (European Economic Community), LAFTA (Latin
American Free Trade Association), WTO (World Trade Organization HQ-Geneva-Switzerland),

G-7 (Group of 7-Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, The UK & The US), OPEC (Organization
of the Petroleum Exporting Countries), etc. Formation of such groups helps to reduce unhealthy
competition amongst the members and stimulate commerce. The countries with stable political
conditions can develop their domestic and international trade. The countries with internal political
conflicts and external wars, etc. find it difficult to export their goods. The government policies of
taxation, quota system, assistance for the development, helps the people of the country.

Q. Write a short note on Political Environment

c) Economic and Technological Environment

Economic environment consists of all the components which makes the development possible in a
country. It consists of economic policies, trade policy, economic planning models, economic
systems etc. Economic environment develops as a result of economic activities developed by man viz.

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farming, mining, grazing (rearing animals/animal husbandry), fishing, forestry, manufacturing
and trade. Each of these activities generate their own environment through resource utilization. The
utilization / exploitation of resources depends upon two factors viz.

(a) Availability of local resource and (b) Availability of technology to exploit resources.

A variety of geographical factors make distribution of natural resources highly uneven in character.
Large deposits of petroleum lie in Middle East, vast deposits of coal in USA, UK, France,
Germany and China. Similarly, plains in Europe and Asian countries are highly fertile land that
contribute to developed agriculture.

Other countries with relatively poor resource concentration remain less developed in contrast to the
‘gifted’ countries. Technology used for developing resources also plays a significant role in
improving the economic environment of a country. Mechanization allows mass production.
Technological innovations also enhance the quality of production.

A judicious use of technology promotes economic development. Improper use of technology, leads to
serious problems like growth of unemployment, and deterioration of environment via air and water
pollution. The development of science and technology has raised the position of man from being at
the mercy of Nature to the one who can exploit its resources systematically.

Man has overcome the barriers of the environment and today, can produce certain goods in the areas
that were unsuitable for their production. He has converted temperate grasslands into areas producing
wheat and corn on the large scale, by the use of sophisticated machinery, which does the entire farm
work from ploughing to harvesting. This also requires large capital investment.

All this was possible due to the availability of huge capital and technological development. The
development of infrastructure is also greatly influenced by the availability of capital and technology.
Infrastructure forms the backbone of any economy. Therefore, development of manufacturing,
trade and commerce is dependent on this infrastructure which requires capital and technological
advancement in the form of communication facilities, speedy transport, banking, etc.

Human race entirely dependent on natural resources for his survival but not respecting his
environment considering that the Earth as an unlimited storehouse of resources that will support man
for an indefinite period.

Q. Write in details about the Economic and Technological Environment.

Q. Write a short note on Economic and Technical Environment.

Q. Briefly explain all the anthropogenic/cultural/Human components.

ECOSYSTEM

MEANING: -The term ‘ecology’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘oikos’ meaning ‘home’ and
‘logos’ meaning ‘study of’. Thus, the literal meaning of the term ‘ecology’ refers to the study of
living systems ‘at home’. As all organisms have their own particular home surrounding – i.e.
environment, the term ecology may be extended to mean the study of all living systems in relation
to their respective environment.

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Roy Calpham first used the term ecosystem in 1930. He mentioned the physical and biological
components of an environment. The central idea of ecosystem focuses on the interaction of living
environment with its surroundings.

The term ecosystem was introduced by the British ecologist A.G. Transley in 1935. He defined it as
“the system resulting from the integration of all living and non-living factors of the
environment”.

DEFINITIONS:

Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, stated Ecosystem is “Any unit that includes all organisms i.e.,
the community in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy
takes place leading to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity and material cycles (i.e.,
exchange of materials between living and non-living parts) within the system is an ecosystem”.

An ecosystem is a natural system consisting of all plants, animals and microorganisms (biotic
factor) in an area functioning together with all the non-living physical (abiotic) factor of the
environment (Christopherson 1997).

