CNA @TER J O CO t'4TE?

'JTS
10.1 Introduction to Vactor
Functlons
Vcctor-val s r»ctions
VECTOR-VA L.UGD Operations with vector
functions
Limits and continuity ol' vcclur
functions
Differentiation and
Integration of Vector
Functions Vector
ctcrivativcs
Tangent vectors
Propenies of vector derivativcs
MoJcling the motion ol an
there there is mutter, there is geometi)!. object in B*
Vector irttcgrals
10.3 Modeling Ballistics and
Joiiin cx surfer ‹/sz/ — /airiJ
Planetary Motion
Modeling the iyoiion oJ” a
projcctile in a vacuum
KcPIcr’s second law
PREV I EW 10.4 Unit Tangent and Principal
Unit Normal Vectors;
The marriage of calculus and vector methods forms what is called i ector c ilciilus. The Curvature
key to using vector calculus is the concept of a i•ectar-valiiecl fiuiction. In this chapter Unic tangent met principal unit
we introduce such functions and examine some of iheir properties. We will sec that nOrmRl YC I0 £
vector-valued functions behave much like the scolar-v‹iliied fiuu:trouts studied earlier in Arc length as a parameter
this iext. Cun‘aturc
10.5 Tangential and Norma!
Components of
Acceleration
Components of acceleration
Applications
A car travels down a curved road at a constant speed of 55 mifh, What additional
Chapter 10 Review
information do we need about the car to determine whether it will stay on the road or Research Project
skid off os it rounds a particular curve? Cumulative Review

:Can we modify the road (say, by banking) so an average-sized car can travel at moderate
speeds without skidding? How does a highway department decide what warning sign to
install on a particular curve? A soldier fires a howitzer whose muzzle speed and angle
of elevation are known. If the shell overshoots its target by 40 yd, how should the angle
of elevation be changed to ensure a hit on the next shot? If a satellite is in orbit above
the earth, how fast must it travel to remain stationary above a particular point on the
equator? These and other similar questions can be answered using vector calculus.

751
752 10.1 Introduction to Vector Functlons

1 O. i I"‹TRODUCTIO TO VEcTOR FU CTIONS

IN THIS SECTION: 7ecfor-valued functions, operations with vector-valued functions, limits and continuity
of vector functions
Vcctur-valued functions ftrc dcfined and arc used to study curves in the plane and in space, We will also study limits
and continuity or sector-vRlued functions.

Vector-Valued Functions
In Section 9.5, we described a plane rurve using parametric equations

.r = /, (f) and y /2( )

where /t und / arc functions ol' on some interval. We extcnd this definition to three
dimensions. A curve in R” is the set ol' all ordered triples (t), fy t), a(/)) satisfying
the parametric equations z = fi (/). ›’ =/2(7). ‹ = f3(/), wher2 fi › f2. and/3 are functions
of / on some domain D, which Iics in @,
The concept of a vector-valued function is fundamental to the ideas we ylan Io
explore. Here is « definition.

F(r
el
wb9fC /t , t, 8xd8re fba!-yAI‹zs‹! (acBIa¥'-vaIoed) f a0tI0»s Ot ttt0 N8t zty '›ib¢r
.dcfiac4 on tâ 0 dain•io s0t D, pt tl›it ¢ott/ext, /i., s, xsd,/j arc caJl0d \h4 cozn•
or P. x over a‹› amy abe bs does st e«J = y,‹,i. y‹,»

Figure 10.1 The graph oT

the vactor function F(t) is Let F be a veclor function, and suppose the initial point of the vector F(f) is at the
traced out by tha terminal origin. The graph of F is the curve traced out by the terminal point of the vector F(i) as
point of F(t) as I varias over i varies over the domain set D, as shown in Figure 10. 1. In this context, F(i) is called
the domain D the position vector at f for the point P If (I j, fz{t), fz(i)) on C.

Sketch the graph of the vector runction

F(i) = (3 — i)i -1- (2i)j -I- (3r — 4)ti

for all /.
Y — — i + 2] + 3k
Sofufioii The graph is the collection of all points (z,) , z) with

x —— 3 — t y w 2f z = —4 + 3i
for all f, We recognize thesc as the parametric equations for the line in a' that contains
the point Po( ,0, —4) and is parallel to the vector
Y - —i -|- 2j -F 3k

Figure 10.2 Graph of F as shown in fiigure 10.2.

10.1 Introduction to Vector Functions
7f$3
Example 2 Graph of a circular helix
Sketch the graph ol" the vector I"unction

F(t) — (2sin /)i — (2 cos /)j -I- (3/)k

Softiffon The graph of F is thc collection of all points (.v, y, z) in R whose coordinates
s2ti.sfy
z - 2 sin / ' = —2 cos r z = 3‹ ror al( /

be first two components satisfy

z 2 + y 2 = (2 sin i )2 (2cos r)2 = 4(sin2 r + cos2 f) = 4

which mcans that thc graph lies on the surface of the circular cylinder with radius 2 as
shown in Figurc 10.3,

Figure 10.3 Graph of a helix

Next notice the axis of symmetry for the graph in Figure 10.3 is the z-axis. Wc
also know that as r increases, the z-coordinate of the point P ‹.t,5', z j on the graph of
F increases according to the formula z = 3i, which means that the point (.r, y, e) on
the graph rises in a spiral on the surface of the cylinder .r - + y 2 — 4. The point on
the graph of F that corresponds to i = 0 is (0, —2, 0), and the points that correspond to
i= and r = rr are (2, 0, ) and (0, 2, 3s), respectively. Thus, the graph spirals upward
counterclockwise (as viewed from above). The graph is known as a rl@I circular helix.
A well-known example or a helix is the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule,
which has a stntcture consisting of two intcrtwincJ helixes, is shown in Figure 10.4.
Some other computer-gcncraic4 hclixes arc also shown.

The structure of DNA

t —— 2n i
(0, 2,6it)

a. DNA molecule b. Helix from Example 2 c. Interactive Computer generated helix

F(t) = (cos f)i + (sin i)j -1- 0.2ik
Figure 10.4 Examples of helixes
 10.1 Introduction to Vector Functions

Examples and 2 i11usti ate how the graph or’ a vector function

*(›)=f(')'*f›()J+/3(')k
can be obtained by examining the parametric equations

In Example 3, we rum things :»ound and fnd a vector function whose graph is a given
C\JFVN.

Example 3 Find a vector function

Find a vector function F whose gi’aph is the curve of intersection of the hemisphere
2
z = 4 A2 and the parabolic cylinder y = z

as shown in Figure t0.5,

hemisphere
—4 \2

Figure 10.5 The curve of intersection of the hemisphere and the cylinder

Solution Finding a parametric i epresentation is sometimes called parameterizlng the

curve. There ai’e several ways this can be done, but one choice is to let s — f. Then
y = i2 (from the equation of the parabolic cylinder), and by substituting into the equation
for’ the hemisphere, we find

= J4 — (f) — (f 2 )2

We can now state a formula for a vector-valued runction of the given graph:

F)=i+2j+ x

Operations with Vector Functions

It follows from the definition of vector operations that vector functions can be added,
subtracted, multiplied by a scalar function, and multiplied together. We summarize these
operations in the following box.
10.1 Introduction to Vector Functions
755

VECTOR FUNCTION OPERATIONS Let F and G be vector functions of the

real variable f, and let f {t j be a scalar function. Then, F -]- G, F — G, /F,
and F x G are vector functions, and F G is a scalar function. These operations are
defined as follows:
Veclor I auctions:

(F -j— G)(i) = F(i) + G(r) (F — G)(f) = F(i) — G(f)

(/F)(/) = /( i)F(r) (F x G)(f) = F(r) x G(i)

Scalar function: - (F G)(r) = F(i) G(i)

These operations are dcfincd on the intersection of ihe domain of the vector and
scalar functions thai occur in their definitions.

Exemple 4 Vector fiincöon operations

Let F(i) = i*i + rJ — (sin f)k und G(i) — f i + jj + 5k. Find
a. (F + G)(f) b. {e'F){l) c. (F x G)(f) d. (F G)(f)
Solution
a• (F + G)(i) = [f 2 i + ij — (sin i)k] + ii -j- + 5k

— (t* —I- /)i -I- / -I- 1 j + (5 — sin /)k

b. (e’E){t) - e'Y(t) = e't i + e'fj — (e' sin f)k

c. (F x G)(i) = F(i) x G(i)

— [f'i — fj — (Si r f)k] fl -i- JJ -i- 5 k

= s + 1-(s + in) + -‹]k

d. (F- G)(i) — F(f) G(r)

= [/'i 1 — (sin f)k] ii + + 5k

—r3 + l — 5 sin i

Limits and Continuity of Vector Functions

We begin willy a Jefinilion.
LIMIT OF A VECTOR FUNCTIONSuppose the components /; , /t, f; of the vccior l’anction
F(t) - f {t)l -l- fz {t ) + f z{t)k

.all have finitc limits as rlo, where io is any number or aa or —aa. Then the
limit of F(i) as io is the vector
766 10.1 Introduction to Vector Functions

Example 5 Llmit of a vector funcUon

Find lim F(f), where F(r) = (f 2 — 3)1 + e') + (sin vr)k.

lim F(f) = lim(i 2 — 3) i -1-

lim lim (sin of) k
- 2 i—r2 i-2
- l i + e*j + (sin
2rr)k
i + e“j

Vector limits behave like scalar limits. The following theorem contains some useful
general properties of such limits.

'theorem 111.1 Rules for Vectpr Llmlts

11’ thc vector functions F and G are liinctions of a real variable f and ft(f) is a scalar
function such that all three functions have finite limits as r —‹o. then

lim [F(r) + G(i)] = lim F(r) tim G(f)

Limit of a difference lim [F(f) — G(i)] = lim F(/) — lim G(r)

Limit of a scalar multiple lan [/i (/)F(f)] = slam /i(i) plan F(f)

Limit of n dot product min- (F(r) G(r)] lim F(r) 1irn G(i)

Limit of a cross product lm [F(f) x G(i)] — Um F(i) x m G(r)

Thcsc limit formulas are also valiJ as / —+ oo or as / —+ —oc, assuming all expressions
havc finiie limits.

Proof.- We will establish the formula for the limit of a dot product and leave the rest of
the proof as an exercise. Let

Apply the limit ol” a vector I"unction alony with thc sum rule and pi'aduct rule lor scalar
limits to write

— I inn fi(t lim 8i (r) + 1im /i(f) 1im 8i(r)

f •••• fp / ltd I -+ fp f -r ftj

= lim F(f) lim G(r)

10.1 Introduction to Vector Functions
757
Example 6 Limit of a cross product of vector functions

Show that lim[F(i) x G(i)] = lim F(i) x lim G(r) for the vector functions
i—• 1 i i i —+ i
F(i) = ii + (1 — i)j + r2k and G(r) = e’i — (3 + e’)k

I j k
lim [F(r) x G(r)] = him r l—f '
' ' ' e' 0 —(3 + e')
- lim [(1 — r)(—3 — e') — 0]i — [-r(3 + e') — i 2e')j + [0 — e' I — r)]k)

== lim [(I — r)(—3 — e’) — 0]i — liin[—/(3 -I- e ) — / 2e’ ]j + lim[0 — e'(\ — t)]k
r -+ I /-+ I /-• I

(0 — 0)i -F (e 4.6 + 3)j -|- (0 — 0)k

- (2e + 3)j

Now we find the cross product ot the limits.

lirn F(f) = lim r i + lim(l — f) J + min r* k — i -J- k

lim G(f) — lim e' i + lim(—3 — e') k = ei (—3 — e)k

i —• i i —• i i -+ i

so char

liin F(r) x lim G(i) — i 0 l

' ' ' e 0 —3 — r
— (0 — 0)i — (—3 — e 4—
(0 — 0)k
e)j
- (8 -l- '2e))

Thus,

l i* iP(‹) x l in F( ) l i'n *(')

i — •I i— rI /— ›i
(‹)i x
=

CONTINUITY OF A VECTOR FUNCTIONA vector l’unctiun F(t) is said to bc continuous at it if ›o is in the domain o1 F a

Wl@ .lii.s edu:s: This is the same as requiring each component of F(r) to be
conlinuous- at to Th8[ IS,

is continuous a› o when o is in the domain of the component functions /;(i), /,(f),

and /3( ) and

The rules for vector limits listed in Theorem 10.1 can be used to derive general
properties of vector function continuity.
758 10.1 Introduction to Vector Functions

Example 7 Continuity of a vector function

For what values of f is F(i) = (sin f)i -1- (1 — i)‘'j+(In f)k continuous?
Solution The vector function F is continuous where its component functions

are continuous. Tlte function/ is continuous for all t: f2 is continuous whenever I — / 0

(thac is, when r \); f; is continuous for / > 0. Thus, F is continuous when r is a positive
number other than one; that is, / > 0, I .

P'RO BLE M SET 1 O. 1

Level 1 jp. C(/) — (1 — r)i -I- / 2J -F / k

G(/) a (2 sin /)i -I- (2 cos /)j -I- 3k
1. ■ What does this s:i '’? Discuss the concept of a vector-
valued function. Pe Orltt ilte aperatioiis iiidicnied iii Pmbleuts 21-32 with
2, ■ What does this say'? Discuss the concept of the limit
F(r) — 2ti — 5j + i*k
of a vecior-valued function.
Filial ilte domain of ihe »eciorfiiiiciions giyr7t in fiiobleitis G()=(1-ri-F k
3- IO.
H(f) = (sin r)i + e'j
3, F(f) = 2ri — 3fj + k

4. F(r) ( I — i)i -I- J— k 21. 2F(r) — 3G(i) 22. i 2F(/) — 3H(/)

5. F(r) (sin /)i -I- (cos /)j -I- (tan t)k
23-. F(i) G(r) 24-. F(f) H(r)
G, F(/) - (cos /)i — (c4at f)j (csc t)k 35. c( 1 ' iit I . +( ^ ( )
7. /i(t)F(i) whei e ft(r) = sin f and 37. F(i) x H(f) 28. G(/) x H(r)
F(r) = ++ 29. 2e' F(f) + rG(i) + l0H(r)
k j+
lan i 30-. F(r) [H(r) x G(r)] 31. G(r) [H(f) x F(i)]
8. F(f) + G(i), where F(i) = 3rJ + r*'k 32, H(f) [G(f) x F(i)]
and G(f) = 5fi + 1 )
9. F(f) — G(i), where
Level 2
F(r) = In /i -F 3z§ — /*k and
G(r) = i + 5rJ — f 2k 33.
Show that the curve given by
2
10. F(i) x G(i) where F(f) = i i — NJ + 2tk R(f) = (2 sin i)i + (2sin r)) (8 cos i)k
and G(f) lies on a sphere centered nt the origin.
. 2' ' Sketch the graph of the curve given by
R(r) = (2 cos t)i + (sin f)j — 2i k.
Descrihe r/ie grnp/i of rlie \'eciorfiiiictions gi\›eii iii Prob•
/‹/›iz I I -20 or s/:e/r/i n grnjs/t iyi ÎB . A graph iii ' itiny Fittd a vector function F ii•liose graph is the curve
lielfi› it'i//z your descripiioii. given iii Problems 35-40.
2
11. F(i) — 2ri -I- / J
12. G(i) = (1 — t)i + —J
f
l3. G(I) — (sin t)i — (C
)j
14, F(i) = (2cos i)i (sin f)j
IS. F(i) = ti — 4li
16. G(f) = e’j -1- f k
J7, F(/) - (cos /)i (sin /)j -|- /k
18. F(f) — e'i + e'J + e*' k
10.1 Introduction to Vector Functions
759

(0,0,-1)

37, z = 2f, y = I - i, z = sin i Find each limit indicated in Problems 41 -48.

41. lim [2ri — 3j -I- e’kt

42. lim t3/i -I- e") (sin vf)kt

(sin r)i — rk

t3 — i
44. lim J + (t’ + I )e"' k
x—2 y —1 z /—+ i r — I
38. = =
3 2 4 ie’
45. li
m
0 1 — e'

+
1 — GOS I + e’"’k

47. lim sin 3r ln(sin )

-•o+ sin 2f In(tan f)’

(2, l, 0) 48. lim [(21 — fj -I- z’ k) x (/ 21 -J- 4'sin /j)t

Determine all values of t for which the vector fiinctioit

given in Problems 49-54 is continuous.

49. F(I) = rl -J- 3J - (1 - i)k

39. The curve of intersection of the hemisphere
2 2
- x — and the pai'abolic cylinder x = 50. G(t) = /l — lk

52. F(i) — (e' sin r)i -J- (e' cos /)k

53. F(/) = e' [f i + j -l- 3kJ

54.
G(i) where u = ri + /ij
— .
55. The graph of

1 — r*
R(/) - /i -I- t4’) j
40. The line of intersection of the planes N + y + 3z — 6
and z — y — z I lies in a plane. What is the equation of this plane?
760 10.2 Differentiation and Integration of Vector Functions

56. How many revolutions 2rc made by the circular helix

R(/) — (2 sin t)i -|- (2 cos /)J -l- —

IN H(/) is a vector function, we define the difference
operator AH by the formula
fk in a vertical distance of 8 units?
AH = H(i + Ar) — H(r)

where At is a change in the parameter f, {Note: Usu-

y. I I • a small number.) If F(f) and G(i) are vector
functions, show that

Him,- Observe ihot

57. Given the vector functions
A(F x G)(r) = F(f -+- Ar) x G(r + fit)
F(r) = ii -i- f'j -I- f k anti
G(i) = ,1 — e'j, directly verify each of‘ the following
!imit formulas (that is, without using Theorem 10.1). + F(r + fii) x G(f) — F(f) x G(f)

a. lim e' F(f) = lim e' 1im F(f) 59. Prove the limit ol’a sum rule of Theorem 10.1. (The
i-*0 f-*O -*O
difference rule is proved similarly.)
lim- F(r) G(r) = [lim- F(r)]lim a. Prove the limit of a scalar multiple rule of Theorem
b.
10.1.
c lim[F(i) x G(/)] = [1 inn F(r)1 [lim G(i)] b. Prove the limit of a cross product rule of Theorem
r-+ I 'i I ' I -+ I

1 O.2 DI PFE R E hITIATIOht A I'•f D I f'gT EGRAT ION OF VECTO R FU hiCT IOI'4S

IN THIS SECTJON: Vector derivativaB, tangent vectors, propartiaB of vactor dafirafires, modeling fhe motion
of an ot›jact in &', vector integrals
Our next objective is to introduce the derivative and intcpi ul of a vector function, along with some of' their b.is ie
propenies and applications.

