DILLA UNIVERSITY

HIGHWAY INTEGRATED DESIGN PROJECT

UNIVERSITY OF THE GREENLAND

DILLA UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
INTEGRATED CIVIL ENGINEERING HIGHWAY DESIGN PROJECT
ADVISOR: - EYASU L (M. Sc)

PREPERD BY: -
Students name ID
1. DANIL YILKAL RTCH-5687/17
2. BINIAM GETACHEW RTCH-3485/17
3. SENAIT ABIY RTCH-1600/17
4. EMEBET TAREKEGN RTCH-7016/17
5. ABINET NIBRAT RTCH-0042/16

SUBMISION DATE: - 21/06/2014 EC

DILLA, ETHIOPIA (2014 EC.)

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DECLARATION
We declare that this integrated highway design project work entitled as “Design of Highway
Elements found in gurage zone exact location road name is “atat mazoria- gunchre-kose-geja-
lera road project” in an authority record of our own work carried out at “DILLA
University” under the group leader of student Daniel Yilkal and guidance of Instructor eyasu L
(M.Sc.) during the whole project time.

Students:
1. DANIL YILKAL date _______________ sig_______________

2. BINIAM GETACHEW date _______________ sig_______________

3. SENAIT ABIY date _______________ sig_______________

4. EMEBET TAREKEGN date _______________ sig_______________

5. ABINET NIBRAT date _______________ sig_______________

Advisor:
Mr. EYASU L (M.Sc) date _______________ sig_______________

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost we want to thank Almighty GOD for endowing us with courage, strength as
well as health throughout our time. Secondly we would like to express our deep sense of
gratitude towards our advisor Inst. Eyasu L (M.Sc) and other instructors for their professional
guidance and valuable advice for the successful accomplishment on each duty they gave us.
Our special appreciation goes to DILLA UNIVERSITY College Of Engineering And
Technology School Of Civil Engineering for giving us this chance to upgrade our knowledge in
highway design. Lastly, we want to show our heartfelt thanks towards every member in the
group who were performing as much as they can on accomplishment of the given project and
other students who were helping us by sharing different materials.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
An important concept in highway design is that every project is unique. The setting and
Character of the area, the values of the community, the needs of the highway users, and the
Challenges and opportunities are unique factors that designers must consider with each highway
Project. Our project aims at designing for highway elements; such as geometric design, pavement
design and drainage design. In designing these highway elements, the criteria that have been set
by ERA manual. Based on these design standards, we have designed a DC 5 link Road starting
from the drawing of the contour and geometry, up to the pavement design.
In design of our project we are given with surveying and traffic data collected at some time from
the projected area. Using this data as a source, we used civil 3D software as the main designing
tool and ERA design manual in reference with different materials.
In conclusion on each design chapter we use different method of analysis and with output
obtained from each chapter, we finalized a flexible pavement having three layers.

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CURRICULUM VITAE

PERSONAL INFORMATION:
Name: Daniel Yilkal
Nationality: Ethiopian
Gender: Male
Age: 23
Marital Status: Single
Date of Birth: 02/04/1999
Place of Birth: Debre Markos
Address: east gojjam, debre markos, Keble 05, village 07
Phone: +251-96-104-9018
E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]
EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND:
Elementary: Del Betgel Primary School (1998-2005 E.C)
High School: Menkorer High School (2006-2007 E.C)
Preparatory: Debre Markos Preparatory School (2008-2009 E.C)
Higher Education: Dilla University (2010-2014 E.C)
WORK EXPERINCE:
 Industrial Internship. Duration 4 Months (15th June 2013-28th September 2014 E.C)
QUALIFICATION:
Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) In Civil Engineering from Dilla University with CGPA of 3.54.
PERSONAL SKILL AND COMPETENCE:
 Communication skills: I have good communication skills. Whether it’s on the phone,
via email, or face-to-face.
 Interpersonal skills: I have excellent interpersonal skills, demonstrated by
communicating with clients, colleagues and non-technical professionals on a daily basis.
 Flexibility/adaptability: I have the ability to work individually without direct
supervision and also as a dedicated member of a technical team whenever required.

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 Writing: I have the ability to write clear and concise report, documents, emails and
letters.
 Data entry: I have the ability to type-up large amounts of data into electronic systems
without mistakes.
 Research: I have the ability to conduct scientific research into a verity of subjects and
issues.
 Leadership skills: I have experience leading people as I was team leader on a number of
projects during my university studies.
LANGUAGE:
language Reading Listening Writing Speaking
Amharic Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent
English Excellent Excellent Excellent Very good

COMPUTER SKILLS:
 Proficient with Microsoft word, excel and power point.
 Created and formatted takeoff sheet and bar schedule.
 Wrote, edited and formatted documents on Microsoft word.
 Using design software such as ETABS, SAP, SAFE,
 ETABS structural analysis and design software, SAFE structural analysis and design
software, Construction materials quantity surveying, AutoCAD software, Civil 3D road
design software, Eagle point road design software, Microsoft office software, Adobe
Photoshop software, Fast computer typing, Structural detailing works on AutoCAD.
THESIS WORK:
Thesis title: B.Sc. thesis on structural analysis and design of B+G+5 R.C building.
CERTIFICATIONS:
Certification of Ethiopian occupational standard for basic building construction
level: I (one) National qualification certificate from Federal Democratic republic of
Ethiopia technical and vocation education and training (TVET) Agency on Jan 2022.
Certification of Ethiopian occupational standard for masonry level: II (two) National
qualification certificate from Federal Democratic republic of Ethiopia technical and
vocation education and training (TVET) Agency on Feb 2022.

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Certification of ETABS, SAFE, CONMIS, Quantity Surveying and AutoCAD

Software Training from CENGG Software solution.
Certificate of recognition from The Federal Democratic republic of Ethiopia office of
reconciliation commission.
HOBBIES AND INEREST:
 Eager To Learn and Practice In Civil Engineering Software.
 Listening Media and Reading Books and Journals on Scientific Innovations.
 Conduct Project/ Thesis and Write Books Related To Civil Engineering Profession.
 Carryout The Responsibilities On Which I Assigned In A Well Manner.
REFERENCE:
 Mr. Sultan Mohammed (M.Sc. Dilla University School of Civil Engineering B.Sc. Thesis
Project Advisor.)
Email: [email protected]
Phone: +251-93-525-7300
 Mr. Tesfaye Tolosa (M.Sc. Dilla University College of Engineering and Technology
School Of Civil Engineering Road and Transportation Chair)
Email: [email protected]
Phone: +251-91-031-8019

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TABLE OF CONTENT
......................................................................................................................................................... 1
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................................. ii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF FIGURE.......................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... x
LIST OF ABBREVIATION: ........................................................................................................ xii
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Objective .............................................................................................................................. 2

1.3. Scope of the project ............................................................................................................. 3

1.5. project location and description ........................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 5

2.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 5

2.2. Design period ................................................................................................................... 5

2.3. Traffic Volumes ................................................................................................................... 6

2.4. Design standards .................................................................................................................. 9

CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 10

3.1. Overview ............................................................................................................................ 10

3.2. Design control and criteria ................................................................................................. 10

3.3. Horizontal Alignment ........................................................................................................ 19

3.4. Vertical Alignment............................................................................................................. 33

CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 44

4.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 44

4.2. Cross Section Elements .................................................................................................. 44

4.3. Excavation ...................................................................................................................... 47

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4.4. Shrinkage and swell ....................................................................................................... 47

4.5. Computation Of Earth Work Quantities......................................................................... 47

4.6. Mass Haul Diagrams ...................................................................................................... 48

CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 59

5.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 59

5.2. Flexible Pavement .............................................................................................................. 59

5.3. Flexible Pavement Design Catalogue ............................................................................ 65

CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................................. 69

6.1. General ............................................................................................................................... 69

6.2. Hydrologic Procedures....................................................................................................... 70

6.3. Design of side ditch ........................................................................................................ 70

6.4. Cross drainage ................................................................................................................ 72

CHAPTER SEVEN ...................................................................................................................... 74

7.1. introduction ........................................................................................................................ 74

7.2. Traffic signs ....................................................................................................................... 74

7.3. Road markings ................................................................................................................... 75

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 77
RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................................ 78
REFERENCE ................................................................................................................................ 79

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LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1.1. SNNPE ......................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 1.2. GURAGE ZONE .......................................................................................................... 4
Figure 1.3. ETHIOPIA .................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 1.4. Exact location of the project ......................................................................................... 4
Figure 3.1. The nature of terrain analysis ..................................................................................... 13
Figure 3.2. Horizontal alignment .................................................................................................. 19
Figure 3.3. Elements of circular curve. ......................................................................................... 20
Figure 3.4. Widening on curve ..................................................................................................... 24
Figure 3.5. Passing sight distance ................................................................................................. 27
Figure 3.6. Sight distance for horizontal curves ........................................................................... 29
Figure 3.7. super elevation ............................................................................................................ 30
Figure 3.8. Circular curve transition ............................................................................................. 30
Figure 3.9. Vertical alignment of our project ............................................................................... 33
Figure 3.10. Crest curve ................................................................................................................ 34
Figure 3.11. Sag curve .................................................................................................................. 35
Table 3.12. Minimum value of K for sag curve ............................................................................ 35
Figure 3.13. Hidden dip and roller coaster profile ........................................................................ 36
Figure 4.1. Designation of roadside regions ................................................................................. 45
Figure 4.2. Standard cross section of DC5 for rolling terrain type ............................................... 46
Figure 4.3. our cross section design .............................................................................................. 46
Figure 4.4. mass haul diagram of this project ............................................................................... 58

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1:- Initial Traffic Count Data on the year of 2014E.c ........................................................ 6
Table 2.2. 24-hr traffic count of weekdays and weekends ............................................................. 7
Table 2.3. Initial traffic volume ...................................................................................................... 8
Table 2.4. Forecasted opening year traffic...................................................................................... 8
Table 2.5. Midlife traffic forecast (8%) .......................................................................................... 8
Table 2.6. Road classification, AADT, carriageway widths and design speeds, ERA 2013 .......... 9
Table 3.1. Design speed (km/h), ERA 2013 ................................................................................. 11
Table 3.2. terrain classification based on the above terrain analysis ............................................ 13
Table 3.3. terrain classification in 20m interval based on transvers side slope ............................ 13
Table 3.4. Geometric parameters for design class DC5 paved from ERA manual (2013) ........... 17
Table 3.5. Minimum radii for horizontal curves for paved road. ERA 2013 ............................... 20
Table 3.6. Horizontal alignment PI station report for our centerline. ........................................... 21
Table 3.7. Horizontal Curve station report ................................................................................... 22
Table 3.8. All Horizontal Alignment curve report ........................................................................ 22
Table 3.9. Widening on curves and high fills, ERA 2013 ............................................................ 25
Table 3.10. Stopping and passing sight distance for paved road, ERA 2013 ............................... 26
Table 3.11. Clearance distance (d3) for different ambient speed, ERA 2013 ............................. 28
Table 3.12. Recommended values of accelerations for corresponding speed, ERA 2013 ........... 28
Table 3.13. super elevation elements data generated from civil 3D software .............................. 31
Table 3.14. Minimum K value for crest vertical curves (paved road),ERA 2013 ........................ 34
Table 3.15.maximum gradients for paved sections ...................................................................... 36
Table 3.16. Vertical curve PVI station.......................................................................................... 41
Table 3.17. Profile vertical curve report ....................................................................................... 41
Table 4.1. Shrinkage factor for different type of soil recommended by ERA .............................. 47
Table 4.2. Total volume report generated from civil 3D software ............................................... 49
Table 5.1. Forecasted opening year traffic.................................................................................... 60
Table 5.2. Total traffic volume over the design period................................................................. 61
Table 5.3. Large Truck Axel Load Survey ................................................................................... 62
Table 5.4. Medium Truck Axel Load Survey ............................................................................... 62
Table 5.5. Small Truck Axel Load Survey ................................................................................... 63

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Table 5.6. Bus Axel Load Survey ................................................................................................. 63

Table 5.7. Determination of equivalent standard axel load (ESA) ............................................... 64
Table 5.8. Traffic class for flexible pavement design ................................................................... 64
Table 5.9. Subgrade strength class ................................................................................................ 65
Table 5.10. Possible pavement structures ..................................................................................... 66
Table 5.11. Determination of relative unit cost of material .......................................................... 67
Table 7.1. Traffic sign for curves.................................................................................................. 75

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION:
 AADT -Average annual daily traffic
 AC – Asphalt concrete
 CBR-California bearing ratio
 DS –Design standard
 ESF- Equivalent standard factor
 ERA- Ethiopian road Authority
 ESAL -Equivalent single axel loads
 MDD –Maximum dry density
 OMC-Optimum moisture content

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CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
The development of one country is highly depending on the basic infrastructures; like
transportation facility, water Supply, electricity, telecommunication and others are necessary.
Transportation can be defined as movement of peoples and goods from one location to another
location. Transportation is one of the factors in economical, social and cultural development of
the country; which touches one of us every day in all aspects of our lives. Most jobs throughout
the economy are directly linked to transportation. In the world there are various types of
transportations like road, railway, air, water, etc. But, from all means of transportations road
transportation or highway transportation system is the most usable and accessible means due to
the following reasons:
 It is more economical and exists almost in all place
 The Construction of highway is flexible.
 Highway gives door to door services, personalized service, and creates higher
 Employment potential for the community.
 Highway roads provide a wide geographical coverage etc.
From the above listed transportation types, the trends are towards road transportation. The reason
behind is
 Roads provide a wide geographical coverage, particularly in hilly regions. In addition, it
provides services for the communities from the start up to end (termination)
 Roads are constructed relatively at low initial coast than others and at the same time stage
construction is possible.
 Road transportation gives a flexible service, i.e. free from fixed program.
 It gives door-to-door services, personalized service, and creates higher employment
potential for the community.