“Ecosystem” means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities and
their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit”. (Convention on the Biological
Diversity, 1992) signed by almost 200 nations.

“It is an interacting system of the biotic community together with the physical and chemical
environment driven by external energy source, the solar radiation.”

“Ecology is the study of living beings in their habitat or a study of the interaction of the
organisms with their environment and among themselves”.

CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM

Forest, Grassland, Desert, Ocean, Seas, River, Pond, Lake etc. are the most dynamic (versatile,
changeable) part of the biological system. Producers (plants, trees, grasses), Consumers (all
animals), and Decomposers (micro-organisms- bacteria, fungi and molds) are all an integral part of
an ecosystem. The food chain and food web (interconnected food chains) depict the sequence of
transfer of food (solar) energy from one level to another.

The various cycles- seed, seasons, and animals including human beings, Hydrological (water),
carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorous, Sulphur etc. show multidirectional links in the smooth
functioning of environment. These cycles involve continuous circulation of essential elements and
compounds from environment to organisms and back to environment for the sustenance of life
on earth.

The ecosystem and cycles function in a well-balanced manner and are the source of sustaining life
processes on earth and in stabilizing biosphere. The intricate (many small parts) natural world
has important functional unit commonly known as ecosystem. Ecosystem forms the core of
environment. The whole earth is a single largest / huge ecosystem. It composed of all living
beings.

There are many examples of ecosystems- a pond, a forest, an estuary, grassland. The boundaries of
ecosystem are not fixed, they overlap each other sometime or there is slight demarcation. The study of

16
ecosystem consists certain processes that link the living or biotic components to the non-living or
abiotic components. Ecosystem thus, simply means ‘ecological systems’ and the ‘Ecology is the
study of Ecosystems’. In an ecosystem, each organism has its own the niche (unique / special) or
role to play. Energy transformations and biogeochemical cycling are the main process that comprises
the field of ecosystem ecology.

Ecosystem are in indefinite sizes. There are no theoretical restrictions on how large or minor a space
or an area must be to host an ecosystem, nor on the minutest number of species or individual
organisms to be present. It can exist in a minuscule area such as a small puddle of rain water
collected on the window sill, underneath a rock, a decaying tree trunk, or a pond, or it can exist
in large forms such as an entire rain forest or the vast ocean.

Ecosystem boundaries are not separated or specifically marked by rigid lines on the earth. They are
mostly separated by natural geographical boundaries like deserts, mountains, oceans, lakes,
rivers, ponds, grasslands, forests etc. These natural boundaries are highly flexible and are not fixed
on the earth, so ecosystems tend to blend or overlap to some extend with each other. ‘This
blending is called ECOTONES’.

Every ecosystem has flow of energy and cycling of nutrients which bind the organisms together in
a group. Every ecosystem has its own characteristics combination of plants and animals’
communities. These groups of plants and animal species live together in more similar
environmental conditions.

Q. Write in details about the meanings, definitions and concept of an Ecosystem.

CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM

Basically, there are two types of eco-systems:

i) NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS- are self –regulatory ecosystems and are driven by the solar energy;
e.g., Forest, Grassland, Desert, Lake, Pond and Swamp Ecosystems.

ii) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEMS- are also known as Human- Engineered Ecosystems.

These are not self-regulated ecosystems. These ecosystems depend on human interventions to meet
their energy requirements. e.g., paddy field ecosystem, plantation crops ecosystem, etc.

These ecosystems further classified as:

I) Aquatic ecosystems like- pond, river, lake, estuary, and seas.

II) Terrestrial or the land ecosystems like- mountains, plains, forest, grasslands, desert.

I) AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

1) Freshwater ecosystem: are the subset of Earth’s aquatic ecosystems. They include lakes and
ponds, rivers, streams, springs, and wetlands. They can be contrasted with marine ecosystem,
which have a larger salt content.