Vector Derivatives
In Chapter 3, we defined the derivative of the function / to be the limit as A.r 0 ol’ the
difference quotient A//Ax. In the conlext of this chapter, this definition would be called
the derivBtive of the scalar function f. The difference quotient of a vector function F
isthc vzctorexprrssion
AF F(i+A‹)- F()

and we define the derivative of F as follows.

DER I VATIVE OF A VECTOR FUNCTIONThe derivative of the vcct‹ir func- iron F is the vcct

AF = .F(r —t— Ar) — F(i)

F (i) = line lim Ar
Ai -•O A / at -+0

wherever this lirnii exists. In the Lcihniz notatioti, the deriviitivc of’ F is ‹Ignored hy
. We say lh:tl lhc vcct‹ir l’unction F is differentiBble ai r =$’ (f) is delincd
10.2 Difterentlation and Integration of Vector Functions
761
The following theorem establishes a convenient method for computing the derivative
of a vector function.

Theorem 111.2 Derivative of a vector function

The vector function F(r) =/t (f)i + /2( )i +f›( i)k is di1’ferentiable whenever the compo-
nent functions /; , /t, and /3 are each differentiable, and in this case

F’(i) = f'(i)i -1-/2 )j +/3( )*

Proof: We use the definition of lhe derivative, along with rules of’ vector limits (Theorem
10.1 ), and the fact that the scalar derivatives /,'(/), /2'(r), and /3'(i) all exist.

F(r + Ar) — F(i)

F'

——/ (/)i +/ 2 (f)J + f/(t)k

Example 1 Differentiability of a vector function

For what values of r is G(i) = |r |i -+- (cos i)j + (/ — 5)1i differentiable?
Solution The component functions cos f and f — 5 are diflérentiable for all i, but
l‹ 1 is not differentiable at f = 0. Thus, the vector function G is dii’ferentiable for
all r 0.

Example 2 Derivative of a vector function

Find the derivative of the vector function

Sofiirion Differentiating each component separately, we find that

F'(r) — {e')'I + (sin f)’j + (i’ + 5t)'k — e'i -l- (cos f)j -]- (3i° 5)k

Tangent Vectors
*
Recall that the scalar derivative / '( o) s ives the slope of the tangent line to the graph of
/ at the point where x — o « d thus provides a measure of ihe graph’s direction at that
point. Our first goal is to extend this interpretation by showing how the vector derivative
can be used to find tangent vectors to curves in space. Let i be a number in the domain
or ‹r vector function F(r), and iet P h be the point on the graph of F that corresponds
‹o ‹o. as Shown in Figure 10.6.
Then for any positive number Ar, the differencs quotient
Figure 10.6 The difference
quotient Is a multiple of the
secant line vector
is a vector that points in the same direction as the secant vector

PpQ = F( o + f) — F( o)
7g2 10.2 Different(ation and Integration of Vector Functions

where 9 is the point on the graph of F that corresponds io i = ‹o + k t (see Figure 10,6).
Suppose the difference quotient AF/At has a limit as it —+ 0 and that

Then, as At —+ 0, the direction o1’ the secant vector PpQ, and hence that of the difference
quotient OF/fir, will approach the direction of the tangent vecior at Pz, os shown in
Figure 10.7.
Thus, we expect the tangent vector at o to be the liiiiit vector
AF
lim
Al-+0 Al

which we recognize as the vector derivative F’ ( o) These observations lead to the fol-
lowing interpretation
Figure 10.7 As AI —+ 0, the
vector and hence the
difference quotient AF/At TANGENT VECTOR Suppose F(r) is diffñ rentiable at 2o ated thal P'(lb) / 0.
approaches the tangent Thcn F’( of » « tangent vector to the graph of F(f) at lhc point whcrc r = o and
vector at Ph points in thc direction determined by increasing r.

Example 3 Finding a tangent vector

Find a tangent vector at the point o where i — 0.2 on the graph of the vector function

F(r ) - e*'i -1- (f 2 — f)j -1- (1 n i)k

What is an equation for the tangent line at P ot

Solution The derivative of F(i) is
2
F’(/) - 24e ’i (2t — 1)j /“' k

so a tangent vector at the point where f = 0,1 is

F’(0.2) 2e0'*i —40.6j 'ik

The tangent line to the graph of’ F(f) at P o is the line that passes through and iS pitrallel
to the vector F'(0.2). Since

F(0,2)’ = e0 4i — 0, i 6j + (ln 0.2)k

the point of tangency is (e0’4 , —0. f6,ln 0.2). Thus, the tangent line has parametric
equations

z = e0'4 -1- 2e0'4 i , y = —0.16 — 0.6f, z In 0.2 + 5/

If F ’( o) I b 8nd we also require the derivative F’ be continuous at ›o. the tangent

vector at each point of the graph of F near P o will be close to the tangent vector at P ot
In this case, the graph is said to be smooth at P os
10.2 Differentiation and Integration of Vector Functions
763

SMOOTH CURYE Tlic graph of’ ihe vector function defined by F(t) is smooth on any inter val of’ r whcre F’ is ctintinuous and F

Example 4 Determining whether a curve is smooth

Determine whether the graph of the vector function

F(i) = (r 2 + 1, cos /, e' -1- e°']

is smooth for all i.

Solunon The derivative

F (/) (2/, — Sin r, e' — e"')

is continuous for all /, but F'(0) = (0, 0, l — I ) = 0. Thus, ihe graph is not smooth for
art r, but it is smooth on any interval not containing f = 0.

A graph will not be smooth on any interval containing a point where there is an
abrupt change in direction. For’ example, the graph in Figure 10.8 is not smooth on any
interval containing the point corresponding to the sharp corner. In Example 4, such a
point occurs when r — 0, namely Po( , 1, 2).
We say this curve is piecewise smooth if it consists of a finite number of smooth
pieces.

Properties of Vector Derivatives

Higher-oi’der derivatives of a vector function F are obtained by successively differentiat- Figure 10.8 A curve that is
ing the components of F(i) —/i( )i + /2( )i + f3(f)k, For instance, the second derivative not smooth
of F is the vector function

whereas the third derivative F”’(r) is the derivative of F”(I), and so on. In the Leibniz

notation, the second vector derivative of F with respect to r J2F

enO
lhird derivative, by
"° '" by d.2 •’ d’ e
d
Example 5 Higher-order derivatives of a vector function
Find the second and third derivatives of the vector function

F(r) — e*'i + (1 — r 2 )j -1- (Cos 2f)k

F’(r) = 2e2' i + (—2r)J + (—2 sin 2i)k

F”(/) = 4e2' i — 2J — (4 cos 2i)k
F“’(/) = 8e"i + (8 sin 2r)k

Several rules for computing derivatives of vector functions are lisied i» th rollowing
theorem.
764 10.2 Differentiation and Integration of Vector Functions

’theorem 10.ñ Rules for differentiating vector functions

Ir the vector Functions F and G and the scalar function li are diffcrcntiable at /, then
4 n F VG, /i F, F G, and F x G arc also diI'fercntiable at r, and:
Linearity rule (aF + bG)'(f) = aF (r) + bG'{t j for constants a, I›
Scalsr multiple rule (/iF)'(i) — fi'(f)F(f) + /i(r)F'(i)
Dot product rule (F G)’(i) = (F' ' G)(i)- -1- (F G')(i)

Pron/: We will prove the lincarity rule and leave the rest of the proof as cxcrciscs, Note
that if F and G are vector functions dii’r rcntiablc at i, and n, h are constants, then the
linear combination aF + UG has the dil’fcrcncc quotient
A(n F + UG) oOF b VG

We can now find the derivative:

— n F'(f) -I- VG’(/)

Example 6 Derivative of a cross product

Let F(i) = i + ij + r2k and G(i) = f i -J- e'j 3k. Verify that

Soluiian First fin4 thc 4erivativc of thc cross product:

(F x G)(/) = I i i° = (3i — / 2r' )i — (3 — f )j + (r' — /*)k

so that (F x G)'(f) = (3 — 2fe' — / 2e' )i + (3f 2)J + (e' — 2f)k.

Next, find (F' x G)(r) -+- (F x G')(i) by first finding the derivatives of F and G and
then the appropriate cross products.

F'(r) = j + 2f k and G (r) = i + e j

(F’ x G)(i) — 0 1 2/ — (3 — 2te*)i — (—2t*)j -I- (—y)k

/ e’ 3
i j k
(F x C’)(z) = I / 2 = (—/*e’)i — (—t*)j -j- (e’ — /)k
1 e’ 0

"The order oflhc factors is important in the cross product rule, because the cross product of vectors is not con›mutativc.
10.2 Differentiation and Integration of Vector Functions
765

Finally, add these vector functions:

F' x G(i) -1- (F x G’)(i) = [(3 — 2fe') — r1*e']i

I {2J2 f 2]j -1- [—f -I- e' — r]k
2
= (3 — 2ie' — r e')i + (3r2)j + {e’ — 2i)k

Thus, (F x G)' = (F’ x G) + (F x G').

Example 7 Derivatives of vector function expressions

Let F(r) — i + e'j + /*k and G(i) = 3f'i + e°'i — 2ik. Find
d d
[2F(t) ‹3G(f)] b. -[F(i) G(/)]
dt
dC
and
Solution Begin by findin
dr
dE
e’) I 2fk and dG
dt =6fi — e°'j — 2k
{2F(i) + i G(f)] dG
+ dt ’dr'
dF
di
2(d'j —I-42/k)
/'(6ri — e"'J — 2k) -F 3/ 2(3f*i -|- e"j — 2rk)
— (6r‘ + 9r )i + (2e' — y'e"' -I- 3r 24e
')j (4r — 2r' — si')k
4 2
= 1 5/ i -I- [2e’ -I- e / (3 /)]j -I- (4t — 8/ )k

[F(/-) G(/)] = . G(t) + F(/)

Ji
= (e'j + 2f k) (3r2i + e*'j — 2rk) + (i + e'j --l- Uh) (6fi — e*'j — 2k)

= [0(3f 2) + e' (e*') + 2f(—2/)] + I I (6t) + e'(—e°') + r°(—2)]

= (1 — 4r2) (6f — 1 — 2f*)
= —6i° + 6i
We will use Theorem l 0,3 in both applied and theo1'eticaI problems. In the following
theorem, we establish an important geometric property of vector functions.

3'heorem 10.4 Orthogonality of a function of constant length and its derivative

If the nonzero vector function F(/) is Jifferentiab!e and has constant length, then F(r) is
orthogonal to the derivative vector F’(/).

Proof.’ We are given that ||F(i)|| = r for some constant r and all i. To prove that F and
F' are orthogonal, we will show tha-t F(i) F'(i) = 0 for all f. First, noie that

•’' = U F(i) !l 2 =-
F(f) F(f)
for all t. We take the derivative of both sides (remember that the derivative of is zero
because it is a constant).
,z =[F()A()]’
0=F().F()+F().F()
0 — 2F(i) • E'{t)
0 F(f) F’(r)
=-
Thus, F and F’ are orthogonal.
766 10.2 Differentiation and Integration of Vector Functions

In plane geometry, it is shown that n tangent line to a circle is always perpendicular

to the radial line from the center of a circle to the point of tangency. Theorem 10.4 can
be used to extend this property to spheres in R".
Suppose R(f) = (/(f), g(f), â(/)) is a vector’ function whose graph lies entirely on
lhe sphere x’ + y2 + z* = r2 and let o be the point on the graph th8t COlTesponds to
= o, as shown in Figure J0.9. Then R( o) G lhc vector from the center C io Up, and
R’tio) a tangent vector to the graph of R(i) at Pz. Thus R’(fq) is also tangent io the
sphere at Pz. Note that R(r) has constant length,

!l R(r ) II — s (f) + y (f) + ; 2(f) = r for all i

i‹ r run i’rom Theorem 10.4 that R is orthogonal to R’. That is, the tangent veclor
Figure 10.0 The tangent R’ ( › at P h is orthogonal to the vector R(› ) I • m the center or the sphere to the point
R’(! o) gt /° is orthogonal to
[ tjjtjggjj¿y.
the radlus vector R(t ) from
the center of the sphere to Po
Modeling the motion of an object in *
Recall from Chapter 3 that the derivative of an object’s position with respect to time is
lhe velocity, and the derivative of the velocity is the acceleration. We frequently know the
acceleration and can use integration to find the velocity and the position. We will now
expmss these concepts in terms of vector functions.

YECTOR MOTIONAn object that moves in suoh a way that its position at time
/ is given by the vector function R(/) is said to have
Postdori vector, R(/) and
r/R
Velocity, V=
At any time f, d/
the speed • ! II. + e magnitude of the velocity,

the direction of motion is the unit vector' and

v
the acceleration sector is lhe derivative of the velocity:

dY _ d'R
dt "di’

The graph or’ the position vector R(i) is called the trg)ectory or the moving object.
According to the results obtained earlier in this section, the velocity V(/) =R’(i)
is a tangent vector to the trajectory at any point where V(r) exists and V(f) 0
(see Figure 10.10).
The direciioit of motion is given by the unit vector >/ II< ||, so the velocity satisfies

V !l II (SPEED)(DIRECTION)
( M' vii)
Appropriately, whenever V(r) = 0, the object is stationary.
In practice, the position vector is often represented in the form

Figure 10.10 The velocity

R(')=fi(')#+f›()J+f›(')k
vector Is tangent to the and in this case, the velocity and the acceleration vectors are given by
trajectory of the moving
object V(f) = R’(f) - f’(t)l -l-f 2 (f)j f- fp(t)h

anal
A(r) = V'(i) = R”(f) = f;"(f)i -1-/ 2’(f)j -l- f3’(/)k
10.2 Differentiation and Integration of Vector Functions
767
Example 8 Speed and direction of a particle
A ]3urticIC s pOsitiOM ul time / is dcrcr:nincd by the vcctai

k(/) - (cos /)i —I— (sin f)j -F f”k

Analyze the particle's motion. In particular, find the particle’s velocity, speed,
acceleration, and direction of motion at time i — 2.

dR
(— sin f)i + (cos f)j + 3f k

A— — (—cos r)i — (sin r)j + 6ik

The velocity at lime i = 2 is V(2):

(— sin 2)i4 (cos 2)j -I- 3(2)*k —0.91 i — 0.42J I 2k

Tbc acceleration at / = 2 is A(2):

(— cos 2)i — (sin 2)j -]- 6(2)k 0.42i — 0.9I§ -}- l2k

The speed is III II = ( sin ) -I- )2 -I- (3 )2 — -|- 9

At time i = 2, ilie speed is

I! V(2)11 = + 144 m 12.04

V
The direction of mofion RI time / — 2 is = [( r)i -I- (cos i)j 3r°k]

At iime i — 2, the direction is V(2)/ || V(2) !l

t [(— sin 2)i + (cos 2)j + I2k] —0.0Bi — 0.03J + I .00k

4
Figure 10.It Graph of R
The geometry of this example is shown in Figure 10.11. and V at I = 2

Vector Integrals
Like vector limits ancl derivatives, vector integration is perms d in a componentwise
fashion.

VECTOR INTEGRALS Let F(r) = /; (r)i +/,(r)j +/i (f)k, where f , f_• , and/, arc continuous on the closed inter val n y r y b. The

where C = Oil + C•fi + U3k is an arbitrary constant vector. The definite integral ol’ F(/) on n 5 / y ñ is lhc vcclor
768 10.2 Differentiation and Integration of Vector Functions

Example 9 Integral of o vector function

Find [il + 3J — (sin f)k] di.

0

{tl 3j — (sin t)k] dt == I Jt i -|- 3 dl j — sin r d7 k

0 0 0 0
/2
i+ (3;) O j - (-cos ;)|0 k
z ) o
-l- 3nj -J- (cos x — cos 0)k
2
-j- 3;rj — 2k
2
Example 10 Position of a particle given its velocity
The velocity o1 a particle moving in space is

Y(r) == e’i -}- /*j —I- (cos 2/)k

Find the particle’s position as a function oJ’ i if the position at time i = 0 is

R(0) = 2i j — k.
Sofution We need to solve the initial value problcm that consists of

The differential equation: V(r) — — e*i -|- t 2j -I- (cos 2r)k

dt
The initial condition: R(0) = 2i -i- j — k
We iniegrate both sides of the differential equation with respect to i:

dR - e’ Ji i + t'dt j+ cos 2t dt k

R(i) = (e' C ) 1
+ C2) J 2t -I- CQ) k

—— e’l +
3

Now use ihe initial condition to find C:

2i -I- j — k
0
e i -j- - o
3’
3'

We solve three separate equations:

Cl —— 1 C2'

Thus, thc particle's position at any time is

R(r) = e' 1 + 3
— sin 2i
3‘ ; 2
= (e' + t)i +
— t’ — sin 2i
3 2
10,2 Differentiation and Integration of Vector Functions
7g0
PRO BPE M S ET 1 O. 2

19, R(/) - e’i -|- e ‘j -I- e2‘ k at t == in 2

1. ■ What docs this say? Describe the concept of a sinooth 20 R()=(nrl+ 2 r3•
CtJrve.
Fiiid a taiigent i!ector to rJu gropâ of lee gireit vecioi
/unctioii T ni the poiuts iii‹:lic ite‹l iii PmbJems 21-24.
21. F(r) — i 2i + 2rj + (t 3 -+ f')k; t —— 0, t 1, t —l
+ f j + f'k ¡
22. F(i) — -' 0, i = 2

23. F(r) = f i + (cos r)j + (r cos i)k; f — 0, r = —2

24. F(f) = {e' sia r t ji + (e' cos wf)j
-I- (sin x/ -I- cos y/)k; = 0, — I, r — 2

lii Prohlems 25 nul 26, find yn/nixefrir eqiialions for the

taagent liiie to Ihe gr iph of the giveii i ecior fimctioii F(/)
‹it fJie yainr P o i’i’espondiiig io o-
25. F(r) = (f*", *°. ')i o = —1
2t' F(f) — (SÎ ri i, cos r , 3f): o =

Fiiid the tin:lefiiiite i!ecior iiitegrnls iii Problème 27-32.