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Besides the advantages, there are some side effects and these side effects should be reduced by
proper design (project handing) and vehicle operation. Some of the disadvantages are:
 Environmental pollution, like noise, vibration, less due to aesthetics point of views.
 Safety: road accidents become a concern in much country.
 Parking: Especially in cities road transportation needs parking land.
 Energy: it contains higher energy per KM.
In transportation engineering, a high way is a science of design and construction of highway
infrastructure to connect peoples at different locations, minimize the time for movement of
people and goods, exploitation of natural resources, transport and urbanization.
High way engineering is a science design and construction of roadway transportation facilities
satisfactorily throughout its design life. In doing so high way should be designed and constructed
with regard to its safety and economy .for this purpose high way should be designed
geometrically and structurally safe, economical and durable.
Designing of highway is therefore includes:-
Geometric design:- design of visible dimension on such features as curves, cross section, sight
distance, bicycle and pedestrian facilities and interaction with safe, efficient and economic traffic
operation while maintaining aesthetic and environmental quality.
Pavement design: - designed and constructed to provide durable all weathered travelling surface
for safe and speedy movement of people and goods with an acceptable level of comfort.
Drainage design: - it is designed for the protection of the road through the prevention of damage
due to water to achieve a chosen level of service without major rehabilitation, as end of selected
design period.
1.2. Objective
1.2.1. General objective: The objective of this project is to design elements of the road for a
given survey data and traffic data.
1.2.2. Specific objective
 To design geometric elements.
 To design appropriate pavement thickness.
 To design appropriate drainage structure.
 To do bill of quantity of the work
 To develop Team work.

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 Generally to design safe, economical and durable highway.

1.3. Scope of the project
The scope of this project is to design different parts of the road elements; like Geometric design
(horizontal alignment, vertical alignment), Cross sectional elements, Pavement design, Drainage
design and Earth work of the road by using ERA Design Manual 2013 with the help of civil 3D
software.
1.4. Significance of the project
 It will make the students professionally fit and more practical.
 Increase the experience on the design of practical project.
 Familiarize students with different standards and codes.
 It gives an over view of current knowledge of the students on principle of highway design
 Generally the project gives an academic significance for extension of knowledge and
 Academic success.

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1.5. project location and description

This road project is situated in Gurage zone a Region in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and
Peoples' Region of Ethiopia. The road is one of the important routes that pass through vast and
fertile land of the country.
Our road route lies through gurage zone “ atat mazoria-gunchre-kose-geja-lera road covering
about 4.5 Km.
Gurage is bordered on the south by Hadiya on the west north and east by the Oromia Region, and
on the southeast by Kembata Alaba and Tembaro (KAT). Its highest point is Mount Gurage.
Welkite is the administrative center of the Zone; other towns in Gurage include Butajira and
Worabe.

Figure 1.1. SNNPE

Figure 1.3. ETHIOPIA

Figure 1.2. GURAGE ZONE Figure 1.4. Exact location of the project

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CHAPTER TWO
2. TRAFFIC ANALYSIS
2.1. Introduction
The traffic volume is one the important parameters used in the determination of the width of the
road and thickness of the pavement required. The design of a highway and its features should be
Based upon explicit consideration of the Traffic volumes and characteristics to be served. The
traffic volume is one of the parameters used for determination of design standards. Collection of
traffic data and estimation of future traffic composition, traffic volume and traffic growth rate
should be carried out carefully and precisely. So the actual traffic encountered will be as
expected and this reduces the effect of over dosing (traffic congestion).Information on traffic
volumes serves to establish the loads for the geometric highway design. The information
required to estimate traffic volume includes current traffic, future traffic, traffic composition and
traffic volume growth rate.
The traffic analysis is carried out to determine the pavement component required to resist the
Traffic load during the design period. The structural parameters required to determine the traffic
load are:
i. Select design period.
ii. Estimate initial traffic volume (initial AADT) per class of vehicle.
iii. Estimate traffic growth.
iv. Determine cumulative traffic volume over the design period.
v. Obtain mean equivalent load
vi. Estimate cumulative ESA over the design period (in one direction).
vii. Select appropriate traffic class (based on ESA) for flexible pavement design.
2.2. Design period
The length or duration of time during which the pavement structure is expected to function
satisfactorily without the need for major intervention (rehabilitation such as overlays or
reconstruction) or the duration on time until the pavement structure reaches its terminal condition
(failure condition). Selecting appropriate design period depends on:
 Functional importance of the road.
 Traffic volume.

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 Location & terrain of the project.

 Financial constraints.
 Difficulty in forecasting traffic
So with all mentioned points our project is a type of project which connects woredas of gurage
zone (atat mazorrya-gunchre-kose-geja-lera road) which falls under the functional classification
of link road. Bearing in mind the above considerations as one designer when we design the road
we have to cross check the design period from ERA manual. Therefore, with all above-
mentioned reasons we conclude the design period for our case is 20 years.
2.3. Traffic Volumes
2.3.1. Traffic Forecasting
To determine the traffic that is going to use the project road upon completion of construction,
Traffic study for the project influence area has been conducted. These included:
Normal Traffic: Traffic, which would pass along the existing road or track even if no new
pavement is provided. In our project, we use Initial Traffic Count Data on the year of 2014E.c.
Diverted Traffic: - Traffic that changes from another route to the project road because of the
improved pavement or decrease in travel length, but still travel between the same origin and
destination.
Generated Traffic: - Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or
improvement of the road.
In our project diverted traffic and generated traffic are neglected because we don’t know detail
about this project.
Table 2.1:- Initial Traffic Count Data on the year of 2014E.c
Traffic count
Day Car Bus Small truck Medium truck Large truck
Mon ,16hr 90 16 64 20 2
Tue ,24hr 102 20 87 17 3
Wen ,16hr 124 11 52 23 0
Thu ,16hr 85 13 34 9 5
Fri ,16hr 111 21 92 18 4
Sat ,24hr 130 12 46 32 8

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Sun ,16hr 54 9 29 8 6

For converting a 16hr counting to a 24hr, we need to determine hourly expansion factor for
weekdays and weekends.
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝟐𝟒−𝒉𝒓 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
HEF = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓

Table 2.2. 24-hr traffic count of weekdays and weekends

Traffic count
Day Car Bus Small truck Medium truck Large truck
Mon ,16hr 90 16 64 20 2
HEF 1.13 1.25 1.36 0.85 1.5
Mon ,24hr 102 20 87 17 3
Tue ,24hr 102 20 87 17 3
Wen ,16hr 124 11 52 23 0
HEF 0.82 1.82 1.67 0.74 0
Wen ,24hr 102 20 87 17 0
Thu ,16hr 85 13 34 9 5
HEF 1.2 1.54 2.56 1.89 0.6
Thu ,24hr 102 20 87 17 3
Fri ,16hr 111 21 92 18 4
HEF 0.92 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.75
Fri ,24hr 102 20 87 17 3
Sat ,24hr 130 12 46 32 8
Sun ,16hr 54 9 29 8 6
HEF 2.41 1.33 1.6 4 1.33
Sun ,24hr 130 12 46 32 8

𝟕 𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝟐𝟒𝒉𝒓 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎

Average daily traffic (ADT) = 𝟕
𝟏𝟎𝟐+𝟏𝟎𝟐+𝟏𝟎𝟐+𝟏𝟎𝟐+𝟏𝟎𝟐+𝟏𝟑𝟎+𝟏𝟑𝟎
ADT car = = 110
𝟕

Average annual daily traffic (AADT) = ADT*SCF

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Where: SCF=seasonal correction factor=1

AADT car = 110*1 =110
𝟐𝟎+𝟐𝟎+𝟐𝟎+𝟐𝟎+𝟐𝟎+𝟏𝟐+𝟏𝟐
ADT=AADT bus = = 18
𝟕
𝟖𝟕+𝟖𝟕+𝟖𝟕+𝟖𝟕+𝟖𝟕+𝟒𝟔+𝟒𝟔
ADT=AADT small truck = = 76
𝟕
𝟏𝟕+𝟏𝟕+𝟏𝟕+𝟏𝟕+𝟏𝟕+𝟑𝟐+𝟑𝟐
ADT=AADT medium truck = = 22
𝟕
𝟑+𝟑+𝟑+𝟑+𝟑+𝟖+𝟖
ADT=AADT large truck = =5
𝟕

Table 2.3. Initial traffic volume

Vehicle classification AADT2014
Car 110
Bus 18
Small-truck 76
Medium-truck 22
Large-truck 5
The construction of our project takes a period of 3 years then the AADT of the opening year i.e.
2017 is calculated as follows by using AADT2014 as a base year.
Table 2.4. Forecasted opening year traffic
year car bus Small-truck Medium-truck Large-truck
AADT2014 110 18 76 22 5
(1+0.08)3 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26
AADT2017 139 23 96 28 7

Then in order to forecast the traffic at the midlife of the road that is 10years. The growth rate
over the design period of the road is constant (8%).
Table 2.5. Midlife traffic forecast (8%)
year car bus Small-truck Medium-truck Large-truck total
AADT2017 139 23 96 28 7 293
(1+0.08)10 2.16 2.16 2.16 2.16 2.16
AADT2027 301 50 208 61 16 636

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2.4. Design standards

The design standards apply to divided highways, trunk and link roads, main access and collector
roads and, feeder roads.
using road functional classification selection and design traffic flow, a design class or standard is
selected from Table given in ERA GEOMETRIC DESIGN MANUAL 2013.
Table 2.6. Road classification, AADT, carriageway widths and design speeds, ERA 2013

The functional classification of our road is LINK ROAD with the design period of 20 years, in
order to know design standard we have to calculate the midlife AADT. Finally as calculated
earlier the midlife AADT for our link road is 636 which is classified under design standard of
DC5.

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CHAPTER THREE
3. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
3.1. Overview
Geometric design is an essential component in the design development of highway. It is the
process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is designed to meet the needs of the
users. The principal geometric features are the road cross-section components, horizontal and
vertical alignment, sight distance, intersection treatment, control of access, etc. Taking as a
whole, the quality and appearance of a road is determined by the quality of the geometric
alignment design and its relationship to the surrounding environment.
3.2. Design control and criteria
The geometric design is influenced by numerous factors and controlled by specific design
criteria as follows;
i. Function and classification of the road
ii. Required design speed
iii. Topography of the surrounding land
iv. Projected traffic volume and composition
v. Traffic safety considerations
vi. Environmental considerations
vii. Capital cost of construction and
viii. Roadway users etc.
3.2.1. Functional classification of Road
Ethiopian roads Authority classify the roads according to their function. The functional
classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes. These are:
A. Trunk Roads (Class I):-Trunk roads link centers of international importance and roads
terminating at international boundaries with Addis Ababa. Although they can have
volumes as low as 100 AADT, trunk roads have a present AADT ≥1000.
B. Link Roads (Class II):-These roads connect centers of national or international
importance, such as principal towns and urban centers to each other. A typical link road
has over (400–1000) first year AADT, although values can range between (50-10,000).

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C. Main Access Roads (Class III):-Main Access Roads link centers of provincial
importance between each other. First year AADT is between (30 -1000).
D. Collector Roads (Class IV):-These roads link locally important center’s to each other, to
a more important center, or to higher-class roads. First year AADTs are between (25-
400).
E. Feeder Roads (Class V):- Any road link to a minor center such as market and local
locations is served by a feeder road. First year AADTs are between 0-100. Our road is
proposed to connect two rural towns and the first AADT is 341. So depending on the
above information the project road falls under the category of class ІІ.
3.2.2. Design speed
The choice of design speed is governed primarily by topography, traffic volume, function and
class of highway, capital cost, aesthetic considerations etc. Different speed standards are
assigned for different classes of the road. Traditionally the first step in choosing geometric
standard is to fix the „design speed‟ for the road. However when choosing geometric standards
for particular situations, it is more important to consider the purpose for which the road is being
provided.
The design speed is used as an index, which links the road function, traffic flow and terrain to the
design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that the driver is presented with a
reasonably consistent speed environment.
Table 3.1. Design speed (km/h), ERA 2013

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3.2.3. Topography
The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain through which the road
passes. Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as follows:
I. Flat or gently: rolling country which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road,
having continuous unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope
up to 3 percent).
II. Rolling: hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately and
where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some restrictions in alignment
(transverse terrain slope from 3 percent to 20 percent).
III. Mountainous: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of
terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often
involves long steep grades and limited sight distance (transverse terrain slope from 20
percent to 50 percent).
IV. Escarpment: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is added to
cater to those situations whereby the standards associated with each of the above terrain
types cannot be met.

