Applications of Thermodynamics to

Flow Processes
ChE 406
Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics
Intended Learning Outcomes
• Develop the thermodynamic equations applicable to one-
dimensional steady-state flow of compressible fluids in
conduits.
• Apply these equations to flow (both subsonic and supersonic)
in pipes and nozzles
• Treat throttling processes, i.e., flow through restrictions
• Calculate the work produced by turbines and expanders
• Examine compression processes as produced by compressors,
pumps, blowers, fans, and vacuum pumps
Applications of Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
Pipe and Duct Flow
The transport of liquids or gases in pipes and ducts is of great importance in many
engineering applications. Flow through a pipe or a duct usually satisfies the steady-flow
conditions
Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
Pipe and Duct Flow

HVAC design

Fire-resistance rated mechanical shaft

with HVAC sheet metal ducting
HVAC design : S-Duct and copper piping
Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
Pipe and Duct Flow
When flow through pipes or ducts are analyzed, the following points should be considered:

1. 𝑸 ≠ 𝟎
- If the pipes or ducts are insulated, heat transfer from the pipes or ducts to the environments is negligible.
Under normal operating conditions, the pipes or ducts are not insulated, hence the heat gained or lost is
large. Sometimes heat transfer is the main purpose of the flow, for example, in heat exchangers. In this
case, heat transfer needs to be accounted for.

2. 𝑾 ≠ 𝟎
- If the control volume involves pumps or fans or other work devices, the work interaction terms should be
considered. Otherwise, the work term is zero.

3. ∆𝑲𝑬 ≅ 𝟎
- The change in kinetic energy is insignificant, particularly when the pipe or duct has a constant diameter.

4. ∆𝑷𝑬 ≠ 𝟎
- The change in potential energy is large when the fluid undergoes a considerable elevation change.
Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
Nozzles and Diffusers
- Nozzles and diffusers are commonly utilized in jet engines , rockets,
spacecraft, and even garden hoses

Nozzle: a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of

pressure
Diffuser: a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down

Energy balance for a nozzle or diffuser

Nozzles and diffusers are
𝑣22 𝑣12 shaped so that they cause large
𝑚 𝐻2 + = 𝑚 𝐻1 + changes in fluid velocities and
2 2 thus kinetic energies

Since 𝑄 ≅ 0, 𝑊 = 0 and ∆𝑃𝐸 ≅ 0

 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
Nozzles and Diffusers
Example 1
Steam at 1.80MPa and 400°C steadily enters a nozzle whose inlet area is 0.02 m2 . The mass flow rate of the steam
through the nozzle is 5 kg/s. Steam leaves the nozzle at 1.4 MPa with a velocity of 275 m/s. Heat losses from the
nozzle per unit mass of the steam are estimated to be 2.8 kJ/kg. Determine:
a) The inlet velocity
b) The exit temperature of the steam

𝑚𝑉1
Steam u1 =
𝑚= Steam 𝐴1
P1= 1.80 Mpa 5 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 P2= 1.40 Mpa 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
T1 = 400°C = 673.15 K (5 𝑠 )(0.2567 𝑘𝑔 )
A1 = 0.02 m^2 u1 =
V1 = 4.6249 dm^3/mol u2 = 275 m/s 0.02 𝑚2
V1 = 0.2567 m^3/kg u1 = 64.175 m/s
H1 = 58.5555 kJ/mol
Q = -2.8 kJ/kg
 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
Nozzles and Diffusers
Example 1
Steam at 1.80MPa and 400°C steadily enters a nozzle whose inlet area is 0.02 m2 . The mass flow rate of the steam
through the nozzle is 5 kg/s. Steam leaves the nozzle at 1.4 MPa with a velocity of 275 m/s. Heat losses from the
nozzle per unit mass of the steam are estimated to be 2.8 kJ/kg. Determine:
a) The inlet velocity
b) The exit temperature of the steam
1
ΔH + 2 ∆𝑢2 = Q
Steam 1 𝑚2 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑘𝐽
𝑚= Steam (H2 – 3249.4728 kJ/kg) + 2 2752 − 64.1752 = −2.8 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
P1= 1.80 Mpa 5 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 𝑠2 𝑘𝑔 1000 𝐽
T1 = 400°C = 673.15 K
P2= 1.40 Mpa
H2 = 3210.9195 kJ/kg
A1 = 0.02 m^2
V1 = 4.6249 dm^3/mol u2 = 275 m/s
Interpolation @ P2 = 1.40 Mpa, and
V1 = 0.2567 m^3/kg
H2 = 3210.9195 kJ/kg ~ 57.8607 kJ/mol
H1 = 58.5555 kJ/mol
H1 = 3249.4728 kJ/kg
Q = -2.8 kJ/kg T2 = 651.5186K ~ 378.37°C
Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
Throttling Process
Throttling Valves: any kind of flow-restricting devices that cause a significant
pressure drop in the fluid