2. ■ What docs this say’? Compare or contrast the notions
of speed nnd velocity of a moving object. 27. (r, —e3', 3) Cf 28. (cos i, sin f, —2/} di

Final Une i•ecior derii•alii!e r’ iii Problème 3-6. 29. (in t, —t, 3) ‹lt 30. e"'(3, r, s”in i) di
3. F(i)1= f i t-j1-1- (f f")k
4. F(z) — (.ri -L z2j -I- s k) + 2s i — s) 3k) 31. (i lu r, — sin(1 — r), i) di
5. F(z) - (In.r)[Si + jj — e"k]
32. (sinh /, —3, cosh /) dr
6, F(8) - (cos 8)[i -|- (fan 8)j -j- 3k]

fiul F' niid F” /or the verioi’/uiicrioiis given in ProhleillS Fin J the position recio/-A(i), givea the velocit) V(r) , «diff
7-10. t/ie iiiitial position Jt(0) ï Prohlcm's 33-36.
7. F(i) = /*i -F i ! j + r"t‹ 33. Y(f) == /*i — e ‘j -I- k, R(0) == i -+- 4J — k
8. F{s) - (1 — 2s°)i + (s cos s)j — s k 34. V(/) == ri — jj -I- e’k; R(0) — i — 2J + k
2 35. V(f) = 2,/i i -I- (cos / )j; R(0) — i -I- j
9. r'ts 1 - (sin s)i + (cos s)j + s k
10. F(8) — (sin° 8)i -1- (cos 28)j + 8 k 2 35. Y(/) == —3/i -I- (sin* t)j -I- (cos* t)k; R(0) == j

Froid the position i!ector R(r) mmd velocit5! vector ¥{1),

Hiffereiiiinte the scalar finn:tioiis in Pmhlems 1.1 - 14.
pivert the accelerotion A(f) nord initial position nitd veloe-
11. /(.r) = [.ri + (x I )]] ' [(2x)i — (3z')J] it)! i›ecIars R(0) anJ V(0), i’espectivel y, iii Pmblems 37-
12. /(.r) = (cos z, z, —A) (sec x, —x2, lv› 38.
37. A(t) = (cos i)i — (i sin i) k;
14. f(.v) = [.tl -1- .r2j — 2k] + [(1 — .r)l — e^ j] R(0) - i — 2j + k;
Y(0) = 2l -I- 3k
lii Prohlem› î 5-20, R is llte yosirioii »eclor for a yarlicle 38. A(/) - r2i — 2 j -I- e™’k;
iii space ni tiiite t. Find the particle’s velaciiy and accel- R(0) = 2i -I- J — k;
eratioii i!eciors aitd theii fiiid the speed and direciioii af Y(0) = i — J — 2k
ttiotioii for the give!n vaf«e off, 39. The ve1ocity ol" a yarticlc moving in spnce is
2
15. R(/) - li j- / j —I- 2ik at / = Y(t) - e*i / 2j. Find thc yarticlc’s position as a
function of / il" R(0) - i — j.
16. R(i) = (l — 2r)i — *j + e'k at r = 0
40. The velocity of c moviny partiele is
17. R(/) = (cos /)i + (sin /)j + 3rk at / = * V(/) = (f cos r)i + e2' k. Find the partiels’s position
18. R(t) = (2 cos r)i + /'J -I- (2 sii1i)k et i = as a function al' / if R(0) - i -I- 2k,
770 10.3 fvtodeling Balllstics and Planetary Motlon

Level 2 Level3
53. Thlnh Tank Problem Is it true that whenever vccior
Let v — 2i — j + 5k arid w = i + 2j — 3k. Firm the tlerii•‹iiii! functions F(i) and G(r) are smooth over the interval
es in Piahlems 4.1 -44. [n, f›), then F(i)+G(i) is also smooth over the same
intei’val? Either prove that this statement is genei’ally
h’uc, or find a countercx;iniplc,

43. 2 54. Let F(f) u(f)i + u(f)j+ w(r)k, where it, u, and w
d
x /*w) 44. (/ lull + /' lI»lI) are differentiable scalar functions of /. Show that
d
In Problems 45-46, verts’ the indicated eqiiaiiaiis for the
vector fiuictions F(f) - (3 + f 2)i — (cos 3f)J + I ' k and
G(f) = sin(2 — f)i — e2’k 55. Let F(t) be a differentiable vector function and let /i (f)
45, (F G)'(f) = (F' G)(i-) + (F G')(/) be a differentiable scalnr l’unction of i, Show that
46. (3F — 2G)’(i ) = 3F'(i) — 2G'(i)
[I(f)F(f)]’ = h (i)F’(r) /i’(i)F(f)
In l°roblems 47-48, fraid a value of a iJtci satisfies roe
giveii equation. 56. If GF and are differentiable vector functions of r,
2 prove
47, [(cos i)i -+- (sin i)) + (sin i cos f)k dt
- (F G)’(r) — (F G')(f)-+ (F’ G)(r)
2k

) j) dr 57. If GF are differentiable vector functions of f,

and
l prove

(F x G)'(r) — (F’ x G)(r) + (F x G')(f)

lit Problems 49-50, .show f/iar F(f) mid F”(r) are parallel If’ F is a differentiablc vector function such that
5g F(r) 0, show that
for all t if k is a coitslant,
49. F(/) = (cos L/)i + (Six 1f)J F(/)
50. F(i) — e"' i -1- e°"} d F'(i) - [F(f) F'(/))F(r)
dt IlF(*)II II I )II”
Deteritiiiie whether iJie giveii vecior /iiiriioii F(r)
iii Prahlems 5.1 -52 i.i smooth over the interval 1. dR
51. F(i) = (e' — I , f 3 *, cos f } over [— I, 2) Show that IIR( / )II = - R
R dt
52. F(/) — (72 — r, CO5 r, sift /*) over [—x, zr] If -G — (F’ x F”), what is G’?
F

1 O.S MODEL I NC EA LLISTICS A I'd D SLA f'g EYA RY /fOTION

IN THIS SECTION: Modeling the motion of a projectile in a vacuum, Kepler’s second law
Historically, the study of projectiles anJ planetary motion were two of the earliest applications of calculus. In this
section, we Explore thc.sc nppl ications using the methods of vcctor calculus.

Modeling the Motion of a Projectile in a Vacuum

In general, it can be quite difficult to analyze the motion of a projectile, but the problem
becomes manageable if we assume that the acceleration due to gravity is constant and
that the projectile travels in a vacuum, so we will assume throughout that we are working
in a vacuum. A model of the motion in the real world (with air resistance, for example)
based on these assumptions is fairly realistic as long as the projectile is reasonably hcavy,
travels st i elutively low speed, and slays close io the surface of the earth.
10.3 Modeling Ballistics and Planetary Motion
771
Human cannonball daredevil Jennifer Smith is fired into the air and her trajectory
is shown in Figure 10.12. Her father, Dave “Cannonball” Siriith, held the Guinness
World’s Record for the longest human cannonball flight traveling more than 70 mi/h
for’ a distance of more than 185 ft.

Figure 10.12 The path {oI1owed by a projectile illustrates Jennifer Smith’s feat

Suppose Ihat Smith, the projectile, is fired from a point P at the end of the cannon
and travels in a vertical plane coordinatized so that P is directly above the oi’igin O
and the impact point f is on the s-axis at ground level. We let o be the height of P
above . •o be the initial speed of ihe projectile (the muzzle speed), and ‹x be the angle
of elevation (the angle at which the projectile is launched).
Because the pro,jectile is to travel in a vacuum, we will assume that the only force
acting on the projectile at any given time is the force due to gravity. This force F is
directed downward. The magnitude of this force is the projectile’s weight. If m is the mass
of the projectile and g is the “free-faI1” accelei’ntion due to gravity (g is approximately
32 ft/s* or 9.8 mls°), then the magnitude of F is nip, Also, according to Newton’s second
law of motion, the sum of all the forces acting on the projectile must equal inA(i), where
A(i) is the acceleration of the projectile at time i, Because F= —ifl$j is the only force
acting on the projectile, it follows that

ni A(i) — —aigj Since F = in A(i)

A(/) = —g j for all f j 0

The velocity V(i) of the projectile can now be obtained by integrating A(r). Specif-
ically, we hnve

V(')' A(r) If = (—8J) dt —— 8tJ + Cl

where Ci = V(0) is the velocity when r = 0 (that is, the initial velocity). Because the
projectile is fired with initial speed or = I + (0) II ‹ an angle of elevation n, the initial
velocity must be

Ct — V(0) (*o cos o)i + (*o sin n)j

(as shown in Figure 10.13).

By substitution we find
Figure 10.13 Components
V(r) = — ) + ( cos o)i ( o sin a)j of the Initial velocity vector for
a javelin
= (no cos a)i + (v sin « gf)j
772 10.3 Modeling Balllstics and Planetary Motion

Next, by inleprating V with respect lo f, wc find that lire projectile has displaccmcnt

R(r) = V(r) dt

= f(ro cos >)i ( o sin a — xt )y d!

' ( 0 OS Œ )f I [ ( 0 SÏfl Œ) f — j ••|- C2 »'Jiere C2 = R(0) ii //ie Joo.sition
ni tinir f = 0

Because the projectile begins its flight at P, the initial position is R(0) = sp, and by
substituting this expression for Ct, we find that the position at time r is

Specifically, R(r) gives the position of' the projectile at any time / after it is fired
And before ii hits tht ground. If we lci i(r) and y(r) dénote the hodzonlal and
vcnica| comyonents of R(r), respectivcly, we can make the foliowiny statement.

MOTION OF A PROJECTILE IN A VACUUM Consider a projectile that trav- els in a vacuum in s c

.v(f) — (rd cos œ)i and5’ ‹t) = — 2gr + (sin ‹r)f + sz

The parametric equations l’oi’ ihe motion o, f a pro i‹ tile in a vacuum provide useful
general information about a projectile’s motion. For instance, note that if n 90’, we
can e1 iminste the parameter r by sol ving the first equation, obtaining

0 COS Œ

By substituting into the second equation, wc find

—8
2( °o*os a)°

This is the Cartesian equation for the ma,jcctory of the pro,jcctilc, and because the equation
has ihe general form

the trajectory must be part of a downward-opening parabola. That is, if o pmjeciile is not
fired vertically (so thai tan « is define 1j, its trajectory will be yarl of a downi•'ard-opening
parabolic rim, as shown in Figure 10,14.
10.3 Modeling Ballistics and Planetary Motion
773

›”

Figure 10.14 Interactive The motion of a projectile. The trajectory is part of a parabolic arc

The time o/9ig/tf T’/ of a projectile is the elapsed time between launch and impact,
and the i ange is the total horizontal distance £/ traveled by the projectile during its
flight. Because y = 0 at impact, it follows that T must satisfy the quadratic equation

Then, because the flight begins at z — 0 when f = 0 and ends at s = R when r = Tf,
the i’ange R can be computed by evaluating x(/) at t Tf. That is,

R/ — ( o cos n) F/

Example 1 Modellng the path of a projectile

A boy standing at the edge of a cliff throws a ball upward at a 30° angle of elevation
with an initial speed of d4 fL/'s. Suppose that when the ball leaves the boy’s hand, it is
48 ft above the ground at the base of the cliff.

a.What ale the time of flight of the ball and its range?
b. What arc the velocity of the ball and its speed at impact?
c.What is the highest point reached by the ball during its flight?
Solution We know that g = 32 ft/s2, and we are given so = 48 ft, o = 64 ft/s, and
‹x = 30". Also, R/ — 1 66 ft so the ball’s trajectory has parametric equations
l
*(›) = (w* • ) st' +(ro sino)t-|-
i( so
—
= (64 cos 30°)/
(32)i* -I- (64 sin 30’)r -I- 48
— — l 6t + 32i + 48

a. The ball hits the ground when y ——0, and by solving the equation
— l6r* + 32a + 48 = 0 for i k 0, we find that i = 3 (we discard the negative
solution i — — I ), so the time of flight is T —— 3 seconds. The range is

(3) = 32N(3) i66 cs6BB

that is, the ball hits the ground about 166 ft from the base of the cliff.
774 10.3 Modeling Ballistics and Planetary Motion

b. We find that z'(I) = 32a and y'(f) — —32f + 32, so the velocity at time t is

4(t) = 323i +(—32t 32)j

Thus, at impact (when = 3), the velocity is

V(3) = 32a i — 64j

and its speed is

II Y(3) || = (32 )2 ( 64)2 m BV.66HDh8

That is, the speed at impact is about 85 ft/s.

c. The ball attains its maximum height when the upward (vertical) component of its
velocity V(f) is that is, when y’(t) = 0. Solving the equation —32f -J- 32 = 0, we
find that this occurs when I = 1. Therefore, the maximum height attained by the ball is

The highest point reached by the ball has coordinates (rounded to the nearest unit) of
(55, 64).

In general, if the projectile is fired from ground level (so o = 0), the time of fiight
T/ Satis fles
l
TJ + (*o SIR
2’
Tf sin o

Thus, the range fi/ is

2
R nr x{T ) = ( o cos a) 2 u0 ’ 0 '0
— (2 sinDcos«) =
8 8
8
Notice that for a given initial speed o. the range assumes its largest value when
sin 2s = 1; that is, when ce = 45'= *. To summarize

TIME OF FLIGHTfRANGE OF FLIGHTA projectile fired from gmund level

has tlme of flight r/ and range fl/ given by the equations
2
2 R'0 sin 2n
- Up Sin O and
8
The maximal range is R„ —— ' u* , and it occurs when u =.

Example 2 Fllght tJme and range for the motion of a projectie

A projectile is fired from ground level at an angle of 40' with muzzle speed 110 ft/s.
Find the time of fright and the range.
10.3 Modeling Ballistics and Planetary Motlon
775
Solution With g —— 32 ft/s2, we see that the flight time Tf and range R are

R —— O s.in 2o
2
2 (11 0)
10)(sin 40’) (sin 80”)
32(’ " 32
ñHl9lbYB

That is, the projectile travels about 3 2 rt horizoniatly before it hits the ground, and the
flight lakes a little more than 4 sec.

Xepler’s Second Law

In the 17th century, the Cierman astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571- 1630) formulated
three useful laws for describing planetary motion.

KEPLER’S LAWS
FIRST LAW
The planets move about the sun in elliptical orbits, with the sun at one focus.
SECOND LAW
The radius veeror joining a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals
of time.
THIRD LAW
The square of the time of one complete revolution of a planet about its orbit is proportional to the cube of the length of the sem

Kepler’s approach was empirical, but his three laws were proved eighty years later by
Isaac Newton, in the Principia Matheinatica (1 687). We will prove the second law using
sector methods. The other two laws can be established similarly.
We begin by introducing some useful notation involving polar coordinaEtes. L ur
and u, denote unit vectors along the radial axis and orthogonal to that axis, respectively,
as shown in Figure 10.15.
Then, in terms of the unit Cartesian vectors I and j, we have
Figure 10.15 Description of
u, — (cos 6)i + (sin 6)j and ut = (—sin 6)1 + (cos 8)J tha motion o1 a panicle along
a curve
du
The dcrivat V S and Satisfy
' ' d8 d8

= (— sin 8)i + (cos 8)j = ut and

dug — (—cos 8)i -l- (— sin 8)j = —u,

d8
77g 10.3 Modeling Balllstlcs and Planetary Motion

Now, suppose the sun S is at the or igin (pole) of a polar coordinate system, and
consider the motion of a body 6 (planet, comet, artificial satellite) about S. The radial
vector R = SB can be expressed as

R !‘<r — pr COS 8)i -J- (r sin 8)j

where r = ||R||, and the velocity V satisfies

+dt Derii!ati»e of a scnlai muhi;›le

dr du,. d8
di ” d8 dt Clirfifi i’tife

U8

A similar formula for acceleration can be derived (see Problem 59). We summarize these
formulas in the li›llowing box.

POLAR FORMULAS FOR VELOCITY AND ACCELERATIONIf the

position of a radial vector is R = rug == (r cos 8)i + {r sin 8)) then the velocity is
drr d8
—u 9 and the acceleration is
dt dt
A (r) = dV(f)
dt
d R
dr 2
2
d8 u,+ d28 ua
dt dt! dt dt

Example 3 Velocity of a moving body

The position vector or’ a moving body is R(i) = 2ii — i°j for i y 0. Express R and the
vet ocity vector V(i) in lei’ms of ur and u9•
Solution We note that on the trajectory, z - 2/, › —t*, so R has length

- ll R( /) II = )2 + ( 2)2 — 4 -I- t4 = 4t 4

and R = ru, = i -1- 4u„ Because V(/) = dr

d8 d8
find that we need —. We
di " dt dt dt
dr 2 2
- 4 ) (/ -I- 4) 2f + 4
2
—’* (2r) 2 4

and because the polar angle satisfies 8 == tan“’

) for all points (.r, ') on the curve
(except where z = 0), we have

d8 I I 2
2
dt ” 1 + (— 2)* 2 " r + 4
10.3 Modeling Balllstlcs and Planetary Motion
777

Thus,

2/ 2 + 4 —2 _ (2f 2 + 4)u, — 2rU8

U ¿2 4) '
2 4.4
4
We now have the roots we need to establish Kepler’s second lnw,

Theorem 10.5 I¢eplcr’s second law

The radius vector from the sun to a planet in its orbit sweeps out equal areas in equal
inter vals of time.

f'r o/ The situaiion described by Kepler’s second law is illustrated in Figure 10.16.
We will nssume that the only force acting on a planet is the gravitational attraction ol’
the sun. According to the universal law ol’ gravitation, the force of attraction is given by
iiiM
r 2 ’"
where G is a physical constant, and ni and M are the masses of’ the planet and the sun,
respectively. Because this is the only force acting on the planet, Newton's second law Figure 10.16 Tha radial line
of motion lells us that F — iii A, where A is the acceleration of the planet in its orbit. By sweeps out equal areas in
equating these two expressions for the force F, we find equal time

iii A = —G g ur
2

This says that the acceleration of a plotter

in tie orhii has only ri radial coittponent. Note how this conclusion dctjcnds on our
assumption that fhc only force on the yIanet is the sun’s gravitational attraction, which
acts along radia( iincs from the sun to the planet.
This means that the u# component o£ the planct’s acceleration is 0, anJ by exam-
ining lhc yoiar ronnula for acceleration, we see that this condition is equivalent to thc
differential equation
d’8
=o
di + Ji di

ir we set w = , we obtain , so that

dt
d in
-F2w -0 ereiitinl e
Jf
dr Se iaraiion of veriables

u ' d w —— (—2r*')dr Iitt‹grme boili fitter.

i» lxl + Ct = —2In |r| + C

In w - In(Cr”*) Siiice w > 0 and i > 0

d8
r’ —
dt —— c
778 10.3 Modeling Ballistics and Planetary Motlon

Now, let [t ,iz] »3 [ 3. 4] be two time inter vals of equal length, so ft — i = /, — fy

According to Theorem 6.1, the area swept out in the time period [ri , i,j (see
Figure 10.17) is

2
2

Planit

dA
Flgure 10.17 Interactive Tha radial line swaeps out area at the rate 1 d8
dt " 2 dt

Thus, Si —— y C(i2 — i\ ). Similarly, the area sweyt out in time period [ 3. !4] iS
Sz —— jC{t› — i3), and we have

so equal areas are swept out in equal time, as claimed by Kepler.

