Communication Engineering

Modulation Techniques
Modulators

1st Edition
Communication Engineering

© hps SystemTechnik
Lehr- + Lernmittel GmbH

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88276 Berg / Germany

Phone: + 49 751 / 5 60 75 80
Telefax: + 49 751 / 5 60 75 17
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E-mail: [email protected]

Order no.: V 0130

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manual or otherwise, without the prior permission of hps SystemTechnik.

Code: 9.6.7
V 0130 List of Contents I

List of Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. Fundamental theory of modulation technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2. Addition and multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.1 The adder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.2 The multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

3.1 Theoretical introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.2 Modulation on a non-linear characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.3 Amplitude modulation with a multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.4 Spectrum and bandwidth of the AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.5 AM-DSB with suppressed carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.6 The multiplier in balanced modulator mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.7 The multiplier in ring modulator mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3.8 Single sideband modulation (SSB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4. Angle modulation techniques

4.1 Theoretical introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4.2 Generation of frequency modulated signals (FM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.3 Measuring the frequency deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4.4 Determining the modulation index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.5 Frequency spectrum of an FM oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

4.6 Generation of phase modulated signals (PM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

4.7 Generation of pulse frequency modulated signals (PFM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

4.8 Generation of pulse phase modulated signals (PPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

II List of Contents V 0130

5. Digital modulation techniques

5.1 Theoretical introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

5.2 Generation of amplitude shift keying signals (ASK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

5.3 Spectrum of amplitude shift keying signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

5.4 Generation of frequency shift keying signals (FSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

5.5 Spectrum of frequency shift keying signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

5.6 Generation of phase shift keying signals (PSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

5.7 Spectrum of phase shift keying signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

6. Pulse modulation techniques

6.1 Theoretical introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

6.2 Generation of a pulse amplitude modulated signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

6.3 Frequency spectrum of the pulse amplitude modulated signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

6.4 Explanation of the sampling theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

6.5 Time-division multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

7. Pulse code modulation

7.1 Theoretical introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

7.2 Experiments with pulse code modulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

7.3 PCM multiplex generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

8. Delta modulation

8.1 Theoretical introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

8.2 Generation of delta modulated signals (DM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L 1 ... L 80

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 1 ... A 2

Foil: MODULATION BOARD (Type 4280)

V 0130 Introduction 1

Introduction

This manual, used in connection with the hps MODULATION BOARD (Type 4280), explains and demon-
strates the basic properties of the various modulation techniques. A monofrequency information signal is
used in most cases to simplify demonstration of the modulation techniques.
Since this manual is designed primarily as a training handbook, the theory behind the individual tech-
niques is dealt with only very briefly. The information provided under the headings "Theoretical Intro-
duction" and "General" is not to be considered as a substitute for a technical textbook but as a link be-
tween theoretical study and practical training. These chapters contain informations on the applications
and possible realizations of the individual modulation techniques.
The task is set in all experiments in the shortest possible form. The problem can usually be solved with-
out any additional information or help. A few of the measuring exercises are preceded by small theo-
retical tasks to prepare the student for a certain problem. These can be solved graphically without any
great knowledge of mathematics.
The questions asked at the end of the experiments are aimed at prompting a thorough study of the ma-
terial and provide the opportunity for the student to test himself. The questions sometimes require a new
measuring setup or an extension of the existing one.
The answers to the questions are given in the "Solutions" section. Here you will also find suggestions for
solving the problems. It is advisable to follow the order of exercises within the individual chapters as one
experiment often follows on from the previous one. The chapters themselves are, however, compiled in
such a way that they can be switched around without difficulty.
The "Addition and Multiplication" chapter does not describe a modulation technique but it does offer an
explanation of basic technical relationships.

Notes on the measuring technology

The oscilloscope and the student’s powers of observation are the most important tools for working with
the MODULATION BOARD. The student must be familiar with the handling and operation of the available
measuring equipment in order to be able to conduct the experiments without assistance.
Many properties of the modulation signals can only be revealed by observation of the frequency spec-
trum. The use of frequency-selective measuring equipments is therefore desirable. Since spectrum ana-
lysers are not widely available, the time curve of the signals has been supplemented by the correspond-
ing spectrum in most cases in the "Solutions" section.

To encourage the student to work independently, no additional measuring equipments such as frequency
counters or multimeters is specified for the experiments. For the same reason, no settings for the deflec-
tion coefficients or trigger type of the oscilloscope are specified in the tasks.
2 Introduction V 0130

The following generally applies for triggering the measurements on the MODULATION BOARD:

- when setting the oscilloscope to external triggering:

The generator unit contains a socket marked ,,Trigger“ which can be used as a trigger source or the
information frequency used in the respective circuit is used (500 Hz, 1 kHz, 2 kHz).

- when setting the oscilloscope to internal triggering:

The channel with which the low frequency voltage is measured is used as a trigger source.
V 0130 Fundamental Theory of Modulation Technology 3

1. Fundamental Theory of Modulation Technology

Modulation is the influencing of a carrier signal by the signal to be transmitted. The signal is modulated
because it is not usually possible to transmit a signal in its original frequency position or because multi-
ple usage of a transmission medium is desired. This multiple usage is known as the multiplexing techni-
que, whereby a distinction is made between frequency-division multiplexing and time-division multiplexing
Sinusoidal or pulse-shaped signals are mainly used as carrier signals.
The diagram below, fig. 1.1, illustrates that modulation is only a part of the total system for information
transmission.

el e ct r ic a l m o du la te d de m o du la te d in f o r ma ti on
i n f o rm a t i on m o du la t ed sig na l an d si g n al a nd (m e ssa ge ) a nd
i nf o rm a t i on
sig na l sig n a l di st ur b an ce d is tu rb a n c e d ist u rba nc e

i n f or m ati o n in f o rm a t i o n sig na l tr a nsm issi o n in f o rm a t i o n sig n al m essa g e

or m e ssa g e c on ve rt e r c o n ver ter c h an ne l , li ne c on ve rte r c on ver ter sin k
so ur c e

di st ur ba nc e so u rc e

m o d ul a t i on d em o d ul a t i on
( t ra nsm it t er ) ( re c e ive r )

Fig. 1.1

Messages or information signals: any type of message which we want to transmit, e.g. speech,
music, pictures, data, texts, measured values

Message or information sources: origin or generation of messages, e.g. man-made

Information converter: has the job of converting information signals from a source
into electrical signals, e.g. microphone, measurement trans-
ducer, etc.

Electrical information signal: representation of a message, e.g. as a voltage, current or

field strength

Signal converter (modulation): If the signal generated in the information converter cannot be
transmitted directly, as is possible for example in a door inter-
com device, it has to be modulated.
4 Fundamental Theory of Modulation Technology V 0130

General:

The message is converted into a form suitable for

transmission.
Radio signals can only be broadcasted at higher fre-
quencies; in telephone communications, multiple usage
of the transmission medium is achieved by modulation.

Modulated signal: In modulation in the signal converter, one of the para-

meters (e.g. frequency, amplitude, phase) of the
modulation carrier is controlled by the message signal.

Transmission channel and line: transmission medium, e.g. cable, wireless transmis-
sion, fibre optic, characterized by such properties as
attenuation, bandwidth, etc.

Disturbance source: supplies disturbance signals which may occur at

practically any point along the transmission path (hum
pick-up, disturbance signals from electrical switching
processes, ignition sparks, etc.)

Signal converter (demodulation): From the modulated signal, the receiver reconstructs
the signal which was originally fed to the modulator.
Disturbance signals are also demodulated.

Message sink: ,,message consumer“, e.g. the human ear

V 0130 Fundamental Theory of Modulation Technology 5

Example of a transmission system:

Message source: the human vocal cords

Message: speech

Information converter: microphone

Signal: microphone voltage

Signal converter (modulation): AM channel, wireless

Disturbance source: ignition sparks from a motor vehicle

Signal converter (demodulation): AM receiver

Information converter: loudspeaker

Information and disturbance: speech + noise (e.g. crackle)

Message sink: the listener’s ear

We are concerned only with the purely electrical part of the transmission system. The above diagram is
therefore simplified as follows.

m es sage or
t r ans mi ss i on r ec ei v ed
in f or m at io n tr ans m itt er r ec ei v er
s y st em s ig nal
s ign al

t r ans mi ss i on
c hann el

m od u lat io n t r ans mi ss i on d em o dul at i on

Fig. 1.2
6 Fundamental Theory of Modulation Technology V 0130

List of modulation techniques

U
m o d u l a t io n s i g n a l
t

PA M

U
PDM
m o d u la t io n s ig n a l,
n o t co d ed
t

U
PFM

U
p u ls e PPM
c arrie r

t
m o d u la t io n sig n a l ,
q u a n t i ze d an d c o d e d U
PCM

p r ed ic a t iv e U
c o d in g
DM
t

Fig. 1.3
V 0130 Fundamental Theory of Modulation Technology 7

m o d u l a t io n s ig n a l U
t

AM
t

a n a lo g
m o d u l a t io n s ig n a l U
( o f c o n t in u o u s v a lu e s )
FM
t

PM
s in u s o id a l t
c ar r ie r

0 1 0 1 0 0 1
m o d u l a t io n s ig n a l U
t

U
A SK
t

d ig it al
m o d u la t io n s ig n a l
( o f d i s c r e te v a lu es ) U
FSK
t

U
PSK
t

Fig. 1.4

This summary shows the most common and simplest basic techniques. Numerous extended and hybrid
techniques also exist.
8 Fundamental Theory of Modulation Technology V 0130

Notes
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication 9

2. Addition and Multiplication

2.1 The Adder

General

Adders are modules used throughout communications technology to unite several signals in a collective
signal.

Practical applications:
e.g. generation of a collective signal by adding the individual signals for the left and right channels in
stereo radio broadcasting or the formation of colour difference signals in colour TV (see fig. 2.1.1)

r ed tu be
R

∑ R- Y = V

g reen t ub e
Y
Y- ma t ri x Y

ϕ -Y
1 80°
b lue t u be
∑ B- Y = U
B

Fig. 2.1.1 Principle circuit diagram of a colour camera

10 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

An adding stage can be assembled simply as a combination of resistors (see fig. 2.1.2). This does, how-
ever, have the disadvantage that the inputs are not decoupled from each other.

U1
U2 U out
U3

Fig. 2.1.2

The adder used in the MODULATION BOARD is assembled with operational amplifiers. Fig. 2.1.3 illus-
trates the principle circuit diagram.
R1 = R 2 = R3 = R 4 = R5 = R 6

a dde r in v e r t e r
R1 R4 R6
in 1
R2 R5
in 2 - - out
R3
+ +
in 3

a ddin g p oi n t

Fig. 2.1.3

Since the adding point is virtually at ground, no quadrature-axis components of current occur at inputs
in 1 ... in 3 at unequal voltages; the inputs are decoupled.
The adder, which is assembled as an inverting amplifier, is followed by an inverter which reinstates the
original polarities. The resistances are chosen so that the total voltage amplification V u = 1.
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication 11

1st part of experiment

Addition of two DC voltages

Task

Add two DC voltages and measure the aggregate signal. The hand-operated TTL transmitter and the
adjustable voltage source serve as a DC voltage source.

Experiment setup and procedure

TT L

∑
+ 1 .5 V

U out
U1 U2

Fig. 2.1.4

- Set the values of voltage U 2 specified in table 2.1.1, measure voltage U 1 and U out and complete the
table.

U 1 = Low level U 1 = High level

Key not pressed Key pressed

U1 / V U1 / V

U2 / V 1 -1 U2 / V 1 -1

U out / V U out / V

Table 2.1.1

Questions: 1. Is the polarity taken into account in the addition?

2. What output voltage results when the same voltage U = 1 V is applied to all
three inputs? (Explain with circuit diagram fig. 2.1.3)

Answers:
12 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

2nd part of experiment

Addition of a sinewave oscillation and a DC voltage

Task

First add the voltages U 1 and U 2 graphically and point-by-point (fig. 2.1.5), then do the same addition on
the MODULATION BOARD and compare the results.

U out = U 1 + U 2

U1 [ V ] 1

0
0 .5 1
t [m s ]

U2 [ V ] 1

0
0 .5 1
t [m s]
-1

U out [ V ] 3

0
0 .5 1
t [m s]
-1

-2

Fig. 2.1.5
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication 13

Experiment setup and procedure

1kHz

∑
U2
+ 1.5 V U out

U1

Fig. 2.1.6

Setting values:
U1 DC voltage U=1V
U2 f = 1 kHz û = 1.5 V

- Measure the output voltage U out with an oscilloscope.

- Draw the image which appears on the monitor in fig. 2.1.7.

Fig. 2.1.7
14 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

3rd part of the experiment

Addition of two sinewave oscillations of equal frequency

Task

Add the voltages U 1 and U 2 graphically as specified in fig. 2.1.8 and then check the result by measuring.

U1 [ V ] 1

0
0 .5 1
t [ ms]
-1

U2 [ V ] 1

0
0 .5 1
t [ ms]
-1

Uou t [V ] 3

0
0.5 1
t [m s]
-1

-2

-3

Fig. 2.1.8
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication 15

Experiment setup and procedure

1 kH z

∑
U 1 /U 2 U out

Fig. 2.1.9

Setting values:
U1 = U2 f = 1 kHz û = 1.5 V

- Measure the output voltage U out with an oscilloscope.