The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large drop in

temperature and for that reason, throttling devices are commonly used in
refrigeration and air-conditioning devices

During a throttling process, the enthalpy The temperature of an ideal gas

(flow energy + internal energy) of a fluid does not change during a
remains constant. But internal and flow throttling (H = constant)
energies may be converted to each other process since H = H(T)
Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
Throttling Process
- In throttling a real gas from conditions of moderate temperature and pressure which usually
results in a temperature decrease, measure of change in temperature which is caused by the
drop in pressure is defined by Joule-Thomson coefficient as:

𝜕T
μ=
𝜕P H

- For most real gases at around ambient conditions, μ is positive.

- For hydrogen and helium, it is negative and the temperature increases.
- At higher temperatures, for most gases, μ falls and may even become negative, μ can also
become negative through application of pressure, even at ambient temperature, but
pressures in excess of 200 bar are normally necessary to achieve this.
 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
Throttling Process
Example 2
Refrigerant-134a enters the capillary tube of a refrigerator as saturated liquid at 0.8 MPa and is
throttled to a pressure of 0.12 MPa. Determine:
a) The quality of the refrigerant at the final state
b) The temperature drop during this process
*Refrigerant 134-A properties (pg. 2-372 Perry’s 8th Ed

Sat’d liq
ΔH = 0 ; H2=H1 a) Since Hl<H2<Hv, exit stream is a Mixture
P1 = 0.8 Mpa P2 = 0.12 Mpa
H1 = 24.8264 H2 = Hv(x) + Hl (1-x)
H2 = 24.8264 24.8264 = 39.2871(x) + 17.3961(1-x)
T1 = 304.2146 K T2 = 250.7170K x = 0.3394
33.94% Sat’d vapor, 66.06% Sat’d liquid
Hv = 39.2871 kJ/mol
Hl = 17.3961 kJ/mol b) ΔT = T2 –T1 = 250.7170K - 304.2143 K
ΔT = -53.4973 K ~ -53.50K
Turbines (Expanders)
Turbine: drives the electric generator in a steam, gas, or
hydroelectric power plants ; produces work

Expander: when high-pressure gas (e.g. ammonia or ethylene)

provides the motive force as in a chemical plant

As the fluid passes through the turbine, work is done against the
blades, which are attached to the shaft. As a result, the shaft rotates
and the turbine produces work
- Overall result is the conversion of the internal energy if a high-
pressure steam into shaft work.

Steady-state flow through a

turbine or expander
Turbines (Expanders)
Energy balance for Turbines/Expanders:
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑚∆𝐻 = 𝑚(𝐻2 − 𝐻1 )
𝑊𝑠 = ∆𝐻 = (𝐻2 − 𝐻1 )

If the fluid in the turbine expands reversibly and adiabatically, the process is isentropic, and S2 = S1.
Thus,

𝑊𝑠 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐) = ∆𝐻 𝑆
The shaft work |𝑊𝑠 |(𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐) is the maximum that can be obtained from an adiabatic turbine
with given inlet conditions and given discharge pressure.