The ecosystems of freshwater systems include plankton (phytoplankton & zooplankton), a small
organism that often eaten by fish and other small creatures like amphibians (such as frogs, toads
and newts), insects of various sorts and plants and birds.

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Phytoplankton → Zooplankton →Small fish/Amphibians →Big fish →Bird (Hawk or
Eagle)/Man

2) Ocean ecosystem: Marine ecosystems are among the largest of Earth’s aquatic ecosystem.

Around 75% of the Earth is covered by the sea, which means that there is lots of space for all sorts of
different creatures to live and thrive. There are actually three types of oceanic ecosystems: shallow
waters, deep waters and deep ocean surface. The base of food chain is planktons for shrimps,
and small fish. These planktons and other plants that grow in the ocean close to the surface are
responsible for 40% of all photosynthesis that occur on earth.

II) TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

1) Forest Ecosystem: Forest Ecosystem is an example of terrestrial ecosystem. These are the
ecosystems having a predominance of trees, shrubs, bushes, lichens and algae and are also the
home of a large number of living organisms like birds, insects and wild animals, all living together.
Thus, a forest is rich biodiversity surviving another ecosystem also. A change in any composition
of the forest would mean a disruption of some ecosystems like river, stream.

Depending on the prevailing climatic conditions forests can be of various types like the Tropical
evergreen forest, Tropical deciduous forest, Temperate evergreen forest, Temperate deciduous
forest and the Taiga. A lot of animals and plants that grow and live in terrestrial ecosystem also
interact with freshwater and sometimes even ocean ecosystems.

2) Desert ecosystem: - are located in regions that receive an annual rainfall less than 25mm. They
occupy about 17% of all the land on our planet. Due to the extremely high temperature, low water
availability and intense sunlight, fauna and flora are scarce and poorly developed.

The vegetation is mainly shrubs, bushes, few grasses and rare trees. The stems and leaves of the
plants are modified in order to conserve water as much as possible. The best-known desert ones
are the succulents such as the spiny leaved cacti. The animal organisms include insects, birds,
camels, reptiles all of which are adapted to the desert (xeric) condition.

3) Grassland Ecosystem: as the name suggest are vast lands mainly covered with primarily
grasses. The region has a little number of trees and shrubs. The main vegetation comprises of
grasses and some legumes. As the region is rich in grass, the grasslands of the world are abundant in
grazing herbivorous animals, insects and birds.

Q. Give detail an account on classification of ecosystem.

COMPONENTS AND STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEMS

An ecological system (ecosystem) is composed of a biological community and its physical

environment. Ecosystem has mainly two basic components viz.

1) BIOTIC (LIVING), 2) ABIOTIC (NON-LIVING).

1) BIOTIC (LIVING):- The biotic components include all living beings in a particular
environment. These components are interrelated to each other. The characteristics of biotic
components are influenced by the components of physical or non-living environment such as
climate.

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Biotic and abiotic components constitute (make) the structure of an ecosystem. These have
intimate (close and continuous) interaction among themselves, essential for maintenance of life
processes. The basic function of the ecosystem is “to keep the environment functioning and
constantly in a state of regaining of balance and maintaining stability of the environment”.

Plants, animals, and microorganisms constitute the biotic components of the ecosystem. These
various life forms have different nutritional needs and status in the ecosystem.

Biotic components consist of three categories:

1) Autotrophs (producers). 2) Heterotrophs (consumers). 3) Micro-consumers- i) Detritivores or

Saprotrophs. ii) Decomposers.

1) AUTOTROPHS /PRIMARY PRODUCERS:

‘Auto’ means self and ‘troph’ means food/nourishment. This category consists of the living beings
which synthesizes their own food. Green plants mainly come in this category.

They synthesize their food by taking CO2, water (H2O) mixed with minerals and sunlight, and
they make/produce (C6H12O6). They process it in their leaves which have green pigment called
chlorophyll and the process is known as photosynthesis.