- Draw the image which appears on the monitor in fig. 2.1.10.

Fig. 2.1.10

Question: Does the phase relation of the output voltage shift as the input voltage amplitude changes?

Answer:
16 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

4th part of the experiment

Graphic addition of equifrequent, but dephased signals

General

The very common pointer representation is drawn in diagram 2.1.11 in addition to the line diagram. The
pointer length and the radius are determined by the voltage amplitude. If an oscillation already has a fi-
nite instantaneous value at a certain time t o , we refer to a leading oscillation.
A leading oscillation is referred to as a variable with positive zero phase angle. A positive angle is mea-
sured off in counterclockwise direction. A lagging oscillation produces a negative angle accordingly; this
is measured off in clockwise direction.

p o in t e r s e t tin g l in e d ia g ra m

t0 t

p o s it ive z er o p h a s e a n g l e:
lea d in g o s c i lla ti o n

Fig. 2.1.11

One advantage of the pointer representation is that no point-by-point addition is necessary as in the line
diagram addition. When adding in the pointer representation, the pointers are lined up (root of one
pointer to peak of the other) under consideration of the angle. The sum is the combination of the first root
of the first pointer with the peak of the second pointer (see fig. 2.1.12). The length of the adding pointer
indicates the amplitude, the angle indicates the phase shift.

Fig. 2.1.12
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication 17

1st task

Add the voltages specified in fig. 2.1.13 graphically.

U1 [V] 1

ϕ = 0°
1
0.5 1
t [ms]
-1

U2 [V] 1

ϕ = 7 0°
2
0.5 1
t [m s ]
-1

Uou t [V ] 3

0.5 1
t [ms]
-1

-2

Fig 2.1.13
18 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

2nd task

Add two equifrequent, dephased voltages on the MODULATION BOARD. The available differentiator
must be used to generate a dephased voltage.

Experiment setup and procedure

1kH z
∑
d
dt
U out
U1 U2

Fig. 2.1.14

Setting values:
U1 f = 1 kHz û = 1.5 V

- First draw the voltage U 2 with the measured amplitude and angle in the diagram 2.1.15.

- Determine the phase relation and the amplitude of the output voltage U out with the help of the pointer
diagram.

- Measure the output voltage U out and compare the two results.
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication 19

U 1 [ V] 1

ϕ1 = 0°
t [m s ]

-1

U 2 [ V] 1

t [m s ]

-1

Uout [ V ] 2

t [m s ]

-1

-2

0.5

Fig. 2.1.15

Questions: 1. What curve shape is produced by addition of equifrequent, sinewave oscillations?

2. What effect does a change in the amplitude of voltage U 2 have on the output voltage
U out ? (The variable gain amplifier can be circuited between the differentiator output and
the adder for this.)

Answers:
20 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

5th part of the experiment

Addition of equifrequent, but opposite phase signals

Task

Add two opposite phase sinewave signals with the MODULATION BOARD. Examine what effect a change
in the amplitude of the inverted input signal has on the output voltage.
The opposite phase input signal is generated by the PSK modulator. This acts as an inverter if its control
input is applied to 0 V.

Experiment setup and procedure

1kHz

∑
+1
U1 U2
Uout
Vu

Fig. 2.1.16

Setting values:
U1 f = 1 kHz û 1 = 1.5 V

- Set the values for voltage U 2 specified in table 2.1.2 with the potentiometer V u .

û2 / V 1 1,5 2

ûA / V

Table 2.1.2

Questions: 1. What is the result of the addition of opposite phase signals of equal value?
2. Can you think of a practical application for addition of opposite phase signals?

Answers:
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication 21

6th part of the experiment

Addition of signals of different frequency

Task

Add two signals of different frequency with the MODULATION BOARD. Set the specified amplitudes and
frequency values and draw the curve of the output signal in the oscilloscope grid provided.

Experiment setup and procedure

2 0kH z

2 kH z

∑
U1
1 kH z
U2 U out

Fig. 2.1.17

Setting values
U1 f = 1 kHz û 1 = 1.5 V
U2 f = 20 kHz û2 = 2V

Fig. 2.1.18
22 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

Setting values:
U1 f = 1 kHz û 1 = 1.5 V
U2 f = 2 kHz û2 = 2V

Fig. 2.1.19

Setting values:
U1 f 1 = 20 kHz û 1 = 1.5 V
U2 f 2 = 24 kHz û 2 = 1.5 V

The 24 kHz oscillation is gener-

ated with the circuit shown in fig.
2.1.21.

Fig. 2.1.20
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication 23

Circuit for generating a 24 kHz sinewave oscillation

+1. 5V
U
f

U2

Vu
Fig. 2.1.21

Function:

The voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is set with a DC voltage to frequency 24 kHz, the amplitude to
û 2 = 1.5 V with the aid of the potentiometer V u . (Refer to chapter 4 for experiments with the VCO.)
Since this concerns the superposition of two independent frequencies, triggering may prove difficult. The
monitor display can often be improved by altering the frequency f 2 slightly.

7th part of the experiment

Frequency analysis of the aggregate signal

Task

Add two signals (f = 1 kHz, 2 kHz) and examine, using suitable measuring equipments (e.g. spectrum
analyser or selective level meter), which frequency components the output signal spectrum contains.

Experiment setup and procedure

2kH z
Setting values:
f 1 = 1 kHz û 1 = 1.5 V
f 2 = 2 kHz û2 = 2V
1kH z
∑
U2
U out
U1

Fig. 2.1.22

If no frequency-selective measuring device is available, the frequencies of the aggregate signal can be
proven with the following circuit.
24 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

2 kH z

∑
1 kH z
∑

U2 U out 1

U out 2
U1
+1

Fig. 2.1.23

Function:

The voltage U out 1 represents the signal to be analysed.

If you invert one of the input signals (e.g. U 1 ) and add this in opposite phase to signal U out 1 in a second
adder, the part of U 1 is missing in the aggregate signal U out 1 . If the residual aggregate signal U out 1 only
consists of voltage U 2 , it can be assumed that the signal Uout 1 to be analysed only contains the two
frequencies f 1 and f 2 .
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication 25

2.2 The Multiplier

A multiplier forms the product of two inputs. It is used in telecommunications as a:

• product modulator

• phase comparator

• frequency doubler

• active balanced modulator or ring modulator

• demodulator for coherent demodulation

Fig. 2.2.1 shows the functional principle of a multiplier.

UB

T2

U out
U in 2 T1

U in 1

Fig. 2.2.1
26 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

A large number of integrated circuits are available on the semiconductor market which can be used as
multipliers.
Fig. 2.2.2 shows a multiplier used as a product modulator. It forms the product of the two input signals
u1 (t) and u2 (t).
The output voltage is then: uout (t) = u1 (t) ⋅ u2 (t) ⋅ k (k is a device-specific constant)

1 K
+ 12 V

0.1 µ F 1 K R0 = 1K 0.4 7 µ F 3. 9 K 3.9 K

2 ( 2) 3 ( 3)
7 (8 )

CA R RI E R Vc
8 ( 10 ) 6 (6 ) + V0
IN P UT
0. 1 µ F L M 1496
Vs
M ODU L AT IO N 9 (1 2 )
1 (1 ) - V0
I N PU T

4 (4 )
18 (1 4) 5 ( 5)
10 K 10 K 51 51
0.47 µ F
Num ber s in pare nt hes es
6. 8 K s ho w DI V c on n ec ti o ns.

C AR R IER
N ULL
S1

-8 V

N ote : S 1 i s c l o se d fo r "a dj ust ed" m e as ur em e nts .

Fig. 2.2.2 Excerpt from the data sheet of the IC LM 1496

The symbol for a multiplier is shown in fig. 2.2.3. However, the modulator symbol is printed on the
MODULATION BOARD in accordance with its actual use.
Unlike a four quadrant multiplier, the input of the multiplier on the MODULATION BOARD is capacitively
coupled and the output signal has no DC offset.

mu lt ip l i e r

pr oduc t mod ula tor

on t he MO DULATIO N BO ARD

mo dul a t or

Fig. 2.2.3
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication 27

1st part of the experiment

Task

Multiply a sinewave oscillation by a DC voltage. Determine the constant k.

uout
k =
u1 ⋅ u2

Experiment setup and procedure

+ 2.5V

1kHz U2 U out
U1

Fig. 2.2.4

Setting values:
U1 f = 1 kHz û=1V

U2 DC voltage U = +1 V

uout
k =
u1 ⋅ u2

Question: At what DC voltage U 2 is the output voltage U out equal to the input voltage U 1 ?

Answer:
28 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

2nd part of the experiment

Multiplication of two equifrequent sinewave voltages

Task

Multiply a sinewave oscillation by itself graphically. Draw the result in fig. 2.2.5. Then carry out multiplica-
tion on the MODULATION BOARD as shown in fig. 2.2.6 and draw the output voltage in fig. 2.2.7.

U1 [ V ] 1

0
0 .5 1
t [m s ]
-1

U2 [ V ] 1

0
0 .5 1
t [m s ]
-1

U ou t [ V ] 2

0
0 .5 1
t [m s ]
-1

-2

Fig. 2.2.5
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication 29

1 kH z

U in
U out

Fig. 2.2.6

Setting values:
U in f = 1 kHz û=1V

Fig. 2.2.7

Questions: 1. Are the graphically calculated and the measured values equal?
2. Can you name one of the applications for the circuit?

Answers:

3rd part of the experiment

30 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

Multiplication of two oscillations of different frequency

Task

Multiply a 20 kHz oscillation by a 2 kHz oscillation. Draw the output voltage Uout in fig. 2.2.9
What frequencies does the output voltage U out contain? Measure these and enter the result in fig. 2.2.10.

Experiment setup and procedure

2 0kH z

2kH z
U1 U out
U2

Fig. 2.2.8

Setting values:
U1 f = 20 kHz û 1 = 1.5 V
U2 f= 2 kHz û 2 = 1.5 V

Fig. 2.2.9
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication 31

Fig. 2.2.10

Question: Can a generally valid statement on the orgination of new frequencies in the multiplication
of sinewave signals of different frequencies be made on the basis of the measured values?

Answers:
32 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

Repetition question for chapter 2

Question 1: Does the addition of two signals of different frequencies produce new frequencies?

Answer:

Question 2: What is the result of addition of two equifrequent, but opposite phase signals with equal
amplitude?

Answer:

Question 3: What frequencies should be measured at the output of a multiplier at input frequencies of
2 and 20 kHz?

Answer:
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 33

3. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

3.1 Theoretical Introduction

The term Amplitude Modulation can be understood initially as the classic AM technique for transmitting
messages as it is still used today for radio broadcasting on short, medium and long wave. The major
advantage of this modulation technique is in the simple demodulation.

In addition to this technique, there are a number of other techniques which differ within the spectrum of
conventional AM. The diagram overleaf (fig. 3.1.1) lists the different types of amplitude modulation. The
line diagram and frequency spectrum are illustrated under the relevant terms.

For the sake of clarity, a line, the envelope curve, has been drawn in the line diagram. The envelope
curve is an imagined line connecting all maxima and minima.

The frequency bands to be transmitted are often represented graphically as triangles. With the aid of
these triangles it can be shown simply whether a frequency band is in normal or inverted position after
modulation. In the spectrum of the AM double sideband modulation the upper sideband appears in nor-
mal position, the lower sideband in inverted position.

The triangles say nothing about the amplitude distribution within the sidebands.

Special forms exist in addition to the types shown, such as Vestigial Side Band (VSB) modulation or
Double Side Band AM with independent sidebands. A disadvantage of conventional AM is that a carrier
is transmitted which does not represent a message. In addition, two sidebands are transmitted with the
same informa-tion. The aim of the further developed AM is to save bandwidth or transmitter power or to
utilize it more economically. The modulators used for AM can be divided into two groups:

1. Modulators with non-linear characteristic,

elements with such characteristics are for example diodes i = f (u) or field-effect transistors
i D = f (U GS ).

2. So-called rheolinear modulators

These are modulators with linear transmission characteristic and time-variable parameters.
The controlled switch is an example of this.
34 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Co n ve ntio n a l Am p l itu de M odu l atio n , AM

LSB USB

f T - f in f fT f T + finf

AM - D SB ( AM - D o u b l e Side B a n d )
o r S C A M ( S u p p r e ss e d Ca r r ie r A M)

LSB USB

f T - f in f f T + f inf

SS B ( Sing l e Sid e B a n d Mo du l a t io n ) LSB

or

f T - f in f
USB

f T + f inf

LSB = L o wer Side Ba n d

USB = U p p e r Side B a nd
f in f = in f o rm a t ion f r eq ue nc y
fT = c a r r ie r f r eq u e nc y

Fig. 3.1.1
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 35

3.2 Modulation on a Non-linear Characteristic

General

A linear characteristic is compared with a non-linear characteristic in the figure below (fig. 3.2.1).