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Legend:-
:-flat
: - rolling
: - mountainous
: - escarpment

Figure 3.1. The nature of terrain analysis

Table 3.2. terrain classification based on the above terrain analysis
Station terrain
0+000 - 0+280 Rolling
0+280 – 0+660 Flat
0+660 – 1+580 Rolling
1+580 – 2+220 Flat
2+220 – 4+536 Rolling

As shown in the above terrain analysis more than 80% of the surface is rolling and the remaining
is flat. Therefore, our governing terrain type is rolling.
For this project we also classify terrain types based on transverse side slope using Auto CAD and
Eagle Point Data. We have gained the following output.
Table 3.3. terrain classification in 20m interval based on transvers side slope
station left offset elevation right offset elevation Slop (%) terrain
0+000.000 -25 1942.443 25 1940.764 3.358 rolling

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0+020.000 -25 1942.443 25 1940.764 3.358 rolling

1+020.000 -25 1950.045 25 1948.392 3.306 rolling
1+040.000 -25 1948.868 25 1947.867 2.002 flat
1+060.000 -25 1947.639 25 1947.956 0.634 flat
1+080.000 -25 1946.013 25 1947.89 3.754 rolling
1+100.000 -25 1944.301 25 1946.894 5.186 rolling
1+120.000 -25 1942.738 25 1946.13 6.784 rolling
1+140.000 -25 1942.232 25 1943.151 1.838 flat
1+160.000 -25 1941.272 25 1940.985 0.574 flat
1+180.000 -25 1940.567 25 1940.488 0.158 flat
1+200.000 -25 1940.661 25 1939.548 2.226 flat
1+220.000 -25 1940.465 25 1939.119 2.692 flat
1+240.000 -25 1939.409 25 1938.733 1.352 flat
1+260.000 -25 1939.648 25 1939.443 0.41 flat
1+280.000 -25 1940.029 25 1940.9 1.742 flat
1+300.000 -25 1941.232 25 1942.914 3.364 rolling
1+500.000 -25 1949.592 25 1950.132 1.08 flat
1+520.000 -25 1950.146 25 1950.709 1.126 flat
1+540.000 -25 1950.91 25 1951.348 0.876 flat
1+560.000 -25 1951.471 25 1952.116 1.29 flat
1+580.000 -25 1952.028 25 1952.772 1.488 flat
1+860.000 -25 1956.783 25 1956.857 0.148 flat
2+100.000 -25 1956.182 25 1956.723 1.082 flat
2+120.000 -25 1955.977 25 1956.723 1.492 flat
2+140.000 -25 1956.028 25 1956.723 1.39 flat
2+160.000 -25 1955.269 25 1956.723 2.908 flat
2+180.000 -25 1954.929 25 1956.723 3.588 rolling
2+200.000 -25 1954.667 25 1956.723 4.112 rolling
2+220.000 -25 1954.498 25 1956.723 4.45 rolling
2+240.000 -25 1954.211 25 1956.723 5.024 rolling

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2+260.000 -25 1953.764 25 1956.723 5.918 rolling

2+280.000 -25 1953.191 25 1956.723 7.064 rolling
2+300.000 -25 1952.687 25 1956.723 8.072 rolling
2+320.000 -25 1952.211 25 1956.723 9.024 rolling
2+340.000 -25 1951.682 25 1956.723 10.082 rolling
2+360.000 -25 1951.338 25 1956.723 10.77 rolling
2+380.000 -25 1950.869 25 1956.723 11.708 rolling
2+400.000 -25 1950.455 25 1956.723 12.536 rolling
2+420.000 -25 1950.059 25 1956.723 13.328 rolling
2+440.000 -25 1949.671 25 1956.723 14.104 rolling
2+460.000 -25 1949.097 25 1934.234 29.726 mountain
2+480.000 -25 1948.548 25 1934.234 28.628 mountain
2+500.000 -25 1948.013 25 1934.234 27.558 mountain
2+520.000 -25 1947.495 25 1934.234 26.522 mountain
2+540.000 -25 1946.9 25 1934.234 25.332 mountain
2+560.000 -25 1946.217 25 1934.234 23.966 rolling
2+580.000 -25 1945.709 25 1934.234 22.95 rolling
2+600.000 -25 1945.085 25 1934.234 21.702 rolling
2+620.000 -25 1944.373 25 1934.234 20.278 rolling
2+640.000 -25 1943.725 25 1934.234 18.982 rolling
3+700.000 -25 1932.869 25 1930.288 5.162 rolling
3+720.000 -25 1932.182 25 1929.889 4.586 rolling
3+740.000 -25 1932.116 25 1929.503 5.226 rolling
3+940.000 -25 1927.143 25 1923.671 6.944 rolling
3+960.000 -25 1926.084 25 1922.222 7.724 rolling
3+980.000 -25 1926.485 25 1921.762 9.446 rolling
4+000.000 -25 1926.302 25 1922.526 7.552 rolling
4+020.000 -25 1925.866 25 1922.45 6.832 rolling
4+040.000 -25 1925.735 25 1922.317 6.836 rolling
4+280.000 -25 1920.98 25 1918.042 5.876 rolling

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4+300.000 -25 1919.372 25 1916.878 4.988 rolling

4+320.000 -25 1918.044 25 1915.813 4.462 rolling
4+340.000 -25 1915.9 25 1914.704 2.392 flat
4+360.000 -25 1915.151 25 1913.007 4.288 rolling
4+380.000 -25 1912.197 25 1911.437 1.52 flat
4+400.000 -25 1911.489 25 1909.362 4.254 rolling
4+420.000 -25 1909.924 25 1908.08 3.688 rolling
4+440.000 -25 1908.704 25 1905.47 6.468 rolling
4+460.000 -25 1907.679 25 1904.841 5.676 rolling
4+480.000 -25 1906.897 25 1903.925 5.944 rolling
4+500.000 -25 1905.1 25 1903.098 4.004 rolling
4+520.000 -25 1903.66 25 1902.379 2.562 flat
4+540.000 -25 1901.978 25 1902.174 0.392 flat
4+560.000 -25 1902.104 25 1902.43 0.652 flat
4+561.864 -25 1902.104 25 1902.471 0.734 flat

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Table 3.4. Geometric parameters for design class DC5 paved from ERA manual (2013)

Notes
1. These values are based on an object height of 0.2m. use of a different sized object (see
chapter 9) requires ERA approval.
2. To abort passing maneuver.
3. The design speed on the escarpment may be dictated by the severity of the terrain and the
curve radius (plus curve widening) that can be achieved on the hairpin bends.
4. Length not to exceed 200m and relief gradients require (<6% for minimum of 200m).

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5. In some circumstances in very flat terrain, this can be reduced to 0.3%.

As it was identified in chapter three the road design Standard is DC5. And the terrain type is20%
flat and 85% rolling. According to this, all the parameters used for this type of road are compiled
bellow, which is based on ERA design manual.
 Functional road classification is Link Road (Class II). It has a over (400–1000) first year
AADT.
 Design period is 20 years; this design period is selected based on road functional
classification. Hence link road has 20 year service life according to ERA functional road
classifications.
 Design standard of our road is DC5 according to ERA manual;
 Road surfacing type is paved; all DC5 road classes are paved roads.
 Maximum carriageway width of highway is 7.0m with two lane two way.
 Governing terrain classification is Rolling because more than 80% of our road is covered
with rolling (i.e. having slope between 3-25%) according to ERA terrain classification).
 Design speed is 70km/hr.
 Max. desirable grade is 6% ERA recommends
 Max. grade absolute 8%
 Minimum Gradient is 0.5% this is recommended for the purpose of that water flow on the
surface of the road.
 Minimum stopping sight distance at desirable grade is 140m.
 Minimum passing sight distance is 270m
 Maximum super elevation is 8%.
 Minimum horizontal curve radius is 175m at SE = 8%.
 Transition curve is required. Because our terrain type is rolling.
 Minimum sag vertical curve K = 12
 Minimum crust vertical curve K = 30
 Normal cross fall is 2.5%
 Shoulder cross fall is 4%
 Right of way 50m. It is the width of the road including, carriageway width, shoulder
width, embankment, ditch width, and clear zones width.

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3.3. Horizontal Alignment

Along the best corridor chosen, an open transverse is established and because vehicles cannot
make sharp turns, circular curves are normally used to join intersecting tangents. Thus, the
design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or straight section, the circular
curve, the transition curve (spiral) and the super elevation section. All these elements are
functions of speed and radius. These two basic factors are modulated by various conditions, for
example traffic, economics and physical site conditions. The limiting values are determined in
various international standards based on the above considerations and ERA design guidelines is
found to be appropriate and is applied in the course of the design works.

Figure 3.2. Horizontal alignment

3.3.1. Circular curve

Whenever the direction of a road or railway line is to be changed, curves are provided between
the intersecting straights. This is necessary for smooth and safe movement of the vehicles and for
the comfort of passengers.
The recommended desirable minimum curve radii for super elevated curves can be seen within
the recommended design standards. The absolute minimum values can be calculated taking into
account maximum super elevation (emax) and the maximum side friction (fmax). The formula to
calculate this is as follows:

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Where:
VD = Design Speed (km/h)
e = Maximum super elevation (%/100)
f = Side friction coefficient
ERA recommended R min = 175 for speed of 70 km/ hr. and super-elevation 8%.
Table 3.5. Minimum radii for horizontal curves for paved road. ERA 2013

Types of circular curves we used in our horizontal alignment.

Simple curve

Figure 3.3. Elements of circular curve.

1.∆: Deflection angle by arc definition (in degrees). 6. M: Middle Ordinate M=R (1-cos∆/2)
2. R: Radius of curve by arc definition ECC 7. C: Chord from P.C to P.T = 2Rsin∆/2
3. T: Tangent distance T=R tan∆/2 8. Point of Curvature (P.C) = P.I-T
4. E: External distance= R (sec∆/2-1) 9. Point of Tangency (P.T) =P.C+LC
5. L: Curve Length L=∆*2R∏/360

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Sample calculation of horizontal curve:

Curve 2
Rmin =175m
Rprovided = 200m
Δ = 25° 19' 33.5201"
Vd = 70Km/hr
Elements of curve 2:
 Tangent distance (T)
T= R tan (Δ/2) = 200 tan (25° 19' 33.5201"/2) = 44.9m
 Length of the curve (L)
L=ΔR*2π/360 = (25° 19' 33.5201"*200*2*3.14/360) = 88.4m
 External distance (E)
E= R (sec (Δ/2)-1) = 200(sec (25° 19' 33.5201"/2)-1) = 4.98m
 Middle ordinate (M)
M= R (1-cos (Δ/2)) = = 200(1-cos(25° 19' 33.5201"/2)) = 4.86m
 Length of the chord (C)
C= 2Rsin (Δ/2) = 2*200 sin (25° 19' 33.5201"/2) = 87.68m
 Station PC =PI-T=0+694.82-44.9 = 0+649.92
 Station PT =PC+L =0+649.92+88.4 = 0+738.32
Table 3.6. Horizontal alignment PI station report for our centerline.
PI Station Northing Easting Distance Direction
0+000.00 367,131.9137m 900,114.9396m
352.785m N80° 02' 02"E
0+352.78 367,192.9687m 900,462.4010m
348.313m S75° 36' 13"E
0+695.55 367,106.3673m 900,799.7764m
950.119m N79° 04' 14"E
1+644.20 367,286.5103m 901,732.6611m
2,567.927m S67° 19' 48"E
4+203.86 366,296.7691m 904,102.1889m

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346.689m S89° 02' 33"E

4+547.79 366,290.9750m 904,448.8292m

Table 3.7. Horizontal Curve station report

Curve No. BC PI EC
1 0+169.30 0+352.78 0+530.73
2 0+650.62 0+695.55 0+739.02
3 1+500.79 1+644.20 1+729.34
4 4+088.80 4+203.86 4+316.17

Table 3.8. All Horizontal Alignment curve report

Tangent Data
Length: 169.299 Course: N 80° 02' 02.0151" E

Circular Curve 1 Data

Delta: 24° 21' 45.4013" Type: RIGHT
Radius: 850
Length: 361.427 Tangent: 183.486
Mid-Ord: 19.138 External: 19.579
Chord: 358.71 Course: S 87° 47' 05.2842" E

Tangent Data
Length: 119.891 Course: S 75° 36' 12.5835" E

Circular Curve 2 Data

Delta: 25° 19' 33.5201" Type: LEFT
Radius: 200

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Length: 88.404 Tangent: 44.936

Mid-Ord: 4.865 External: 4.986
Chord: 87.686 Course: S 88° 15' 59.3436" E

Tangent Data
Length: 761.773 Course: N 79° 04' 13.8964" E

Circular Curve 3 Data

Delta: 33° 35' 58.3768" Type: RIGHT
Radius: 475
Length: 278.551 Tangent: 143.409
Mid-Ord: 20.273 External: 21.176
Chord: 274.577 Course: S 84° 07' 46.9152" E

Tangent Data
Length: 2309.452 Course: S 67° 19' 47.7268" E

Circular Curve 4 Data

Delta: 21° 42' 44.8651" Type: LEFT
Radius: 600
Length: 227.372 Tangent: 115.067
Mid-Ord: 10.738 External: 10.934
Chord: 226.014 Course: S 78° 11' 10.1594" E

Tangent Data

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Length: 231.622 Course: S 89° 02' 32.5919" E

3.3.2. Widening on circular curves and embankments
Widening is an extra width of pavement which is necessary on curves. As a vehicle turns, the
rear wheels follow the front wheels on a shorter radius, and this has the effect of increasing the
width of the vehicle in relation to the lane width of the roadway. Hence, Vehicles with rigid
wheelbases on horizontal curves, the rear wheels do not follow the same path as that of the front
wheels. The amount of widening needed varies with the width of the pavement on tangent, the
design speed, and the curve radius or degree of curvature. Curve widening is not applied to
curves with a radius greater than 250 meters.

Figure 3.4. Widening on curve

Where:
R1- is the radius of the outer track line of the rear wheel.
R2- is the radius of the outer track line of the front wheel.
L-is the distance between the front and rear wheel.
n -is the number of lanes.
In this project widening was provided for only curve 1 since the radius of other curves is greater
than 250 m. In ERA manual the amount of widening to be provided for curves are specified only
by considering the radius of the curve.

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Table 3.9. Widening on curves and high fills, ERA 2013

Sample calculation:
Curve 2

N = 2 , B=6.1m B=wheel base (usually taken as =6.1m)

R=200m V=70km/hr.