An object is sBid to move in a central force field if it is subject to a single force that
is always directed toward a yai ticu1ar point. Our derivation of Kepler’ s second l2w is
baseJ on the assumption that planetary motion occurs in a central force field, In particular,
the formula

a=
shows that a planet' s acceleration has only a radial component, and this turns out to be
true for an object moving in a plane in any central force field.
Much of what we know nbout the motion of the planets is derived from Kepler's
laws. Some of these data are lisled in Table 10, I ,

Tabfe 10.1 Data on Planetary Orblts

Plenet MooD Orbli Eccentriclty Pcrlod ‹in dayal Comp dvc Mass
(In inliiions of tiliesl IP zth = 1.00›
Mulcury
VultuS 36.0 0.2056 88.0 0.06
korth 67.3 0.0068 224.7 0.81
Mcrs. 93.0 0.0167 365.256 1.00
I4I .7 0.034 687 0 0. i074
484.0 0.0484 4,322.589 317.83
887.0 0.0543 10,759,22 95.16
1,787.0 0.M60 30,685.4 14.5
2,797.0 0.0082 60,189.0 17.2
10.3 Modellng Balllstlcs and Planetary Motlon
779

2& A gun at ground level has muzzle speed of 300 ft/s.

What angle ol’ elevation (to the nearest tenth or
lit Pt’obleuu: I - I ñ, find the time of flight Th (to the near- a degree) should be used to hit an object 1,500 ft
est teitih second) and the range Rf (to the neare3t unit) of At what angle (to the nearest tenth of’ a degree)
should a projectile be (ired from ground level if its
27. muzzle speed is 167.1 ft/s and the desired range is
a projectile fired (iii a vacuuiti) fmiti 3roiinJ level at the
gii•eit angle a ii'iih the indicated iiiiti‹il speed o Assume A shell is fired at ground level with a muzzle speed
that g —— 32//s' or 8 —— 9.8 nJi'. ofl 2go n‹ and at an elevation of 45° rrom ground
1. Gt - 35’. *o = 128 ft/s 2. o = 45°, o = 80 ft/s level.
a. Find the maximum height attained by the shell.
3. Q == 48.5”, •o — 850 mls 4. a - 43.5“, ug - l85 mls
b. Find the time of flight and the rnnpe of’ the shell.
5. a = 23,74°, IL a = 3.1 .04°,
c. Find the velocity and speed of the shell at impacr.
• = 23.z u› , = zg. i4 mm
7. n = 14.1 i , g. « 24.23 ,
*o = 100 ft/s o = 200 ft/8
9. n = 49.31 ‘, 10. £Y = 78.09°, o = 88 ft/s G 2 Buster Posey, 2010 rookie player of lhe year, hits a
•o == 450 fU's baseball at a 30' angle with a speed or’ 144 ft/s. If the
ball is 4 ft above ground level when it is hit, whal is the
In Pmbleitis I 1- 18, nn object moves along the given cw»e maximum height reached by the ball? How fur will it
in the plane (‹lesci ibed in either fiiolni or parnitieiric travel from home plare before it lands? II' it just bai'ely
form}. Frith its velocit5• and acceleration iii terttis of fee clears a 5-foot wall in the outfield (see Figure 10. i g),
unii polar›'ecior« up aiid uy. how far (to the nearest foot) is the wall from home
plate?
11. .r = 2f, ' = i 12. z = 3f, y = 4f
13. .i = cos /, ' = sin 14. s == sin /, y == cosr
15. r —— sin 8,8 == 2f 16, r = e" ,8 —/ • 30°
17. r — 5(l + cos 8), 8 = 2i + 1
Srt
—,8
) — COS 8
FJguro 10.18 Home run distance

30. A baseball hit at a 24’ angle from 3 ft above the ground

ln Probleiits I 9-24, consider a particle moi•ing on a circu- just goes ovcr the 9-ft fence 400 ft liom home plate.
lar yath of i’aüitui a desci ibed hy ffie eqiiution About how l’ast was ths ball traveling, and how long did
it take the ball to reach the walt?
R(i) = (o cos u›i)i (o sin «›r)j 31. A nozzle discharges a stream of water with an initial
d8 velocity •o = 50 ft/s into the end of a horizontal pipe
where m — is f/ie ransionr angular velocity. of inside diameter d —— 5 ft (see Figure 10.19). What is
dt the maximum horizontal disiance that the stream can
t9, Fin4 thc vclocity vector. reach?
20. Show that the velocity vector i.s orthogonal to R(r).
21, Finl thc speed ol"the particle.
32. Find the acceleration vecior.
23, Show lhnt the direction of the acceleration vector is
always toward the center of the circle.
24. Find the magnitude of the acceleration vector.
25. A shell fired from ground level at an angle of 45' hits
the ground 2,000 m away. What is the muzzle speed of
the shell? Figure 10.19 Water Stream
780 10.3 Modeling Ballistics and Planetary Motion

32, If s shotyutlcr throws « shot front a height of 5 rd with

an angle of 46’ and initial speed of’ 25 ft/s, what is the
horizontal dislance of the throw?
33. From the laws of motion of a projectile in a vacuum
launched nt an angle, tleduce the laws of motion for an
object thrown upwards vertically,
Basketball ylayer Shaquillc O’NeaI coul4 hit a shot
while standing 20 ft from the basket. IN‘be Shag” shot
from a hcight of 7 it anJ the ball reaches a maximum
Snak0 kivcr Canyon
h h‹ r i2 ft beforc passing through the 10-IL high
basket, wh2t was the initial speed of thc ball? Figure 10.21 Evel Knlevet’s jump

Assume that the opposite edges of the conyon are at the

same height and neglect wind resistance.
38. Modeling Problem A 3-oz paddleball attached to a
string is swung in a circular path with a I -ft radius, us
shown in Figure 10.22. ir tire string will break under a
t’orce of 2 lb, find the maximum speed the ball can ottain
without breaking the string, (Fiat: 3 oz is 3/ 16 tb.)

35. A golf ball is hit from the iee to a green with an initial
speed of i2s run i an angle of elevation of 45". How
long will it take for the ball to hit the green should be
Denver Broneos!?
36. Peyton Manning, a quarterback for the Indianapo-
lis Colts, throws a pass at a 45‘ anplc from a height
of 6.5 l’t with a speed of 50 ft/s (sec Figure 10.20). A
receiver races straight down field on a fly pattern at a
constant speed of 32 ft/s and catches the ball at a height
of 6 ft. If Manning and the receiver both iine up on the
50 yard line at the start of the play, how far does Man-
ning rusk back (retreat) l’rom the line oi’scrimmagc Figure 10.22 Paddleball path
belorc lie releases thc ball?

39. A calculus texl (other than the one you are now reading)
is hurled downward from the top of a 120-ft-high build-
ing at an sngle of 30° from the horizontal, us shown in
6 ft Figure 10.23. Assume that the initial speed of’ the book
is 8 ft/s. How tar from the base of the building will the
text land?

6.5 rt
—30°

Flgure 10.20 Downfleld pass 120 ft

37. Modeling Problem In 1974, Evel Knievel attempted

a skycycle ride across the Snake River (see Figure
10.2 I ), and at ihe time there was a great deal of
hype about “will he make it?” If the angle of the
launching ramp was 45’ and if the horizontal distance Figure 10.23 A moving calculus book
the sky- cycle ncc‹led to travel was 1,700 ft, at what
speed did
A child, running along levcl ground at the ioy of a 30-
Evel have lo leave the ramp to make it across the Snake 40,
I"t-high vcrticoi cliff at a syeed of 5 I’v's, throws a rock
River Canyon?
10.3 Modeling Balllstlcs and Planetary Motion
781
over the clil’f into the sea below, as shown in Figure
10.24. Suppose the child’s arm is 3 ft above the ground B. Kepler divided a circle of radius r and circumfer-
and her arm speed is 25 ft/s. If the rock is released 10 ft ence C into a large number of very thin sectors.
from the edge of the cliff at an angle of 30‘, how long By regarding cach sector as a thin isosceles tri-
does it tnke tor the rock to hit the water? How far from angle of altitude r and base equal io the arc of
the base of the clil”i does it hit? the sector, he heuristically arrived at the formula
A —— (rC for the area of a circle. Show how this was
done.
30° b. Use Kepler's reasoning to obtain a volume V of a
sphere of radius r and surface arcn S as

30 ft

c. Use Kepler’s i’cusoning to show that an ellipse ol

semimajor axis n and semitninor axis b has area
A = cab,
Figure 10.24 Tossing an object off a cliff 46. Prove Kepler’s first law. You may search fhe literature
or the Inh »‹ r r help with this proor.
41. 49. Prove Kepler’s thirJ law. You may search the iileraturc
A paniclo moves along the polnr pBth {r, 8), where
r{I) = 4 + 3 cos i, 8(i) = I', Find V(r) and A(I) in or the Internet Koi' lucid with this yroof.
terms of ut and up. 50. Where is a planet in itr orbit when its syeed is the great-
42, est? Support your rcsponse.
A panicle movcs along ihe polar’ path {r, 8 ), where
r{I) = 3 + 2sin i, 8(i) = i', Find V(f) and A(r) in 51. Two hypotheticnl planels are moving about the sun in
terms of u, and ut. elliptical orbits having equal major axes. The minor
43. axis of one, however, is half that of the other. How do
A gun is fired with muzzle speed o = 550 ft/s at an
the periods of the two planets compare? Support your
angle of n = 22.0". The shell overshoots the target by
50 ft. At what ongle Should a second shot be fired with response.
the same nuzzle speed to hit the 1ni’gct? A caution is ylaced ‹if i/ie top of a clowms•ard-sloping hill
Find two angles of elevation a; « «2 (to the nearest as s/iOWft in F!8!!•• 1. 0.25. /n Pmhleitis 52-55, assuitie that
degree) so that a shell fired at ground level with muzzle a sltell is fired iriifi muzzle speed ›'o •! •› i niigle a iri/Ji
speed of 650 ft/s will hit a target 6,000 ft away (also at respect to the liorizonlcil. Fiiriherniorp, tfs4iiiiie ihe hill is
ground ]cve]). sloped at an a• 8!e viffi fire horizontal.
45. A shcll is fired from ground level with muzzle syeed
of 750 ft/s at an angle of 25°. An enemy gun 20,000 ft
away fires a shot 2 seconds later and the shells collide V (0)
50 ft abovc the ground at the same speed. What are the
muzzle speed •o and angle of elevation ix of the second
gun?
46. A gun is hrcd with muzzle speed u9 = 700 ft/s at an
angle oi’n = 25". It overshoots the torget by 60 ft. The
target moves away room the gun gt a consiant spccd
of 10 ft/s. It’ the gunner takes 30 seconds to reload, at
what angle should a second shot be fired with the same Figure 10.25 Path of a projectile Tlred from a sloping
muzzle speed lo hit the target? surface
47. ?1islorie‹il •p iirsf
ln a prei•ioiis îjis/r›riraJ U>nrst
(Proâfeiii 56, Sectioii 6.2), tre 52. If the hill slopes downward at a 20" angle, and a shell
oiitliiied n procednre by is fired with muzzle speed Of °o = DO rn/s at an
Joliaimes Kepler for angle
findin8 the i•oluwe afa of 40‘ relative to the horizontal, how far down the slope
toriis. This H ursl asks you does the shell land?
io use 53. What is the impnct speed of the shell in Problem 52,
Kepler’s reasoning io find 54. Derive n foi’mula for the time of flight Tj of the shell
area or an ellipse. and the downhill range R (measured along the slope).
Johannes Kepler 55. What should « be in order io maximize the downhill
(1571-1630) range Rd Hint: The maximum R, occurs when the
782 10.4 Unit Tangent and Principal Unit Normal Vectors; Curvature

initial velocity vector bisects the angle between the ver- 59. Use thc formula
ticnl and the slope of the hill. Your nnswcr will be in
isrms of Q. dr d8
—u r +
di ‹lt
lo derive the formule for polar acceleration:

d2r — r d8
Suppose o shell sis fired with iimyle speed o tid nn angle A(/) — dr 2 di
o /roin ‹i Jieig/if o above ground in Probleitis 56-58.
56. ShowthatherangeR/ mustsaüs£y d 28 dr d8
2—— #0
+ dt
g (sec* œ)fiJ — 2u0 (lan Œ) f 2u0 .v0 = 0
flint: Begin by using the chain rule to show
S7. Show that thc maxiirium range I‹„, occurs at anyIe n',„,
whcrc d8 d uz d0
— and
dt dt
fi0. Use the results of Problem 59 to show that the force
F(f) acting on an object moving with acceleration A(f)
'0 an4 acts only in a radial direction (parallel io u ) if and

df
#O
o„ == tan"'
where 6 is a constant. Under what conditions will F(r)
4 0 2 0
act only in a direction orthogonal to u,?

1 O.•S U NIT TA f•sGE f'tT AI•4 D & RI IN CI PA L U hl IT N OR M A L VECTO RS; • U RV ATU R E

IN THIS SECTION: Unit fariperif and principal unit normal rectors, arc length az a parameter, curvature
It is useful to describe the motion ol’ on object in terms of unit veclors flint are tangent and normal at each point on
the trajcctory, and in this section, we learn how they can be computed.

Unit Tangent and Principal Unit Normal Vectors

In Section 10.2, wc observed that if R(r) is a veclor function whose graph is a smooth
curve C, then the nonzero derivative R’(i) is tangent io C ai the point P that corresponds
to i, Since the curve C is smooih, we have R'(r) 0 and a iiiiir ian,yenr vectar T to C
can be obiaincd by dividing R’(r) by its length, that is,

T(i) =
Figure 10,26 shows a smooth curve C and the unit iangent T at a particular point P.
According io Theorem 10.4 (orlhogonality of a function of constant length and its deriva-
iivc), since T(i) has constant magnitude (nam• BI T(‹) II = ). it follows that its derivative
T'(r) is oi’thogonal to T(/) and hencc is normal to the cui’ve C at N. As indicated in
Figurc 10.26, there are infinitely many vectors that are orthogonal to T nnd thus deserve
lo be cnlled normal veclors. To distinpuish T'(i) from the others, we normalize it by
FlgUre f 0.M Unit tangent Íding by its length and refer to it us the principal unit itormol N(f), so
vector T and vectors
orthogonal to T on a givsn N(f) =
curve
10.4 Unit Tangent and Principal Unit Normal Vectors; Curvature
783
To summarizc,

UNIT TANGENT VECTOR AND PRINCIPAL UNIT NORMALIf R(I) is a

vector I\ination that defines B smooth graph, then at each point a uzdt tangent is
R()
T(r) =
|R()/
and the prlnelpal unlt normal vector is

N=

Note tlicse arc pairs of unit vectors that change dircction depending on wlicrc you are
on the curve.

Exemple 1 Unlt tangent and principal unit normal

Find the unit tangent vector T(f) rind the principal unit normal vcctor N(i) at each point
on the groph of’ the vcctoi’ function R(f) = (3 sin i, 4f, 3 cos /).
Su/r‹fidrt We h«ve R’(/) — (3 cos /, 4, —3 sin t), so

)) R’(r) )) - (3 o s ) -I- ( 3s n )

= 9 cos° + + 9 si 2

2
= 9 -I- siiIC’e Si 11’ i .|. coS / —

=5

Thus, the unit langent vector is

R’(/)
T(f) — |) R’(/) ((

= (3 cos /, 4, —3 sin /)
3 4 3
—
DOS i , — , —— Si f1 ?
5 5
To find the principal unit normal N, wc first find T’(/) and then its magnitudc:
3
T’(i) --xin;,0,--costa

+0+

/ -I- cos2 /)
— 25 (
784 10.4 Unlt Tangent and Principal Unlt Normal Vectors; Curvature

So, the principal unit normal is

T'(f)
N(i) -

i
_ (- sin r,0, —
3
COS f )

= t — sin r, 0, —COS / )

Suppose an object moves along the graph C of a vector function R(i) in the direction
of increasing f. Then at each point N on the trajectory C, the unit tangent T(f) points in
the direction of motion, while the principal unit normal N(r) points in the direction the
object is turning, ss shown in Figure 10.27a. For a trajectory in a plane, this means that
N(f) points toward the concave side of' ihe trajectory (Figure 10,27b).

N j'
Dirccliun
N

r
a. T poinis in the direction of’ motion b. In the plane, N points toward the
while N points in the direction the mov- concave side of the trajectory
ing object is turning
Figure 10.27 Unit tangent T and principal unit normal N at each point on the trajectory
of a moving object

Arc Length as a Parameter

Recall from Section 6.4 that the arc length of the graph of y = F{x1 on the interval
[a, I›] is given by the integral

IN the grayh ir described by parametric equations z = .r(f) end y = y{t j, then by the
d)'
chain rule SO we have
di ix di ’

dx dx
for #0

Thus, if the graph is traceJ oul exactly once over the paramcicr inlcrvai / fi / <: / , its
arc length is given by

() 2

"
10.4 Unit Tangent and Principal Unit Normal Vectors; Curvature
785

Similarly, if .r — x{t),) —— y(t), z = e(r) are parametric equations for a smooth cm ve C

in 183 that is traced oui exactly once over the parameter interval i; y t tz, then the arc
length of C is given by the integral

Often, however, we want a formula for arc length that does not depend on i or any
other particular parameter used in its computation. It can be shown that the following
definition of the arc length function is, indeed, independent o1’ parameterization.

ARC LENGTH FUNCTION Let C be a piecewisc-smooih curve ihat is ttic

graph of ltte veclor desci ibed paraniclrically by R(f) — s (i)i '(f)j -I- * (i)ii, and
let B(r)
R(/q)
+o = P( ot be a particular poini on C (called the base point). Then thc length of’ C 0
morn the base point P o ‹o the variable point P(I) is given by the arc length function
.i(t) defined by Figure 10,28 s(t) is the
length of the curve C from the
point P(t ) to Pvt) if t > to

Shirt this says: The arc length function s{t j measures the distance along the
curve C from P( o) to N(f) i > o and ths opposite of that distance if i • ‹o (see
Figure 10.28). Since the length along C is a geometric property, it does not depend
on lhe fact that we have used / as a parameter for describing R(r).