Autotrophs are a starting point in a food chain. The existence of living beings including men
depends on the existence of producers. They are the primary source of energy. Photosynthesis—
use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and carbohydrates.

(Remember: 6CO2 + 6H2O → 6O2 + C6H12O6). Chemosynthesis—performed by bacteria,

use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates.

Producers or Autotrophs (Auto-self; troph - nutrition) (self-feeders) comprise green plants with
chlorophyll (color pigment) which obtain energy from the sun through the process of photosynthesis.
Trees, plants, bushes, agricultural crops, marine and fresh water algae, etc. belongs to this
category. They manufacture food (carbohydrates i.e. sugars/glucose-chemical energy), starches,
and cellulose from inorganic substances (CO₂, H₂O) and hence are self-sustaining organisms.
Oxygen is given out as a byproduct which is essential to survive to organisms.

2) HETEROTROPHS OR CONSUMERS

(Hetero-other/different / multiple) and ‘trophs’ means food/ nourishment. Organisms who do not
photosynthesize are consumers or all animals depended on primary producers for food energy. They
depend on other organisms for obtaining their nutrients and energy. They are identified by the kind
of food they eat. All organisms, which get their food directly or indirectly from autotrophs,
constitute the category of consumers.

Organisms that get their nutrients and energy they require by feeding either directly or indirectly on
producers are called consumers or heterotrophs (other feeders). Some consumers feed on small
fragments of dead plant and animal matter, called, detritus. The consumers are classified / grouped
into different categories depending on the food they consume.

1) Macro-consumers – i) Herbivorous, ii) Carnivorous and iii) Omnivorous.

2) Micro-consumers --i) Saprotrophs or Detritivores. ii) Decomposers.

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1) Macro-consumers

i) Herbivores or Primary Consumers: (plant eaters). Feeding directly and only on all or part of
living plants/ producers. Some birds eat seeds, buds. Rabbit eats twigs and leaves. Grasshoppers eat
all parts of plants. In the case of aquatic ecosystem, zooplankton feed on phytoplankton.

(ii) Carnivores or (meat / flesh eaters): These are further classified as the Secondary Consumers
and tertiary consumers.

Secondary consumers feed only on plant-eating animals (herbivores). E.g., Rabbit, Deer, goat, sheep,
cow, buffalo etc. Birds that eat plant eating insects and tuna which eat herring fish are the
examples of secondary consumers.

Tertiary Consumers include top / higher level consumers which feed only on animal-eating
animals, e.g., Hawks which eat snakes and sharks which eat other fish are the tertiary or higher-
level consumers.

iii) Omnivores: (Everything eaters) (Omni=both/all). These are animals which can eat both plants
and animals such as pigs, rats, foxes, bear, dog, cockroaches and humans are omnivores. They
eat both plants and animals.

(2) Micro-consumers:

i) Detritivores or Saprotrophs: they consume /feed on the parts of dead animals called detritus
[dead organisms, organic matter, small fragments of dead plant and animal matter, animal
waste]. They are also called as scavengers, e.g., hyena, vultures, some insects, earthworms, fungi,
molds, worms and termites, etc. The detritus feeders help in cleaning the ecosystem.

ii) Decomposers (Mostly certain types of bacteria and fungi), that recycle organic matter in the
ecosystems. They do this by breaking down dead organic material to get nutrients and releasing
the resulting inorganic compounds into the soil and water, where they can be taken up as nutrients
by the producers.

2) ABIOTIC COMPONENTS: The abiotic components include different media such as soil,
water, minerals, sunlight, atmospheric gases.

The abiotic components are further classified into: i) Physical and ii) Chemical components.

i) Physical components. The physical components include climatic regime, soil (edaphic) factors
such as type and richness of soil, water, sunlight and substratum (layers of air and soil)
environment which all have long- lasting influence on the ecosystem.

ii) Chemical components: Chemical components includes/cover essential inorganic substances

such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, sulphur, phosphorous and water, etc., incorporated
(include/add) / recycled into ecosystem through natural cycles called BIO-GEO-CHEMICAL
CYCLES.