Fig. 3.2.1

The diode characteristic is drawn in simplified form for this graphic representation.
In the linear resistance characteristic you can see that a sinusoidal change in the input voltage produces
a sinusoidal measuring voltage U RM . If you apply the same voltage U Gen to a non-linear characteristic, an
output voltage results which is more or less distorted depending on the amplitude and DC offset. It can
be assumed that this distorted signal contains new frequencies because every periodic curve can be
divided into a number of different frequency oscillations according to Fourier analysis.
36 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

1st part of the experiment

Origination of distortions on a non-linear characteristic

Task

Examine the diode modulator of the MODULATION BOARD according to the specified setting values.
Draw the curve of the output voltage U out in diagrams fig. 3.2.3 and fig. 3.2.5. Determine the respective
frequency spectrum and draw the measured values in the diagrams fig. 3.2.4 and 3.2.6.

Experiment setup and procedure

20 kHz

∑
+ 2.5 V U in
U out

U DC

Fig. 3.2.2
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 37

Setting values:
U in f = 20 kHz û= 2V
U DC U = 2.5 V

Fig. 3.2.3

Fig. 3.2.4
38 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Setting values:
U in f = 20 kHz û=2V
U DC U=1V

Fig. 3.2.5

Fig. 3.2.6

Questions: 1. Under what conditions are new frequencies produced?

2. Do newly produced frequencies have a specific relationship with the original frequency?

Answers:
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 39

2nd part of the experiment

Generation of a amplitude-modulated oscillation with a diode modulator

General

In the following experiment, the non-linear diode characteristic is controlled not just by one but by several
frequencies. These different frequency oscillations must first be superposed for this. An additional DC
voltage determines the operating point on the diode characteristic. You will often find the type of repre-
sentation shown in fig. 3.2.7 in the technical literature.

UT
The superposition of the two frequencies and the DC volt-
U in f U in R U out age is realized by an adder on the MODULATION BOARD.

U DC

Fig. 3.2.7

Task

Add two different frequencies and a DC voltage and use them to control the diode modulator. Draw the
voltages in fig. 3.2.9.

Experiment setup and procedure

2 0kHz

∑
2 kHz

UT U inf U DC U in U out

+ 1 .5 V

Fig. 3.2.8
40 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Setting values:
UT f = 20 kHZ û = 2.0 V
U inf f = 2 kHz û = 1.5 V
U DC U= 1V

Fig. 3.2.9
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 41

Questions: 1. What frequencies does the output voltage contain at the specified input values?
2. Do the newly produced frequencies have a specific relationship with the input frequen-
cies?

Answers:

Fig. 3.2.10
42 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

3rd part of the experiment

Suppression of undesirable modulation products with a band-pass filter

General

The theory states that the diode characteristic has multiplying properties and that sum frequencies and
difference frequencies are generated as a result. The output voltage, also known as modulation pro-duct,
contains sum and difference frequencies of multiples of the input frequencies. Fig. 3.2.11 shows a
possible frequency spectrum at input frequencies 2 and 20 kHz. What is generally referred to as AM con-
sists, by contrast, of a carrier, the lower and the upper side band oscillation. The diode modulator must
therefore be followed by a filter which separates the undesirable frequency parts.

U = f (f)
-2 0
dBV

-3 0
dBV

-4 0
dBV

-5 0
dBV
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
f [ k H z]

Fig. 3.2.11
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 43

Task

Connect the band-pass filter ( ≈15 ... 25 kHz) to the setup used in the previous experiment (fig. 3.2.8),
measure the input and output voltage at the filter and draw the measured values in fig. 3.2.13. Measure
the frequency spectrum of the output voltage if possible and enter the result in fig. 3.2.14.

Experiment setup and procedure

2 0k Hz
15kH z. ..25kHz

∑
2 kH z

UT U inf U DC U in U out

+ 1.5 V

Fig. 3.2.12

Setting values:
UT f = 20 kHz û = 2.0 V
U inf f = 2 kHz û = 1.5 V
U DC U= 1V

Fig. 3.2.13
44 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Fig. 3.2.14

Questions: 1. In what rhythm does the carrier amplitude change?

2. Into what function blocks can a diode modulator be divided?
3. Of what frequencies does the spectrum of an amplitude-modulated oscillation consist
(f T = 20 kHz, f inf = 1 kHz)?
4. What is radiated by an AM transmitter when there is a pause in the broadcast?

Answers:
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 45

3.3 Amplitude Modulation with a Multiplier

General

The multiplier is used in telecommunications among other things as a phase comparator, demodulator or,
as demonstrated below, as a product modulator. Sometimes it is referred to as an active ring mixer. In
the following experiment, the multiplier should be used as a modulator for ,,conventional amplitude modu-
lation“.

Task

Assemble a modulator for amplitude-modulated signals (see fig. 3.3.1). Answer the following questions
by varying the carrier amplitude and the message signal amplitude and measuring the input and output
voltages.

Experiment setup and procedure

2 0kH z

2 kH z

UT ∑ U AM

U inf
U DC
+ 1.5 V

Fig. 3.3.1

Setting values:
U DC = potentiometer U DC set to right stop (approx. 2.5 ... 3 V)
U T = freely selectable
U inf = freely selectable

Questions: 1. On what variable does the shape of the envelope curve depend?
2. How are different amplitudes of the message signal represented in the output signal?
3. Is the addition of a band-pass filter necessary, as for the diode modulator?

Answers:
46 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

The modulation factor

General

The change in the carrier amplitude is proportional to the change in the modulation signal amplitude.
The ratio of this change to the unmodulated carrier amplitude is known as the modulation factor.
It is often specified as a percentage. As high a modulation precentage as possible is aimed at in a trans-
mission system. However, in practice, AM transmitters are only modulated up to a modulation factor of
approx. 0.8 (80%) to protect them against overmodulation and selective carrier fading.

∆u^
T
m =
u^
T

m = modulation factor

∆û T = change in carrier amplitude

û T = unmodulated carrier amplitude

Fig. 3.3.2

In practice, the measurement is made with an oscilloscope based on the following:

Upp max − Upp min

m=
Upp max + Upp min

Up p ma x Up p mi n

Fig. 3.3.3
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 47

1st part of the experiment

Measuring the modulation factor from the line diagram

Task

Determine the modulation factor of an AM modulator from the line diagram at the given settings.

Experiment setup and procedure

20 kH z

2 kH z

UT ∑ U AM
+ 2.5 V
U inf U DC

Fig. 3.3.4

Task

Determine the modulation factor of an AM modulator from the line diagram. Draw the image from the
oscilloscope monitor in fig. 3.3.5 and measure the required voltages:

Setting values:
UT f = 20 kHz û = 2.5 V
U inf f= 2 kHz û = 1.0 V
U DC U = 2.0 V

Upp max − Upp min

m= =
Upp max + Upp min

Fig. 3.3.5
48 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

2nd part of the experiment

Determining the modulation factor with the modulation trapezium

General

The method of measuring the modulation factor from the oscillogram is of a very theoretical nature be-
cause a sinewave voltage with constant amplitude is very rarely transmitted in practice but, for example,
a speech signal.
Measuring with the modulation trapezium allows a very simple and quick check of the modulation factor,
even for speech and music signals. The oscilloscope is switched to XY-mode for this; the information sig-
nal is applied in X direction, the AM in Y direction (see fig. 3.3.7).

A − B
m=
A + B

Fig. 3.3.6

Task
Draw the modulation trapezium and the line diagram for the respectively specified modulation factor
(fig. 3.3.8).

Experiment setup and procedure

The modulation factor is changed with the amplitude potentiometer of the message signal (U inf ).

20kHz

500Hz

Y
UT ∑ X
U AM
+ 2.5 V
U inf U DC

Fig. 3.3.7
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 49

Setting values:
UT f = 20 kHz û = 2.0 V
U DC U = +2.0 V

Fig. 3.3.8
50 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Notes
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 51

3.4 Spectrum and Bandwidth of the AM

General

The spectrum of a sinusoidal, amplitude-modulated oscillation contains a lower and an upper sideband
oscillation in addition to the carrier. These sideband oscillations are separated from the carrier by a di-
stance equal to the frequency of the modulated signal. The modulation frequency is no longer contained
in the amplitude-modulated signal. The amplitude of the equal sideband oscillations depends of the modu-
lation factor. The carrier amplitude is always the same up to modulation factor m = 1. The ratio of the sum
of the amplitudes of both sidebands to the carrier frequency corresponds to the modulation factor or in
short:
^ ^
u LSB + uUSB
m =
^
u
T

Determination of the modulation factor from the spectrum is used mainly for smaller modulation factors.
Distortions are also easily recognizable with this method.

f u = f T - f inf

f o = f T + f inf

Fig. 3.4.1
If speech or music signals are transmitted, they are modulated not with one frequency but with a whole
frequency spectrum. In the medium, long and shortwave range the transmitter bandwidth is fixed at 9 kHz
to accommodate as many transmitters as possible. In telephony, a frequency band of 0.3 to 3.4 kHz is
used to achieve sufficient comprehensibility of speech.
This frequency band is often displayed as a triangle. The triangle does not represent the amplitude dis-
tribution but identifies the high and low frequencies (see fig. 3.4.2).

LSB = Lower Side Band

U
USB = Upper Side Band
high in v e r t e d normal
in f o r m at io n p o si tio n p o si tio n f T = carrier frequency
f req u en c y

LSB USB

fT
lo w f
in f o r m at io n
f req u en c y

Fig. 3.4.2
52 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Task

Draw the frequency spectrum similar to fig. 3.4.2, calculate the resultant frequencies and the required
bandwidth.
Given values: spectrum of the message band = 0.3 ... 3.4 kHz, carrier frequency fT = 1 MHz

Fig. 3.4.3

Task

Assemble a modulator as shown in fig. 3.4.4. Display the input voltage U in and the output voltage U AM at
the same time on the oscilloscope (similar to first part of fig. 3.4.5).
What do you observe when reducing the DC voltage?
Draw the oscillograms and the frequency spectra for the specified DC voltage values. Interpret the
measuring results.

Experiment setup and procedure

2 0 kH z

1 kH z

UT ∑ U AM
+ 2 .5 V

U inf U DC U in

Fig. 3.4.4
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 53

Setting values:
UT f = 20 kHz û=2V
U inf f= 1 kHz û=1V

Fig. 3.4.5
54 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Questions: 1. How can the modulation factor be determined from the frequency spectrum?
2. How great is the amplitude of the lower sideband oscillation when the modulation factor
is 60 % and the carrier has an amplitude of 10 V?

Answers:
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 55

3.5 AM-DSB with Suppressed Carrier

General

If the carrier amplitude is influenced in a multiplier with a message signal without DC offset, an amplitude
modulation with suppressed carrier is generated.
The double sideband method is used, for example, as an intermediate form for single sideband amplitude
modulation or for the stereo supplementary signal in FM broadcasting.
In the past, the ring modulator was mainly used for generating carrier-suppressed amplitude-modulated
signals. Circuits with multipliers are therefore sometimes referred to as active ring modulators.

Task

Prove that a ,,normal“ AM can be made out of a double sideband AM with suppressed carrier. The gener-
ation of the double sideband signal is given, design the rest of the circuit yourself!

Experiment setup

20 kH z

2kHz
UT U DSB U AM
U i nf

Fig. 3.5.1

Setting values:
UT f = 20 kHz û = 2.5 V
U inf = f = 2 kHz û = 2.0 V
56 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Notes
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 57

3.6 The Multiplier in Balanced Modulator Mode

General

The circuit shown in fig. 3.6.1 is referred to as a balanced modulator. This arrangement is not available
on the MODULATION BOARD but the function of the balanced modulator can be demonstrated with the
multiplier.

V1
I1

U i nf U out 1 U out 2

I2

V2

UT

Fig. 3.6.1

Function

The positive carrier pulses (U T ) switch both of the balanced modulator’s diodes in conducting direction.
The modulation signal (U inf ) is then fed practically unhindered to the output (U out 1 ). During the pause in
the carrier signal both diodes block and the output voltage is zero. Due to the symmetrical feeding of the
carrier into the transformers, equal but opposite partial currents are produced which cancel each other
out in their effect on the secondary winding. This means: the carrier is suppressed.
58 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

U inf [ V ] 1

t [ m s]
-1

UT [V] 1

t [ m s]
-1

U out 1 [ V ] 1

t [ ms]
-1

U o ut 2 [ V ] 1

t [ ms]
-1

Fig. 3.6.2
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 59

Task

Assemble a balanced modulator and measure the missing voltages in fig. 3.6.4.

Experiment set up and procedure

15kHz...25kHz
20kHz

2kHz

UT U in f U out 1 U out 2

Fig. 3.6.3

Setting values:
UT f = 20 kHz û = 2 V (pulse-shaped)
U inf f = 2 kHz û = 2 V (sine-shaped)
60 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

U inf [V] 2

0
t [ms]

-1

-2

U T [V] 2

0
t [ms]

U out 1 [V] 2

0
t [ms]

-1

-2

U out 2 [V] 1

0
t [ms]

-1

0.25
Fig. 3.6.4

Question: Does the spectrum of the output voltage U out 1 or U out 2 contain the carrier frequency or
the information frequency?

Answer:
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 61

3.7 The Multiplier in Ring Modulator Mode

General

The ring modulator in its original form (see fig. 3.7.1) is hardly used any more for new developments be-
cause it can be replaced by a product modulator. This circuit has the advantage that it can do without a
transformer. The ring modulator mode is also simulated with the multiplier in the MODULATION BOARD.