Actual turbines produce less work, because the actual expansion process is irreversible; we define
a turbine efficiency as:
𝑊𝑠 ∆𝐻
η= =
𝑊𝑠 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐) ∆𝐻 𝑆
 Turbines (Expanders)
Example 7.6
A steam turbine with rated capacity of 56,400 kW (56,400 kJ·s−1) operates with steam at inlet
conditions of 8600 kPa and 500°C, and discharges into a condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa.
Assuming a turbine efficiency of 0.75, determine the state of the steam at discharge and the mass
rate of flow of the steam.
Since Sl<S2<Sv, exit stream is a Mixture
𝑊 = -56400 kW
η = 0.75 S2(isen) = Sv(x) + Sl(1-x)
x = 0.8063
Steam Mixture
ΔS = 0 H2(isen) = Hv(x) + Hl(1-x)
P2 = 10 kPa = 0.01 Mpa H2(isen) = 46.5414(0.8063) + 3.4387 (0.8063)
P1 = 8600 kPa = 8.6 MPa H2(isen) = 38.1924 kJ/mol
T1 = 500°C = 773.15K S2(isen) = 0.1207 kJ/mol-K ∆𝐻 𝑆 = 38.1924 – 61.0631
S1 = 0.1207 kJ/mol-K ∆𝐻 𝑆 = -22.8707 kJ/mol
Sv = 0.1469 kJ/mol-K
H1 = 61.0631 kJ/mol
Sl = 0.01164 kJ/mol-K
∆𝐻
η= ∆𝐻 𝑆
Hv = 46.5414 kJ/mol ∆𝐻
Hl = 3.4387 kJ/mol 0.75= ;22.8707 -> ∆𝐻 = -17.1530 kJ/mol
*Turbines operates in reversible adiabatic process (isentropic)
 Turbines (Expanders)
Example 7.6
A steam turbine with rated capacity of 56,400 kW (56,400 kJ·s−1) operates with steam at inlet
conditions of 8600 kPa and 500°C, and discharges into a condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa.
Assuming a turbine efficiency of 0.75, determine the state of the steam at discharge and the mass
rate of flow of the steam.
∆𝐻 = -17.1530 kJ/mol
𝑊 = -56400 kW
η = 0.75 H2(actual) = H1 + ∆𝐻 = 61.0631 + (-17.1530 )
H2(actual) = 43.9101 kJ/mol
Steam Mixture
ΔS = 0 H2(actual) = Hv(x) + Hl(1-x)
P2 = 10 kPa = 0.01 Mpa 43.9101 = 46.5414(x) + 3.4387(1-x)
P1 = 8600 kPa = 8.6 MPa x = 0.9390 (actual)
T1 = 500°C = 773.15K S2(isen) = 0.1207 kJ/mol-K 93.90% Sat’d vapor, 6.1% sat’d liquid
S1 = 0.1207 kJ/mol-K
Sv = 0.1469 kJ/mol-K
H1 = 61.0631 kJ/mol
Sl = 0.01164 kJ/mol-K

Hv = 46.5414 kJ/mol
Hl = 3.4387 kJ/mol
*Turbines operates in reversible adiabatic process (isentropic)
 Turbines (Expanders)
Example 7.6
A steam turbine with rated capacity of 56,400 kW (56,400 kJ·s−1) operates with steam at inlet
conditions of 8600 kPa and 500°C, and discharges into a condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa.
Assuming a turbine efficiency of 0.75, determine the state of the steam at discharge and the mass
rate of flow of the steam.
∆𝐻 = -17.1530 kJ/mol
𝑊 = -56400 kW
η = 0.75 𝑊𝑠 = 𝑚∆𝐻
-56400 kJ/s = 𝑚 (-17.1530 kJ/mol)(1mol/18.02 g)(1000g/1kg)
Steam Mixture
ΔS = 0 𝒎 = 59.2507 kg/s ~ 59.25 kg/s
P2 = 10 kPa = 0.01 Mpa
P1 = 8600 kPa = 8.6 MPa
T1 = 500°C = 773.15K S2(isen) = 0.1207 kJ/mol-K
S1 = 0.1207 kJ/mol-K
Sv = 0.1469 kJ/mol-K
H1 = 61.0631 kJ/mol
Sl = 0.01164 kJ/mol-K

Hv = 46.5414 kJ/mol
Hl = 3.4387 kJ/mol
*Turbines operates in reversible adiabatic process (isentropic)
Compression Processes
Compressors
- Capable of compressing gas to very high pressures
- Rotary equipment compressors is used for high-volume flow
where the discharge pressure is not too high. For high
pressures, reciprocating compressors are often required.