Widening from ERA = 0.6m

Calculated value of widening = 0.681m
Recommended value = 0.6m

3.3.3. Sight distance

Sight distance is the length of the highway that is visible to a driver. A safe Sight distance is the
distance needed by the driver on arterial, or a driver exiting a drive way or a street, to verify that
the road is clear and avoid Conflicts with other vehicles. Sight line must be kept free of objects
which Might interfere with ability of drivers to see other vehicles. Features like hills, curves in
the road, vegetation, other land escaping, sins and buildings can reduce sight distance. In design,
two sight distances are considered:-passing sight distance and stopping sight distance.
3.3.3.1. Stopping sight distance
Stopping sight distance is the sum of the distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the
driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied and the distance

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required to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application begins. These are referred to as
brake reaction distance and braking distance, respectively.
Table 3.10. Stopping and passing sight distance for paved road, ERA 2013

The stopping sight distance is given by the following formula;

For Curve 1,2,3,and 4

V = 70km/hr. t = 2.5sec , f = 0.315
SSD= (0.278)(t)(V)+v2/254f = 109.9m
Recommended stopping sight distance for our curves is 110m for g = 0% , 120m for g = 5% ,
140 for g = 10% based on ERA manual.
3.3.3.2. Passing sight distance
Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that
must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.

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The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows.
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction.
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane.
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver.
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle.

Figure 3.5. Passing sight distance

The formulae for these components are as indicated below:

d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + at1/2)
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuvers. Usually taken as 2.5seconds
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
d2 = 0.278 vt2
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, usually taken as 10seconds

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v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h

d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver.
Table 3.11. Clearance distance (d3) for different ambient speed, ERA 2013

d4 = 2d2/3
d4= distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2 less the
Portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane.
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1+ d2 + d3 + d4
Table 3.12. Recommended values of accelerations for corresponding speed, ERA 2013
Design speed (km/hr.) 25 30 40 50 65 80 100
Acceleration(km/hr./sec) 5 4.8 4.45 4.0 3.28 2.56 1.92

From the above table our speed is 70km/h and corresponding acceleration is 3.52 by
interpolating the values of 65km/h and 80km/h.
Sample calculation:
V = 70km/h , t1 = 2.5 sec , a = 3.52
d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + at1/2) = 0.278*2.5(70-16+3.52*2.5/2) = 34.472m
d2 = 0.278 vt2 = 0.278*70*10 = 194.6m

d3 = 55m for the design speed of 70 km/hr.

d4 = 2/3d2 = 2*194.6/3= 129.73m
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = 34.472m+194.6m+55m+129.73m = 413.802m
3.3.3.3. Control of sight distance
Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments made to meet the minimum
requirements. On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees
or other sight obstructions or widen cuts on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight
distance.

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Figure 3.6. Sight distance for horizontal curves

Lateral clearance on simple horizontal curve with middle obstacle is given in two cases:
Cases 1 S < L (where sight distance less than curve length)
The setback distance (M) from the center of the inner lane is given by
M = R’ (1 – cos (∆/2))
Where R’ = R – lane width/2 = R – 7/2, lane width = 7m
Cases 2 S > L (where sight distance greater than curve length)
M = L (2S – L)/8R’ ϴ = SSD * D/40
Where D = Degree of curve

Sample calculation:
Curve 1
L = 54m S = 110m R = 200m this shows S > L
R’ = 200-3.5=196.5m
M = L(2S-L)/8R’ = 54(2*110-54)/8*196.5 = 5.7m
3.3.4. Super elevation
Super elevation is the raising of outer edge or sloping upward towards the outside of the curve in
order to counter balance the centrifugal force that acts on the vehicle. There are two forces acting
on the vehicle that passes through the horizontal curve. This is done on curves to facilitate the
traffic flow while rounding the horizontal curve. Normally on curves, there is a tendency for
vehicles to face away from the outer portion of the curve due to the existence of centrifugal force
To overcome this effect super elevation is provided.

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Figure 3.7. super elevation

Advantages of providing super elevation are:-
 Higher speeds without danger of over turning.
 Increases volume of traffic.
 Maintenance is reduced otherwise there will be wear on the outside wheels causing
potholes.
 Water drain off which decrease the construction of gutters.

Figure 3.8. Circular curve transition

a. Tangent run out (Lt)
b. It is the longitudinal length along the road designed to remove the adverse crown to a
zero slope. i.e., the outer edge of the road is raised from a normal cross slope to a zero
slope which equal to the grade level of the road (the level of the center line of the road).

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Where, Lt = minimum length of tangent run out, m;

NC = normal cross slope rate; percent;
Ed = design super elevation rate; %
Lr = design super elevation rate, %
Lr = minimum length of SE runoff, m
c. Super elevation run-off length (Lr)
Super elevation run-off is a length of the road section from the point of removal of adverse
crown of the road to the full super elevated point on the curve.
Lr = (Wn) Ed*b/Δ
Where; Lr = minimum length of SE runoff, m;
∆ = maximum relative gradient, percent;
n= number of lanes rotated;
bw = adjusted factor for number of lanes rotated.
W = width of one traffic lane, m
Ed = design SE rate, %
Table 3.13. super elevation elements data generated from civil 3D software
curves Description Station Length (m)
Begin Alignment 0+000.00m
Transition in region

End Normal Crown 0+269.43m

runout

16.34
Level Crown 0+288.81m

Reverse Crown 0+308.18m

runoff

1 17
Begin Full Super 0+319.81m
End Full Super 0+392.72m
out

runout

17
Reverse Crown 0+404.34m
Transition

Level Crown 0+423.72m

region
rra runoff

16.34
Begin Normal Crown 0+443.09m
2 End Normal Crown 0+670.44m 16.25
ut

in

gi
re
si
T

ti
un
n
o
o
n

o
n

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Level Crown 0+685.44m

Begin Full Super 0+700.44m
Reverse Crown 0+700.44m 52

runoff
End Full Super 1+140.61m
runout Reverse Crown 1+140.61m 52
in Transition
out region

Level Crown 1+155.61m

runoff

16.25
Begin Normal Crown 1+170.61m
End Normal Crown 1+457.32m
runout

16.41
Level Crown 1+476.76m

Reverse Crown 1+496.21m

Transition

Begin Full Super 1+504.76m 29

region
runoff

3
End Full Super 1+840.53m
runout Reverse Crown 1+849.09m 29
in Transition
out region

Level Crown 1+868.53m

runoff

16.41
Begin Normal Crown 1+887.98m
End Normal Crown 4+017.29m
runout

16.34
Level Crown 4+036.73m

Reverse Crown 4+056.18m

Transition

Begin Full Super 4+064.73m 34

region
runoff

4
End Full Super 4+306.76m
runout Reverse Crown 4+315.31m 34
Transition
out region

Level Crown 4+334.76m

runoff

16.34
Begin Normal Crown 4+354.20m
End Alignment 4+533.66m

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3.4. Vertical Alignment

The vertical alignment of a highway consists of straight sections of highway, grades or tangents,
connected by vertical curves. Thus, the design of vertical alignment involves the selection of
suitable grades for the tangent sections and the design of vertical curves. The vertical curvature is
governed by sight distance criteria whereas the gradient is related to vehicle performance and
level of service. In addition to the topography of the area through which the road traverses has a
significant impact on the design of the vertical alignment.
The two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is governed by sight
distance criteria, and gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of service.
There are two types of vertical curves- summit (or crest) and sag (or valley) curves, which are
introduced at vertical grade changes.

Figure 3.9. Vertical alignment of our project

Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent grade to another so that
vehicles may run smoothly as they traverse the highway.
3.4.1. Crest curves
Crest vertical curve is convex curve with the intersection point of the tangents above the road
level where as sag vertical curve is concave vertical curve with the intersection point of the
tangents below the road level. Crest curves are provided where a rising-falling gradient
encountered or falling more falling gradient occurs. The minimum length of vertical curves can
be calculated using a formula based on comfort and stopping sight distance requirement and the
governing one can be used.

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Figure 3.10. Crest curve

The minimum length of crest curves has been designed to provide sufficient sight distance during
daylight conditions.
Table 3.14. Minimum K value for crest vertical curves (paved road),ERA 2013

3.4.2. Sag curve

Sag curves are provided where a rising-falling grades encounters or raising a more rising
gradient. The minimum values for sag vertical curves are determined by the required head light

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sight distances, drainage requirements and the level of driver’s comfort expected. Short sag
vertical curves and short grades between two vertical curves have been avoided.

Figure 3.11. Sag curve

It is therfore recommended that, for most sutuations, sag curves are designed using driver
comfort criteration of vertical acceleration.
Table 3.14. Minimum value of K for sag curve

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3.4.3. Minimum lengths of vertical curves

Especially for trunk and link roads, where the algebraic difference between successive gradients
is often small, the intervening minimum vertical curve, obtained by applying the formulae,
becomes short. The minimum length should be less than twice the design speed in km/h and, for
performance, should be 400 meters or longer, except in mountainous and escarpment terrain.

Figure 3.13. Hidden dip and roller coaster profile

Where a crest curve and a subsiding sag curve have a common beginning and end, the visual
effect crested is that the road has suddenly dropped away.
3.4.4. Maximum gradient
Vehicle operation on gradients depends on number of factor severity and length of the gradient,
level and composition of the traffic and number of overtaking opportunities on the gradients and
its vicinity. Therefore, due to the above factors, the maximum gradient should not exceed in
design of the high way because the traffic is unable to ascend the grade above the maximum
limited grade.
Table 3.15.maximum gradients for paved sections

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The minimum gradient for the usual case is 0.5 percent. However, flat and level gradients on
uncurbed paved highways are acceptable when the cross slope and carriageway elevation above
the surrounding ground is adequate to drain the surface laterally. With curbed highways or
streets, longitudinal gradients should be provided to facilitate surface drainage.
3.4.5. Phasing of horizontal and vertical alignment
Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their coordination so that the line
of the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of hazards and visual
defects.
3.4.5.1.Type of mis-phasing and corresponding corrective action
i. Vertical curve overlaps one end of the horizontal curve
If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a driver’s
perception of the change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may be delayed because
his sight distance is reduced by the vertical curve.
 The defect may be corrected in both cases by completely separating the curves.
ii. Insufficient separation between the curves
if there is insufficient separation between the end horizontal and vertical curves.
 Correction action consists of increasing the separation between the curves, or making the
curves concurrent.
iii. Both ends of the vertical curve lie on the horizontal curve
If both end of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may
appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve.
 The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident or to separate them.
iv. Vertical curve overlaps both ends of the horizontal curve
If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, hazard may be created
because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the passage of the vertical
curve while sight distance is reduced.
 The correction action is to make both ends of the curves coincident.

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3.4.6. Design of vertical curves

Vertical curves are required to provide smooth transitions between consecutive gradients. The
simple parabola is specified for these because the parabola provides a constant rate of change of
curvature and, hence, acceleration and visibility, along its length.

Sample calculation:
1. Crest vertical curve
The most important considerations in determining the length of the curve is the sight distance
requirement.
Curve #3
Type: crest curve
Design speed = 70km/h
Topography: rolling
Maximum gradient desirable: 6%
Maximum gradient absolute: 8% From ERA manual
Station of PVI = 2+081.09
Elevation = 1,957.89m
Gradient, g1 = 1.36%
Gradient, g2 =-2.36%
A= g1-g2
A= 1.36%- (-2.36%) = 3.72%
Min SSD = 110m
L= 359.27m
Eye height (h1) had been taken as 1.05 meter’s, and object heights h2 of 0.2 meres and 0.6
meters above the road surface.
i. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k
Lc= A*K
=3.72*30
= 111.6m
ii. Length required for safe stopping sight distance
Case 1: When SSD < Lc
When sight distance is less than the length of the curve

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Lm = (3.72*1102)/ [200(1.050.5+0.20.5)2] = 103.88m

Case 2 when SSD > Lc
When the sight distance S is greater than the two gradients

Lm = 2*110-[200(1.050.5+0.20.5)2]/3.72 = 213.4m
iii. Length required for ride comfort
L = AV2/395 = 3.72*702/395 = 46.15m
iv. Length required for aesthetic appearance
L = A* 30 = 3.72 * 30 = 111.6m
Compute the end of vertical curve and the coordinates of the intersection point.
 Station of PVC = station of PVI - LVC/2
= 2+081.09 – 359.27/2 = 1+901.46
 Elevation of EVC = elevation of PVI - g1*Lvc
= 2+081.09 – (1.36/100)*359.27 = 2076.2m
 Station of PVT = Station of PVI + L/2
= 2+081.09 + 359.27/2 = 2+260.73
 Elevation of EVT = elevation of PVI + g2*L2
= 2+081.09 + (-2.36/100)*359.27 = 1953.72m
2. Sag vertical curve
Curve #4
It is assumed that adequate sight distance will be available on sag curves in daylight. However at
night visibility is limited by the distance illuminated by the headlamp beams.
Design speed: 70km/h
Topography: rolling
Maximum gradient desirable: 6%
Maximum gradient absolute: 8% From ERA manual
Departed gradient: G1= -2.32% and G2= -0.07%
Minimum gradient: 0.5%

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Min. stopping sight: 110m from ERA manual

Min .passing sight distance: 320m.
Algebraic difference in grade (A) = -2.31-( - 0.07) = -2.25%,
Station of PVI is 3+106.65
Elevation of PVI= 1934.10m
Minimum allowable "K" value = 20, ERA geometric manual
Table 9.1 for V=70km/hr.
Curve length = 500m
1. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k
L= AK , where K is rate of vertical curvature.
K=20 for sag curve
L= 2.25*20 = 45m
2. Length required for safe stopping sight distance
When SSD > L

Where for sag curve, the height from the ground to the eye of the driver, h =0.6 and the angle b/n
the ray from the observer‘s eye to the object, α= 1o Soothe required curve length is:
=2*110 – [200(1.050.5+0.20.5)2]/2.25%
= 28m
when SSD < L

L= 2.25*1102/[200 (1.050.5+0.20.5)2] = 58.55m

3. Length required for passengers comfort
Lc = Vd2*A /395
= 702*2.25/395
=27.9m
4. Length required for aesthetic (appearance)
Lc = 30 *A
= 30*2.25