V1

V3 V4
U in f U out 1 U out 2

V2

UT
Fig. 3.7.1

Function
The positive carrier amplitude switches the diodes V 1 and V 2 to conducting direction. The information
signal U inf is switched through directly to the output. The diodes V 3 and V 4 become conductive with
negative amplitude. The ,,polarity“ of the information signal is reversed.

Task

Assemble a ring modulator on the MODULATION BOARD (fig. 3.7.2) and measure the missing voltages
in fig. 3.7.3.

Experiment setup and procedure

20kHz
15kHz...25kHz

∑
+ 1. 5 V

2kH z UP U DC UT U inf U out 1 U out 2

Fig. 3.7.2
62 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Setting values:
Up f = 20 kHz û = 2 V (pulse-shaped)
U inf f = 2 kHz û = 2 V (sine-shaped)
U DC U = -1 V

By slightly altering the DC voltage, the symmetry of the output signal U out 1 can be improved.

U T [ V] 1

0
t [m s]

-1

U out 1 [V ] 5

0
t [m s]

-5

U out 2 [ V ] 0 .5

0
t [m s]

-0 .5

Fig. 3.7.3

The operating states balanced modulator and ring modulator are also possible with sinusoidal carrier
signal. For this, replace the pulse-shaped carrier by a sine-shaped carrier (û = 2 V).
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 63

Questions: 1. At what DC voltage (U DC ) is balanced mode set with a sinusoidal carrier?

2. At what DC voltage (U DC ) is ring modulator mode produced with a sinusoidal carrier?

Answers:
64 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Notes
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 65

3.8 Single Sideband Modulation (SSB)

General

The simplest and most common AM system is the double sideband transmission with carrier.
Since both sidebands contain the information, power and bandwidth can be saved by filtering one side-
band and suppressing the carrier. This method is known as single sideband modulation and is used
widely, for example, in amateur radio communication. However, single sideband modulation is not only
used in radio communication. Until the introduction of PCM technology, the carrier frequency telephone
transmission (CF technology) was the most common method of transmitting several calls on one line in
so called frequency-division multiplexing.

U = f ( f)

U [V ]

3 c h a n n els c h an n e l c a rr i er

5 10 12 16 20 25 f [ k H z]

Fig. 3.8.1

Fig. 3.8.1 shows the origin of a three-channel preliminary group for carrier frequency telephone trans-
mission. Four of these preliminary groups are combined in a primary preliminary group. As a result, 12
single sideband channels are arranged adjacently in the 60 ... 108 kHz frequency range for example.
66 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Different methods exist for achieving single sideband modulation:

1. Filter method

In this method a double sideband AM with suppressed carrier is generated first and then one of these
sidebands is filtered out through a filter and transmitted.
The smaller the modulation frequency, the closer the resultant sideband frequencies approach the car-
rier. The filter should change from very high to low attentuation within the frequency gap between the
lower and the upper sideband. This is more difficult, the greater the carrier frequency is (also referred to
as relative edge steepness).

U d a m p i n g c h a r ac t e r i s ti c
o f t h e f ilt e r
If the frequency band to be transmitted
ranges from 5 Hz to 10 kHz, the frequency
gap between the sidebands is only 10 Hz
wide.

Fig. 3.8.2

This problem can be remedied by double conversion. First two sidebands are generated with a relatively
low frequency first carrier frequency. Since a relatively low frequency is used, one sideband can be separ-
ated: then this sideband is converted to high frequency. Two sidebands are produced, of which only one
is to be radiated. Filtering is made easier by the fact that the sidebands are at a distance apart which is
twice as great as the frequency of the auxiliary carrier in single conversion.
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 67

2. Phase method

Here, the message and the carrier are fed once directly and once with a 90° phase shift to two ring modu-
lators or multipliers. One sideband is compensated in the addition of the modulation products of the two
modulators.
Fig. 3.8.3 shows the principle circuit diagram, fig. 3.8.4 shows the single sideband modulation proce-
dures according to the phase method in the pointer representation.

Fig. 3.8.3

This circuit has the advantage

of being able to do without a
transmitter filter. The phase
shifter represents the critical
component of the modulator
for the message signal be-
cause the phase over the
whole message frequency
band must be rotated by
exactly 90°. Even slight ampli-
tude and phase errors lead to
poorer sideband suppression.
On the MODULATION BOARD
the sideband modulation is re-
alised by the filter method.

Fig. 3.8.4
68 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Task

Assemble a single sideband modulator according to the filter method. Examine the output signal with the
oscilloscope at different information frequencies and measure the amplitude of the sidebands, if possible,
in order to be able to explain sideband suppression.

Experiment setup and procedure

Fig. 3.8.5

Setting values:
UT f = 20 kHz û=2V
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 69

s e t t i ng v a lu e s:
U = f ( f)
f i nf = 2 k H z
U [V]
û = 2 V

sett i ng va lue s o n
the oscil l o scope

Y = 0.5 V / di v.
t = 0.2 ms / d iv.
10 20 30 f [ kHz ]

s e t t i ng v a lu e s:
U = f ( f)
f i nf = 1 k H z
U [V]
û = 2 V

sett i ng va lue s o n
the oscil l o scope

Y = 0.5 V / di v.
t = 0.2 ms / d iv.
10 20 30 f [ kHz ]

s e t t i ng v a lu e s:
U = f ( f)
f i nf = 5 0 0 H z
U [V]
û = 2 V

sett i ng va lue s o n
the oscil l o scope

Y = 0.5 V / di v.
t = 0.2 ms / d iv.
10 20 30 f [ kHz ]

Fig. 3.8.6
70 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Repetition questions for chapter 3

Question 1: In what ways can the modulation factor be determined?

Answer:

Question 2: How great does the bandwidth need to be in amplitude modulation if a speech band of
150 Hz ... 4.5 kHz is to be transmitted?

Answer:

Question 3: How great is the carrier amplitude when the amplitude of one sideband is 1 V and the
modulation factor is m = 40%?

Answer:

Question 4: Why is the carrier fed symmetrically in a balanced modulator?

Answer:

Question: 5: How many transmitters can be accommodated in the medium-frequency range

(526.5 kHz - 1506.5 kHz)?
The highest information frequency is 4.5 kHz.

Answer:
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation (AM) 71

Given the different line diagrams below, draw the coresponding frequency spectrum!

Setting on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 1 V / div.
t = 0.2 ms / div.

Setting on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 2 V / div.
t = 0.1 ms / div.

Fig. 3.8.7
72 Amplitude Modulation (AM) V 0130

Notes
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 73

4. Angle Modulation Techniques

4.1 Theoretical Introduction

Frequency and phase modulation are so-called angle modulation techniques. They are called angle modu-
lation techniques because the frequency or the phase relation of a carrier and thus its angle is changed
in the rhythm of a signal oscillation. The best known use for this type of modulation is sound radio in the
VHF band. In frequency modulation, the frequency of a carrier oscillation is varied proportionally to a
modulated signal. The carrier amplitude is not changed by the modulation. Fig. 4.1.1 shows a frequency
modulated carrier oscillation.

A major advantage of the frequency modu-

lation over amplitude modulation is the bet-
ter interference suppression. Since the
amplitude of the modulated oscillation con-
tains no information, an interference which
appears as amplitude modulation can be
suppressed by a limiter amplifier in the re-
ceiver.

Fig. 4.1.1

A frequency-modulated signal can be generated in a number of ways, e.g. with an oscillator, the resonant
circuit capacitance of which is partly represented by a varicap.
By changing the voltage at the varicap, its capacitance changes and detunes the frequency of the reson-
ant circuit.
Another method is the generation with a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO).
Frequency modulation is carried out with one of these modules on the MODULATION BOARD.
74 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

Notes
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 75

4.2 Generation of Frequency Modulated Signals (FM)

General

Frequency modulated oscillations can be generated with a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The fre-
quency of the VCO at the output can be changed by its input voltage. It is therefore also known as a volt-
age frequency converter. A VCO is integrated in many ICs for the demodulation of frequency-modulated
or keyed signals as it is one of the essential elements of the so-called PLL (Phase Locked Loop). The
VCO constant of a generator specifies what frequency change is caused by a change in the input voltage
of 1 V.

∆f
KVCO =
∆Uin

1st part of task

Determine the characteristic of the VCO on the MODULATION BOARD with DC voltage, draw the charac-
teristic in fig. 4.2.2 and calculate the VCO constant.

Experiment setup and procedure

+ 2.5 V U
f
U in U out

Fig. 4.2.1
76 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

U in / V

f VCO / kHz

Table 4.2.1

f = f (Uin )

f [ k H z]

-2 -1 0 1 2 3

Ui n [ V ]

Fig. 4.2.2
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 77

General

Modulation of a VCO normally takes place not with a DC voltage as in the previous experiment but, for
example, with a sinusoidal signal. Fig. 4.2.3 shows the modulation of a VCO characteristic with a sinusoi-
dal information signal.

f = f ( U in )

f [ k H z]
50

40

30
devia ti on f max
∆f
20 f T

f m in
10

-2 -1 0 1 2 3

U in [V ]

U in ( U m odul at ion )

Fig. 4.2.3
78 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

2nd part of task

Examine the VCO circuit with a sinewave voltage.

2kHz

U
1kHz
f
U in U out

Fig. 4.2.4

Display the input and output voltages at the same time on the oscilloscope (triggering on low frequency
input signal). It is not necessary to draw the oscillograms but you should answer the following questions.

Questions: 1. How does the output voltage differ at:

a) smaller and greater signal amplitude (input voltage)?
b) lower and higher signal frequency?

2. How do you recognize the frequency of the input voltage from the FM signal?

Answers:
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 79

4.3 Measuring the Frequency Deviation

General

Deviation of the unmodulated carrier frequency from the highest or lowest frequency is referred to as
frequency deviation.

1
Frequency deviation ∆f = ⋅ (fmax − fmin )
2

The frequencies f min and f max cannot normally be proven in the spectrum because no complete oscillation-
s are available. They are therefore referred to as instantaneous frequencies.

Uou t

Tmin

TT

Tmax

Fig. 4.3.1
80 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

Task

Determine the instantaneous frequencies f min and f max from the oscillogram at different amplitudes of the
modulation voltage and calculate the frequency deviation.

Experiment setup and procedure

1kHz

U
f
U in U out

Fig. 4.3.2

Setting values:
U in f = 1 kHz û = 0.5 V 1st setting
û= 1 V 2nd setting

The instantaneous frequencies and the frequency deviation are calculated as follows:

1 1 1
fmax = fmin = ∆f = ⋅ (fmax − fmin )
Tmin Tmax 2

The times T min and T max can be read from the oscilloscope.

The oscilloscope must be triggered to the output voltage U out .

Questions: 1. To what input variable of the VCO is the frequency deviation proportional?
2. Does the frequency deviation depend on the frequency of the information signal?

Answers:
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 81

4.4 Determining the Modulation Index

General

In amplitude modulation, the modulation factor is the measure of modulation intensity.

In frequency modulation, the ratio of frequency deviation to modulation frequency is the measure of
intensity of the FM. This ratio is known as the modulation index.

η = modulation index
∆f
η = ∆f = frequency deviation
finf
f inf = information frequency, modulation frequency

The modulation index cannot, unlike the modulation factor in AM, be read directly from the oscilloscope.

∆f
It can, however, be calculated very easily with the formula η = .
finf

To do this, the frequency deviation is determined from the oscillogram as in the last experiment or calcu-
lated with the formula ∆f = K VCO ⋅ û inf . If you divide the value of the frequency deviation by the informa-
tion frequency, this gives the modulation index. This behaviour is of little significance, however, in
practical measuring engineering because the frequency deviation is extremely small in relation to the
carrier frequency.

Task

Determine the modulation index from the time function of the FM oscillation at different modulation
frequencies and amplitudes.

Experiment setup and procedure

Fig. 4.4.1
82 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

Setting values:
U inf û = 0.1 V; 0.25 V; -0.5 V

Conduct the measurements at frequencies 500 Hz, 1 kHz, 2 kHz.

Calculate the frequency deviation and the modulation index, enter the values in tables 4.4.1 and 4.4.2
and draw the diagrams fig. 4.4.2 and 4.4.3.

∆f at û inf = 0.1 V ∆f at û inf = 0.25 V ∆f at û inf = 0.5 V

f inf = 500 Hz

f inf = 1 kHz

f inf = 2 kHz

Table 4.4.1

∆ f = f ( û in f )

∆ f [ k H z]

0 .1 0. 2 0 .3 0 .4 0. 5
û i nf [ V ]

Fig. 4.4.2
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 83

η at û = 0.1 V η at û = 0.25 V η at û = 0.5 V

f inf = 500 Hz

f inf = 1 kHz

f inf = 2 kHz

Table 4.4.2

η = f ( û in f )

0.1 0. 2 0 .3 0 .4 0.5
û in f [ V ]

Fig. 4.4.3
84 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

Questions: 1. On which parameter of the input signal does the frequency deviation depend?
2. How does the modulation index change when different modulation frequencies are used
at the same signal amplitude?

Answers:
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 85

4.5 Frequency Spectrum of an FM Oscillation

General

An FM oscillation includes a large number of sidebands above and below the carrier frequency. The spac-
ing of the spectral lines corresponds to the modulation frequency. The amplitudes of carrier and sideband
oscillations change with increasing modulation index. This dependence of the amplitudes on the modula-
tion index can be calculated with the so called Bessel functions or read off from the diagram fig. 4.5.1.