In a compression process, the isentropic work, is the minimum

shaft work required for compression of a gas from a given initial
state to a given discharge pressure.
𝑊𝑠 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐) ∆𝐻 𝑆
η= = Steady-state compression process.
𝑊𝑠 ∆𝐻

Compressor efficiencies are usually in the range of 0.7 to 0.8.

 Compression Processes
Compressors
Example 7.8
Saturated-vapor steam at 100 kPa (tsat = 99.63°C) is compressed adiabatically to 300 kPa. If the
compressor efficiency is 0.75, what is the work required and what are the properties of the discharge
stream?
∆𝐻 𝑆
ΔS = 0 η= ∆𝐻
50.2954 ;48.1894
Sat’d vapor η= Superheated Vapor/Steam 0.75 = ∆𝐻
P1 = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa 0.75 P2 = 300 kPa = 0.3 MPa ∆𝐻 = 2.808 kJ/mol
T1 = 99.63°C = 372.78K ∆𝐻 = Ws = 155.83 kJ/kg
S1 = 0.1326 kJ/mol-K S2(isen) = 0.1326 kJ/mol-K
H1 = 48.1894 kJ/mol H2(isen) = 50.2954 kJ/mol H2(actual) = H1 + ∆𝐻 = 48.1894 + 2.808
H2(actual) = 50.9974 kJ/mol
Sv = 0.1260 kJ/mol-K
Sl = 0.03006 kJ/mol-K
Interpolation using H2(actual) = 50.9974 kJ/mol and P2 = 0.3 MPa
Hv = 49.0815 kJ/mol
Hl = 10.09422 kJ/mol
at Single-phase properties
Since S2 > Sv, Exit Stream is S2(actual) = 0.1351 kJ/mol-K
a superheated vapor T2 = 456.09 K ~ 182.94°C

*Compressors operates in reversible adiabatic process (isentropic)

Compression Processes
Pumps
- Work very much like compressors except that they handle liquids instead of gases

The usual assumption for liquids (at conditions well removed from the critical point) is that V is independent
of P. Thus,

If dH = VdP (constant S) and

𝑃2
𝑊𝑠 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐) = ∆𝐻 𝑆 = 𝑃1
𝑉𝑑𝑃

Integrating will result to:

𝑊𝑠 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐) = ∆𝐻 𝑆 = V(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
Work required by the pump for pumping fluid
For subcooled/compressed liquid: from state 1 to 2 is to be calculated
dH = CpdT + 𝑉(1−𝛽𝑇)dP / ∆𝐻 = 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 + 𝑉(1 − 𝛽𝑇)∆𝑃
𝑑𝑇 𝑇
dS = Cp 𝑇 - βVdP / ∆𝑆 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑙𝑛 𝑇2 − 𝛽𝑉∆𝑃
1
 Compression Processes
Pumps
Example 7.10
Water at 45°C and 10 kPa enters an adiabatic pump and is discharged at a pressure of 8600 kPa.
Assume the pump efficiency to be 0.75. Calculate the work of the pump, the temperature change of
the water, and the entropy change of the water. (β = 425 x 10-6/K)

Water (Sat’d liquid) ∆𝐻 𝑆 𝑊𝑠(𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐)