ThiS definition allows us io use arc length s(f) as a parameter for describing a cui’ve.
While time is a natural parameter for studying motion in spsce, it is usually more fruitful
to use the ai c length parameter for describing a curve’s geometric reatures,

Example 2 Finding the arc length of a curve defined by parametric equadons

Find the arc length of the curve defined by

R(f) = (12i, 5 cos /, 3 — 5 sin r)

from / = 0 to i = 2.
Solution We find that

dx
— 12, == —5 sin y —5 cos
dv —
Thus,

= 22 ( 5 sin )2 + ( 5 os ) dt

- 26
7B6 10.4 Unit Tangent and Principal Unit Normal Vectors; Curvature

The formula for arc length can be used to obtain the following useful formula for
the speed of an object moving in space.

Theorem 10.6 Speed as the derivative of arc length

Suppose an object moves along a smooth curve C that is the graph of the position
function R(i) — (x{i), y(t), z(t)i, where R'(r) is continuous on the interval [ i. ›2] Then
the object has speed

Proof: Apply the second fundamental theoi em of calculus to the ai c length formula
(where we use ii as the variable of integration to distinguish it from i):

Example 3 Speed and distance traveled by an object moving In space

The position vector of a moving object is R(r) = (e', 2 i 3, e*'), Find the speed of
the object at time t and compute the distance the object travels between times r = 0 and

Solution By differentiating R(f) with respect tO f, we find the velocity:

V(i) — R'(i) = (e', 2, —e*')

Therefore, the speed at time I is

de
‹:lt

The distance traveled by the object between times i — 0 and i = is the arc length and
is given by

i = ' (e ' + £* “) dr = 2e ' — e " )0 - e — e ' - I -1- I 8,35 Dh02S

To change a given parameterization from a given form, say R(i), to a form involving
the parameter S, we first find s(f) using the arc length formula (as in the proof of Theorem
10.6), and then solve for i as a function of s. The graph of R(i) can then be parameterized
in terms of s by substituting i = i(s). The general procedure is illustrated in the following
example.
10.4 Unit Tangent and Princlpal Unlt Normal Vectors; Curvature
787
Example 4 Uslng arc length to parameterize a curve
Express the helix R(/) = (sin r, cos i, 2f) in terms of arc length measured from the point
Po(0, I, 0) in the direction of increasing r.
Soiiitiofl The pOiflt P o corresponds to r = 0, so arc length s ‹t) is given by the integral

= ' (cos ) -1- ( s ) + 2 #ii

Solving x == r for r, we obtain and the required reparameterization is

Expressing a given position vector R in terms of the arc length parameter s often
leads io complicated computation. However, once we have such a paraiiieterization, the
corresponding unit tangent vector T and principal unit normal vector N can be expressed
in the relatively simple forms shown in the following theorem.

Theorem 111.7 Formulas for T end N in terms of nrc length s

If R(f) has o piecewise-smooth grsph and is represented os R(i) in ierms of’ the arc
length parameters, then the unit tangent vector T and the principal unit normal vector N
satisfy

dR
T= de l dT
nd
K ds

N=

wheve
a scalar I'unction of s.

Proo/: By the chain rule, we have

dR dR ds
dt ds dt

and since = || R'(f) , it follows that

JR
dR

—T
788 10.4 Unit Tangent and Principal Unit Normal Vectors; Curvature

Next, io obtain the formula for the principal unit normal vector

T()
N= T’(;)

in ferms of the arc length paraineter s, we first note that

dT
T'(f)
=

Chaim riile

dT dT
Because — 0, it follows that the vecior derivati ves and point in the saine
If dt d,i
dircciion, ond N can be coinpulcd by and dividing by its lcngth; that is,

I rlT
c ds
as claiined.

Curvature
Let C be a siriooth curve that is the gruph of a vector function R(5) paruinetei’ized in terms
of ‹trc length z. Since the unit tangent T(z) is a unit vector, only its clireotion changes
with s an4 thedTrate of change of thct direction may be measured by thc magnitude of
the dcrivative . As shown in Figure 10.29a, if the curve is a line, then the direction
de
roniains consiant so that dT - 0. But if the curve is bent sharply, the direction of T
dT
changcs rapiclly
sO de
1S relativety largc in magnitude (Figure 10.29b). Tfic magnitude
of — is called the curvatuie of C.
de

CT
a. For a tinc,
de b. The inagnitude of is large where
the curve is sharply bena

Figure 10.29 The curvature of a curve C is related to the magnitude of

ds
10.4 Unit Tangent and Principal Unit Normal Vectors; Curvature
789

CURVATURE Supp‹›sc ihc siri‹›t›th curv¢ F is thc yruth t›I” lI\u vcct‹›r lunctic›n
R(.s), p:iraincIci ized in term» ul” the crc Ionj;th .s. Then the curvature of is the
I'uncIit›n

II
svhcrc T(.s ) is the unit tiingcni vector.

YY him this s:i3’s: The curvaturer measures the rate at which the curve bends
away from the tangent line at a particular point, as shown in Figure 10.30.

a. Small curvature b. Largc curvature

Figure 10.30 Curves with small and large curvature

First, notice that < in Theorem 10.7 is the curvature of R(s). Since a vector function
R is often represented in teims of a parameter other than arc length s, it may not
be especially convenient lo compuie the curvature using the formula K —
. For
instance, if the pafumeter is i, then according to the chain rule, wc have
dT IT de
dt de dt
so that

ds
de M 0). SIRec —
(Remember, s increases in the same direction as I , SO dt
dt
follows that
|T’()
K—
)R()||
which we will refer to as the two-derivaUves form of the curvature. This form is ol’ten
used in practice to compute < because it involves only the magnitudes of R'(f) and T'(r),

both of which ar2 usually casiei’ to compute than J. I n Example 5, we illustrate the
ds
use of the two-derivatives form by computing the curvature of a circle.
790 10.4 Unit Tangent and Principal Unit Normal Vectors; Curvature

Exa m ple S Findin g the curvature of a

. . . .. . .. . . ..
circle
Show that the circle with radius r
R(/) - r cos t, r sin /)

has curvature equal to the reciprocal of its radius; that is, c —

r
Solution Since R’(i) = (—r sin i, r cos i), we have
)) R’(r) )) - ( si )2 + ( )2 y•

Then
R() (-r sin r, r cos /)
T(i) = - (— sn t, cos)
= r
and
||R’(r)||
T’(t) — (— cos t, — sin r)

Since
||3"(r)|| — ( )2 ( sn ) —T

The curvature
is

The definition of curvature, c = lead to difficult computations when

J R'(r) J is not a constant. The formula for curvature derived in the following theorem is
often eases to apply.

Theorem IG.8 The cross product derivative formula for curvature

Suppose the smooth curve C is the graph of the vector function R(/). Then the curvature
is given by
J R’ x R” J

ds
we have
dt '
d ds IT
dt dt Jr
d’s
T +
di2
Therefore, we have di
de
R’ x R" = —T T + —T'
dt
2
)(TxT)+ ) (T xT)
2
) (T x T') Since T x T = 0

Since I T i = 1, it follows from the orthogonality of a function of constant tength and

its derivative (Theorem 10.4) t-hat T' = 0, so the angle between T and T' is 8 = },
T
Thuc,
10.4 Unlt Tangent and Principal Unit Normal Vectors; Curvature
701

d)
— ||’/II ) T’ sin 8

Sizire II*II =

The curvature is given fry

|T’
R’||
|R’ x R"|

|R’xR
|R|'

Example 6 Curvature of a helix

Given that a an4 ¿t nrc both nonnegativc, express the curvature < of

R(i) = (c cos f)i + (a sin r)J + Ark

in iemis of a and ft. The curve defined by R is shown in Figure I 0.31.

Figure 10.31 Graph of helix

solution R'(f) = (—a sin r)i + (n cos r)j + f›k

R”(t) — (—o cos t)i -I- (—r/ sin /)j

R’ x R” = —o sin i n cos f b {ab sin i)i — (at cos r)] -+- a k

—ri cos i —a sin i 0

We now need to find the magnitude of this vector, as well as that of R':

J R’ ›t R” |J = ( b i ) + cos f) + a4
792 10.4 Unit Tangent and Principal Unit Normal Vectors; Curvature

2
— a 2/7*(sin + cos 2 /) -]- r/’

= b2 + 4

and
|| R’| = a i + a cos i + b — + 2

Then we have

In the special ease where C is a curve in the plane with the equation y f{x), the
curvature has the rum given in ihe following theorem.

Theorem 10.9 Curvature of a plansr curve using y m f(x)

The graph C of the function y —— f(x) has curvature

wherever/(.r) and its derivatives /’(z) and f”(z) all exist.

Proof: Using z as a parameter, we can regard the curve C as the graph of the vector
runction R(z) m xi -l- f{x) j, Then, R' = i -l- f’{x)j and R”(z) = /"(z)j, SO

R' x R" = 1 f’{x) 0 =/”(z)k

0 /”(x) 0

Therefore, since J R’ J = -I- [f (.x j] , the curvature of C ’is given by

R' x R” J

( ]2)3

Example 7 Maximizing the curvature of a planar curve

Find lhe curvature of y = .x*‘ for x > 0. For what value of x is the curvalure the largest?
l
Solution For f(x) - x , we have /'(a) = —z‘° and f”{x) - 2r , so the
curvature is

( ]+ [ (y) 2) 3/2
i0.4 Unit Tangent and Prlncipal Unlt Normal Vectors; Curvature
793
to fi nd the largest value of K, we find the derivative of K {x) and sol ve the equation
:'‹x) — 0:
6s 2(l — x )

Nowr()-0whcn

6.r (1 — x)(l + x)(l + z 2) — 0

.v m 0, I , — 1 The 0 nztd — 1 are not iii fire domain.

Since K’(X) > 0 (or .t < I and K (.‹) < 0 for * > i , i‹ r•iiOWC that the largest v2lue or
the curvature must occur at z = I .
Suppose a curve C in the plane has curvature c 0 at a point P. Then the circle or
radius p = I /< that is centered on the concave side of the curve and shares a common
tangent with C at P is called the osculsting (kissing) circle at P. The radius p of the
osculating circle is called the radius of curvature and the center of the circle is called
the center of curvature. The osculaling circle and the curve C are tangent and have
the same curvaturc at P, and in this sense, the osculating circle is the circle lhst best
approximates thc curve C at P.
Figure 10.32 shows the curve y — A*' for s > 0 whose cur valure we found in
Example 7, along with the osculating circle at the point P ‹ I, I).
Note that the curvature at P is
Figufe 10.32 Osculating
2(1)3 I circle at (1,1)
K I) -
(| 4+))3/2 2

so the radius nl" curvature

is
P( I ) =
K l)

In Problem 60, you are asketl Io show ihat the osculating circle at P has the equation

(x — 2)2 + (y — 2)2 = 2

We conclude lhis section by providing a summary of various formulas for computing

curvature (Table 10.2).

TQ 10.2 Curvature Formula t

rmatton Pozmula

Arc length pnnimeter

R(s)

Two-derivatives form R(/) Poge 780

Cross-Jeriv/ttivu Tom
R(i) Theorem 10.8

Functional fonn
Theorem 10.9

' Parametric form

Problem 4ti

Polar romi
(y2+ ,.'2 )?/2
Prob\ex 48
794 10.4 Unit Tangent and Principal Unit Normal Vectors; Curvature

PRO LEM SET 1 O.

A
30. Find the unit tangent T for
Level 1

1. R What docs this say? Describe what is meant by using R(i) = (cosh i)i + (sinh i)j
arc length as a parnmetcr.
2. H What does this say? Discuss the various curvnture at the point where i = 0.
for mulas given in Table 10.2.
lii Pmblems 3- t0,/n‹f rJe anti tangem vector T(t) and the ,’
¿Principal unit normal veclor N(f ) for ihe curve diuen h)’ 31. For the curve given by
R(/).
3. R(i) - / i + r'j, i y o
4. R(i) = f i , i j, f > 0 R(f) (SlïÏ f)i 4 (cos /)j -I- /k
5. R(t) = (e' cos r)i + (e' siri f)j
6. R(r) = (i cos r)i (r sin f)j a. Find a unit tangent vector T at the point on the curve
7. R(/) = (cos f)i + (sin i)j + /k where i = n.
8. R(f) = (sin i)i - (cos i)j + rk b. Find the curvature when i = v.
9. R(i) = (In i)i + i°k c. Find the length of the curve from i = 0 to r = a.
10, R(i) = (e "sin i)i -l- e°'j (e°' cos i)k 32. A curve C in the plane is given parametrically by
z = 32f, = 16/ 2 — 4.
In Problenm 1.1 -16, # the length of the given cu ri•e a. Sketch the graph of the curve.
over the given iiiterval. b. Find the unit tangent vector when i = 3.
ty. R(/) — 2/i -y- rj, over [0, 4] c. Find the radius of curvature of the point P on C
12. R(i) == li -I- 3rj, over [0, 4] where r — 3.
13. R(r) = (c os3 f)i + (cos* r)k, over [0, 2 33. Find the point (or points) where the ellipse
14. R(/) == ri4 2/j -|- 3/k, over [0, 2] 9A 2 + 4y 2 = 36 has maximum curvature.
15. R(f) = (4 cos r)i + (4 sin i)j + 5rk, over [0, n] 34. Let C be the curve given by
U R()=3G+(3cos)j+(3sinz)lo [0,

Fin‹:I lhe ¢ur\›afure of the plane cnn es pr the poiiiis indi-

caied in Prohleins I 7-22. R(t) - (r — sin /)i4 (1 — cos /)j + 4 ein El) k
l7, y = 4z — 2 at z = 2 18. y = z — pA 2 at z —— 3 a. Find the unit tangent vecior T(/) to C.
dT
b. Find 8nd the cui vature K (/).
de
21. J' = In s at z = 1 22. )' = e' at x — 0 35. Find the radius of curvature at each relative extremum
of the graph of y x - 3z*.
Express the vector fiinction R(t) in Pmblenis 23-26 in 36. Find the maximum curvature of the curve y e*'.
tenets of the arc length pnrnoierer s measured fmm the 37. Find the curvature of the cycloid defined by
yoiiit where t — 0 in iâe dirrcrion o/increasing t. z = f — sin i, y 1 — cos i. Sketch the curve for
zs. s( ) = (e—•, i — e—’) 0 <: f < 2s and sketch the oscutatin# circle at the point
24. R(f) = (sin r, cos i} where r = T .
25. R(r) = (2 — 3f, l -]- /, —4t)
2d. R(i) = (3 cos f +- 3i sin i, 2i', 3 sin i — 3r cos r) There are sei•eral different formulas for finding curvature,
27. Let u and v be constanl, nonzero vectors. Show that as summarized in Table 10.2. lii Problems 38-45, find the
the line given by R(i) = u + lv has curvature 0 at each cwvature of each of the given curves using the indicated:I
point. formula.
28. Using the appropriate formula in table 10.2, compute Hi R(f) = (f — cos i)i + (siri i)j + 3k; cross-derivative
the cui’vature of the curve fofffl
39. R(f) = ri -l- i2j -1- r3k; cross-derivative form
R(r) = (3 ein r, 3 cos /, 4f) 40. = z 3; functional form
41. y = .r 2; functional form
29. Find thé unit tangent T for
42. y = siri z; functional form
R(r) = [ln(siri i)]i + [ln(cos i)]j 43. y = z* 2; functional form
44. the cardioid r = 1 + cos 8, 0 ú B 5 2s; polar form
ar the point where t — . 45. the spiral r = e8; polar form
10.4 4 Unlt Tangent and Prlnclpal Unit Normal Vectors; Curvature 705

Let C he o smooth curve in R 2 described by ihe paramet- b. Show that the curvature of the spiral satisfies
ric eqnalioits . .v{t) and )• —— )'(r). In Pmbleins 46-5 I, K(S) = I I Thus, for s 0, the curvature
use the yarameti’ic foriti for curvature foriniilci increases nt a constant rate.
c. What happens to the curvature, c, as s —+ m 1 That
is, evaluate m K {S j.
54, Let P(a, f›) be a point on the graph C of’ the vector
46. Prove the curvature formula for the parametric form. function R(f).
47. Find the curvature of the curve described by a. DescHbeagenzralprocedureforFndinganequation
z — I — cos i, y = 2 + sin r. for the asculating circle to C at P.
48. Let/ be a twice differentiable function in iR2 desci’ibed b. Find an equation lor the osculating circle at the
by the polar function r - f{8). Show that the poinl P(32, 12) on the curvc C 4efined by x 327,
curvature is y = I 6f 2 — 4.
2 2
r + 2r’ — rr“
Level 3
H/nf: let z f(6) cos 6, ' = (8) sin 8 in the paramet
” 55. Prove that if a curve is paranictcrized by arc length, the
ric form.
velocity is perpendicular to acceleration,
49. Use the formula in Problem 48 to find the cur vaiu‹r r
56. If T and N arc the unit tangent and normal vectors,
the cardioid with the equation r I + cos 8.
respectively, on the trajectory of a moviny body, then
Use the formula in Problem 48 to find the curvature of
the cross product vcclor B T x N is called the unit
the spirat with thc equation i’ — 8.
s›. Show that the formula for polar curvature in Problem blnormal of the trajcclory. Thi ee planes determined by
T, N, and B are shown in Pigure 10.34.
2
48 reduces to at the pole (where i - 0),
52. A pesfus houseft yes is observed to zip around a room in I it i I Nonncl
such a way that at time / its position wilh respect to the
nose o£ an observer is givert by the vector function
Rcciifyiag Curve
3/2 plaac
R(i) = /u + /^v -I- 2 —f (u x v) Unit

where u and v are unit vcciors separated by an angle of

TO°. Compute the fly’s spceJ aitd find how long it makes
to move a distance ol"20 units along its yath (starting
(rom the nose), as shown in Figure ! 0.33. Flgure 10.34 Thrae planas determined by T, N, and B

a. Show that T is orthogonal to

Hint: Different-iate B T. de
r/B
b. Show that B is orthogonal IO —
Hint,- Different-iate B B. de
d 13
c. Show that = —iN for some constant r.
ds
Figure 10.33 Path of a pestus houseflyus Note.' c is called the torslon of the trajcctory.
57. Prove the Frenet-Serret formulas;
S3. Thc Coriiii spirul is a paranJcfric curve described by dT
the equations —— N
g2 g2
COS
2 2
It is used in optics to study amplitudes o1’light waves,
and in the design of highway exit ramps. It also !ins
interesting mathematical properties.
a. Show that the arc length of the spiral measured from where < is the curvature and r = r(z) is a scalar func-
the origin (0, 0) satisfies s = i. tion called the iorsion, which provicles a measure or the
amount of twisting at each point on the tra|cctory.
796 10.5 Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration

55. Show Ihat the torsion may be computed by the Then it follows the shape of’ the osculating circle at
lorinula (4, 1) until the point where y = 3. What is the lotal
[R’(/) x R”(r)] • R”’(/) length of thc exit ramp?
T ==
R’(t) x R"(/) 2 60. Show thai the osculating circle at the point ( I, I) on the
cui’vc y — s * 1 has the equation
59. A highway has an exit ramp that begins at the origin
and lollows the curve y — .r’ to lhc point (4, 1). ( — 2)2 + (3' — 2)' = 2

1 O. U TA f•tGENLTlA
A f't D Com porzerlzs oe AcceaerzAz iorv
J

lN TU IS SECTION: Components of accalatotion, applications

We sec how the velocity and acceleration vectors of' a moving hotly can be decomposed into tangential und nor inst
components.