1
J 0 (η )

J n (η ) 0.8

J 1 (η )
0.6
J 2 (η )
J 3 (η )
J 4 (η ) J (η )
0.4 5 J 6 (η ) J 7 (η ) J (η )
8 J 9 (η ) J
1 0 (η )

0.2

- 0.2

- 0.4

- 0.6
0 2 4 6 8 10

Fig. 4.5.1
86 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

Fig. 4.5.2 shows an excerpt from the Bessel functions. If you choose a modulation index of 1, you can
see that:

- the carrier amplitude of 1 drops to 0.75 =

^ 75%

- the first sideband oscillation of 0 rises to 0.44 =

^ 44%

- the second sideband oscillation of 0 rises to 0.11 =

^ 11%

1
J 0 (η )
J n (η ) 0 .8

J 1 (η )
0 .6
J 2 (η ) finf f inf

0 .4

0 .2 f inf f inf
finf f inf
0
fT
f
-0 .2

-0 .4

-0 .6
0 1 2 3 4

Fig. 4.5.2

A special behaviour comes to light at a modulation index of η = 2.4, η = 5.52 and η = 8.65. Zero carriers
can be found here. These zero carriers can easily be proven with a selective level meter, a spectrum ana-
lyser or a selective band-pass filter connected before the oscilloscope. This provides you with a simple
but accurate method of measuring several modulation index values.
The modulation index and thus the width of the spectrum can be theoretically infinite. However, in prac-
tice no infinite bandwidths are available. It is therefore usually limited to approximately B ≈ 2 ⋅ (∆f + f inf ).
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 87

Task

With suitable measuring aids, e.g. variable frequency filter or spectrum analyser, prove the sideband os-
cillations and their distance from the carrier frequency! Change the frequency and amplitude of the infor-
mation signal as shown in figs. 4.5.4 to 4.5.7.

Experiment setup and procedure

Fig. 4.5.3

Setting values:
U inf f inf = 1 kHz û inf = 200 mV

Fig. 4.5.4
88 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

Setting values:
U inf f inf = 1 kHz û inf = 1 V

Fig. 4.5.5

Setting values:
U inf f inf = 2 kHz û inf = 200 mV

Fig. 4.5.6
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 89

Setting values:
U inf f inf = 2 kHz û inf = 1 V

Fig. 4.5.7

Questions: 1. On what variable of the information signal does the distance of the sideband oscillation
depend?
2. How does the bandwidth change in relation to increasing signal amplitude?
3. What bandwidth does an FM transmitter require when its frequency deviation is 75 kHz
and its highest modulation frequency is 15 kHz?
4. What bandwidth does a similar AM transmitter require?

Answers:
90 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

Notes
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 91

4.6 Generation of Phase Modulated Signals (PM)

General

In the generation of FM signals we can determine that:

- the frequency deviation in FM is independent of the information frequency

- the modulation index decreases with increasing modulation frequency

Since the modulation index is the same as the maximum phase deviation, the following also applies:

- in FM, the phase deviation decreases with increasing modulation frequency.

If we assume that a disturbance is random noise which has the same amplitude over the whole spectrum,
it is apparent that high frequencies are disturbed to a large extent and low frequencies to a lesser extent.
Therefore the high information frequencies are accentuated before modulation in the transmitter. This
accentuation is known as pre-emphasis. It is very similar to phase modulation.

Both in phase modulation and pre-emphasis, the reduction in phase deviation at higher information fre-
quencies is compensated, in PM, however, this is linear. In the VHF radio range, accentuation by pre-em-
phasis is achieved with a high-pass filter. The time constant is approx. 50 µs.
This means that all frequencies above about 1 kHz are modulated upon the carrier with increasing ampli-
tude.
To obtain a true-to-original acoustic pattern in the receiver, the low frequency must be equalized after de-
modulation in a low-pass filter with the same constant. This arrangement is known as de-emphasis. It pro-
duces the original amplitude curve of the tone frequencies.
A constant phase deviation over a signal frequency band can be achieved by allowing the frequency devi-
ation to increase with increasing information frequency.

f
∆Φ = ∆Φ = phase deviation
∆finf
∆f = frequency deviation
f inf = information frequency

A PM modulator can therefore be seen as an FM modulator preceded by a module which compensates

the phase deviation reduction of the FM modulator at increasing information frequency. The preceded
module is a differentiator in this case. This is just one of a number of different methods.
92 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

1st part of experiment

Examining a differentiator

Task

Examine the differentiator used on the MODULATION BOARD with sinewave AC voltages. Draw the
measured amplitude response in fig. 4.6.2.

Experiment setup and procedure

2kH z

1 kH z

d
dt

U in U out
5 00Hz

Fig. 4.6.1

Setting values:
U in f = 500 Hz, 1 kHz, 2 kHz û = 1 V

f / kHz 0.5 1 2

û out / V

^
u
Vu = out
u^
in

Table 4.6.1
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 93

Fig. 4.6.2

Question: What can you expect at the output when you apply a DC voltage to the differentiator input?

Answer:
94 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

2nd part of experiment

Measurements on a modulator for phase modulated signals

Task

Assemble a modulator for phase modulated signals by connecting the differentiator and the VCO (see fig.
4.6.3). Measure the frequency deviation and calculate the modulation index from it at different modulation
frequencies and amplitudes.

Experiment setup and procedure

2 kH z

1kHz
d U
dt f
U inf U PM
500Hz

Fig. 4.6.3

Setting values:
U inf û = 0.1 V, 0.25 V, 0.5 V

Conduct the measurements at frequencies 500 Hz, 1 kHz and 2 kHz.

Consult chapters 4.3 and 4.4 for calculation of the frequency deviation and the modulation index.
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 95

∆f at û inf = 0.1 V ∆f at û inf = 0.25 V ∆f at û inf = 0.5 V

f inf = 500 Hz

f inf = 1 kHz

f inf = 2 kHz

Table 4.6.2

∆ f = f ( û in f )

∆ f [ k H z]

0 .1 0. 2 0 .3 0 .4 0. 5
û i nf [ V ]

Fig. 4.6.4
96 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

η at û inf = 0.1 V η at û inf = 0.25 V η at û inf = 0.5 V

f inf = 500 Hz

f inf = 1 kHz

f inf = 2 kHz

Table 4.6.3
η = f ( û in f )

0.1 0. 2 0 .3 0 .4 0.5
û in f [V ]

Fig. 4.6.5

Questions: 1. How does the frequency deviation change in relation to increasing signal frequency?
2. How does the modulation index change at different signal frequencies?

Answers:
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 97

3rd part of experiment

Comparison of FM and PM

General

By summarizing the previous experiments, you can find out what the two modulation methods have in
common and how they differ.

Task

Draw the diagrams ∆f = f (f inf ) and η = f (f inf ) for frequency and phase modulation.

Procedure

The values for the modulation voltage û inf = 0.1 V can be found in chapter 4.4, tables 4.4.1 and 4.4.2 for
FM and in chapter 4.6, tables 4.6.2 and 4.6.3 for PM. Draw the values in diagrams 4.6.6 and 4.6.7.
98 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

û inf = 0.1 V

FM PM

500 Hz ∆f = ∆f =

1 kHz ∆f = ∆f =

2 kHz ∆f = ∆f =

Table 4.6.4 for diagram ∆f = f (f inf )

∆ f = f (f in f ) û inf = 0 .1 V

∆ f [ k H z]

0 .5 1 1 .5 2
f i nf [ k H z ]

Fig. 4.6.6
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 99

û inf = 0.1 V

FM PM

500 Hz η= η=

1 kHz η= η=

2 kHz η= η=

Table 4.6.5 for diagram η = f (f inf )

η = f ( f in f ) û in f = 0 .1 V

0 .5 1 1 .5 2
f in f [k H z ]

Fig. 4.6.7
100 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

Fill in the gaps in the following texts

The following applies for FM:

The frequency deviation is independent of the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The frequency deviation is proportional to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The following applies for PM:

The phase deviation is independent of the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is proportional to the signal amplitude.

Question: What effect is produced when a demodulator for frequency modulated signals demodulates
a phase modulated signal?

Answer:
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 101

4.7 Generation of Pulse Frequency Modulated Signals (PFM)

General

The modulation techniques dealt with above (AM, FM, PM) had one thing in common: the sinusoidal car-
rier oscillation which was changed in amplitude, frequency or phase. In the pulse modulation techniques
on the other hand, a carrier with a pulse form is used.

Depending on how this pulse is changed we refer to:

- pulse frequency modulation PFM

- pulse phase modulation PPM

- pulse duration modulation PDM

- pulse amplitude modulation PAM

Since the PFM and PPM methods are very similar in their generation to the FM and PM methods, they
are dealt with in this chapter.
The following example is aimed at showing a simple application of the PFM modulation type.

Practical example PFM

The wind speed is to be measured with a wind measuring device and indicated at another point by a
moving-coil instrument. Simple devices convert the movement of the cup anemometer with a small gene-
rator into electrical voltage. At low wind speeds, e.g. below 0.5 ms -1 , a device like this does not work due
to friction losses and the energy required by the generator.
High quailty devices therefore have a slotted disk in place of the generator. The wind no longer needs to
power the generator, only the bearing friction needs to be overcome. The slotted disk is coupled optically
to a light barrier which transmits voltage pulses when the disk turns. The frequency of the pulses is pro-
portional to the wind speed. The pulse and pause time is the same.
102 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

If the measuring device with a

moving-coil mechanism is con-
nected directly to the output, the
same value (U B / 2 e.g. 7.5 V) is
set for all wind speeds because
the arithmetic average is always
the same.

Fig. 4.7.1

800
f [ H z]
700

600

500

400

300

200

100

10 20 30 40
v [ms -1 ]

Fig. 4.7.2

Question: What additional measure is necessary to produce a pointer deflection proportional to wind
speed?

Answer:
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 103

1st Task

Measurements on the modulator for pulse frequency modulated signals

Task

Assemble a modulator for pulse frequency modulated signals (see fig. 4.7.3). Measure the voltages of the
individual stages and draw these in the diagram provided, fig. 4.7.4. The drawing need not be to scale.

Experiment setup and procedure

Fig. 4.7.3

Setting values:
U inf f = 1 kHz û=1V
104 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

U inf [V ] 1

0 .5

0
t [m s ]

- 0 .5

-1

U FM [V ] 1

0
t [ ms]

-1

U1 [V ] 10

-10
t [m s ]

U PFM [V ] 10

0
t [ ms]

Fig. 4.7.4
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques 105

4.8 Generation of Pulse Phase Modulated Signals (PPM)

General

The PFM has the disadvantage in comparison with PPM that the permissible phase deviation is only used
at low signal frequencies. Therefore the amplitude of the higher signal frequencies is accentuated; this is
the same method which creates a modulator for phase modulated signals out of an FM modulator. Like
the pulse amplitude modulation, the pulse phase modulation is also used in time-division multiplexing.
In the transmission of squarewave pulses, superposed disturbance signals would not have any effect be-
cause although the amplitude of the transmitted pulses would be changed, the position in time of the
pulse edges would not. An infinitely large frequency band is required in practice, however, to transmit
such squarewave pulses.
To save bandwidth, the pulses are shaped (soft keying), this leads to shifts in the pulse edges if the
pulses are superposed by disturbances (see fig. 4.8.1).

p u l s e w it h o u t p u ls e w i t h
d i s t u r b a n c e s ig n al d i st u r b a n c e s i g n a l

r e c e i ve r
t h r es h o l d

e rro r d ue t o
d is t u r b a n c e
s ig n al

Fig. 4.8.1

In order to exploit the advantages of the phase modulation a transmission channel with a large bandwidth
is required. Optic waveguide systems generally have this property.

Task

Draw the block diagram of a modulator for pulse phase modulated signals.
106 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

Repetition questions for chapter 4

Question 1: By what means can frequency modulation be generated?

Answer:

Question 2: What can you read from the frequency spectrum shown below in fig. 4.8.2?

Fig. 4.8.2

Answer:
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 107

5. Digital Modulation Techniques

5.1 Theoretical Introduction

Within the general term ,,digital modulation techniques“, a distinction is made between:

1. Digital modulation of a sinusoidal carrier by shift keying (digital message signal, sinusoidal carrier
signal)

- Amplitude Shift Keying ASK

- Frequency Shift Keying FSK

- Phase Shift Keying PSK

2. Pulse modulation (,,carrier signal“ pulsiform, analog message signal)

- Pulse Amplitude Modulation PAM

- Pulse Frequency Modulation PFM

- Pulse Phase Modulation PPM

(pulse position modulation)

- Pulse Duration Modulation PDM

or
PWM = Pulse Width Modulation

3. Modulation in the base band (,,carrier signal“ pulsiform, digitalized, originally analog signal)

- Pulse Code Modulation PCM

- Delta Modulation DM
108 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

This chapter deals with the ASK, FSK and PSK methods, i.e. shift keying modulation.