η= η= =
T1 = 45°C = 318.15 K 0.75 ∆𝐻 𝑊𝑠
P1 = 10 kPa = 0.01 Mpa Water
V1 = 0.01820 dm^3/mol P2 = 8600 kPa 𝑊𝑠 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐) = ∆𝐻 𝑆 = V(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
V1 = 0.001010 m^3/kg
Cp = 0.07531 kJ/mol-K
𝑊𝑠 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐) = 0.001010 m^3/kg(8600-10)kPa
Cp = 4.1792 kJ/kg-K Ws(isentropic) = 8.6759 kJ/kg

𝑊𝑠(𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐)
Validation: η=
𝑊𝑠
T1(@10kPa/ Tsat) = 318.7346 K Ws = 11.5679 kJ/kg = ΔH
Since Tsat (T1 @10kPa) =
T1(given), Water @ inlet stream
is sat’d liquid
 Compression Processes
Pumps
Example 7.10
Water at 45°C and 10 kPa enters an adiabatic pump and is discharged at a pressure of 8600 kPa.
Assume the pump efficiency to be 0.75. Calculate the work of the pump, the temperature change of
the water, and the entropy change of the water. (β = 425 x 10-6/K)
Validation(Water @inlet stream)
Water (Sat’d liquid) η= T1(@10kPa/ Tsat) = 318.7346 K
T1 = 45°C = 318.15 K 0.75 Since Tsat (T1 @10kPa) = T1(given), Water @ inlet stream is sat’d
P1 = 10 kPa = 0.01 Mpa Water liquid
V1 = 0.01820 dm^3/mol P2 = 8600 kPa
V1 = 0.001010 m^3/kg
Cp = 0.07531 kJ/mol-K
Cp = 4.1792 kJ/kg-K

∆𝐻 = 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 + 𝑉(1 − 𝛽𝑇)∆𝑃
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑚3
11.5679 = 4.1792 ∆𝑇 + 0.001010 [1 − 425 𝑥10;6 /𝐾 318.15𝐾 ](8600-10)kPa
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔;𝐾 𝑘𝑔
ΔT = 0.9727 K ~ 0.97 K / 0.97°C
 Compression Processes
Pumps
Example 7.10
Water at 45°C and 10 kPa enters an adiabatic pump and is discharged at a pressure of 8600 kPa.
Assume the pump efficiency to be 0.75. Calculate the work of the pump, the temperature change of
the water, and the entropy change of the water. (β = 425 x 10-6/K)

Water (Sat’d liquid) Validation(Water @inlet stream)

η=
T1 = 45°C = 318.15 K 0.75 T1(@10kPa/ Tsat) = 318.7346 K
P1 = 10 kPa = 0.01 Mpa Water Since Tsat (T1 @10kPa) = T1(given), Water @ inlet stream is sat’d liquid
V1 = 0.01820 dm^3/mol P2 = 8600 kPa
V1 = 0.001010 m^3/kg
Cp = 0.07531 kJ/mol-K
Cp = 4.1792 kJ/kg-K

For entropy change,

𝑇
∆𝑆 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑙𝑛 𝑇2 − 𝛽𝑉∆𝑃
1
318.15:0.9728 10−6 𝑚3
∆𝑆 = 4.1787 kJ/kg−K 𝑙𝑛 − 425 𝑥 0.001010 𝑘𝑔 8600 − 10 𝑘𝑃𝑎
318.15 𝐾
∆𝑺 = 9.0701 x 10^-3 kJ/kg-K
References
• https://www.ecourses.ou.edu/cgi-
bin/ebook.cgi?topic=th&chap_sec=04.4&page=theory
• https://slideplayer.com/slide/3873381/
• https://thermopedia.com/content/905/
• Perry and Green (2008). Perry’s Handbook for Chemical Engineers.
McGraw Hill.
• Smith, J.M.; Van Ness, Hendrick; Abbott, Michael; and Swihart,
Mark. (2001). Introduction to Chemical Engineering
Thermodynamics. McGraw-Hill Education, 6th ed.
• Smith, J.M.; Van Ness, Hendrick; Abbott, Michael; and Swihart,
Mark. (2017). Introduction to Chemical Engineering
Thermodynamics. McGraw-Hill Education, 8th ed.