Organisms cannot exist (live) without amino acids, proteins, etc., which are organic molecules
that contain nitrogen. In all the ecosystems, this structure of abiotic and biotic factors prevails.

Q. Write in details about Biotic components of the Ecosystem.

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Q. Write short note on Abiotic components of the Ecosystem.

Q. Give details account on components and structure of the Ecosystem.

FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTS OF THE ECOSYSTEMS OR CHARACTERSTICS AND

FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM

Environment functions as an integrated system. The biotic, abiotic and cultural components do not
exist in isolation. They are interlinked, interdependent. All those components operate together in
such a way that environment becomes a unity or a complete ‘one’ from which its parts cannot
be separated. The unity among environmental components enables the environment to operate
like a LIVE SYSTEM. Interactions between the biotic and abiotic components are known as
functions of ecosystems.

The main / major functions and characteristics of the ecosystems are:

1) Organic interdependence. 2) Distributing Energy or Energy Flow/ energy transfer through: i)

Food Chain. ii) Food Web. iii)Food Pyramid. 3) Productivity i.e., the biomass (biological material).
4) Equilibrium of Eco-system. 5) Dynamism of ecosystem/environment. 6) Control and
Regulations. 7) Ecological Succession. 8) Biogeochemical Cycles- Material cycling or Nutrient
cycling.

1) Organic interdependence: - Organic interdependence is the KEY feature of environment. All

organisms-plants or animals-perform a specific role in their ecosystems. They grow, reproduce and
require food for maintenance / survival.

i) Plants play the role of PRODUCERS, since they are ‘autotrophs’ – they can produce their own
food. They use solar energy to perform PHOTOSYNTHESIS. This process converts simple
inorganic matter like carbon-dioxide, water and other nutrients into complex substances like
carbohydrates and sugar. Plants use these substances for their growth and sustenance.

ii) Animals: All animals play the role of CONSUMERS being ‘heterotrophs’, they do not produce
their own food. They depend on plants for their food either directly or indirectly. (Cattle-directly;
tiger-indirectly). Based on the nature of food, the animals are categorized in to three types i.e.,
Herbivores (grass eating animals like cattle, rabbits, horses etc.); Carnivores (flesh eating animals
like lions, tigers, snakes etc.)

(iii) Omnivores (consuming both plants and animal flesh for food). A chain of food consumers can
be recognized from the animals of higher level (lions, tigers) which consume big animals like deer
and cattle. They therefore, known as ‘MACRO-CONSUMERS’.

(iv) Microorganisms play the role of REDUCERS. Bacteria and Fungi assists in the process of
decomposition. They break down the dead organic matter and return to soils. Thus, a specific
dependence of consumers can be seen from macro level to micro level.

2) Distributing Energy or Energy Flow

Energy Transfer through: i) Food Chain. ii) Food Web. iii)Food Pyramid /Trophic structure

Energy transfer takes place through food chain.

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All plants and animals require energy. Energy originates from the sun (solar radiation) and enters the
eco-system when a green plant/producers/ (absorbs) uses sunlight to make food (biochemical energy)
by photosynthesis and transferred to another organism within the ecosystem. Besides energy, various
nutrients and water are also required and recycled for the life process of the biotic components, within
and amongst themselves and also with their abiotic components.

The flow of energy in an ecosystem is mediated through a series of feeding relationships which is
known as the food chain. All organisms living or dead are potential food source for some other
organism and there is essentially no wastage in the functioning of the natural ecosystem.
Movement of energy takes place in the form of food from one form of life to another. As
organisms consume food and use it up, energy travels from one to another organism and the energy
transfer develops.