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= 67.5m
5. Determination of the curve elements
Station of PVI is = 3+106.65
Elevation of PVI = 1934.10m
Station of PVC = PVI- L/2
= 3+106.65 - 500/2
= 2+856.65m
Elevation of PVC = Elevation of PVI - G1* (L/2)
=1,934.10m - (-2.32/100)*(500/2)
=1939.9m
Station of PVT = PVI + L/2
=3+106.65+ 500/2
=3+356.65
Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PVI+(G2)(L/2)
= 1934.10m + (-0.07/100)*(500/2)
=1933.93m
Table 3.16. Vertical curve PVI station
PVI Station Elevation (m) Grade Out (%) Curve Length (m)
1 0+00.243 1938.953 8.34% 0
2 0+349.990 1968.12 -2.60% 367.872
3 1+202.866 1945.959 1.36% 559.082
4 2+081.086 1957.887 -2.32% 359.267
5 3+106.645 1934.105 -0.07% 500.103
6 3+700.000 1933.711 -3.61% 502.609
7 4+547.791 1903.072

Table 3.17. Profile vertical curve report

Vertical Curve Information:(crest curve)
PVC Station: 0+166.05 Elevation: 1,952.781m

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PVI Station: 0+349.99 Elevation: 1,968.120m

PVT Station: 0+533.93 Elevation: 1,963.340m
High Point: 0+446.54 Elevation: 1,964.476m
Grade in: 8.34% Grade out: -2.60%
Change: 10.94% K: 33.633m
Curve Length: 367.872m Curve Radius 3,363.331m
Passing Distance: 322.519m Stopping 211.433m
Distance:
Vertical Curve Information:(sag curve)
PVC Station: 0+923.32 Elevation: 1,953.223m
PVI Station: 1+202.87 Elevation: 1,945.959m
PVT Station: 1+482.41 Elevation: 1,949.756m
Low Point: 1+290.49 Elevation: 1,948.453m
Grade in: -2.60% Grade out: 1.36%
Change: 3.96% K: 141.307m
Curve Length: 559.082m Curve Radius 14,130.669m
Headlight Distance: 590.684m
Vertical Curve Information:(crest curve)
PVC Station: 1+901.45 Elevation: 1,955.447m
PVI Station: 2+081.09 Elevation: 1,957.887m
PVT Station: 2+260.72 Elevation: 1,953.721m
High Point: 2+034.15 Elevation: 1,956.348m
Grade in: 1.36% Grade out: -2.32%
Change: 3.68% K: 97.702m
Curve Length: 359.267m Curve Radius 9,770.197m
Passing Distance: 600.164m Stopping 360.363m
Distance:
Vertical Curve Information:(sag curve)
PVC Station: 2+856.59 Elevation: 1,939.903m
PVI Station: 3+106.65 Elevation: 1,934.105m

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PVT Station: 3+356.70 Elevation: 1,933.939m

Low Point: 3+356.70 Elevation: 1,933.939m
Grade in: -2.32% Grade out: -0.7%
Change: 2.25% K: 222.001m
Curve Length: 500.103m Curve Radius 22,200.109m
Headlight Distance: 1,504.917m
Vertical Curve Information:(crest curve)
PVC Station: 3+448.70 Elevation: 1,933.878m
PVI Station: 3+700.00 Elevation: 1,933.711m
PVT Station: 3+951.30 Elevation: 1,924.629m
High Point: 3+448.70 Elevation: 1,933.878m
Grade in: -0.07% Grade out: -3.61%
Change: 3.55% K: 141.670m
Curve Length: 502.609m Curve Radius 14,166.977m
Passing Distance: 687.176m Stopping 433.936m
Distance:

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CHAPTER FOUR
4. EARTH WORK
4.1. Introduction
Earth work is excavation of material from cutting and/or construction of embankments which is
required to convert right of way from natural condition and configuration to a level that is ready
for pavement works as prescribed in the design of the road. Earth work in high way design
includes determination of cuts and fills, location of borrow, waste sites, the free haul and over
haul distance determination. The most common item of work encountered in high project is earth
work. Earth work includes:
 Clearing and grubbing: the removal of top soil, trees, bushes and etc.
 Roadway excavation: This consists of common or soft excavation, intermediate and hard
rock excavation and boulder excavation.
 Removal and stockpiling of unsuitable excavated material off the right of limit.
 Borrow excavation and hauling to be used for roadway filling.
 Embankments (densification of fill section) constructions from material obtained from
excavation within the right of way or borrow.
 Sub grade preparation: this consists of assessment of sub grade material, removal and
replacement of unsuitable material as necessary, and preparation of graded road bed for
surfacing.
 Shoulder and side slope construction
 Protection of earthworks: It is protection of earthworks including excavation,
embankment, etc. from effects of weather.
4.2. Cross Section Elements
Across-section will normally consist of the carriage way, shoulders or curbs, drainage features,
and earthwork profiles.
i. Carriageway-the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including Traffic
lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, and
passing lanes, and bus bays and lay-byes.
ii. Roadway consists of the carriage way and the shoulders, parking lanes and viewing areas.
iii. Earthwork profiles-includes side slopes and back slopes.

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1. Lane widths
Feature of a highway having great influence on safety and comfort in the width of the carriage
Way, due to this we use a lane width of 3.5 meter used which is recommended for DC5 road &
are shown in table of ERA manual for all roads design standards.
2. Shoulders
Shoulders is a portion of the road way contiguous to carriage way for the accumulation of
stopped vehicles, traditional and intimidated non-motorized traffic, animals, pedestrians and
emergency use. And also used for the recovery of stopped vehicles and lateral support of the
pavement course. Shoulder width is specified on ERA manual standards. For this particular
project we choose a shoulder width of 1.5 m.
3. Normal cross fall
Normal cross fall should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage whilst not being so
great as to make steering difficult. According to ERA normal cross fall should be 2.5% on paved
roads and 4% on unpaved road. For this particular project, the normal cross falls are designed
with a slope of 2.5% .
4. Side slopes and back slopes
Side slopes and back slopes should be designed to ensure the stability of the roadway and to
provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle. The selection of a
side slope and back slope is depending on safety, height of cut or fill and economic
consideration. It may not be cost effective or practical because of environmental impacts or
limited right of way to bring our project in to compliance with the side slope recommendations
provided in this guide. ERA 2013 table 6.1 indicates the side slope recommended for use in the
design according to the height of cut and fill and the material. As presented below.

Figure 4.1. Designation of roadside regions

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5. Right of way
Right of way or road reserves are provided in order to accommodate road width and to enhance
the safety, operation and appearance of the roads. We provide a 50 m right of way as per ERA
manual recommendation for DC5 road standard.
Typical Cross Section and Standard Cross Sections:
The desirable standards to be adopted in the typical road design are depicted in ERA Geometric
Manual and standard Drawings. The geometry is set taking in to account the requirement of
vehicular traffic and the needs of pedestrians and non-motorized traffic. Standard cross sections
for DC5 road of are shown below in figure.

Figure 4.2. Standard cross section of DC5 for rolling terrain type

Figure 4.3. our cross section design

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4.3. Excavation
There are mainly three types of excavations in the construction of highway.
A. Road ways and drainage excavation: - this is the excavating and grading of the road
way and ditches including the removal of all excavated materials and all work needed for
the construction and completion of the cuts, embankments, ditches, approaches,
intersections and similar operations of the work.
B. Excavation for structures: - this refers to the excavation of materials in order to permit
the construction of pipe culverts, concrete box culverts, foundation for bridges, retaining
walls and practically all other structures that may be required in particular work.
C. borrow excavation :- when sufficient materials for the formation of embankments and
other elements of the road way structures is not available for excavation performed
within the limit of the right of way, additional suitable materials is generally taken from
the borrow pits.
4.4. Shrinkage and swell
Materials are swelling during excavation or shrink during compaction in the construction site.
For this reason shrinkage and swelling factors should be included in estimating the quantities.
Compaction factors for excavated materials must be determined or estimated in order to
determine quantities of excavation and embankment. The process of excavation breaks up earth
and makes it take up more space. After placing the excavated in a fill and compacting, volume
will become less than the original for excavated soil and usually greater than the original for
excavated rock.
Table 4.1. Shrinkage factor for different type of soil recommended by ERA

4.5. Computation Of Earth Work Quantities

Most calculation of earth work applies a road excavation and embankment construction. Here
both the quantity of earth to be removed and volume of earth necessary for an embankment are

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involved. Balancing the two sometimes determine the grades to which the road will be laid. This
need a lot of trial and it’s difficult to work out manually, we have tried to balance the cut fill
volume by changing the grade directions as well as percent of grade in civil 3D software.
4.5.1. Estimation of earth work
The steps involved in the computation of earth work quantities and the development of the
optimal mass haul diagram are (manual):
1. End area method
The quantity of work in embankment and cuts are computed by the cross sectional end area
method. Areas of station cross sections are calculated first for earthwork calculations. Based on
the shape of the cross sections, two types of area calculation methods are adopted.
 Simple geometric method: is calculation method for regular cross sections like
Trapezoidal Triangular.
 Coordinate method: is calculation method for irregular cross sections.
A = 1/2(y1x2+y2x3+……+ynx1) - (x1y2+x2y3+………x ny 1)
2. Volume calculation
The volume of earth work from the successive cross sections can be computed by different
formulas like average end area method, (trapezoidal method) or primordial formula. Since
trapezoidal method is simple and widely accepted we have used it to compute the volume. Since
the average end area method is simple and is generally preferred, we choose this method for this
particular project. Average end area method (trapezoidal method)
V= 0.5 (A1+A2)*L;
Where: V= volume in m3
A1and A2 = areas of successive cross-section in m2
L= distance between successive cross section in m
4.6. Mass Haul Diagrams
A Mass Haul Diagram is a continuous curve representing the cumulative volume of earthwork
along the linear profile of a roadway or airfield. Mass diagrams are extremely useful in
determining the most economical distribution of material.
Properties of mass haul diagrams:
 Horizontal stationing is plotted along the x-axis.
 Net earthwork values are plotted along the y-axis.

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 Cumulative earthwork from the origin to that Point.

 Upward sloping curves (rising left to right) indicate a cut.
 Downward sloping curves (falling left to right) occur in a fill section
 Peaks indicate a change from cut to fill and.
 Valleys occur when the earthwork changes from fill to cut y.
Table 4.2. Total volume report generated from civil 3D software

Volume
Corrected volume
swell
Station Cut Fill shrink cut fill volume cum.
fac(10 net volume
Volume Volume fac(10%) volume Volume
%)
(Cu.M.) (Cu.M.)
0+020 0 0 1.1 0.9 0 0 0 0
0+040 295.1 0 1.1 0.9 324.61 0 324.61 324.61
0+060 293.84 0 1.1 0.9 323.224 0 323.224 647.834
0+080 348.42 0 1.1 0.9 383.262 0 383.262 1031.096
0+100 467.49 0 1.1 0.9 514.239 0 514.239 1545.335
0+120 595.49 0 1.1 0.9 655.039 0 655.039 2200.374
0+140 855.68 0 1.1 0.9 941.248 0 941.248 3141.622
0+160 1,351.25 0 1.1 0.9 1486.375 0 1486.375 4627.997
0+180 1,626.01 0 1.1 0.9 1788.611 0 1788.611 6416.608
0+195 1,175.59 0 1.1 0.9 1293.149 0 1293.149 7709.757
0+210 1,056.31 0 1.1 0.9 1161.941 0 1161.941 8871.698
0+225 881.47 0 1.1 0.9 969.617 0 969.617 9841.315
0+240 700.3 0 1.1 0.9 770.33 0 770.33 10611.645
0+255 559.91 0 1.1 0.9 615.901 0 615.901 11227.546
0+270 461.02 0 1.1 0.9 507.122 0 507.122 11734.668
0+285 379.54 0.01 1.1 0.9 417.494 0.009 417.485 12152.153
0+300 329.82 0.01 1.1 0.9 362.802 0.009 362.793 12514.946
0+315 295.19 0.01 1.1 0.9 324.709 0.009 324.7 12839.646
0+330 201.41 0.01 1.1 0.9 221.551 0.009 221.542 13061.188

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0+345 71.51 1.31 1.1 0.9 78.661 1.179 77.482 13138.67

0+360 6.27 27.13 1.1 0.9 6.897 24.417 -17.52 13121.15
0+375 0.03 46.28 1.1 0.9 0.033 41.652 -41.619 13079.531
0+390 0.03 41.02 1.1 0.9 0.033 36.918 -36.885 13042.646
0+405 0.07 47.73 1.1 0.9 0.077 42.957 -42.88 12999.766
0+420 0.07 69.36 1.1 0.9 0.077 62.424 -62.347 12937.419
0+435 0.09 72.87 1.1 0.9 0.099 65.583 -65.484 12871.935
0+450 0.09 59.75 1.1 0.9 0.099 53.775 -53.676 12818.259
0+465 0.4 41.72 1.1 0.9 0.44 37.548 -37.108 12781.151
0+480 8.36 15.11 1.1 0.9 9.196 13.599 -4.403 12776.748
0+495 12.72 6.03 1.1 0.9 13.992 5.427 8.565 12785.313
0+510 10.43 5.05 1.1 0.9 11.473 4.545 6.928 12792.241
0+525 13.02 3.22 1.1 0.9 14.322 2.898 11.424 12803.665
0+540 38.34 1.75 1.1 0.9 42.174 1.575 40.599 12844.264
0+560 106.77 0 1.1 0.9 117.447 0 117.447 12961.711
0+580 186.9 0 1.1 0.9 205.59 0 205.59 13167.301
0+600 377.14 0 1.1 0.9 414.854 0 414.854 13582.155
0+620 574.99 0 1.1 0.9 632.489 0 632.489 14214.644
0+640 704.58 0 1.1 0.9 775.038 0 775.038 14989.682
0+660 810.63 0 1.1 0.9 891.693 0 891.693 15881.375
0+675 651.86 0.03 1.1 0.9 717.046 0.027 717.019 16598.394
0+690 675.79 0.03 1.1 0.9 743.369 0.027 743.342 17341.736
0+705 691.21 0.01 1.1 0.9 760.331 0.009 760.322 18102.058
0+720 703.53 0.01 1.1 0.9 773.883 0.009 773.874 18875.932
0+735 737.63 0 1.1 0.9 811.393 0 811.393 19687.325
0+740 258.79 0 1.1 0.9 284.669 0 284.669 19971.994
0+760 1,112.93 0 1.1 0.9 1224.223 0 1224.223 21196.217
0+780 1,220.10 0 1.1 0.9 1342.11 0 1342.11 22538.327
0+800 1,291.77 0 1.1 0.9 1420.947 0 1420.947 23959.274
0+820 1,284.41 0 1.1 0.9 1412.851 0 1412.851 25372.125