Components of Acceleration
When a boJy is caused to accelerate or brakes are applied, it is of intcrcst to know how
much of the acceleration acts in the direction or the body’s motion, as inclicatcJ by the
unit tangent vector T. This question is answered by the following theorem.

Tituurcm III.10 Tangendal and norma4 components of acceleratJon

An object moving along a smooth curve (with T' 0) has velocity V and acceleration
A, whcrc

and s ’is the arc length along the trajectory.

Wh. it ilii s en s At each point on the trajectory of a moving object, the velocity V poinis in the

firuo/: The formula fO7 FO))OWS Iiul\1 the £kct that the velocity vector has magnitude
||Y II = from Theorem t0.6 and points in the direction of the unit tangent. To establish
di for A, first note that
the formula
dT _ dT
ds

since the derivative of T(s) points in a direction orthogonal to T. Using this formula,
we find

A= Definition of A

dt ds dT
di ‹li Prodaci nile
10.5 Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration
797

d' de dT cls
d/ 2 T C/iain ri‹Ie

r/2s ds 2 r/T

J's 2
dT
2T ) (rN) cN = —
+ de

The two components of acceleration have special names.

The tangential
TANGENTIALand normal components nre shown
COMPONENTfNOltMAL in fiigure I0.35.uccclcraiion A
COMPONENTThe
tel’ ii moving object can he written us
The formulas At d Ay —— < d) provide useful information about the
— d. 2 “I A = A t T + A,v R
way 2 moving object travels along its trajectory, but they arc often nof the most convenient
corriputational forms. The foliowing theorem provides alternative formulas for Ay and
AN thnt use only thc derivatives R’ and R” of the position vector R(/). Figure 10.35 Components
A ——”,is the tangential component of acceleration
of accelpration
Theorem 10.11 Formulas for the components of acceleration A AST + A/vN
Let
dpR(f)
= xbe the) position vector for
' is the normal an object moving
component along a smooth curve C. Then the
of acceleration
tangential and normal components of the object’s acceleration are given by

R.R”
A
|R’ and A

Proof: Let 8 be the angle between R' and R”. Then, since the acceleration is given by
A — R", we have

R’
A7' — II A II os 8 —

|| UA II sin 8 J R’ x R"J

E iample 1 Finding tangential and normal components of acceleradon

Find the tangential and normal components of the acceleration of an object that moves
with displacement R(f) = (i", r2 , r).
798 10.5 Tangentlal and Normal Components of Acceleration

Solution Since R'(f) = V(f) = (3i , 2r, 1) and R”(r) = A(/) = (6r, 2, 0), wc have

- R' R-” = A — (3i )(6f) + (2f)(2) = l8f 3 -t- 4r

V

and

i J k
R' x R” — V x A — 3i* 2f l = —2i + 6fj — 6f 2k
6/ 2 0

Therefore, the components of acteleration are

A A

_ ||V x A Il
' IV l1 |l V l|
_ 18i° + 4i
( 2) (6 )2 ( 6 2)2
( 2) -1- (2 )2 +
" 49 44
_ 3
IBt + 4i 9i* + 9r2 -b 1
9i* + 4/ + l
" 49 4

Nole in Figure 10.35 thnt iA II is the hypoicnuse of a right triangle whose other
two sides hnve lengths ll A/ T U = I AW | and 1 l A,r N|| = Ap . Thererorc, by the
Pythagorean theorem, we have

Ajy IAI A

ThÎS flO£lTlUlä ÎS Used to computc Ap' in the lollowing examplc.

Example 2 Finding components of acceleratlon on a heliz

An object moves along a helical ramp (see fiigurc 10.36) along a helix with position
vector R(/) - (cos t, sin /, f).
Find the tangential and normal components or acceleration.

dR d¥
Y — dl and A=
Figure 10.36 Helical ramp
— (— sin f, cos r, - (— cOs /, — sif1 f, 0)
l}
ds 2
= lI 'V lI 1 A2
d

=0
10.5 Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleratlon
799
The tangential and normal components of acceleration are 0 and 1, respectively, This
means that the acceleration satisfies

A VT T + # N = (0)T + (l )N = N

That is, the acceleration vector is the principal unit normal N, and the acceleration is
always notmal to the trajectory of the helix.

Applications
Now that we know how to compute the tangential and normal components of acceleration,
At and Ay, we will examine some applications. First, according to Newton’s second law
of motion, the total force acting on a moving object of mass or satisfies F = m A, whei e
A is the acceleration of the object. Because A = A'fT + N N, we have

where

d 2s

)
ds
F —— and FN == IttK
*’ dt 2 dt
For instance. experience leads us to expect a car to skid if it makes a sharp turn at
moderate speed or even a gradual turn at high speed. Mathematically, a “sharp turn”
occurs when the radius of curvature p - 1 fK ÎS SiTlall (that is, rwhen is large), and
“high speed” means that ds fdt is large. In either case,

ds)2
F —WK
dt
will be relatively large, and the car will stay on the road (its trajectory) only if (assuitiing
no banking) there is a correspondingly large fi rational force between the tires of the car
Figuro 10.37 Tendency to
and the surface of the road (see Figure 10.37).
skid
When forces, masses, and accelerations are involved, it is customary to express the
mass ni in slugs of an object whose weight W has been given in pounds.* From the
definition of weight,
W

8
where g iS the acceleration of gravity g m 32 fl/s°).

Example 3 Modeling Application: Tendency of a vehicle to skid

A car weighing 2,700 lb makes a turn on a flat road while traveling at 56 ft/s (about 38
mifh). If the radius of the turn is 70 ft, how much frictional force is required to keep the
car from skidding?
ds
Solution The force Lending to push the car off the road is FN — ttIK
dt— , where in
is the mass of' the car and z is the curvature of the road. This is the /orce that must

be compensated for by fric i0n i£ the car is not to skid. Wc know that ds = 56 fus,
dt

’A slug is a unit of measurement dcfined as the unii of muse that receives iui acceleration of I ft/s’ when a force of
I lb is applied to it. that is,
1 Ib Ib s'
'I slu' 1 ftfs' R
800 10.5 Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration

and because Ihc car weighs tT’ == 2,700 lb, iis mass is m = 1700
a 84.38 slugs,
=
Because the turn raJius is 70 ft, we hav0 K —— , So that
2
2'3 Ib
FN —— SI\Je.) (,j ,t) 56 = 3,7g0
Therc arc ccrtain important applications in which an ubject moves along its tra,jcclary
with constant speed d»idr, an4 when this occurs, fhe acceleration A can have only a
normal component, because c/2z/d/ 2 = 0,

Theorem 111.12 Acceleration of an object with constant speed

The accclcratiun o( an object moving with constant speed is always orthogonal to the
clirection ol" motinn.
Proof: Notice lhst we really do not need to know anything about components of
acceleration to pi’ove this result. Saying that the object has constant speed means that
J R'(f) J is constani, and by Theorem 10.4, we conclude that R'(f) is orthogonal to its
derivative R”(f) = A(i). But R'(/) points in the direction of the object’s motion along
its trajectory, which means that the acceleration A is orthogonal to the direction of
motion. G

As an application of this i’csult, note that when an object inoves with constant speed
along a cii cular path of radius k (so thät K — 1/fl), ito äcccleration is directcd ioward
the center of’ the path and has niagnitude

_l y2
0
R
(See Figure 10.38.)

ir ‹hc constant s[›2cd is o and the path has

raJius /t, ihe accelcration is

of motion

Figure 10.38 An objact movlng with constant speed on a circular path

Example 4 Modeling Application: Period où a satellite

An artificial satellite travels at constant speed in a stable circular orbit 20,000 km above
the earth’s surface. How long does it iake for the saielliie to make one complete circuit
of the earth?
Solution Let in denote the satellite’s mass and u denotc its speed. Wc will assume that
the earth is u sphère or di ô ,440 km, so the curvaturc où the pafh iS K = AIR, whem

/î == 6,440 km + 20,000 km == 26,440 km

10.5 Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration
801
is the dislanc0 ol’ the satellite l’rom the ccnicr of’ the earth, The satellite maintains a stable
orbit when ihe magnitude of’ the force F, iti u2 JR produced by thc rate of change of
iangontial velocity, called centripetal (center directed) iicceleraiioii, equals the magnitude
of’ the force F; due to gravity, but is opposite in direction. (See Figure 10.39.)

a
I

o
Figure 10.39 A satellite In a stable orbit; the magnltude of the centripetal fOFI Fc equals
the magnitude of the forca Fy dua to gravlty, but points in the opposlte dirsction

According to Newton’s law of universal graviiation, || F || = G /ii/lf/ fi 2, where M is the

mnss of the cnrth and G is the gravitational coiistRnt. Thus, for stability we must have

m o’ GitiM

sn u — .GSM fR. Experimcnfs indicalc that C/tf = 3J8,d00 km”/s*, and by substituting
/f - 26,440, wc obtain

/? 20,440

For this example, we sec that the speed of the saiollitc is approx iinatcly 3.883 kin/s.
Finally, suppose T is the time required for the satellite to make one complete circuit
of the earth (callod the period of the satellite). In cach period, the satellite travels a
distance equal to the circumference of o circle of radius R 26,M0 km, and because it
travels at v kin/s, we must have nd — 2u£, so that the time (in seconds) is

ur :ippioximaleIy 713 iriinutes (1 I ft 53 min).

7. R(f) = (0, 2 sin f, 2 cos f)

8. R(f) = (4 cos i, 0, sin i)
lii Problems I - 10, R(f) is the position vector of a moving
*, R( ) - (sin )i -i- (vos ‹)j -i- (sin r)k
ohject. Final the tangential mid norwal campaneiils of the
ahjecl’s acceleration. IO. R(/) - ( co4s /) i ( I — COS/)j -I- (Cin /)k
2• 2. R(t) = 11 —1— e'j
1. R(f) = ii —1- i
In Pmhlems 1.1 - 1. 8, the velacity V and acceleraiion A ofa
3. R(f) — (f sin f, r cos /) 4. R(/) - (3 cos t, 2 sin r) iiioviiig ob)eci are giveii ai a certaiii iiistaiit. FiriJ ET *»/
5. R(/) = (t, i', i) 6. R(i) = (t, —/, 2i) Amy ‹it this instatil,
802 10.5 Tangentlal and Normal Components of Acceleratlon

11• Yq == ( I, —3); Ao = (2,d) 37. F'ind the tangential and normal components of the
Î2. Yo = (—2,3); Ao = ( Ï , 4) acceleration of an object that moves along the parabolic
13. Yo - i -f- 5k; o * Î — k path j' - 4z 2 at the insiant the syeed is de/dt —— 20.
14. Vo = —i —]— 7ii o = <› + Modeling Probleins lii Problems 38-41, set up an appro-
15. Vo = 2i -]- 3j — k; Ao = —f — 5j 2k pri te »tof/e/ lo unswer the giveii question. Be sure ta state
16. Vo = — j — 2k; Ao = i — 2j + k your’ u.is’umytions.
17. Vo = ( . —2, 3); Ao = (O, 1, —3) 38. A paid attached to a rope I yd long is swung at the rate
of’ 1 rcv/s. Find the tangential and normal components
1s. va — s, —i, 2): Ao = (1, 0, —7 of’ the pail’s acceleration. Assume the rope is swung in
lit Prohlems 19-26, iJie speed ll VI! +f ‹i iiiot•ing object a level plane.
is giveii. Fiit‹l T. i/ie uiugeitlicil comportent of 39. A boy holds onto a pail of water weighing 2 lb and
acceleration, nt the iii‹iicated time. swings it in a vertical circle with a radius of 3 ft, Ii’ the
pnil travels at n› rev/s, whnt is the force of the water on
the bottom of the pail at the highest and lowest points
20. ||Y Il = + ;r = 2 of’ the swing? What is the siitnf/esr value of m requii’ed
21. ll Y II = 2 + 3; i — 1 io keep the water from spilling from the pail? Assume
22. || Yli - 2 + : = the pail is held by a handle so that its bottom is straight
2 up when it is at its highest point.
23. II+II = si s2 ; t = 0
40. A car weighing 2,700 lb (1 .35 tons) moves along thc
24.II YII — 2 sin' os 2 ; 0 elliptic path 9lXtr2 + 400)'° = I, where .v and y arc
25. II V|| — e ;/ - U measured in miles. If the car travels at the constant
x. ivM - ••'r***'‹+: ‹ - o speed of 45 mi/h, how much liictional force is required
to keep it from skidding as it turns the “corner” at
( ,0)? What about the corner (0, )?
Level 2 41. What is the smallest radius ihat should be uscJ for a
circular highway exchange as shown in Figure 10.40,
Use the foruuikis iii PJieareiii 10.1 to fuid ET » t A for il’ the normal component of the acceleration of a cnr
the giveii position vector R(1) iii Piablews 27-32. travcling at 45 mi/h is not to exGeed 2.4 ft/s2? Nolc ihal
2 you tnay use the inner radius Or’ the outer radius, or’ even
27. R(/) — ri -}- 2rj - / k
28. R(i) = r’i -I- r2j -I- /k the median one.
29. R(f) - (—2 sin /)i (2 ces /)j -j- k
30. R(/) = (cos r)i -- (sin /)j -I- k
31. y(t) - (e’ cos /)i -I- (e’ sin /)j -I- e*k
32. R(t) == e’i -]-4e ’j k
33. Find the maximum and minimum speeds or çarticle
whose position vector is

R(f) = (4 sin 2f)i - (3 cos 2i)j

Where on the trajectory of
Figure 10.40 Hlghway exchange
R(r) = (2r — 5r)i + (St 2)j 4f*k
is the speed minimized? What is the minimum Modeling Problems Curved sections of mat such as
speed? expressway exii ramps are ofieit hanked ta pmtect ngoixsi
y5. The position of an objcct at time f is ‹x, 5•), where skidding. Consider a road wiih a circular curve of radius
.r = 1 + cos 2/, J' = sin 2f. Find the velocity, the 150/eei, as showii iii Figure 1. 0.40. Assume the iitagnitiide
acceleration, and the tangential and normal components of Ihe force ofsiatiC friCtioii F, (llte force resisting the teii-
of acceleration of the object at time f. denc y to skid) is pmporiioiial to the car’s weight,’ tlus is
An objéci moves with consiant angular velocity u› IU. II = r If , where g is a coiistaitt called the coefficient
ai'ound the circle A 2 + y2 = r2 in ihe.q -plane. Find of static liiction. Use this information in Pmblenu: 42-47.
a parameterization for the circle and compute the tan- 42. Supposc the road is not banked and p = 0.47. What
gential and normal components of acceleration for the is the largest speed p„, that o 3,500-1b ear can travel
moving object. around the curve without skidding?
10.5 Tangentlal and Norma( Components of Acceleratlon
803
43. The car in Problem 42 is unloaded, so it now weighs
only 2,000 lb. Will the largest speed v„ for which the where in = W / g is the volunteer’s mass, This is the
force sending to push the volunteer ofl’ the wheel.
car can travel around the curve without skidding change 50. Modeling Problem If the frictional force of the volun-
compared to the previous problem? teer in Problem 49 to siay on the wheel is 0.121a, find
44. Use the information in Problem 42, but suppose the the largest value of w that will allow the volunteer to
curve is banked at 17'. What is the largest speed u„, stay in place, Waii, we did not tell you the volunteer’S,
for which the car can travel nround the curve without weight. Docs it inatler?
skidding? 51. Modeling Problem A curve in a railroad track has the
45. Use the information in Problem 43, but sup- shape of the r• rabola.r — y 2 /120. Il’a train is loaded so
pose the curve is banked at 17". Would the result that its scalar normal component of acceleration can not
of this problem differ from that of the previous exceed 30 units/s2, what is its maximum possible speed
problem? That is, would anything change if the mass is as it rounds the curve at (0. 0)?
different?
46. Suppose the highway engineers want the maximum
salt speed to be 50 mi/h. At what nngle should the road Level 3 !
be banked if you assume p = 0.47?
47. Suppose ihe highway engineers want the maximum 52. Let T be the unit tan ent vector, N the principal unit
safe speed to be 55 mi/h. At what angle should the road normal, and B the unit binomial vector (see Problem
be banked if you assume p = 0.47? 56, Section 10.4) to a given curve C. Show that
t8. Modeling Problem A Terris wheel (see Figure 10.4 l)
wiih radius l5 ft rotates in a vertical plane at u› rpm.
de ds
53. Suppose rim object moves in the plsne nlong the curve
y =/(s). Use the formulas obtained in Theorem 10. 11
to show that

A T —" A,v =
( )]2 '

54. If the grnph ol’ the function f has rim inflection point at
.t = ri and/”(c) exists, show thst the graph ot f has
Figure 10.41 Fsrris wheel curvature 0 at (a, f{a)).
55. A projectile is lircd From ground lcvcl a'ith an angle of
What is the maximum value of u› for a Ferris wheel elevation n and muzzle speed ub. Find formulas for the
carrying s person of weight If? (That is, the largest ‹u tangential and normal components of the projectile’s
so the passenger is not be “thrown off.”) acceleration at time i. What are A-z and Ap at the time
49. Modeling Problem An amusement park ride consists the projectile is nt its maximum height?
of a large (25-ft radius), flat, hoi’izonlal wheel.