Fig. 5.1.1
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 109

Modulation by means of shift keying presupposes that the information is available in digital form. Written
characters must be put into a transmittable, i.e. digital form. This conversion is generally known as cod-
ing.
The Morse alaphabet is a telegraphy code which has been in use since about 1840 and which is still used
sometimes today in amateur and maritime radio communication. In Morse communication, the length of
the characters is inversely related to its average frequency. In the simplest case, a keyed direct current is
transmitted on a line (DC keying).
The receiver consists of an electromagnet with armature which presses a stylus against a uniformly mov-
ing strip of paper in the rhythm of the pulses. This is referred to as DC keying in single current mode
because the direct current is only switched on and off. When the polarity of the current is reversed during
transmission of the digital status, we have a so-called double current mode.

l o n g - dist an c e c ab l e p a pe r re e l

sty l us

k ey

m a gn e t

t r a n sm itt e r r e c e ive r
ea r th

Fig. 5.1.2 Morse telegraph system (in schematic form)

110 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

International teleprinter alphabet no. 2

The characters of a teleprinter are usually coded in the international teleprinter alphabet no. 2.

Bu Zi 1 2 3 4 5

A - • •

B ? • • •

C : • • •
D Who’s there • •

E 3 •

F • • •

G • • •

H • •

I 8 • •

J Bell • • •

K ( • • • •

L ) • •

M . • • •

N , • •

O 9 • •

P 0 • • •

Q 1 • • • •

R 4 • •

S ’ • •
T 5 •

U 7 • • •

V = • • • •

W 2 • • •

X / • • • •

Y 6 • • •

Z + • •

Carriage return •
Line feed •

Letters • • • • •

Numerals • • • •

Space •
Fig. 5.1.3
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 111

7-bit code CCITT No. 5

A code frequently used in data transmission is the socalled ASCII code (American Standard Code of Infor-
mation Interchange) which consists of 128 characters.

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

b7 b6 b5 b4 b3 b2 b1

0 0 0 0 Space 0 @ P p

0 0 0 1 ! 1 A Q a q

0 0 1 0 " 2 B R b r

0 0 1 1 # 3 C S c s

0 1 0 0 $ 4 D T d t

0 1 0 1 % 5 E U e u
control characters

0 1 1 0 & 6 F V f v

0 1 1 1 7 G W g w

1 0 0 0 ( 8 H X h x

1 0 0 1 ) 9 I Y i y

1 0 1 0 * : J Z j z

1 0 1 1 + ; K [ k {

1 1 0 0 , < L \ l |

1 1 0 1 - = M ] m }

1 1 1 0 . > N ^ n ~

1 1 1 1 / ? O _ o DEL
Fig. 5.1.4
112 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

In the ASK, FSK and PSK modulation techniques, digital informations are transmitted with the aid of a
sinusoidal carrier over analog channels. The signal converter for analog transmission paths consists of a
modulator on the transmitter side and a demodulator on the receiver side. The data transmission equip-
ment in the tele-phone network is therefore known as a MODEM.
The existing infrastructure of the analog directional radio network is also used for transmitting digital sig-
nals with the aid of the digital modulation techniques.

The following table (5.1.1) provides an overview of the frequencies and bit rates of typical digital signal
directional radio systems.

System Bit rate Radio frequency Radio field

Modulation
designation range length Application
type
(DBP) Mbit / s MHz km

DRS 34/1900 34 1700 ... 2100 4 PSK 50

Trunk network
DRS 140/6700 140 6425 ... 7125 16 QAM 50

DRS 2 x 2/15000 2x2

14500 ... 15350 4 PSK 15
DRS 2 x 8/15000 2x8
Regional and
DRS 2-34/18700 2, 8, 34 17700 ... 19700 4 FSK 10 local network

DRS 140/18700 140 17700 ... 19700 4 QAM 10

Table 5.1.1

Digital modulation techniques are also used for operating the so-called GSM systems. In Germany, two
networks for mobile radio, the D1 and D2 networks, have been set up according to this GSM standard.
These networks allow up to 5 million users within Germany. GMSK is used as a modulation technique.

MSK: Minimum Shift Keying is a special 2-FSK method with modulation index η = 0.5.

GMSK: Gauss Minimum Shift Keying is an MSK method in which the bandwidth is reduced by a
Gauss filter.
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 113

In the codings used today (e.g. ASCII) all steps last the same time. These steps are the smallest unit of
information, they are called bits.
If you measure the steps per second you obtain one of the most essential parameters of a transmission
system, the modulation rate v s .

1
vs = T s (step time) = T bit
Ts

This variable is measured in the unit baud. Bd = 1s -1

If the 0 and 1 steps alternate within a data sequence, a periodic step sequence is produced. The fre-
quency of this step sequence is known as the step frequency or point frequency.

vs 1
fs = =
2 2 ⋅ Ts

The speed at which data can be transmitted depends among other things on the number of significant
conditions.
If the digitalized signal can adopt two different conditions (e.g. carrier off, carrier on, phase relation 0°,
180°), the number of significant conditions is n = 2 and the following applies:

vD = vs v D = data transmission speed

v s = modulation rate

In multivalue modulation techniques (e.g. 4-PSK with phase relation +45°, +135°, -45°, -135°), two
consecutive bits can be combined in one dibit. This increases the data transmission speed.

The following applies generally:

v D = ld n ⋅ v s in bit / s v D = data transmission speed
ld = logarithm to the base 2
n = number of significant conditions
v s = modulation rate
114 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

Notes
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 115

5.2 Generation of Amplitude Shift Keying Signals (ASK)

General

In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier is influenced by the modulation signal. This may be
done with mechanical or electronic switches. Fig. 5.2.1 shows the principle circuit of the ASK modulator
used in the MODULATION BOARD in which an analog switch is used.

- ASK
c ar r i er +

H I 201
INFO 1

Fig. 5.2.1

In two-stage ASK, the carrier is switched on, for example, by a binary 1 and switched off by a binary 0.
This method is therefore also known as ,,On-Off keying“ (OOK).
This keyed carrier can additionally be modulated with a sinusoidal oscillation. This is known as toned ke-
ying.

U
i n f o r m a t io n s ig n a l

A S K t o n ele s s k e y in g
U

A S K t o n ed k e yi n g
U

Fig. 5.2.2

In toned keying, a receiver supplies a keyed tone frequency, e.g. for listening to morse codes.
116 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

1st part of task

Assemble an ASK modulator as shown in fig. 5.2.3. Draw the input and output voltages in diagram, fig.
5.2.4 in the correct chronological order.

Experiment setup and procedure

Fig. 5.2.3

Setting values:
UT f = 2 kHz û=1V
U inf f = 250 Hz TTL level
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 117

Fig. 5.2.4

Questions: 1. Which TTL level closes the analog switch and which opens it?
2. What modulation rate corresponds to the used frequency of 250 Hz?
3. How is a modulator for toned keying assembled?
Draw and assemble the circuit.

Answers:
118 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

General

The amplitude shift keying can be seen as a special type of amplitude modulation. It must therefore be
possible to generate an amplitude keyed signal with a product modulator.

2nd part of task

Wire the product modulator on the MODULATION BOARD in such a way that it generates amplitude
keyed signals. Complete the experiment circuit fig. 5.2.5.

Fig. 5.2.5

Question: What effect does the capacitor in the input circuit have?

Answer:
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 119

5.3 Spectrum of Amplitude Shift Keying Signals

General

In amplitude modulation, sideband oscillations at the distance of the information frequency can be proven
above and below the carrier frequency. The DC offset is responsible for the presence of the carrier in the
spectrum. Without the fed DC voltage, an AM with suppressed carrier would be produced.

20k Hz

1k Hz

UT ∑ U mod U AM
+ 2 .5 V
U in f
U DC

Fig. 5.3.1
120 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

U in f U

f in f
f
U m od U

D C vo l t a g e

f in f
f
UT U

fT
f
U AM U

t f in f f i nf

fT
f

Fig. 5.3.2
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 121

An AC squarewave voltage can be divided into a sum of sinusoidal oscillations of different frequency and
amplitude.

Example

An AC squarewave voltage f = 1 kHz is made up, for example, of:

f = 1 kHz u= 1V
f = 3 kHz u= 0.33 V
f = 5 kHz u= 0.20 V
f = 7 kHz u = 0.143 V
. .
. .
. .

Since the squarewave signal generated on the MODULATION BOARD is not an AC voltage but alternates
between 0 and an adjustable positive value, a DC offset can also be found in the frequency spectrum, the
value of which is equal to half the amplitude of the modulation signal (arithmetic average).
122 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

1st part of task

Draw the frequency spectrum of the input voltages and the amplitude keyed signal.

Fig. 5.3.3
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 123

2nd part of task

Generate an amplitude keyed signal with the ASK modulator and measure the frequency spectrum with
suitable measuring equipments.

Fig. 5.3.4

Setting values:
U T = 2 kHz û=1V
U inf = 250 Hz TTL level

U = f (f)

U [V ]

1 .0 2.0 3 .0 4.0 5 .0
f [ k H z]

Fig. 5.3.5
124 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

Questions: 1. How great is the necessary bandwidth?

2. How does the spectrum change when the information frequency U inf has a frequency
of 500 Hz?

Answers:
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 125

Bandwidth limiting / Soft keying

General

All measurements have been conducted on the assumption of a squarewave information signal which is
equivalent to a bit sequence of 010101...
Other bit combinations give different frequency spectra.
These frequency divisions are symmetrical mirror-inverted to the carrier frequency in ASK modulation.

U
(1 )

B it se q u e n c e 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

D a t a s ig n a l ( 1 /3 )
( 1 /5 )
( 1 /7 ) (1 /9 ) (1 /1 1)

U
(1 )

B it se q u en c e 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

D a t a s ig n a l ( 1 /3 )

(1 /7 )
( 1 / 1 1 ) . ..

Fig. 5.3.6 f

In all other bit combinations which deviate from the symmetrical squarewave voltage with fastest possible
0/1 alternation, the harmonics are closer together. The required bandwidth is greatest with a bit sequence
of 0101...
The bandwidth of an amplitude keyed system must be at least great enough that the first harmonics of
the squarewave signal can be transmitted at occurring step frequency (= max. frequency).
Since the frequency spectrum is formed symmetrically around the carrier, the bandwidth is doubled and
factor 2 appears in the formula.
B min = 2 ⋅ f s
To guarantee a reliable transmission, a bandwidth greater by factor 1.5 is chosen in practice.

B min ≈ 2 ⋅ f s ⋅ 1.5 B min = bandwidth

f s = step frequency
126 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

There are different ways of limiting the bandwidth of the modulated signal.

1. Using a transmission filter

In this method, all frequency divisions are generated and the undesirable ones are filtered out through a
transmission filter.

Advantage: simple modulator structure

Disadvantage: complexity of band-pass filters
Every channel requires a filter system with different frequencies.

2. Soft keying before modulation

Here, the harmonics of the hard keyed, i.e. squarewave digital signal are cut off by a low-pass filter. The
resultant digital signal with soft transitions is fed to the modulator.

Advantage: Costly, channel-specific transmission filters can be omitted.

Disadvantage: The structure of the modulator becomes more complex because it can no longer
operate in switch mode.
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 127

Task

Generate an amplitude keyed signal and use the band-pass filter for soft keying. Measure the hard and
soft keyed signal and the corresponding frequency spectra with the oscilloscope.

Experiments setup and procedure

Fig. 5.3.7

Setting values:
UT f = 20 kHz û=1V
U inf f = 2 kHz û = TTL level

U 1 = f (f )

U1 [ V]

10 20 30 f [ kH z ]

U 2 = f (f )

U2[ V]

10 20 30 f [ kH z ]

Fig. 5.3.8
128 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

Question: What data transmission speed can be achieved by the described system? (The bandwidth
of the band-pass filter can be assumed to be 10 kHz.)

Answer:
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 129

5.4 Generation of Frequency Shift Keying Signals (FSK)

General

A disadvantage of amplitude shift keying is that one of the two states is ,,no signal“. This state can also
be produced by an interruption on the transmission line. Frequency shift keying does not have this disad-
vantage. In 2-stage frequency shift keying (2-FSK), the frequency of the carrier oscillation changes bet-
ween defined values which are assigned to the logic states 1 and 0. The average value of the two as-
signed frequencies is defined as the virtual carrier frequency.

fo + f1
fT = f T = virtual carrier frequency
2
f o = assigned frequency for 0
f 1 = assigned frequency for 1

Similar to frequency modulation, there are several variables which are defined as follows:

fo − f1
∆f = ∆f = frequency deviation
2

∆f
η = 2 ⋅ η = modulation index
2 ⋅ fs
f s = step frequency

This is very easy to accomplish by switching between two oscillators with the same amplitude. This
method does, however, have the disadvantage that most of the demodulators have transient problems
with these signals. Keying therefore takes place usually in a common oscillator by uninterruptable switch-
ing of the resonant circuit inductance or capacitance or by means of a VCO.
130 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

Task

Generate a frequency keyed signal, draw the frequency keyed signal and the information voltage in a
diagram (fig. 5.4.2).

G
2kH z

f
1kHz

f
n U0
U out
250Hz U1

U in f

Fig. 5.4.1

Setting values:
Uo f = 2 kHz û=1V
U1 f = 1 kHz û=1V

Fig. 5.4.2

Question: What is the frequency deviation and virtual carrier frequency of the circuit being examined?