Examples: i) Grass → Cattle → Man/lion/tiger. ii) Insects → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake →

Hawk. iii) Planktons → Small Fish → Big fish → Man

The most important characteristics of energy flow is that it is unidirectional or, it moves in one
direction only. It follows two laws of thermodynamics:

(i) First law of Thermodynamics: It states that energy can neither be created nor, destroyed. It
can transform from one form to another, e.g., light (solar) energy to chemical energy in plants,
and so on.

(ii) Second Law of Thermodynamics: Energy gets converted from more concentrated to
dispersed form. As energy flows through the food chain, dissipation takes place from one
trophic level to another. The loss of energy takes place through respiration, working, walking,
functioning of internal organs etc. At every trophic level 90% of energy is lost and only 10% is
transferred to the next trophic level.

(i) Food Chain: The biotic components are linked, interlinked and cross-linked through trophic
level to form food chains. Biological activity involves the use of energy that comes from the sun.
This solar energy is transferred from the radiant to the chemical form in photosynthesis and
from the chemical to mechanical and heat forms in cellular metabolism. These conversions and
sequences are fundamental to the energetics of organisms and ecosystems. The sequence of
eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as the food chain. The producers and
consumers are arranged in a definite manner and their interaction along with population size
are expressed together as trophic structure.

There are two types of food chains:

(a)Grazing food chain: It starts from the green plants reaches the grazing herbivores animals and
finally to carnivores’ animals. This type of food chain depends on the incoming solar radiation.

Food Chain—series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten

1) Arrows go in the direction of how energy is transferred. 2) Start with producer and end with top
consumer or carnivore. Ex: i) grass → cricket → frog → raccoon. ii) Grass →
Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk. (Grassland ecosystem)

(b) Detritus food chain: - which starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores and
decomposers consume. i) e.g., Leaf litter → Algae → Crab → Small Carnivores fish → Large

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Carnivores fish (mangrove ecosystem). ii) e.g., Dead Organic Matter → Fungi → Bacteria.
(Forest ecosystem). Food chains and food webs play a very significant role in the ecosystem
because…..

1) Energy flow and nutrient cycling takes place through them…2) Population size of different
organisms is maintained and regulated by them. 3) Non-degradable are biomagnified by them.

The last is a grave warning for human beings and a reminder that non-degradable items like
pesticides or plastic remain and get magnified within the ecosystem spelling out danger for their
existence.

ii) FOOD WEB: - In ecosystems some consumers may feed on a single species but many other
consumers have multiple food sources. Complex, interconnected food chains constitute food web.
Here, dependence is on more than one species, i.e., Herbivores and Carnivores feed on different
kind of foods. Several food chains interweave to form complex FOOD WEB.

Food chains in the nature are not simple and they do not function in isolation. Most consumers
feed on more than one type of organism and most organisms are eaten by more than one type of
consumer. Because most species participate in several food chains, the organism in most
ecosystem form a complex network of interconnected food chains called food web.

iii) Food Pyramid /Trophic structure / Trophic Level: - An organism feeding status in an
ecosystem /food chain is shown as its Trophic Level (Greek-trophe- ‘food’). (Trophic-----
nourishment).

In the food chain / food pyramid all the producers and consumers are arranged in a sequential manner
and their interactions with the population size is called as ‘Trophic Structure / Level’. Each food
level is called as trophic level and the amount of living matter in each of trophic level is called
standing biomass. Each level of nourishment as represented by the links of food chain is depicted
there.

Trophic Level→ 1 → In any ecosystem is made of the Green Plants. The sun is the ultimate source
of energy on the earth. The green plants also called the ‘autotrophs’ that absorbs some of the sun’s
light to prepare their own food through the process of photosynthesis. Green plants are therefore,
known as ‘PRODUCERS’ in the food chain.

Trophic Level→ 2 → is made of PRIMARY CONSUMERS. These are the organisms which
consume the green plants for their survival. The animals in this group are usually herbivores animals
like cows, rabbits, goats, deer, sheep, buffalo etc. and insects like caterpillars, honey bees etc.