Flgure 10.42 Carnival fun ride

Customers board the wheel whils it is stationary and

try to stay on as long as possible us it begins to rotate. 56.
An abject connected to a srring ofl length r is spun coun-
The purpose of this problem is to discover how fast the
terclockwise in a circular path in a horiz.ontal plane. Let
wheel con rolaio without losing its passengers. Suppose
ca be the constant angular velocity ol' the object.
the wheel rotates at in revolutions per minute and that a
a Show thot Ihc position vector of the object is
volunteer weighing W lb sits 15 feet from the center of
the wheel, as shown in Figure 10.42. Find FN = iii Ay, R(/) - (r cos w/)i -I- (i sin wr)j
804 10,5 Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration

b. Find the normal composent of the objec(’s

56 minutes). How high above the Earth should the
acceleration,
satellite be to achieve such an orbit?
c. If the angular ve!ocity m is doubled, what is the
c. What is the speed of a satellite in geosynchronous
el’fect on the normal component of acceleration?
orbit?
d. What is the effect on A if u› is unchanged but the 5ö .
Modeling Problem For Mars the following facts are
length of the string is doubled?
known (all in relation to the Earth):
e. What happens io pA if m is doublcd and r iS hal ved?
57. An artificial satellite travelo at constant speed in a stnble diameter 0.533
circular orbit fl km above the surface of the Earth (as in length of day I.029
Example 4). mass 0. 1074
a. Show that the satellite’s period is given by the gravity 0.3776
formula Use thesc facts to determine how high above the surface
-1- R, j"! 2
of Mars a satelliie must be to achieve Mars synchronous
T=2r orbit (see Problem 57)? How fast would such a satellite
GSM be traveling?
S9, Perform an Internet search on the role of the normal
where B is the mdius of the eanh, component of acceleration in aeronautics and wrile a
£ — 6,440 kilometers, approximately, while 500-word essay on the topic.
GM 398,600.44 km*/s*. 60. Perform an Internet search on the role of the tangential
b. A satellite is said to be in geosynchronous orbit if component of acceleration in aeronautics and write a
it completes one orbit every sidereal day (23 hours, 500-word essay on the topic.
Chapter 10 Revlew
805
CHAPTER 1 O REvIEw

The science of ittutheinutics has gro»ii to such least pl‘OyOl tion ihat probably no living
iiialhematician can claim to have achieve 1 its mastery as u whole.
r rite aitrihutrd tti A lfn€ ••ort1i \¥‘hilchcad. 15 Lchrua I h61 - l(l lh cmix r 1947

Proficiency Examination
Concept Problems

1. What is a vector-yarns reaction? L What are ihe components of a vector function?

3. Describe what is meant by the graph of a vector function.
4. Define the limit of a vector function. 5. Define the derivative of a vector function.
6. Define the integral of a vector function. 7. What is a smooth curve?
8. Statc the following rules for differentiating vector functions:
a. Linearity rule b. Scalar multiple rule c. Dot product rule
d. Cross product nile e. Chain rule
9. State the theorem about the orihogonality of a vector function of constant length and its derivative.
10. What are the position, velocity, and acceleration vectors?
l1. What is the speed of a particle moving on a curve C?
12. What are the formulas for the motion of a projectile in a vacuum?
13. What nre the formulas for time of fright and range of a projectile?
14. State Kepler’s laws. 15. What are the unit polar vectors, u, rind u ?
16. What are the unit tangent and normal vectors? 17. What is speed in terms of arc length?
18. Give a formula for the arc lenglh of a curve in R". • What is the curvature of a graph?
20. Whai is a formula for curvature in terms of the velocity and accelwation vectors?
21. What are the formulas for unit tangent and principal unit normal in terms of the arc length parameter?
22. Whai is the radius of curvature?
23. What are the tangential and normal components of acceleration?

Practice Problems
24. Sketch the graph of R(f) = (3cos t)l (3 sin f)J + ik, and find the length of this curve from r = 0 to i = 2s.
25. If F(i) = S
' I + 't" 'J + (cost)k, find F'(r) and F”(r).
/^2
26. I2valuate (3/, 0,3) x (0, In /, -I )d/.
£”(r) = (e’, —r2, 3) and F(0) = (I, —2, 0), F’(0) = (0, 0, 3}.
27. Find B vector function F such thftl de
M. Find Ce velocity Y,thespred , and the acceleration A for the body with position vector R(/) = rl -1- 2tj -i- ie'h.

29. Find T, N, Az and Ay (the di

tan8endal and normal components of acceleration), and K (Curvature) for an object
with position vector R(I) = f'l -F 3rJ - 3fk.
30. A projectile is fired from ground level with initial velocity 50 ft/s at an angle of elevation of n = 30°.
a. What is the maximum height reached by the projectile?
b. What arc the time of flight and the range?
806 Ghapter 10 Review

Supplementary Problems‘

n r'i—3i«'j+ 2.
' !r ,
3. lien (/-, 0, (sin /, 3/, —(I — /)) 4. l in e ( I r, —3, 0) x (0, /', cos /)
fi) - •
l — cos I
6. ,l. ) i -I- 4j + I -I- )’ kt

Fiii‹l F’(/) mod F”(/) foi IIie celor fiiiictioii,s iii Piobleiiis‘ 7-14.
7. F(/) == re‘i -I- /'j 8. F(i) = (r ln 2i)i -+- r“*'k 9. F(/) - (/', r”*', r—”)
t0. F(/) - (—r““, r—’, 4i”) J t. F(/) - {2/"', —2/, /e"’) 12. F(/) - (f, —( I — r), 0) x (0, r', c—°}
\3. F(/) = (r2 -I- ‹’)i -}- (/e—’)J + (r’ ” 1 )k 14. F(/) - { I — /)" i + (sin42/)a (cos2 /)k

Sketch the grnpli of Um i!ector fractious iii Problem.s I 5- 18.

15. F(f) = te’I + t"-j 16. F(f) = i-i — 3/j
17. F(i) — (1 — cos /)i + (sin i)j 18. F(f) = (cos i)j + (.sin r)k

I9escril›e rhc gi’r/pJi of the vector fiuictions gii•en in Prohlems 19-26 or skelch o gru)›li iii & . A yrnpli in H2 mu y hely ivifJi
5‘our ‹le.scripiioii.
19. F(r) — {2 sin f, 2 cos f, St) 2tl. F(f) = (3 cos r, 3 sin i, i}
21. F(f) — ii + 3j — .5rk 22. F(f) = 2r'i + (1 — f)j+3k
23. F(i) — ?i -I- (f 2 - - I )j + i k Z4, F(/) - sin r) i -j- sin /)j + (cos' r)k
25. F(I) == —/ i -l- r-j —}—2rk 26. F(t) - 2/i -F (I — r*)j -I- /k
27. Which of the I’ollowing cui'ves lies on the sui I Ice z — .T -I- "?
^• == *in !, 3' - cos !' Z b. .r == e"’ cos i, › — e"’ sin r, z — ‹"
1 1 2
c, a = l -I- —, )' — l — , z — 2+
28. Find parametric cquaiions for the curve of intersection of the elliplical cylinder x + 3y 2 - and ihe parabolic
cylinder ¿ = 2r — 1.

Fi’iid //ir iii‹Iicnic‹I del ivatire iii rcrrtj¿ of F cIii‹J '’ iii T'rOl›leiiis 29-34.
d
29. — {F(f) F(i)j 30. cl F(f)
lF()|F()] 31.
‹It dl || F(i)

32. || F(i)||
33. J [F(f) x F(f)] 34. F(e')

15. (c”’i + t”j -j- 3k)r// 3fi. *[(1 — r)i — r"!J -I- ‹’k]d 37. more'I — (sin 2r)j + r 2k]r/r

38. u°'|2i — /j + (sin f)k)df 39. /[«’ i -|- (In /)j -j- 3k]r//

"Tltu suypl mcitfary pn hlcmr are pn•senlud in a soInewI›:it ran¢tonJ orJcr, not nuc8ssni’iIy in ord¢r of difficulty.
Chapter 10 Review 807

lii Pmhlems 41-4d, R is the ›ositioii vecior ofa moi!iiig hody. Fiiid the velo‹’il)' V, Urc speed ds f‹lt, cm‹l iliv ict’elvratîoii A.
41. R(i) = ii + {3 — i)j + 2k 42. R(r) — (sin 2f)i + 2j — (cos 2i)k
43. R(i) = tr stu f, ie*’, —(1 — r)) 44. R(r) — (ln i, e', — tau i}

Find T ‹mcl N fOt’ /Jie rerroi’/iizi‹'riri/i.r Fiverr iii Pr‹1l fern.s 45-48.
45. R(/) - fi — I*j 4@. R(t) = (3 com /)i — (1 Sif1/)j
47. R(/) = (4 cos I, —37, 4 sin /) 48. R(r) == (e‘ s”in i, e’, e' cos r)

lii Prohlem.s 49-52, fiiiâ the tcmgeiiticil ‹uu:1 moi mal com;›oiieiits af iccelerntion, cind the ciio!atiire of n moi!iiig ahject ii!itli
/vo.t/rior/ ›’rc'/‹vi' R(r).
49. R(i) = / 21 -I-2ij + c’k 50. R(r) = i I — 2/J + (f 2 — r)k
51. R(r) — (4 sin f)i -1- (4 cos /)j + 4ik
52. R(r) — {a sin 3/)i + (n + n cos 3r)j -1- (3a sin /)k, for constant o 0

A polai’ cii rn•e C is giveii hy i’ —— f{L1). If f”{8) exist.s {see Pi’ohlem 48, Sectioii 10.4), chem the curs!ature mii he founrl h5’
the formiil i

Fiiid the rmz'uture nt the gii•eii ›oiiit on each of the j olai’ cringes giveii in Nrobfriiii 53-58.
53. r —— 4 cos 6, where 8 == - 54. r 8 , wi crc 8 = 2 55. i - e" , whcrc 6 - I
56, i = I -I- cos 8, where 8 — S7. /’ — 4 cos 38, where 8 == SB. i - I — 2 sin 8, where 0 = *—

lii Pr‹›hIem.s 50-fi2, /rirf F'’(.\).

5!/. F(.Y) = [/i — r —’j -t- “’k] //

61. F(r) = ' [(sin r)i — (cos 2i)j -+- e*' k] dt 62. F(z) — [/'i (sec r")j — (tan r")k]ml

63. di ft”oicnfinl equ.ificn: r’(r) = /i - - /j — rk; initial condition: £''(04) == i 2j — 3k

64. dil“Icrcnlial equation: F’(/) — + i + (t -I- I )" ‘j + c’k; initial condition: F(0) == j -}- 2k
3
65. dit’fercntia1 equation: F’(i) = (sin 2r)i + {e’ cos i)j —
+ ) k initial condit on F(0) = i — 3k

66. di1”lcrcniial cquation: - —32j; initial condilions: F — 50j and JF - 5i + 5k at i - (1

67. For what values of i is the lollowing vector t’unction cnntinuous?

F(i) = (2i — l)l -2j- (’ ,' ) › 4k

68. Find t1 • ••s th of the graph of' the vector function

-2
R()=
3 '
li’orn i = 0 to i = 6.
69. Find ii vecit›i function F such that F(0) = F'(0) = i, F“(0) = 2j k, and

F”'(f) = (etas f)i + (sin i)j + — k

808 Chapter 10 Review

7ft. Find parametric cquaiions for ihe tangent line ie› the s ••ch of

R(1) = ie*'i -t- i‘j + ie*“ k

ai itie higtiest ptiint on the graph (tlial is, where z Iras the 1ai’gcst v:ime).
7l. Let R(/) — ri + ij + /"k.
u. Find par ainelric cci uatit›ns foi the tiinÿcnt line lo the gi’iiph ut’ R at the point where 1 = 1.
b. Thc ian#cni line in part a intersects the praph Si t' R(ïJ Îfl il fiCcond poinl. Find the co‹irdinatcs of this pt›int.
72. An object m‹›vcs in space with accclcration A(/) = (—r, 2, 2 — i). When r = 0, it is is nown thal the objcct is at 11ie
puini (1, 0, 0) and tli;it ii has x'clocity Y(0) = (2, —4, 0).
a. F’i nâ ihe vclt›cily V(r) and ihc posiii‹in vector R(/).
b. What arc hic spccd and location tif thc ob{cct when i = 1 ?
c. When is the objcct stiitionary and whut is iis position at lti;it time?
73. The accclcration ot’ a moving partiels is A(/) - 24i°i 4j. l°ind ttic par iiclc’s posititin rte a lunction cl’ f il’
R(0) = i -t- 2j and V(0) — 0.
74. Find ihe radius of’ curvature o1’ the curvc givcn by 2' l + sin.r ai ihe points where .v i.s
'’ b. 4 •

75. ’bhe position vcctor for a cm ve is s›••n in tcrms of iirc lenptli s by Rts) — (c cos -, n siri -, 2s } for 0.5 .s 5 2xo,
o 0. Find ihe unit tan2c nt ›'cctor T(.i ) and ltic principal unit normal N(.s).
7fî. Modcling Prohleni: A stunt pit of il y ing liorizontally at ;in it I HUdD Ol’ 4,t100 li with it spccd of 1.80 ni i/li ‹lr‹›ps a
wcighted markci’, itttciupling to tiit a liii’gct on hoc gi ound bclow, as stiown in Figurc I O.43, l4ow t'ar away li uM the
iarjct (measurcd htirizontally) should the pi tot be wÏlRfl ShG ïLÍ2ítSü S lhC MílïLcfi? You iriay ncg lcct air rcsisiancc.

Figure 10.43 Stunt pilot target

77. modeling Problem A •*• •• shiny 1,0(XJ Ih travels at ‹i consltint speed of 60 mi/In on a fin road and ihcn makes
a circular turn nn an interchange (sec Figure 10.44). Ir II c radius ol” the iurn is 1fi0 Ft, what friclional I"‹›icc is
needed to keep itic cnr frr›m skidding?

Figure 10.44 Highway intarchange

Chapter 10 Revlew
809

78. Find llie point or points on lhc curve ) —— e’ (n > 0) where the curvature is maximized.
79. >• r osition of an object moving in space is given by

R(r) = (e*' cos i)i + (e*’ sin f)j e*’k

a. Find ltte velocity, speed, and acceleration of the object at arbiti'ary time i.
b. Deiermine thc curvaturc of’ ihc trajectory at time i.
80. Ver’ify ihat
dF
[F (C x H)] =
di

81. Verit’y lhnt

—lF x (G x H)]' = [(H F)G)' — [(G- F)H]'

82. Find the radius of cur vaturc m’ the cllipse givcn by R(i) = (n cos r, 6 sin f), whcrc a > R, b > 0, r /1, and
G S i S 2s at the poinls whcrc I = 0 and x/2.
85. A pariiclc movcs along a path givcn in paramctric lorin, whcrc r i j m 1 + cos rif and iP(f) = r“" (for positivc
conslant a). fiind the velocity and acceleration of’ the pai’ticle in ferms of’ the unit polar vcctoi’s u, any up.
84. The p‹›sition vector ol" rtn ohjc t in space is

R(r) = (ri cos uif)i + (a sin m/)j + n›°i k

Find nJ 0 so that the suns oi” Ihc object’s tangcntial and normal components or acceleration equal half its speed.
85. Skclch the graph of the vector function

3‹
R(/) — t + ,) ( )j

lhen find parametric equations for the tangent line at the point where f — 2. This curve is called the folium of
Descart •s.
86. Modeling Problem A fireman stands 5.5 m from the 1’ront or a burning building l5 m high. His lirc hose discharges
waicr at a speed of o n/s from a height of 1.2 m at an angle of 62°, as shown in Figure 10.45.

A - D

5.5 m
Figure 10.45 Firefighter's problems

a, When is the smallest value n( •o that Will ijllow wuter from thc hose t‹› naoh a window I I nt above the
grnund?
b. Supyo‹t ›’ = 50 in/s. AI what angle should thc h‹›sc be held so thc walcr can be directed onlo a fire on lhe
rool“ of the building (II a height of IN m)?
810 Chapter 10 Review

tI7. A DNA tntilcc ulc Iras the hop ‹›r « douhlc mclix (sec Figure IO.J6). The rudius
or’ each helix is aboui IO*' pm. Each hclix rises ahoui 3 x l Il*' p in during each
complète turn and there are aboui 3 x I O' complète turns, Eslitnatc the lcnglh of’
each hclix.
Show that ihc tanpcniiiil c‹›nipoocn1 ‹il' iiccclcration of’ :i iiioving ch.tect is 0 i f ilic
object teas ctitistiiiit speed. Is ttic cotivcrsc statement also ti’tic‘* Ttiiit is, it’ At = (1,
can we cone ludc th:tt the speed is consiant'?
89. TIIC both O I il Qtlft ie lc P is an Arcliitncdcan spiral. Ttic motion ‹it’ the particlc is
dcscribcd b)' the pedlar coordinates i’ - I 0r and 6 - 2s / , w here i’ is expressed in
inches and / is in seconds. Deierininc ihc velocity of the particle (in terms of us
and up ) whc n
n. i = 0 sec h. i - 0.25 sec
911. I‘m.s/‹ ri‹ i/ r?« .s / The thi’ee la ii s of Act›/er ‹Ie.scrihed in flits .s’ectiou /ñi’rvur cfiongc‹J
the ivny we view the uuii!ei’se, hiil it Ayn.s' riot Kepler mafia roi’i’ec’r/y / nrer/ these Figure 10.46 Double helix
lrnvi. Isrinc' Newton (Cytipter I, Sir ›;›feruciilor5' Pmhlem 49) overt these laii!s fi’om DNA molecule
the iiivei’se-s quurv hH' of grnvifafioit. ln Section 10.3 we proved Kepler's second
law. Wriie a 5(JO-w'ord essay on ilic lilc rind mathematics ol’ Johan ries Kepler, and
include, as part o I’ your essfly, \Vherc r•cplcr made h is mistake in It is proof’ of’ ti is
second law.
91.
Wi”iïC ú 500-WOFÚ Os8íïy nn the hl’O ítnJ niatlJcniatics uf G‹tlil o Geli ¡lei.
92. i›iri‹iri‹-‹il •i1iu.'sI In 153d, Galileo yiil fi.iJirr/ Jiiñ ir/err.i ahout ‹1I m:uuid’s iii lits hook Discor-
.‹ie dimosirazioiti iiiofe»i‹iiiciie interim a due nun ve srieiize. lii this hoak, lie con. i ler›
th e]‘olloi i!iiig Jii‹›fifeiii: Suppose the farther circle of Figure 10.47 has made one revolution
;c in roll i ng al out the straigh t
line frciiii d to 11, so thut | is casual to the circum lfircnce
ol’ the larpoe circlc. Then the small circlc, lixcd to the large onc, has also made one rcvci-
lution, so ihat CU is equal to the circum Terence of the siriah circle. It follows th iil the ¿¿
two circles linve eqiuil circiimfereiicec.
(1564-1642)

Figure 10.47 Aristotle’s wheel

This parados liad been cartier describcd by Aristotle and is t1icrct’ore sometimcs rclLrrcd to as Arisfolle’s wlieel.
Can you cxplain svhat is going on’?
93. fBs/r rio rt/ 'j o‹ st Explain the remark in Galileo’s Discorsi e dimonstrazioni niaiematiclie intorno a dne unove
ccieiize of l ó3S iliiit “neither is the number of squares tess ttian the totality ol’ all numbcrs, nor ttie lamer grcatcr
than the formen.”
94. Think Tank Problem Wind a vector' function F(i) - (/i (/), Jj(J), fz{t j) sucti lts.it | F(t)|| is contínuraus iit / = 0
tant F(r) is not continuous at r - 0.
95. Think Tank Problem Let F(/) ancl G(/) be veclor l"unctinn Ihat arc continu‹›us at /q, and let /i(/) he a scalar
I unction continuous at low In each ol the following cases, either show that thc yivcn I*unction is continuous at /q or
pros'ide a counlcrcxatnple to stiosv thal it is not continuous.
n. 3F(i) -I- 5G(i) b. F(i) G(r) C, (J (¿)) J(t) d. F(r ) x G(f)
9fi. Think Tank Problem Let }” bc a I*unction that is fwicu dil’IfiruntiuhIc. Kithcr pr‹›vu that the largest curvaiuic of
ti\ curve ' —}‘(z) oc«uis at a rc!nIivc cxticinum off at lind a «nunlcrcxamplc.
Chapter 10 Review 811

97. Putnam Exuminntion Problem A shell strikes an airplane flying ‹it a height ft above thc ground. It is known
that the stiell was firecl front a gun on the gi ound with muzzle speed v0, but the position of’ the gun and its angle
of elevation are both unknown. Deduce that the gun is situated within a cii’clc whose center lies directly below
the airplane and whose mdius is

' 2 J

Neglect resistance of' the atmosphere.