Answer:
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 131

5.5 Spectrum of Frequency Shift Keying Signals

General

A whole range of modems operates according to the frequency shift keying principle.
A modem for 1200 bit / s is defined for example in the CCITT recommendation V 23.
The modem operates with an assigned frequency of 1300 Hz for the binary state 1 and 2100 Hz for the bi-
nary state 0. The virtual carrier frequency is 1700 Hz. The modulated data signal claims a frequency
range of about 900 ... 2500 Hz.
An auxiliary channel for control and acknowledgement signals is also provided.
U = f (f T )
Similarly to with
U [V ] a u xili a r y c h a n n e l ASK, soft keying
by using a low-
410 1700 pass filter and
thus soft keying
of the modula-
390 450 1300 2100 tion signal can
be achieved or
the disturbing
sideband oscilla-
tions are sup-
400 800 1200 1600 2000 f [ Hz] pressed with a
T

transmission fil-
ter.
Fig. 5.5.1

Experiment procedure

Three measurements must be made:

Task

Measure the frequency spectrum of the output signal in circuit fig. 5.4.1.

Question: What can you say about the measured frequency spectra?

Answer:
132 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

U ASK = f ( f ) Setting values:

1st measurement:
U ASK [ V ]

U1 f = 1 kHz û=1V
U0 f = 2 kHz û=0V

1.0 2. 0 3 .0 4 .0 5.0
f [ k H z]

U ASK = f ( f ) Setting values:

2nd measurement:
U ASK [ V ]

U1 f = 1 kHz û=1V
U0 f = 2 kHz û=0V

1.0 2. 0 3 .0 4 .0 5.0
f [ k H z]

U FSK = f ( f ) Setting values:

3rd measurement:
U FSK [ V ]

U1 f = 1 kHz û=1V
U0 f = 2 kHz û=1V

1.0 2. 0 3 .0 4 .0 5.0
f [ k H z]

Fig. 5.5.2
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 133

5.6 Generation of Phase Shift Keying Signals (PSK)

General

Another way to modulate a signal is to vary the phase. The Phase Shift Keying (PSK) described here is
only the basic type of a whole range of phase modulation methods.
In this method, the phase can only adopt two discrete values. The method is therefore known as two
phase shift keying (2-PSK) or BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying).
According to CCITT V.1, the phase relation should not change for the binary state 1 whilst phase reversal
(180°) is determined for state 0. This phase reversal can be produced, for example, in a ring modulator or
product modulator. Another possibility is to reverse the phase with an operational amplifier and to switch
the phase relation with an analog switch controlled by the digital signal. The PSK modulator used in the
MODULATION BOARD operates according to this principle.

Fig. 5.6.1
134 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

Task

Generate a phase keyed signal with the PSK modulator on the MODULATION BOARD and draw it in
correct chronological order with the digital information signal and the carrier signal.

Experiment setup and procedure

2k H z

f +1
n 2 5 0 Hz UT u PSK

U in f

Fig. 5.6.2

Setting values:
UT f = 2 kHz û=1V
U inf f = 250 Hz TTL level
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 135

UT [V ] 1

0
t [m s]

-1

U i nf [V ] 5

0
t [m s]

U PSK [V ] 1

0
t [m s]

-1

2.5

Fig. 5.6.3

Question: How can a PSK modulator be assembled with the product modulator?
Draw the circuit diagram and assemble the circuit.

Answer:
136 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

Notes
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 137

5.7 Spectrum of Phase Shift Keying Signals

General

You can imagine a phase keyed signal as consisting of two hard keyed AM signals.

Fig. 5.7.1

The spectrum of the phase keyed signal is therefore very similar to that of the ASK oscillation. The side-
band oscillations are amplified whereas the carrier oscillation dominates on account of the opposite
phase.
As in ASK and FSK, the distinctive frequency spectrum can also be limited in PSK signals, e.g. by filte-
ring.
However, the bandwidth must be chosen so that the first sideband oscillations above and below the sup-
pressed carrier are still transmitted.
138 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

Task

Measure the frequency spectrum of a phase keyed signal. Connect a band-pass filter after the PSK modu-
lator to limit the frequency spectrum. Measure the output voltage of the modulator and the output voltage
of the band-pass filter with the oscilloscope.

Experiment setup and procedure

20 kHz 15kHz...25kHz

+1
2 kHz UT U PS K U out

U in f

Fig. 5.7.2

Setting values:
UT f = 20 kHz û=1V
U inf f = 2 kHz TTL level
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 139

U PSK = f (t)

Fig. 5.7.3

Fig. 5.7.4
140 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

U out = f (t)

Fig. 5.7.5

U out = f ( f)

U out [V ]

10 20 30 40 50
f [ k H z]

Fig. 5.7.6
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques 141

Questions: 1. What is the amplitude of the carrier frequency in the spectrum of the output voltage
U PSK?
2. To which modulation technique is the screen display of the output voltage Uout similar?

Answers:
142 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

Repetition questions for chapter 5

Question 1: Draw the principle signal curve of an ASK, FSK and PSK signal.

Answer:

Fig. 5.7.7

Question 2: Name one of the applications for the digital modulation techniques.

Answer:

Question 3: Why are signals soft keyed?

Answer:

Question 4: What types of soft keying are you familiar with?

Answer:
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques 143

6. Pulse Modulation Techniques

6.1 Theoretical Introduction

The pulse modulation is based on the use of a pulsiform carrier signal which is modulated by an analog in-
formation signal. Depending on how the carrier pulse is changed you get:

pulse frequency modulation PFM

pulse phase modulation PPM
pulse duration modulation PDM
pulse amplitude modulation PAM

The pulse frequency and pulse phase modulation methods were dealt with in chapter 4.7 (angle modu-
lation techniques) because of their type of generation.
The pulse duration modulation (or pulse width modulation PWM) is unimportant as a method for message
transmission.
However, pulse width modulation can be used in power electronics for power control. A high efficiency is
achieved since the transistors or valves operate in switch mode in this type of power control. This is ex-
ploited for example in high power AM radio transmitters.
The pulse amplitude modulation is not used on transmission lines because of its susceptibility to inter-
ference and the large transmission bandwidth which is required. It is used as an intermediate stage for
other modulation techniques such as PDM, PPM and PCM.
144 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Summary of the different pulse modulation techniques

Fig. 6.1.1
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques 145

6.2 Generation of a Pulse Amplitude Modulated Signal

General

The pulse amplitude modulation is seldom used for message transmission. It is used frequently, however,
for other pulse modulation techniques and for time-division multipexing.
In pulse amplitude modulation, the signal to be modulated, e.g. a telephone signal, is sampled by a digital
pulse sequence. Although only these short sampling pulses are transmitted, it is possible to fully reco-
ver the original signal on the receiver side providing that:

- band limiting of the message signal has taken place before modulation

- The number of sampling values is in a certain ratio to the maximum information frequency (sampling
theorem, see also chapter 6.4).

Figure 6.2.1 explains this modulation procedure. A pulse sequence is produced in modulation, the ampli-
tude of which corresponds exactly to the amplitude of the input signal at the appropriate times.
146 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Fig. 6.2.1
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques 147

The modulator for pulse amplitude modulated signals can be set up very simply with an analog switch;
the low-pass filter in the modulator input is not required under certain conditions. If, for example, the infor-
mation voltage is sampled with an analog switch, the so-called bipolar modulation results. If the informa-
tion voltage is shifted by addition of a DC voltage so positively or negatively that the input signal no lon-
ger changes polarity, unipolar modulation results.

bipolar modulation
U PAM [ V ] 1

0
t [ ms]
-1

unipolar modulation
U PAM [ V ] 4

0
t [ ms]

Fig. 6.2.2
148 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Task:

Generate a bipolar pulse amplitude modulated signal, draw the information voltage, the sampling signal
and the output signal in the diagram provided, fig. 6.2.4.
Use the analog switch which is normally used as an ASK modulator.

Experiment setup and procedure

Fig. 6.2.3

Setting values:
U inf f = 1 kHz û = 1.5 V
Us f = 8 kHz The 8 kHz switching signal is available with a pulse duration of approx. 15 µs at the
switching input of the actual PAM modulator with TTL level.
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques 149

Fig. 6.2.4
150 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Question: How can the circuit in fig. 6.2.3 be extended to produce a unipolar PAM signal?
Extend the circuit and draw the output voltage in the diagram, fig. 6.2.5.

Answer:

Fig. 6.2.5
 V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques 151

6.3 Frequency Spectrum of the Pulse Amplitude Modulated Signal

General

The unmodulated sampling pulse has a very large frequency spectrum. It contains frequency components
at f s , 2 ⋅ f s , 3 ⋅ f s ...
A large transmission bandwidth is therefore required to obtain the pulse shape of the sampling pulse or a
PAM signal over a transmission line. The bandwidth depends on the duty cycle of the pulse. The narrower
the pulse, the greater the frequency spectrum is extended.
In fig. 6.3.1, the spectrum of a pulse is shown with the pulse width t = 12 µs.
To retain the pulse shape, the bandwidth of the spectrum should be large enough so that the trans-
mission takes place to at least the first zero of the spectrum’s envelope curve. This first zero of a pulse
1
with 12 µs is = 83.3 kHz.
12 µs

Fig. 6.3.1

In modulation of the signal oscillation with a pulse carrier, sideband oscillations are produced, similarly to
an amplitude modulation, below and above the harmonics of the pulse carrier. The signal frequency also
appears in the resultant spectrum.
152 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Task

Determine the frequency spectrum of the output voltage U PAM at the respective specified input voltage
values and draw it in the diagram provided, fig. 6.3.3.

Experiment setup and procedure

1k H z A SK

∑
f SYNC
+ 2. 5 V 15 µs
U inf U DC UPA M
8 kH z
US
f
f
n
4 kH z

Fig. 6.3.2

Questions: 1. At what frequency can the first minimum be observed in the amplitude of the spectral
lines?
1
2. Are the measured minium and the calculated value f = identical?
τ
3. At what frequency spacing do the spectral lines follow one another when only the
sampling pulse is analysed?
4. How does the spectrum of an unipolar and a bipolar PAM differ?
5. How can a PAM signal be demodulated?

Answers:
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques 153

Setting values
U inf U DC = 2.5 V Us 8 kHz TTL level

Setting values
U inf 1 kHz û = 2 V U DC = 0 V Us 8 kHz TTL level

Setting values
U inf 1 kHz û = 1.5 V U DC = 2.5 V Us 8 kHz TTL level

Fig. 6.3.3
154 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Notes
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques 155

6.4 Explanation of the Sampling Theorem

According to Shannon’s sampling theorem, the sampling frequency must be at least double the highest in-
formation frequency.

f s > 2 ⋅ f inf f s = sampling frequency

f inf = information frequency

In practice this means that the information signal must be limited in its bandwidth at fixed sampling fre-
quency.

Example
The bandwidth of the telephony band ranges from 0.3 ... 3.4 kHz. The minimum sampling frequency is
then 2 x 3.4 kHz = 6.8 kHz.
The sampling frequency is in fact fixed at 8 kHz in practical systems.
In the Compact Disc System (CD) the PAM method is also used as a pre-stage to the PCM modulation.
The sampling frequency is 44.1 kHz, the highest information frequency 20 kHz.
The sampling theorem can be explained in different ways. This manual attempts to demonstrate the Shan-
non theorem with the aid of the frequency spectrum.
In the previous exercise we have seen that the spectrum of a unipolar pulse amplitude modulation shows
similarities with an amplitude modulation with sinusoidal carrier. However, the combination (of carrier,
lower sideband, upper sideband) is repeated for the multiples of the pulse frequency. If the pulse carrier
is modulated with a signal band (e.g. the telephony voice band of 0.3 ... 3.4 kHz), sidebands are obtained
below and above the spectral lines of the carrier.

fS fS fS

f max f S - f max fS f S + f m ax f S - f max 2 xf S f S + f m ax

f

f s = sampling frequency f max = maximum information frequency

Fig. 6.4.1
156 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

The information signal can be filtered out in a receiver through a low-pass filter with the limit frequency
f g = f max .
If the requirement of the sampling theorem is not satisfied (either by too low a sampling frequency or too
high an information frequency), part of the lower sideband of the first carrier harmonic falls into the voice
band. The original band can then no longer be recovered without errors. This failure to comply with the
sampling theorem is referred to as ,,aliasing“. Fig. 6.4.2 shows this effect in low keying, i.e. at too low a
sampling frequency.

Fig. 6.4.2
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques 157

Task

In this task, a unipolar PAM should be generated and examined at different information and sampling fre-
quencies. Measure the frequency spectrum at the setting values specified in fig. 6.4.4.

Experiment setup and procedure

2kHz

ASK

1kHz ∑
f SYNC
15 µs

U in f U DC U PAM
+ 2. 5 V 8kHz
US
f
f
n
4kH z

Fig. 6.4.3

Question: In what cases can the information signal no longer be filtered out of the PAM signal by a
low-pass filter f g = 3.4 kHz?

Answer:
158 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Fig. 6.4.4
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques 159

6.5 Time-division Multiplexing

General

Time-division multiplexing is used in telecommunications for multiple use of transmission lines.