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 HIGHWAY INTEGRATED DESIGN PROJECT

0+840 1,213.26 0 1.1 0.9 1334.586 0 1334.586 26706.711

0+860 1,165.18 0 1.1 0.9 1281.698 0 1281.698 27988.409
0+880 1,132.01 0 1.1 0.9 1245.211 0 1245.211 29233.62
0+900 1,066.13 0 1.1 0.9 1172.743 0 1172.743 30406.363
0+920 941.02 0 1.1 0.9 1035.122 0 1035.122 31441.485
0+940 760.91 0 1.1 0.9 837.001 0 837.001 32278.486
0+960 559.71 0 1.1 0.9 615.681 0 615.681 32894.167
0+980 348.02 0 1.1 0.9 382.822 0 382.822 33276.989
1+000 136.36 8.43 1.1 0.9 149.996 7.587 142.409 33419.398
1+020 16.7 100.98 1.1 0.9 18.37 90.882 -72.512 33346.886
1+040 0 325.97 1.1 0.9 0 293.373 -293.373 33053.513
1+060 0 636.98 1.1 0.9 0 573.282 -573.282 32480.231
1+080 0 1,030.09 1.1 0.9 0 927.081 -927.081 31553.15
1+100 0 1,488.15 1.1 0.9 0 1339.335 -1339.335 30213.815
1+120. 0 1,886.12 1.1 0.9 0 1697.508 -1697.508 28516.307
1+140 0 2,208.32 1.1 0.9 0 1987.488 -1987.488 26528.819
1+160 0 2,760.31 1.1 0.9 0 2484.279 -2484.279 24044.54
1+180 0 3,526.65 1.1 0.9 0 3173.985 -3173.985 20870.555
1+200 0 4,186.50 1.1 0.9 0 3767.85 -3767.85 17102.705
1+220 0 4,765.09 1.1 0.9 0 4288.581 -4288.581 12814.124
1+240 0 5,122.92 1.1 0.9 0 4610.628 -4610.628 8203.496
1+260 0 4,937.09 1.1 0.9 0 4443.381 -4443.381 3760.115
1+280 0 4,294.94 1.1 0.9 0 3865.446 -3865.446 -105.331
1+300 0 3,350.40 1.1 0.9 0 3015.36 -3015.36 -3120.691
1+320 0 2,147.96 1.1 0.9 0 1933.164 -1933.164 -5053.855
1+340 0 1,164.35 1.1 0.9 0 1047.915 -1047.915 -6101.77
1+360 0 703.44 1.1 0.9 0 633.096 -633.096 -6734.866
1+380 0 467.99 1.1 0.9 0 421.191 -421.191 -7156.057
1+400 0 282.68 1.1 0.9 0 254.412 -254.412 -7410.469
1+420 0.04 145.29 1.1 0.9 0.044 130.761 -130.717 -7541.186

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1+440 25.39 49.09 1.1 0.9 27.929 44.181 -16.252 -7557.438

1+460 130.49 7.17 1.1 0.9 143.539 6.453 137.086 -7420.352
1+480 285.74 0 1.1 0.9 314.314 0 314.314 -7106.038
1+500 414.09 0 1.1 0.9 455.499 0 455.499 -6650.539
1+515 398.25 0 1.1 0.9 438.075 0 438.075 -6212.464
1+530 483.73 0 1.1 0.9 532.103 0 532.103 -5680.361
1+545 552.29 0.01 1.1 0.9 607.519 0.009 607.51 -5072.851
1+560 603.41 0 1.1 0.9 663.751 0 663.751 -4409.1
1+575 678.55 0.01 1.1 0.9 746.405 0.009 746.396 -3662.704
1+590 748.99 0.01 1.1 0.9 823.889 0.009 823.88 -2838.824
1+605 765.33 0 1.1 0.9 841.863 0 841.863 -1996.961
1+620 784.61 0 1.1 0.9 863.071 0 863.071 -1133.89
1+635 832 0 1.1 0.9 915.2 0 915.2 -218.69
1+650 885.95 0 1.1 0.9 974.545 0 974.545 755.855
1+665 939.78 0 1.1 0.9 1033.758 0 1033.758 1789.613
1+680 994.78 0 1.1 0.9 1094.258 0 1094.258 2883.871
1+695 1,024.19 0.25 1.1 0.9 1126.609 0.225 1126.384 4010.255
1+710 992.99 0.27 1.1 0.9 1092.289 0.243 1092.046 5102.301
1+725 928.64 0.03 1.1 0.9 1021.504 0.027 1021.477 6123.778
1+740 880.7 0.01 1.1 0.9 968.77 0.009 968.761 7092.539
1+755 843.83 0 1.1 0.9 928.213 0 928.213 8020.752
1+770 798.23 0 1.1 0.9 878.053 0 878.053 8898.805
1+780 501.45 0 1.1 0.9 551.595 0 551.595 9450.4
1+800 921.45 0 1.1 0.9 1013.595 0 1013.595 10463.995
1+820 812.62 0 1.1 0.9 893.882 0 893.882 11357.877
1+840 706.49 0 1.1 0.9 777.139 0 777.139 12135.016
1+860 602.39 0 1.1 0.9 662.629 0 662.629 12797.645
1+880 463.19 0 1.1 0.9 509.509 0 509.509 13307.154
1+900 341.25 0 1.1 0.9 375.375 0 375.375 13682.529
1+920 245.23 0 1.1 0.9 269.753 0 269.753 13952.282

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1+940 128.37 0.19 1.1 0.9 141.207 0.171 141.036 14093.318

1+960 36.27 24.18 1.1 0.9 39.897 21.762 18.135 14111.453
1+980 0.01 60.04 1.1 0.9 0.011 54.036 -54.025 14057.428
2+000 0 131.18 1.1 0.9 0 118.062 -118.062 13939.366
2+020 0 231.16 1.1 0.9 0 208.044 -208.044 13731.322
2+040 0 348.67 1.1 0.9 0 313.803 -313.803 13417.519
2+060 0 452.09 1.1 0.9 0 406.881 -406.881 13010.638
2+080 0 503.14 1.1 0.9 0 452.826 -452.826 12557.812
2+100 0 558.04 1.1 0.9 0 502.236 -502.236 12055.576
2+120 0 607 1.1 0.9 0 546.3 -546.3 11509.276
2+140 0 657.98 1.1 0.9 0 592.182 -592.182 10917.094
2+160 0 708.73 1.1 0.9 0 637.857 -637.857 10279.237
2+180 0 717.08 1.1 0.9 0 645.372 -645.372 9633.865
2+200 0 668.02 1.1 0.9 0 601.218 -601.218 9032.647
2+220 0 593.2 1.1 0.9 0 533.88 -533.88 8498.767
2+240 0 531.68 1.1 0.9 0 478.512 -478.512 8020.255
2+260 0 475.18 1.1 0.9 0 427.662 -427.662 7592.593
2+280 0 416.04 1.1 0.9 0 374.436 -374.436 7218.157
2+300 0 360.41 1.1 0.9 0 324.369 -324.369 6893.788
2+320 0 299.36 1.1 0.9 0 269.424 -269.424 6624.364
2+340 0 224.21 1.1 0.9 0 201.789 -201.789 6422.575
2+360 0 159.24 1.1 0.9 0 143.316 -143.316 6279.259
2+380 0 111.67 1.1 0.9 0 100.503 -100.503 6178.756
2+400 0.72 66.94 1.1 0.9 0.792 60.246 -59.454 6119.302
2+420 5.69 30.46 1.1 0.9 6.259 27.414 -21.155 6098.147
2+440 14.04 11.3 1.1 0.9 15.444 10.17 5.274 6103.421
2+460 21.38 7.23 1.1 0.9 23.518 6.507 17.011 6120.432
2+480 32.05 5.71 1.1 0.9 35.255 5.139 30.116 6150.548
2+500 45.07 3.64 1.1 0.9 49.577 3.276 46.301 6196.849
2+520 53.34 3.08 1.1 0.9 58.674 2.772 55.902 6252.751

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2+540 46 4.36 1.1 0.9 50.6 3.924 46.676 6299.427

2+560 39.64 5.17 1.1 0.9 43.604 4.653 38.951 6338.378
2+580 43.84 5.01 1.1 0.9 48.224 4.509 43.715 6382.093
2+600 35.52 6.97 1.1 0.9 39.072 6.273 32.799 6414.892
2+620 19.3 10.94 1.1 0.9 21.23 9.846 11.384 6426.276
2+640 9.74 19.13 1.1 0.9 10.714 17.217 -6.503 6419.773
2+660 5.46 32.71 1.1 0.9 6.006 29.439 -23.433 6396.34
2+680 1.98 39.28 1.1 0.9 2.178 35.352 -33.174 6363.166
2+700 0.28 39.51 1.1 0.9 0.308 35.559 -35.251 6327.915
2+720 0 42.13 1.1 0.9 0 37.917 -37.917 6289.998
2+740 0.38 37.33 1.1 0.9 0.418 33.597 -33.179 6256.819
2+760 1.51 25.4 1.1 0.9 1.661 22.86 -21.199 6235.62
2+780 5.55 16.06 1.1 0.9 6.105 14.454 -8.349 6227.271
2+800 20.89 8.67 1.1 0.9 22.979 7.803 15.176 6242.447
2+820 50.26 2.66 1.1 0.9 55.286 2.394 52.892 6295.339
2+840 105.25 0.45 1.1 0.9 115.775 0.405 115.37 6410.709
2+860 183.01 0.29 1.1 0.9 201.311 0.261 201.05 6611.759
2+880 264.93 0 1.1 0.9 291.423 0 291.423 6903.182
2+900 349.81 0 1.1 0.9 384.791 0 384.791 7287.973
2+920 432.09 0 1.1 0.9 475.299 0 475.299 7763.272
2+940 502.46 0 1.1 0.9 552.706 0 552.706 8315.978
2+960 578.6 0 1.1 0.9 636.46 0 636.46 8952.438
2+980 661.39 0 1.1 0.9 727.529 0 727.529 9679.967
3+000 734.5 0 1.1 0.9 807.95 0 807.95 10487.917
3+020 809.63 0 1.1 0.9 890.593 0 890.593 11378.51
3+040 877.53 0 1.1 0.9 965.283 0 965.283 12343.793
3+060 927.27 0 1.1 0.9 1019.997 0 1019.997 13363.79
3+080 969.41 0 1.1 0.9 1066.351 0 1066.351 14430.141
3+100 996.01 0 1.1 0.9 1095.611 0 1095.611 15525.752
3+120 1,009.36 0 1.1 0.9 1110.296 0 1110.296 16636.048

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3+140 1,014.71 0 1.1 0.9 1116.181 0 1116.181 17752.229

3+160 999.06 0 1.1 0.9 1098.966 0 1098.966 18851.195
3+180 983.24 0 1.1 0.9 1081.564 0 1081.564 19932.759
3+200 976.35 0 1.1 0.9 1073.985 0 1073.985 21006.744
3+220 937.14 0 1.1 0.9 1030.854 0 1030.854 22037.598
3+240 894.39 0 1.1 0.9 983.829 0 983.829 23021.427
3+260 886.2 0 1.1 0.9 974.82 0 974.82 23996.247
3+280 866.4 0 1.1 0.9 953.04 0 953.04 24949.287
3+300 819.76 0 1.1 0.9 901.736 0 901.736 25851.023
3+320 741.82 0 1.1 0.9 816.002 0 816.002 26667.025
3+340 636.35 0 1.1 0.9 699.985 0 699.985 27367.01
3+360 537.61 0 1.1 0.9 591.371 0 591.371 27958.381
3+380 442.46 0 1.1 0.9 486.706 0 486.706 28445.087
3+400 340.56 0 1.1 0.9 374.616 0 374.616 28819.703
3+420 242.09 0 1.1 0.9 266.299 0 266.299 29086.002
3+440 154.35 0.06 1.1 0.9 169.785 0.054 169.731 29255.733
3+460 75.74 2.81 1.1 0.9 83.314 2.529 80.785 29336.518
3+480 18.88 18.8 1.1 0.9 20.768 16.92 3.848 29340.366
3+500 0.03 63.08 1.1 0.9 0.033 56.772 -56.739 29283.627
3+520 0 143.47 1.1 0.9 0 129.123 -129.123 29154.504
3+540 0 235 1.1 0.9 0 211.5 -211.5 28943.004
3+560 0 327.96 1.1 0.9 0 295.164 -295.164 28647.84
3+580 0 434.58 1.1 0.9 0 391.122 -391.122 28256.718
3+600 0 531.14 1.1 0.9 0 478.026 -478.026 27778.692
3+620 0 603.58 1.1 0.9 0 543.222 -543.222 27235.47
3+640 0 687.61 1.1 0.9 0 618.849 -618.849 26616.621
3+660 0 786.02 1.1 0.9 0 707.418 -707.418 25909.203
3+680 0 886.8 1.1 0.9 0 798.12 -798.12 25111.083
3+700 0 969.36 1.1 0.9 0 872.424 -872.424 24238.659
3+720 0 1,000.64 1.1 0.9 0 900.576 -900.576 23338.083