Trophic Level→ 3 → comprise of SECONDARY CONSUMERS. These usually feed on the

primary consumers or the herbivores animals and are called as CARNIVORES e.g., Snakes, Fox,
Cats, etc.

Trophic Level→ 4 → are called as TERTIARY CONSUMERS and are the top carnivores’ animals
which feed on the secondary consumers e.g. Tigers, Lions etc.

Trophic Level→ 5 → are called as QUARTERNARY CONSUMERS.

They are placed at the top of the levels and called as the PREDATORS. They feed on preys. For
e.g., predators are owls, snakes, wild cats, sharks and even human beings.

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Ecological Pyramids: -

The relationship between Energy, Biomass, and number of species at different trophic levels in a
food chain can also be shown with the help of pyramids. Charles Elton, the British Ecologist made
the pioneer attempt in this direction and hence, such diagrams are often referred to as Eltonian
Pyramids.

Ecological pyramids are of three types:

a) Numbers Pyramid: It includes only the number of species. Animals at the base of the pyramid are
more in number, and as we go up in the pyramid the number goes decreasing with successive higher
trophic level. The autotrophic green plants/grass are very large in numbers because, they provide food
to the animals of trophic level-II which are less in number than trophic level-I.

Similarly, the number of animals is lesser in trophic level III than trophic level II and the number of
animals in trophic level IV is least. For example, ● In a grassland ecosystem, the number of primary
producers is very large. The primary producers are in the form of GRASS/PLANTS, etc. The
number of herbivores (primary consumers) like Rabbit, Deer is less than the number of producers.
The number of carnivores (secondary consumers) such as Fox, Wolves is less than that of
rabbits (primary consumer).

The number of top carnivores (tertiary consumers) such as LION is very small. These top
carnivores constitute the apex of the pyramids. Ecosystem do not operate at 100% efficiency.
Energy loss takes place at every trophic level. It is only 10% energy pass from one trophic level
to another.

Only a small portion of what is eaten and digested is actually converted into an organism’s
bodily material or biomass, and the amount of usable energy available to each successive
trophic level declines. Energy is always being lost as heat.

(b) Biomass Pyramid: -

Energy transfers from environment to organism and back to environment through the process of
decomposition. Pyramid of biomass includes total weight of the organic matter of each trophic level.
Thus, the total weight of organic matter represents the standing crop/biomass at a point of time in a
trophic level. The total biomass tends to decrease as we move up from trophic level-I to IV, i.e., broad
base and narrow apex.

Biomass get reduced at higher trophic level due to: 1) Not everything in the lower level gets
consumed. 2) Everything that is eaten is not digested. 3) Energy is always being lost as heat.

(c) Energy Pyramid: The energy pyramid is constructed on the basis of total amount of energy (Kilo
calories) used at each trophic level. The energy availability at each successive level goes on declining.
All living organisms carry out certain functions. Organism requires energy to carry out functions.
This energy is obtained through the food, which they consume. Much of the energy is lost or
released due to respiration of the organisms. Respiration represents the maintenance process of
plants and animals. The energy discharged is mainly heat, which passes in to the atmosphere.

So, the amount of energy reduces from one trophic level to another. All ecosystems share two other
important organisms i.e., Scavengers and the Decomposers. The detritivores are organisms that live
on the refuse of the ecosystem at each trophic level. Detritivores includes scavengers such as crabs

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and vultures that eat the dead animals. Decomposers such as fungi and bacteria that break down
plant debris, animal droppings and other organic matter. Decomposers recycles, nutrient back in
to food chains, therefore they are an integral component of all ecosystems.

3) Productivity: -

Productivity in ecosystem is primary function.

Primary productivity: - the primary function of the ecosystem is to produce the biomass
(biological material such as - leaves, grass, wood, vegetable, vegetation, fruits, etc.), food
(chemical energy) in the form of starch, glucose, carbohydrates etc. and oxygen by the process
of photosynthesis.