Putnam Examination Problem A coast artillery gun can fire at any angle of’ elevation between 0’ and 90" in a
fixed vertical plane. If air resistance is neglected and the muzzle speed is constant (u = to), determine the set f-f
of points in the plane that can be hit. Consider only ttiose points above the horizontal.
99. Putnnm Examination I roblem A particle moves on a circle with cenicr O, siai’ting frtini i'est at a point P iind
coming to rest again at a point S, without coming to rest at any intermediate poirrt. Prove that the acceleration
vector of' the p:Article does not vanish at any point between P and Q, and that, at some point fi between P and (j,
the acceleration vector points in along ttic radius TO.
812 Chapter 10 Group Research Project

C H A PT E R 1 O G ROU P R S E A RR H Q ROJ ECT*

Working in sma// groups is typical o/ most work environments, and Saint Louis Arch Problem
fhis book seeks to develop skills with group activities. We present a
group project at the end of each chapter. Tnese projects are to be
done in groups of tnree or four students.

A mathematical problem appeared in the St, Louis Post-Dispatch on July 4, 1982. The dimensions of the St.
Louis Arch (as given in this article) are:

height (outside surface) 630 ft

height (inside surface) 615 ft
width (outside surface) 630 ft
wioth (inside surface) 530 ft

Legend tells us that The Spirit of St. Louis airplane was flown through the arch 200 ft above the base. The
problem in the newspaper asked readers to find the distance from the wingtip to the inside edge of the arch.

Here are some hints and suggestions to be included in your paper.

• Assume the airplane has a wingspan of 46.00 ft.

• Assume the inside edge of the Arch is a catenary curve.
• Some solvers (incorrectly) assumed that the curve of the inner edge is a parabola. If you mahe this
assumption, show that the answer is 194.69 ft.
• Many of the newspaper readers took the curve of the inner edge of the arch to be an inverted catenary.
Show that the answer found using this equation is 208.81 ft.
• Show that the curve of the arch’s Inner edge is not a simple Inverted catenary.
• Show that the answer you find is unique; that is, show that there is only one solution.
• Wikipedia’s article on the catenary says that Galileo mistakenly confused a catenary and a parabola.
Address this Issue.

’This project is adapted from The St. 1ouis Arch Problem by William V. Thayar, uiviAP iviodule 688, GOMAP, Inc., ldc! 1984., pp, 447-464,
Cumulative Review
813

Cumulative Review—Chapters 1-10 (Single variable calculus)

Calculus is sometimes divi‹Jed into single variable c‹ilciilii.s and multii•frtohle calculus. The end of’ this chapter works
the boundary between these major’ divisions of calculus, and as such it is a good time to take a look back at what we
have done. There are three iriain ideas in single variable calculus. The first is the notion of' fiiiiir, which was introduced
in Chapter 2, ln Chaptei 3, we introduced the idea of’ a dei’ivotivc•, the second major topic of calculus. In Chapter 5,
we introduced one of' the most important and revolutionary ideas in the history of’ mathematics—namely, that of’ a
Riemann sum, and iutc•gratioii.

Definition of limit The liinit staictnent

nicans th,i reacti e > 0, ther e corresponds a number 6 > 0 with itie pi oper ty that

ÿ(z) — L| < r whcnevei 0 < |x — cl <

TT›e nction or i •« i" »4anJcntaI l'oi many où the idcas oJ"ca1culus, yrimarily in the cÏelinitions of both the dcri vativc

Definition of derivativeThe deri vutive ot f at .t is #iven by

ptoviö e6 this limite exisls. Il’ this liinit exisis ttie function / is said to be di1’ferentiable.
There are many applications of the derivative, including i elated i‹i1es, curve skelching, and optimization.

Table 10.3 sununarizes the relationship between modelinç and the Rieiiiann suin.
814 Cumulative Review

Table 10.3 Modeling Formulas Involvin9 813 Integration

Situation
Rltmann Sum Mndtl Outcome
5.3 liitroductlun 1. t'ariition iiitcrvul The *ipproximations inaprovc as thü
h'ÏudtÏ a q\ItirIlit}' in t0£tnS t1f One nr 2. Choosc a ntinibcr .r; arbiirarily nonn of” the partitions yocs to 0.
n\nrc continu o\is fonctions on a closud
3. Form a surn of ihe iypc ThC hie \\ann sunt5 Jypro*ich a lin\itiny
iriftjpal. Use ihis irt\kgraJ \o define cr\¢l
ci+lcuIaIu whpl wt nri¿inally wanfcd In

5.1 A rec
fiind lhe arca ilndcr u cure e dclincd by
i'=/().wÑcu/()»0u0ouhu
.\ -‹ xis und bu\in‹lc‹l by lha \iitc .i = ri

tJisplacement uxd distance truvclcd Fin‹l fhe surn of › distances Distance = " | u (i )} r/f
Fini the Jisylac ment and diff.\ncc
Iraveled for au obiccl iliat iS r›\n›'ing
along a line hnving continuotis vülocity
r(I) for erich f between / = ‹i nud

5.7 As'ernge s ulue ' f «)ds

i'cragt value —
Find lhe avcr:tbe x'uluc of ii continuous h!„ ,
function on the inierval «, ù]. uf ll values. Lcf A.‹ =—, Ihc»
yI

A res t›rlsxeen vum'es

kind the urca between lhc curvcs
v = J‘(.r) and v = p (.r).

6.2 S'olunie by crw<s section

Find the vol muc of a solid w]io cross
ScCt iOR [›crpc lid i c ular t O thc .1‘ •ax i s it aS
ilfi•fl ñ (.1' ).

6.2 Volume of rei'olut1on

Finü the ›'olurnc of the agîon I›otindcü b}' \' = ÿ”(.î) anü i* = y (.v) ro\’of\'cü ùbuut lhe specifiûJ :ixis.

¥Yœshers: .r -axis Vollirltc = (|y”(.\ )]' — [¿(. )]') r/.\

Shells: v -axis Voltuuc = 2x ' .»f(r 1 ii

Arc lexjjth

.
Find the lcnyllt ni a cun e

6.4
FinJ the atva of :\ surface fnri»crt fry
mlaling tÎju ‹:urvtj v = /”(.t”) a1J‹›ut fhu
.I”-a:sis o\’or {‹/. /›].

6.5
fiind the n\: ss ‹›f a ihin pl«tc with
c‹›nstanf dr:nsity ,c, boundcd t›y

C‹›iitiuue‹/.
Cumulative Review
815

Table 10.3
(Continuad)
fiectlon
Situation fùlemann Sum Mode)

fi.5
First inonieiil
Find the nlo0lc0l of ;t thin plate wiih
constant density p bounded b}'
5 - f( \ 1 iioñ v = pI.r ) abuul jhc

A*„ = - " (1/t )l' — [x ( i‘ )]' )*r

fi.5
Work /'”(.\/ ) A.i’t
Find ttie woi k dose when an objcci
movcs alorig llit ,t -;ixis front ri lo b
when a variiiblc forcü f'’(.r) is applicd.

xydmstotic r«nc
Find the total force of a lluid against
Z °‹ I,")L(Ii/')A //c
one side of n vertical pinte, where li is
the dcpth.

In the last two chapter.s wc considered vectors in R2 and IR", iis well as veclor-valued 1’unctions. We summarize
these ideas in Table 10.4.
Table 10,4 Summary of Velocity, Acceleration, and Curvature
Toplc Formule

Î'orlMon 'vector

ü” (•P«cc) R(i› ( ›T + •( ›j + - (r›k

The graph is caJlcd the trajecto ' of th¢ objcct's n›otinn,

‹/R
Yeloclt}' s'ector Y()= =R()

|tY t is the finit vectof in the direction où Y ur iIii-r‹.•ti‹iii rÿ”/i/‹7/iriH.

Unit l'ectur Y R’(f) rJR

T=
Unit Mangent hector
is the unlt litnB• ‹ *L•‹ r in tbt direction of morton.

Acteler¥ition vector

r/’,s R’ R"
This is the tangentlul c‹›n›ponent.
‹li' “ || R’ Il
R’xR/
R| '
This is tÏiu normgl composent.

Torsion
816 Cumulative Review

Cumulative Review Problems—Chapters 1-10

1. tt 1:n ‹ l‹› s th is s:tj " Oulline a procedure t’or intepriiiinp ii given function.
2. \\ !i:i i ‹l‹ c s iii is :ij Ouiline a procedure t’or deciding whether a given series cons'crgcs ter diverges.
3. \\ i: i ‹i s it i s ›:i; What is a vector’? What is a vector function'? In your own words, discuss what is meant by
vector calculus.

ñ vnfiicrr tJic limits th Nrr›fafciii.s 4-9, or e.r/ /rim why the limit r/rt.s Dior exist.
7.v" — 5.v — 2 — 3.v -t- I )(1 — 5.r
4. line 3.r* + 5.r — 8 5.v* + 4.r — 9 sin 3.t
6. jim
i — 0 lan Mr
OS
9. lim CM ”—

13. y — sin° ' .r + 2 tan*' —

17. sin' s cos'.rd.v

cl.v
20. .r°(.r* + 5)
19.
22. A sludcnl graphs the tunction /(z) - lv’ + 5.1.r' — 360.r using a calculator, and the
graph is shown in Figure 10.48. Is this graph sufficient io gct a idea of’ what the
function looks like? Why cw why not’?
23. Let J' (ic it continuously dil’lñ rentiablc 1 unction with J'(0) — 0 and —2 /’(.r) 4
i’or —3 .v 3.
a. Can f(2 be negative'? Give a rcason li›r your answer.
b. Can /(—2) be nepiitivc? Give a reasun for your answer. Figure 10.48 Calculator
c. Must have a criliciil point between —3 and 3? Give a reason for yoiii :inswer. graph
24. Find thc circa hounded fry II c curve ' = r + .ind the z-nxis un [—2, I ].
25. Find the iirca boun‹lcd hy rite cur yes )! —— s’in x and = cos.r rind the lines .r = O and .r = 1.
26. Find the area of the region inside the circle r = 4 and to the right of' thC line r m 2 sCc 9.
27. Find ttie volume of the solid tormed by revolving aboul the .v -axis the rcpion bounded hy the curve

bclwccn .r - 1 and z — 2.
28. Find the equation of’ thc linc through (— 1, 2, 5) and perpendicular to the plane Zr — 3y + * = 1.1 in symmetric
form.
29. Find the cquaiion of’ the plane satisfying ihc given conditions.
a. passing ttirouph (5, 1, 2), (3, 1, —2), anlt (3, 2, 5)
b. peeling through (—2, — 1, 4) and perpendicular to tlJc line
Cumulative Review
817

Test the set res iii l•rohlems 30-35 /or ‹’oiivergeiice.

3°' I ¿.3
31* — 71 -F 2
i0 32 (2/: — I )(1 + 3)
—i›'•'‹
1' -I— k — l
l=0
3G. ]n c‹\ch cijsc, fincl the sum ol' tile convergent sci”ics

b. Z
(31 — l)(31 + 2)
37. In cach case, ‹tctcrnJine whclhcr the given imgrt›gcr in\cgraI c‹›nvcrges, and il ii d‹us, find its value.

38. F-ind ›' u' and v x w for hue vectors v = 3i — 2j + Qtr and w = i — 3j — k.
39. Find F’ and F” t’or F(i) 2ri + c*"j + f k.
40. Find J[e' i — j — i k1 [e°’ i + t j — k]r/i.
41. find T and N t’oi' R(i) = 2(sin 2/)J + (2 + 2 cos 2f)j -j- 6rk.
42. Stiow that the iillci nating sei ice

converges rind clctcrinine what N must be to gtiitriiiiiee that tl i ‹ i al sum

43. a. Find the M‹iclaurin scrics representation for’/(.v) = s'c

b. Use the representation in n to approximate

with tl rcc-4ccimijl-ylacc accuracy.

44. Let (.v) = 7 — 3(z — 4) -+ 5(.r — 4)2 — 2(.r — 4)" +- 6(s — 4) be ttic fourth-dcgrcc Taylor polynomial for the
function f ahout 4.
a. Find /(4) and f”’(4).
b. Use the third-degree Tay for’ polynomial 1’or /’ iibout z = 4 to appi oximate /’(4.2).
c. Wrilc a fit'11i-degi’cc Taylor polynomial for I (*) - J /(i)dt tibout 4.
45. Solve the firsi-order linear difl’ercntial equation

subject to ihc condition y 2 when * = 0.

818 Cumulative Review

46. During the time pcriod t'rom / — (J ttc i = 6 seconds, a p‹u ticle ir t›vcs iilong ltie patte given by

o. What is the posiiion of’ ihc piirticlc when r = 1.5?

b. Graph the path of the partiels t’rorn f — 0 to f — 6. Show dircclion.
c. Ht»v many times docs thc particlc pass through the poinl found in piii i a'?
ñ. F’tnd lhe velocity vector lor the part ic le at any time i.
c. What is the distance travclcd (to the nearest hundrcdth) by the pariiclc from r = 1.25 lo f = 1.75.
47. fiind :in équation in tenus or’ .r ancl s’ l’or ille line ianpent io the curvc given by

x = f' — 2i — 1, J' = r‘ — 4f‘ + 2

al the pt›int where r = 1.

48, A p;irtiulc movcs in space with pos itii›n vector

R(/) == (sin /)i — (ens 1)) -I- ifi

a. F’i ni the vclocity and accelcraiiun sectors l’or the particlc and lind its spced.
b. Find the Cartcsian equaiion ftir lloc particle’s trajeclory.
c. Find the cur valure x and t lC 1.lngcntial and normal components of’ accclcration for ihc p¡irticle’s niotion.
49. A inason lifts a 25-1b huckct ol’ moriar l’rom ground lcvcl to the iop ol’ a 50-l’t building using a rope ihat weighs
0.25 lh/l’t. Find the work done in liliinp thc buckct.
50. ModeÍing Problem At what spccd ritu.et a .satcllite travel to inaifl ÍílÍ R il t• ÍfC Ular oïbi t l,0Ü0 mi above the surt’ncc of
the carth? Assumc the carth is a .splicrc of riidius 4,000 mi and tti‹it GAI ’i n Newton’s law of universiil gravitation
is approximatcly 9.56 x l0 mii"/.s .

51. Find équations for the l‹ingent iind noriniil trucs to the graph of’ )' = 2.t -I- at the point (1, 27).
52. Suppose / is a differenti8hlc l'unctinn wI1nsc dcrivativc satisfics

/’(.T) = 2r -+- 3

f(.r' — l).
Find
â
53. Suppose / is a differentiablc function such that f'(x) = x 2 + x. Find f{.\' .v).

S4. Solve ihc dil’ferential equation Jg = y2 sin 3.r.

55. A splici'icat balloon is being filled with air in such a way ttiiit its i’ndius is inei’casing at a constant r;nc ul' 2 cut/s.
A( W lits tche is the volume ot’ the biilloon increasing at the instant when its surface has area 4s cm''?
5fi. Let / he the t’unction defined by f{x j — — 2.
a. Sketch / and shade the region £ enclosed by the graph of /, ltte x -ax is, and the vertical line a - 5.
h. F’ind the area of R.
57. A pchblc is thrown liorri a hot air balloon directly downward wilh velocity 5 fi/s, and r seconds later is fall in*
with acceleration ri(r) = 32 — 0.08u whcrc u(r) is the object’s vclocity nt time t.
o. Find an expression for r in terms of t.
b. II’ the tcrminal velocity is defined as lim r(r), find the terminal velocity o1’ the object (to the nc.ircsi li/s).
58.
A certain .artifact is tcsied by carbon dating and found to contiiin 737c of iis original carbon- t4. As a cross-check,
if i,s also dated using radiuiri, rind is l’ound to contain 32°/o of the original amount. Assuming the d.itin @ pr ‹iecdurcs
tire accui‹itc, what is the hall-lif’c of’ ri«lium?
59.
!“›i.s mirth ‹il /u'sf The derivative is one of’ the great ideas of’ cnlculus. Wi’ile an essay or’ at least 500 words iihout
some application of the derivative ih at is not discussed in this lcxt.
fi0.
!“›i.s timid ‹if Elms r The concept of the integral is one of t he great idcus of calculus. Write an essay of at least 500
words aboui itie relationship of inlcgralion and differentiation as it relates io the history of calculus.