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3+740 0 994.48 1.1 0.9 0 895.032 -895.032 22443.051

3+760 0 978.83 1.1 0.9 0 880.947 -880.947 21562.104
3+780 0 954.84 1.1 0.9 0 859.356 -859.356 20702.748
3+800 0 934.08 1.1 0.9 0 840.672 -840.672 19862.076
3+820 0 932.93 1.1 0.9 0 839.637 -839.637 19022.439
3+840 0 944.56 1.1 0.9 0 850.104 -850.104 18172.335
3+860 0 949.45 1.1 0.9 0 854.505 -854.505 17317.83
3+880 0 948.5 1.1 0.9 0 853.65 -853.65 16464.18
3+900 0 871.39 1.1 0.9 0 784.251 -784.251 15679.929
3+920 0 709.43 1.1 0.9 0 638.487 -638.487 15041.442
3+940 0 606.36 1.1 0.9 0 545.724 -545.724 14495.718
3+960 0 681.47 1.1 0.9 0 613.323 -613.323 13882.395
3+980 0 552.31 1.1 0.9 0 497.079 -497.079 13385.316
4+000 22.07 186.17 1.1 0.9 24.277 167.553 -143.276 13242.04
4+020 116.33 23.54 1.1 0.9 127.963 21.186 106.777 13348.817
4+040 308.6 0.25 1.1 0.9 339.46 0.225 339.235 13688.052
4+060 583.13 0 1.1 0.9 641.443 0 641.443 14329.495
4+080 916.1 0 1.1 0.9 1007.71 0 1007.71 15337.205
4+095 929.82 0 1.1 0.9 1022.802 0 1022.802 16360.007
4+110 1,154.55 0.02 1.1 0.9 1270.005 0.018 1269.987 17629.994
4+125 1,404.67 0.02 1.1 0.9 1545.137 0.018 1545.119 19175.113
4+140 1,650.79 0 1.1 0.9 1815.869 0 1815.869 20990.982
4+155 1,867.07 0 1.1 0.9 2053.777 0 2053.777 23044.759
4+170 2,076.63 0 1.1 0.9 2284.293 0 2284.293 25329.052
4+185 2,246.23 0 1.1 0.9 2470.853 0 2470.853 27799.905
4+200 2,340.15 0 1.1 0.9 2574.165 0 2574.165 30374.07
4+215 2,362.81 0.79 1.1 0.9 2599.091 0.711 2598.38 32972.45
4+230 2,360.49 0.79 1.1 0.9 2596.539 0.711 2595.828 35568.278
4+245 2,346.72 0.02 1.1 0.9 2581.392 0.018 2581.374 38149.652
4+260 2,297.52 0.02 1.1 0.9 2527.272 0.018 2527.254 40676.906

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4+275 2,187.87 0 1.1 0.9 2406.657 0 2406.657 43083.563

4+290 1,992.07 0.08 1.1 0.9 2191.277 0.072 2191.205 45274.768
4+305 1,799.92 0.09 1.1 0.9 1979.912 0.081 1979.831 47254.599
4+320 1,567.04 0.01 1.1 0.9 1723.744 0.009 1723.735 48978.334
4+340 1,614.56 0 1.1 0.9 1776.016 0 1776.016 50754.35
4+360 1,220.71 0 1.1 0.9 1342.781 0 1342.781 52097.131
4+380 946.44 0 1.1 0.9 1041.084 0 1041.084 53138.215
4+400 667.9 0 1.1 0.9 734.69 0 734.69 53872.905
4+420 441.26 0 1.1 0.9 485.386 0 485.386 54358.291
4+440 286.46 0 1.1 0.9 315.106 0 315.106 54673.397
4+460 173.7 1.51 1.1 0.9 191.07 1.359 189.711 54863.108
4+480 83.8 9.59 1.1 0.9 92.18 8.631 83.549 54946.657
4+500 24.47 53.43 1.1 0.9 26.917 48.087 -21.17 54925.487
4+520 8.5 121.62 1.1 0.9 9.35 109.458 -100.108 54825.379
4+540 34.31 156.95 1.1 0.9 37.741 141.255 -103.514 54721.865

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 0
10000
20000
30000
40000

-20000
-10000
0+020.00
0+180.00
0+300.00
0+420.00
0+540.00
0+690.00
0+820.00
0+980.00
1+140.00

DILLA UNIVERSITY (ETHIOPIA)

1+300.00
1+460.00
1+590.00
1+710.00

Figure 4.4. mass haul diagram of this project

1+840.00
2+000.00
2+160.00
2+320.00
2+480.00
2+640.00
2+800.00
2+960.00
3+120.00
3+280.00
Cummulative volume

3+440.00
HIGHWAY INTEGRATED DESIGN PROJECT

3+600.00
3+760.00
3+920.00
4+080.00
4+200.00
4+320.00
4+480.00

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 HIGHWAY INTEGRATED DESIGN PROJECT

CHAPTER FIVE
5. PAVEMENT DESIGN
5.1. Introduction
A pavement structure is a layer structure which supports the vehicle load on its surface and,
transfers and spreads the load to the sub grade without exceeding either the strength of the sub
grade or internal strength of the pavement itself with in the given environment.
There are two types of pavement structure:
1. Flexible pavements: - the surfacing and road base materials, bound with bitumen binder,
overlay granular unbound or cement-bound material.
2. Rigid pavements: - Pavement quality concrete, used for the combined surfacing and road
base, overlays granular cement-bound material. The concrete may be reinforced with steel.
For particular case of WERIKATI – SHANK’A project, we choose flexible pavement to transmit
flexural strength, and the loads to the sub grade soil through the lateral distribution of stresses
with increasing depth.
5.2. Flexible Pavement
Flexible pavement is constructed by laying different layers of pavement material for the purpose
of decreasing the load distribution to the sub grade and to limit the deflection of pavement
structure.
A typical flexible pavement consists of four components:
i. Surface Course: - Consists of bituminous layers to provide durable, watertight, smooth
riding and skid resistant travelled surface.
 The composition of bituminous mixtures and the nominal top site aggregates is
determined by intended use, desired surface texture and layer thickness.
ii. Base Course: - Base and sub base layers of the flexible pavement make up larger
proportion of the total pavement thickness needed to distribute the stresses imposed by
traffic loading.
 Crushed stone is commonly used for this purpose.
iii. Sub-base Course: -is lower quality than the base material in strength plasticity and
gradation but superior to sub grade material. It can be compacted granular material or

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stabilized soil. On a weak sub grade, it also serves as a useful working plat form for
construction of base course.
 It can be omitted if sub grade soil satisfies the requirements specified for sub base
material.
iv. Sub grade: - IT a natural soil forming the road bed for pavement construction. The top
layer of specified depth is usually compacted to achieve the desired density, mostly 95%
density.
5.2.1. Flexible pavement design
Determination of cumulative traffic volume
The volume of traffic is considered in terms of the number of commercial vehicles per day in the
lane under consideration. The deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic results from both the
magnitude of the individual wheel loads and the number of times these loads are applied.
To determine cumulative number of vehicles over the design period of the road, the following
Procedures should be followed: -
 Determine the initial traffic volume (AADTo) using results of traffic survey and any
other recent traffic count information that is available. This is already done in chapter two
of this report.
 Estimate the annual growth rate ‟i‟ expressed as decimal fraction, and the anticipated
number of years „x‟ between the traffic survey and opening of the road. For this project
traffic growth is given I = 8%
 Determine AADT1, the traffic volume in the direction on the year of the road opening by:
 AADT1=AADTo(1+i)x
Table 5.1. Forecasted opening year traffic
year car bus Small-truck Medium-truck Large-truck
AADT2014 110 18 76 22 5
(1+0.08)3 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.26
AADT2017 139 23 96 28 7

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Total traffic over the design year

The cumulative volume in each direction for each type of vehicle, T over the chosen design
period N (in years) is obtained by:
Ti=365 * P * D * AADT1i * [(1+r)N-1]/r
Where,
Ti –Cumulative one directional traffic flow
P – Lane distribution factor 100%
D – Directional distribution factor is 100%
r – Traffic growth rate is 8%
N – Design period for link road 20 years
Table 5.2. Total traffic volume over the design period
Cumulative number in one
Cumulative number in one
Vehicle AADT2017 direction over the design
direction over 20 years
years(r=8%)
CAR 139 1*365*139*45.76 = 2,321,634 2,321,634
BUS 23 1*365*23*45.76 = 384,156 384,156
S.TRUCK 96 1*365*96*45.76 = 1,603,430 1,603,430
M.TRUCK 28 1*365*28*45.76 = 467,668 467,668
L.TRUCK 7 1*365*7*45.76 = 116,917 116,917

Axle load survey:

It is necessary to consider not only the total number of vehicles that will use the road but also the
wheel loads (or, for convenience, the axle loads) of these vehicles.
The damage that vehicles do to a road depends very strongly on the axle loads of the vehicles.
For pavement design purposes the damaging power of axles is related to a 'standard' axle of 8.16
tones using equivalence factors which have been derived from empirical studies. A vehicle’s
damaging power, or Equivalency Factor (EF), is expressed as the number of equivalent standard
axles (ESAs), in units of 8.16 tones.

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Determination of equivalency factor for different vehicle types:

Equivalence Factor EF = [Axle Load (kg)/8160]4.5
Table 5.3. Large Truck Axel Load Survey
Vehicle Axel-1 Axel-2 Axel-3 Axle-4
No total
Load EF Load EF Load EF Load EF
1 5424 0.16 11320 4.36 9119 1.6 8370 1.12 7.24
2 5634 0.19 12920 7.91 6472 0.35 8946 1.51 9.96
3 6985 0.5 10530 3.15 8490 1.2 9340 1.84 6.69
4 5480 0.17 12480 6.77 7940 0.88 9470 1.95 9.77
5 6450 0.35 8880 1.46 6290 0.31 11176 4.12 6.24
6 5550 0.18 12240 6.2 8550 1.23 10150 2.67 10.28
7 4125 0.05 11820 5.3 7640 0.74 9420 1.91 8
8 4570 0.07 13930 11.1 2720 0.01 5061 0.12 11.3
9 4190 0.05 15300 16.92 3110 0.01 2450 0.30 17.28
10 5434 0.16 13554 9.81 4032 0.04 8400 1.14 11.15
TOTAL 97.91
EFL-truck = 97.91/10 = 9.79
Table 5.4. Medium Truck Axel Load Survey
Vehicle No Axel-1 Axel-2
Total
Load EF Load EF
1 7321 0.61 11320 4.36 4.97
2 6200 0.29 9457 1.94 2.23
3 8451 1.17 12541 6.92 8.09
4 7480 0.68 11322 4.37 5.05
5 4450 0.07 8880 1.46 1.53
6 4100 0.05 8240 1.04 1.09
7 4125 0.05 9852 2.33 2.38
8 5570 0.18 12928 7.93 8.11
9 7192 0.57 11325 4.37 4.94

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10 6434 0.34 12575 7.00 7.34

TOTAL 45.73
EFM-truck = 45.73/10 = 4.57
Table 5.5. Small Truck Axel Load Survey
Vehicle No Axel-1 Axel-2
Total
Load EF Load EF
1 4134 0.05 6352 0.32 0.37
2 4225 0.05 8794 1.4 1.45
3 4451 0.07 7724 0.78 0.85
4 5450 0.16 6050 0.26 0.42
5 4800 0.09 5550 0.18 0.28
6 4000 0.04 6450 0.35 0.39
7 6950 0.49 8100 0.97 1.46
8 7900 0.86 10600 3.24 4.1
9 5050 0.12 7450 0.66 0.78
10 7452 0.66 11575 4.82 5.48
TOTAL 15.58
EFS-truck = 15.58/10 = 1.56
A. BUS
Table 5.6. Bus Axel Load Survey
Vehicle No Axel-1 Axel-2
Total
Load EF Load EF
1 5321 0.15 8320 1.09 1.24
2 5145 0.13 9457 1.94 2.07
3 4451 0.07 5541 0.18 0.25
4 7480 0.68 10100 2.61 3.29
5 4350 0.06 8780 1.39 1.45
6 5547 0.18 8240 1.04 1.22
7 6121 0.27 9852 2.33 2.60
8 4570 0.07 8928 1.49 1.56

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9 4192 0.05 10325 2.88 2.93

10 5434 0.16 10575 3.21 3.37
TOTAL 19.98
EFBUS = 19.98/10 = 2
Table 5.7. Determination of equivalent standard axel load (ESA)
Vehicle Cumulative No of vehicle (106) EF ESA(106)
Car 2.32 0 0.000
Bus 0.38 2 0.76
Small-truck 1.6 1.56 2.47
Medium-truck 0.47 4.57 2.15
Large-truck 0.12 9.79 1.17
Total ESA 6.55

Using the above calculation result we can determine our traffic class using the following table
Table 5.8. Traffic class for flexible pavement design

According to our commutative traffic loading result our traffic class is T6.

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Subgrade:
The type of subgrade soil is largely determined by the location of the road. The strength of the
road subgrade for flexible pavements is commonly assessed in terms of the California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) and this is dependent on the type of soil, its density, and its moisture content.
Use CBR value for the project 15%.
Table 5.9. Subgrade strength class

According to our given CBR value which is 15% The sub grade strength class is S5
5.3. Flexible Pavement Design Catalogue
The design of flexible pavements is based on the catalogue of pavement structures published in
TRL’s Overseas Road Note 31 but updated, improved and extended to higher traffic levels based
on the latest research.
The Catalogue comprises seven charts for seven different basic structural types of pavement
(Table 10.1) corresponding to distinct combinations of surfacing and road base materials. Each
cell of each chart identifies the required thickness of the pavement layers and the materials for
their construction based on cumulative traffic and the strength of the subgrade.