Primary production of an ecosystem depends upon amount of solar radiation available, water
and nutrients available and also the characteristics of the primary producers in terms of their
type and chlorophyll content.

Hence primary productivity which is defined as the “rate at which radiant energy is converted
into organic substances by photosynthesis by the primary producers”, which varies from
ecosystem to ecosystem.

Secondary Productivity: - (animal production and population).

“The amount of organic matter derived from the producers by the herbivores and from them by
the carnivores an addition to the loss of energy by respiration is called secondary production”.
Amount and diversity of secondary production would therefore be greatly dependent on
primary productivity and thus vary from ecosystem to ecosystem.

4) Equilibrium of Eco-system: -

Different organisms interact with each other in their spatial unit called ECOSYSTEM, and keep it in a
state of equilibrium (balance). Plants and animals perform their role with energy flows between them.
They exchange material and the ecosystem functions as a live unit. Ecosystems are self-regulating.
For e.g., the famous food chain of Grass → insects → frogs → snakes → Hawk/eagle →
decomposers.

The insect’s population increases in rainy season due to increased growth of grass/vegetation.
When insects increase there are more frogs as well as snakes to hunt them. This keeps the
numbers (population) under check in the ecosystem and thus the population of any organism
kept under the control and within the carrying capacity of the ecosystem by predation,
competition, natural selection and adaption known as cybernetics nature of ecosystem. Thus,
the Equilibrium of Eco-system is maintained.

5) Dynamism of ecosystem/environment.

All the components of environment are dynamic. They do not remain constant in location or in
form. Biotic and abiotic components interact with physical and chemical changes. They keep on
undergoing changes in location and form. However, they once again attain their original form and
position. They follow a CYCLE. Numerous such cycles operate in the environment.

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They redistribute material and maintain the ecological balance by Water (Hydrological-H2O)
cycle, Carbon (CO2) cycle, Nitrogen (N2) cycle, Phosphorous cycle, Sulphur, and Oxygen (O2)
cycle etc.

6) Control and Regulation:

Like all systems, all ecosystems regulate and maintain themselves under a set of environmental
condition. Every ecosystem fights environmental stress by resisting change and maintaining
itself in a state of equilibrium within a range of tolerance known as homeostatic plateau/level.

However, if the stress caused is too acute and outside the homeostatic plateau/level, then
negative feedback mechanism starts operating. These accelerate the causes of stress and result
in the collapse of the system. It is thus very important for human beings to maintain all
ecosystems within the homeostatic plateau/level.

7) Ecological Succession.

An ecosystem is not static in nature. It is dynamic and changes its structure and function in time
& space. These changes are quite orderly and can be predicted. The process is known as ecological
succession and will continue to take place till a stable community or climax is created which is in
equilibrium with the environment. Any change in any component of environment / ecosystem or
process sets of cyclic changes in all other components over time and space in the whole environment.
All changes in nature thus are in a state of constant adjustment.

8) Biogeochemical Cycles- Material cycling or Nutrient cycling.

The terms “Bio” refers to living organisms, “Geo” means Earth and chemical refer to the
chemical elements which circulate in a circular/cyclic path.

Biosphere is a giant system in which several ecosystems operate. Various chemicals are found in
the bodies of organisms in the form of nutrients. These nutrients are released from their bodies
which changes into abiotic form and again from abiotic elements to biotic phase. Thus, it is a
cyclic phase which sustain the life on the Earth.

Water (Hydrological-H2O) cycle, Carbon (CO2) cycle, Nitrogen (N2) cycle, Phosphorous cycle,
Sulphur, and Oxygen (O2) cycle etc.

1) Briefly Explain the functions of an ecosystem.

2) Explain the flow of energy in an ecosystem with law of thermodynamic.

3) Explain the energy flow with help of biomass pyramid.

4) Write short note on food chain and food web.

5) Write short note on trophic structure.

6) Write in details about ecological pyramids.

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