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Using sub grade strength S-5 and cumulative traffic T-6 we have the following highway layer
and thickness from ERA flexible pavement design manual version 2013.
Table 5.10. Possible pavement structures
Design Chart No. A1 A2 A3 B1 C1 D1
Pavement Possible Structure Structure Structure Structure Structure Structure
Components Structures 1 2 3 4 5 6
Surfacing 100 90
— — —
Asphalt Concrete) (1)
Roadbase:
Asphaltic Concrete
— — — — —
roadbase —
250 mm 150 mm — 150 130
Crushed Stone 200
— — 200mm — —
Cement stabilised (2.5 —
MPa UCS)
Granular sub base 175 mm 200 mm 200mm 175 150 100
Selected fill — — — — — —`

The choice of catalog chart will depend on a variety of factors but should be based on
minimizing total construction costs. Factors that will need to be taken into account in a full
evaluation include:
 The likely level and timing of maintenance
 The experience and skill of the contractors and the availability of suitable material.
 The cost of the different materials that might be used and other risk factors.
The following alternatives such as chart A1: surface treatment unbound granular road base, chart
A2: surface treatment, composite road base, chart A3: surface treatment bound road base,
includes granular capping layer, cement and lime stabilized road base and cement stabilized sub
base in their layer. And such type of materials are used when natural construction materials are
either not available or do not fulfill the quality requirements of road building materials. This is
not the case in southern part of Ethiopia, in gurage zone. In many parts of our country, materials
that are fulfill the requirements of untreated road pavement materials are readily available within
reasonable hauling distance.
From the above alternative pavement structures A1,A2 and A3 are not preferable in our country
and also in our project. Because SURFACE TREATMENT, UNBOUND GRANULAR
ROADBASE use cement stabilize such type of pavement is not favorable in our country because

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of its additional cost and availability of construction materials and they are not structurally
durable for link road and needs frequent maintenance thus they all fail.
Since we have no information about level and timing of maintenance, experience and skill of the
contractors and the availability of suitable material we use cost of the different materials as
evaluation to select economical pavement structure from the remaining alternatives (B1,C1 and
D1)
Table 5.11. Determination of relative unit cost of material
Alternative Thickness
Material Unit Cost Relative Cost
Pavement (m)
Thin flexible AC surfacing 0.05 1050 157.5
Granular road base GB 1 0.2 250 50
Granular sub-base GS 0.175 560 98
Total 305.5
Bituminous (HMA) wearing 0.1 940 94
course and binder coarse
Granular road base GB 2 and 0.15 250 37.5
3
Granular sub-base GS 0.15 560 84
Total 215.5
Bituminous (HMA) wearing 0.09 940 84.6
course and binder coarse
Bituminous Road Base 0.13 1045 135.85
Granular sub-base GS 0.1 560 56
Total 276.45

Generally the possible flexible pavement structure layer for this specific road project is chart C1
because of its cost effective than the other possible alternative charts. Therefore the pavement
thickness for this project is:

 10cm Bituminous (HMA) wearing course and binder course.

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 15cm Granular road base GB 2 and 3.

 15cm Granular sub-base GS.

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CHAPTER SIX
6. DRAINAGE DESIGN
6.1. General
Highway drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-surface
water within the right of way. It includes interception and diversion of water from the road
surface and sub-grade.
Importance of Drainage System:
 The protection of the road through prevention of damage due to water to achieve the
chosen label of service, without major rehabilitation at the end of a selected design
period, as economically as possible.
 Allow the run off of any flow of water with limited damage & disturbance to the road and
surrounding area.
 To Prevent Sustained contact of water with bituminous pavements which causes failures
due to stripping of bitumen from aggregates like losing or detachment of the bituminous
pavement layers and formation of pot holes.
 To prevent the prime cause of failures in rigid pavements by mud pumping is due to the
presence of water in fine sub grade soil.
 To Prevent Excess water in shoulders and pavement edge which causes considerable
damage.
Requirements of highway drainage system:
 The surface water from the carriage way and shoulder should effectively be drained off
without allowing it to percolate to sub grade.
 The surface water from the adjoining land should be prevented from entering the
roadway.
 The side drain should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope to carry away all the
surface water collected.
 Flow of surface water across the road and shoulders and along slopes should not cause
formation of cross ruts or erosion.
 Seepage and other sources of under ground water should be drained off by the sub
surface drainage system.

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 Highest level of GWT should be kept well below the level of sub grade, preferably by at
least 1.2m.
 In water logged areas special precautions should be taken, especially if detrimental salts
are present or if flooding is likely to occur.
6.2. Hydrologic Procedures
Flow measurements for determining a flood frequency relationship at a site are usually
unavailable. In this case, it is an accepted practice to estimate peak runoff rates using empirical
methods.
There are two methods available for calculating the discharge that best reflects local project
conditions. These are:
i. Rational method: -Provides peak runoff rates for small urban and rural catchment areas,
less than 50 hectares, but is best suited to urban storm drain systems and rural ditches.
Here, rainfall is a necessary input.
ii. SCS method: -SCS method is based on an analysis of a large number of natural unit
hydrographs from a broad cross section of geographic locations and hydrologic regions.
For this project discharge is given Q = 1m3/s
6.3. Design of side ditch
Amount of surface water further depends upon intensity of rain fall, amount of rain fall,
topography of the area, nature of soil, extent of the area to be drained, etc. Taking all these points
into consideration, maximum quantity of water that these ditches or drains have to handle, can be
estimated.
6.3.1. Channel Section
Channel cross sections at roadside locations should be determined by hydraulic and erosion
considerations to achieve a channel that has adequate capacity for the flow quantity to be
handled, will require little or no maintenance, will fit in the space available and will be
economically acceptable to construct.
There are different types of channel sections:
 Triangular V-Ditch
 Trapezoidal Ditch
 Rectangular Ditch
 Circular ditch

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We decide a trapezoidal open channel for rural cut section ditch because Trapezoidal
channels are easily constructed by machinery and are often the most economical to
construct. When a wide trapezoidal section is proposed, both traffic safety and aesthetics
can be improved by rounding all angles of the channel cross section with vertical curves.
Then to be economical we make the width to be twice the depth that is b=2y and a minimum
perimeter to be economical consider a trapezoidal section of channel as shown in the figure.

The side slope is given as 1 vertical to x horizontal.

Hydraulic mean depth R=A/p= ((b + my)*y)/2(bums) = y/2
Hence for a trapezoidal section to be most economical hydraulic mean depth must be equal to
half the depth of flow.
S is the slope of side ditch which is equal to the longitudinal slope of the road = 2.5% = 0.025
n = 0.025(for material in the ditch masonry] from ERA table 7.11.
An open channel is to be designed to carry 1 m3/s at a slope of 0.0065.
For most economical Trapezoidal section:
θ = 60o

1 = 1/0.25*1.732y2(0.5y)2/30.0251/2
1 = 5.477y2.6

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Y = 0.53m provide y = 0.6m

b = 2*0.6/√3 = 0.69m provide b = 0.7m
A = 1.732*0.62 = 0.63m2
P = 3*b = 0.7*3 = 2.1m
Assume freeboard = 20% of y = 0.2*0.6 = 0.12m
Total depth D = y + freeboard = 0.6+0.12 = 0.72
Provide D = 0.75m
B = 2y = 2*0.53 = 1.06m provide B = 1.5m
This trapezoidal channel design is applied along all cut sections of our road project.
6.4. Cross drainage
The streams cross the roadway, facility for cross drainage is to be provided. also often the water
from the side drain is taken across drain in order to divert the water away from the road, to water
course or valley. the cross drainage structures commonly in small bridges. When small stream
crosses a road with a linear waterway less than about six meters, the cross drainage structure
provided is called culvert,
The commonly used types of culverts in use are:
 slab culvert
 box culvert
 arch culvert
 pipe culvert.
6.4.1. Cross Drainage Structures Design (Culverts)
For the case of this project the selected culvert is R.C.C pipe culvert because it fulfills the
following criteria:-
They are economical since a circular section is the most ideal one for withstanding forces from
all around.

Sample calculation:
Culvert size determination
A = πD2/4 and Q = AV A = Q/V
Where, v (m/s) is the velocity of flow discharge in the culvert to prevent siltation the desirable
minimum velocity in the culvert should be greater than 0.7m/s and the target velocity at the

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culvert outlet for different material is (1.2 - 2m/s) for firm loam or shift clay soil according to
ERA drainage manual table 7.1, we take the allowable velocity of 2m/s
Q = the discharge from the ditch = 1m3/s
Culvert : at station (1+202.87) and (3+106.65)
QT = 1m3/s
A = Q/V =1m3/s / 2m/s;
A = 0.5m2
0.5m2= πD2/4
D =0.79m
General maximum available pipe diameter is 0.8m

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CHAPTER SEVEN
7.1. TRAFFIC CONTROLS AND MARKINGS
7.1. introduction
For the safe traffic operation on highways adequate regulation and controls have to be imposed.
The most commonly used control measures are:
 Traffic signs
 Road marking
 Traffic signals
7.2. Traffic signs
Traffic signs provide essential information to drive safely and efficient maneuvering on the road.
The safety and efficiency of a road depends to a considerable degree on its geometric design.
Some important traffic signs:
Give timely warning of hazardous situations when they are not self-evident.
They give information as to highway routes, directions and points of interest.
Regulating of traffic by imparting messages to the drivers about the need to stop, give way and
limit their speeds etc.
7.2.1. Types of Traffic Sign
According to the UN protocol (United Nations publication) the international system of traffic
sign comprises of the following classes
i. Regulatory signs: Shall be used to inform road users of selected traffic laws or
regulations and indicate the applicability of the legal requirements.
ii. Guide or Informative signs: Provide information to road users concerning destinations,
available services, and historical/recreational facilities
iii. Warning Signs: indicate conditions that may be hazardous to highway users

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Table 7.1. Traffic sign for curves

Curve no station Type of road Provided Direction Purposeof
furniture traffic sign marking
Both direction To avoid
1 0+169.299 Warning (atat mazorya to problem due
gunchre ) to curve change

Both direction To avoid

2 0+650.50 Warning (atat mazorya to problem due

gunchre ) to curve change

Both direction To avoid

3 1+500.79 Warning (atat mazorya to problem due
gunchre ) to curve change
Both direction To avoid

4 4+088.80 Warning (atat mazorya to problem due

gunchre ) to curve change

7.3. Road markings

1. Longitudinal markings: Are those markings placed parallel to the direction of travel
which provides guidance for the placement of vehicles on the traveled way cross-
sections.
 Centre line markings: Separates the opposing streams of traffic and facilitates their
movements placed parallel to the direction of travel

 Lane Markings: Is a single white dashed line separating lanes of traffic in the same
direction.

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 Edge Markings: Indicate edges of rural roads which have no curbs to delineate the limits
up to which the driver can safely venture.

2. Transverse Markings: Any and all markings with a component that cuts across a
portion or all of the traveled way.
 Crosswalk Markings
 Directional arrows Word and
 Symbol Markings
 Parking Space Markings
7.3.1. General Guide Line of Pavement Marking
 Solid lines are restrictive in nature and it is an offence to cross such line
 Broken line can be crossed provided that it can be done safely
 Double line indicates maximum restrictions.
In our project, we recommend longitudinal marking for the whole length of the road.
This includes:
 Dividing line
 Lane lines and
 Edge lines.
Where there is a climbing lane provision, passing opportunities are allowed and for the curve
designed to allow overtaking, the dividing line (center line) has to be broken line to show that it
is allowed to overtake slow moving vehicle.

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CONCLUSION
Road is one of the basic requirement for the development of one country. It satisfies their
intended purpose; it must be constructed to be safe, easy, economical and environmentally
friendly and must fulfill the needs of inhabitants. When we select the road material we also
consider the amount of material available on the sources.

Next, a safe and economical geometric alignment design is provided based on the limits set by
ERA 2013 manual and engineering judgments which are related to the condition of the project.
Survey data and hydrological data are the basic to do the design. Ethiopian road authority (ERA)
set guidance for the geometric design, pavement design, material selection based on the
topography, climate and the economy of the road. Based on the above ERA specification we
have done selection of the most economical pavement thickness using traffic analysis and sub
soil strength (CBR).

Thirdly, providing appropriate gradients, which is the basic factor which controls economy and
aesthetic as well as drainage of the highway. We provide the appropriate gradients by
considering critical length of gradient, drainage system, aesthetics and comfort to give the road
user the mentioned road values. In our specific project, the design starts from survey data and
goes to geometric design, pavement design and drainage system stage by stage. In addition to the
above, clear and precise working drawings and typical sections, where ever necessary, are
necessary for the contractors and consultants.

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RECOMMENDATION
 Adequate and full data should be provided for the students to achieve a successful project
on time.
 Enough internet access should be provided for the students in order to get recent
information and updated software’s.
 Hence improper drainage is the main cause of road failure, appropriate rain fall data of
the project area, full information about the topography (legends) should be known. If not
site visit is necessary to guess the maximum flood level from the existing streams or
drainage structures.
 Appropriate rain fall data of the project area should be studied in detail to design best and
efficient drainage system.

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REFERENCE
 ERA Geometric design manual 2013
 ERA Pavement design manual 2013
 ERA drainage design manual 2013
 Transport engineering lecture notes and handouts
 Highway 1 and 2 lecture notes and handouts
 Civil 3D software, manual and tutorials

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