Since large time gaps result between the modulated pulses in pulse amplitude modulation and pulse
phase modulation, pulses modulated with other information signals are interleaved in these gaps in time-
division multiplexing.
Every one of the signals to be transmitted is sampled with the same pulse carrier frequency but offset in
time (see fig. 6.5.3). If the sampling frequency is fixed, the pulse width determines the number of signals
to be transmitted. To avoid mutual interference, the individual sampling pulses must be spaced.

modulator demodulator

U1
synchronized sampling in the
modulator and demodulator

U2

U PAM

U3

Fig. 6.5.1

The analog multiplexer and thus the time-division multiplexing is also used in the acquisition of measured
values from different sensor sources. The individual inputs are activated in chronological order and apply
the sensor signal to the input of the A/D converter or a microprocessor selects when and how often it
accesses a certain input.

adr es s and c ont rol bus

s ens or filt e r

s ens o r fi lt er A
a na log s ample an d
data bu s mic r opr oc es s or
mu ltipl ex e r ho ld s ta ge
D

Fig. 6.5.2
160 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Fig. 6.5.3
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques 161

Task

Generate a PAM time multiplex signal. Measure the voltages asked for in fig. 6.5.5 and determine the
frequency spectrum of the output voltage U PAM .

Experiment setup and procedure

1k H z

U inf 1

f SYNC
15 µs
UP AM
+ 2.5 V 8 kH z

Us 1 Us 2 f
U in f 2 f
U syn c n
4 kH z

Fig. 6.5.4

Setting values
U inf 1 1 kHz û = 1.5 V
U inf 2 U = +2 V
U sync f = 8 kHz TTL level

Questions: 1. Is the voltage U PAM a unipolar or bipolar PAM?

2. How many channels could you transmit theoretically whilst retaining the 8 kHz sampling
frequency at 15 µs pulse width?
3. Why is the PAM multiplex technique not used on transmission lines?

Answers:
162 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Fig. 6.5.5
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques 163

Fig. 6.5.6
164 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Repetition questions for chapter 6

Question 1: How great should the bandwidth of a transmission system be when the pulse width is 15 µs?

Answer:

Question 2: With what sampling frequency must a signal whose maximum frequencies are 15 kHz be
sampled?

Answer:

Question 3: Why does frequency band limiting have to take place before sampling?

Answer:

Question 4: What pulse sequence frequency does a system have which is sampled with 8 kHz and has
32 channels?

Answer:
V 0130 Pulse Code Modulation 165

7. Pulse Code Modulation

7.1 Theoretical Introduction

From our experience of other modulation techniques, e.g. AM and FM, we know:
The influence of disturbance signals can be considerably reduced by extending the message signal to a
wide frequency band.
Another possibility of reducing disturbances and distortions on a transmission line is to use digital signals
for transmission. The digital information can be transmitted directly as a base band signal through a low-
pass filter channel or carried through a band pass channel.
The digital information is obtained by dividing the message signal into certain amplitude stages, the so-
called quantization intervals. Each of these intervals is assigned a code word. The finer the resolution of
the amplitude stages, the greater the number of quantization intervals and the greater the number of posi-
tions of the binary codes.
For transmission, it is not necessary to quantize and code every instantaneous value of the information
signal.
Individual sampling values as supplied by the PAM technique are sufficient. The pulse amplitude modula-
tion is therefore used frequently as a pre-stage to pulse code modulation.
The principle of a pulse code modulator is shown below.

q uanti za ti on
U inf and c oding PC M sign al

fS

Fig. 7.1.1

Function

The information signal is limited in bandwidth by the low-pass filter (requirement of the sampling theorem
f s > 2 ⋅ f inf ). The frequency band limited information signal is sampled with the sampling frequency f s .
Since the quantization and the coding are not infinitely fast, it is advisable to keep the amplitude of the
sampling value constant until the next sample arrives. This is enabled by a hold circuit. Sample and hold
form a unit and are often referred to as a sample and hold circuit. This circuit is also used for demodu-
lation of pulse amplitude modulated signals.

PAM Samp le
1 1 a nd Ho ld
o utp ut

sampling

Fig. 7.1.2
166 Pulse Code Modulation V 0130

The controlled switch applies the instantaneous value of the information voltage to the capacitor. The
capacitor is charged in this short time. To enable rapid charging, the on-state resistance of the switch and
the internal resistance of the source must be low-ohmic.
After the switch opens, the capacitor should hold this voltage value until the next pulse arrives. This re-
quires a high discharge time constant which is achieved when the switch becomes very high-ohmic and
the input resistance of the following stage is very high. The voltage is therefore tapped at the capacitor
with a high-ohmic impedance converter.

Quantization of the information signal into a limited number of amplitude values causes an error, the
so-called quantization error. The noise caused by this error is known as quantization noise. This error
could be reduced by increasing the number of quantization stages and thus a narrower stage width. How-
ever, more bits and consequently a greater bandwidth in the transmission system would be necessary.
The signal power of the error signal is only dependent on the stage width but not on the useful signal
amplitude. This means that the signal-to-noise ratio becomes lower at small useful amplitudes.

S Q = signal/quantization signal noise ratio

pinf
S Q = 10 lg p inf = information signal power
PQ

P Q = quantization noise power

Due to non-uniform division of the amplitude divisions, a uniform signal-to-noise ratio is achieved in a
large amplitude range.
According to CCITT, a non-linear quantization is used in telephone transmission. The 13 segment
compander characteristic shown in fig. 7.1.3 is used.
In PCM for telephony, a word length of 8 bits has been fixed, which gives 256 amplitude stages. This
leads to the standard bit rate of 8 bits ⋅ 8 kHz = 64 kbits / s at a sampling frequency of 8 kHz.
V 0130 Pulse Code Modulation 167

1 1 3 .. . 1 2 8

n um ber of t he
q uan t i z at i on
int er v al

6 5 . .. 8 0

16
4 9 . .. 6 4
14

3 3 . .. 4 8

1 7 . .. 3 2

3
-1 - 1/2 1
1 / 1 6 1/8 1 /4 1 /2 1

s t and ar d inp ut
s ignal am plit ud e

Fig. 7.1.3
168 Pulse Code Modulation V 0130

Notes
V 0130 Pulse Code Modulation 169

7.2 Experiments with Pulse Code Modulator

1st part of experiment

General

The AD converter used on the MODULATION BOARD operates according to the step by step approxima-
tion method. In this method the input voltage is compared with a reference variable and converted into
dual code without intermediate conversion. The term ,,successive approximation“ is also used frequently
for this method in text books.

Task
Determine the characteristic of the AD converter which takes over quantization and coding.

Experiment setup and procedure

+ 2. 5 V MSB
A

U in
S/H

D
f SYNC
LSB

C LK1 ST AR T
EOC

f
f
n

Fig. 7.2.1

First calculate the binary code words in the dual code for the numbers of the quantization intervals speci-
fied in fig. 7.2.2 and enter these in the bit pattern table provided. The calculated bit combination should
be set with the aid of the DC voltage source. The code word of the AD converter is displayed with 8 LEDs
The DC voltage values should be measured and entered in the diagram.
170 Pulse Code Modulation V 0130

b in ary c ode w or d

n u m b er of t he 2 55
MSB LSB q u ant i zat i on
in t er v al

2 23

1 91

1 59

127

-3 -2 -1 1 2 U in [ V ]

95

63

31

Fig. 7.2.2

Questions: 1. Is the quantization characteristic linear or non-linear?

2. Which amplitude range can be converted?
3. How great is the quantization interval?
4. Can the polarity of the original signal be read from the digital code word?

Answers:
V 0130 Pulse Code Modulation 171

2nd part of experiment

General

The quantization and coding realized with the AD converter on the MODULATION BOARD is also pre-
ceded by a sample and hold circuit. Since this circuit is only any use if it operates synchronous with the
AD converter, it has been linked internally to the generator section which also generates all the frequen-
cies for the AD converter. A parallel-serial converter makes sure that a serial bit current is formed from
the parallel bit combination in the AD converter.

Task

Measure the voltages of the pulse code modulator asked for in fig. 7.2.4 and enter these in correct chro-
nological order in the diagram.

Experiment setup and procedure

Fig. 7.2.3

Setting values
U inf f = 2 kHz û = 2.6 V
172 Pulse Code Modulation V 0130

Fig. 7.2.4

Questions: 1. With what sampling frequency is the information signal sampled?

2. Does the coded PCM signal correspond in time to the voltage U S/H ?
3. In what order are the bits transmitted (first MSB or LSB)?

Answers:
V 0130 Pulse Code Modulation 173

7.3 PCM Multiplex Generation

General

The most important application of the PCM technique is the multiple use of transmission lines by time-
division multiplexing, whereby a digital output signal is formed from several analog input signals.

Example: The PCM-30 system

This basic system for transmitting 30 telephone channels is defined in the CCITT recommendation G.704
and has been in use for decades. A time slot is available for every one of the 30 channels to transmit an
8-bit code word. Since not only the information of the telephone channels but also information on the syn-
chronization and switching characteristics are to be transmitted, the system is designed with 32 channels.
A ,,pulse frame“ lasts 125 µs because every single channel must be sampled with 8 kHz.
Every single channel is sampled during the time 125 µs : 32 = 3.91 µs.
Eight bits must be transmitted during this time. This gives a duration of 3.91 µs : 8 = 0.488 µs per bit.
1
The bit rate for this system is therefore = 2.048 Mbit s−1.
0.448 µs

The following terms are used to signify special features of the PCM-30 system.

The frame recognition word is only transmitted in every second pulse frame and is used for synchroniz-
ing the receiver.
The alarm word is transmitted alternately with the frame recognition word and is used for transmitting
monitoring and alarm signals.
The characteristic information is required for transmitting switching characteristics. Since 4 bits are
assigned to one speech channel, only the signalling information of two channels per pulse frame can be
transmitted. For this reason, 16 pulse frames are combined in one characteristic or signalling frame
(t = 125 µs ⋅ 16 = 2 ms).

A PCM line for transmission of 2 channels can be set up with the MODULATION BOARD. To do this, the
channels are sampled first with a multiplexer. This PAM signal is converted into a serial data flow by a
serial-parallel converter after quantization and coding. An additional pulse, the so-called synchronous
pulse, is inserted in this data stream for receiver synchronization.
174 Pulse Code Modulation V 0130

Task

Measure the voltages asked for in figs. 7.3.2 and 7.3.3 and enter them in the diagrams. Select a reson-
able timebase, it is different for figs. 7.3.2 and 7.3.3.
Draw which channel the bit combinations are to be assigned to in the diagram U PCMS = f (t).

Fig. 7.3.1

Setting values
U inf 1 f = 1 kHz û = 1.5 V
U inf 2 DC U = 2.5 V

Questions: 1. What is the frequency and duration of the synchronous pulse?

2. How do you recognize which bit word comes from which input channel?

Answers:
V 0130 Pulse Code Modulation 175

Fig. 7.3.2
176 Pulse Code Modulation V 0130

Fig. 7.3.3

Repetition questions for chapter 7

Question 1: What are the advantages of the PCM technique over other modulation techniques?

Answer:

Question 2: With what frequency must an information frequency of 20 kHz be sampled and how many
messages must be transmitted per second when the signal is quantized in 256 stages and
binary coded?

Answer:

Question 3: With what time does sampling take place in a PCM-30 system and is available for transmit-
ting a channel?

Answer:
V 0130 Delta Modulation 177

8. Delta Modulation

8.1 Theoretical Introduction

Pulse code modulation has made it possible to transmit analog signals in digital form. This qualitative
progress has only been possible, however, at relatively high costs.
Simple delta modulation is technically easier than PCM because it uses a 1-bit code for transmission
(in comparison to the PCM with 7 or 8-bit codes).
Whereas the pulse code modulation transmits a digital information by way of the sampled signal value,
the delta modulation transfers only the difference between two consecutive sampling values. Fig. 8.1.1
shows the function of a delta modulator in simplified form.

COMP

G
U com p US
U in f U DM

∫
U pre

Fig. 8.1.1

The input signal U inf and the integrated signal U pre are compared in a comparator. As long as the U pre
signal is smaller than the input voltage U inf , the comparator will transmit a positive voltage, if the U pre
voltage becomes greater than U inf , the comparator delivers a negative voltage. Since the following modu-
lator operates in switch mode, it generates positive or negative pulses depending on the polarity of its
input voltage. These pulses form the output signal of the delta modulator. They are converted into the so-
called prediction value in the integrator.
178 Delta Modulation V 0130

U p re
U i nf
Up r e
U in f

U Komp

U DM

Fig. 8.1.2

A problem with delta modulation is the so-called slope overload. This occurs when the output voltage of
the integrator cannot follow the input voltage. This leads to the overload noise typical of this modulation
technique. The maximum signal amplitude depends on

- the sampling frequency

- the frequency of the information voltage

- the size of the voltage jumps of the integrator.

The sampling frequency f s is in this case identical with the bit clock frequency. It must be selected higher
for this coding that is prescribed by the sampling theorem.
The delta modulation is used mainly in speech signal transmission. A higher transmission quality is
achieved with adaptive modulation which uses a variable step height.
V 0130 Delta Modulation 179

8.2 Generation of Delta Modulated Signals (DM)

General

The delta modulator used on the MODULATION BOARD is assembled according to the simple block diag-
ram in fig. 8.1.1.
The output voltages of the comparator and the integrator do not, however, correspond to those of the ex-
periment shown in fig. 8.1.2.

Task

Measure the information voltage and the delta modulated output voltage simultaneously and enter the sig-
nals in fig. 8.1.4.

Experiment setup and procedure

Fig. 8.1.3

Setting values:
U inf f = 500 Hz û = 200 mV
Us f = 20 kHz TTL level
180 Delta Modulation V 0130

Fig. 8.1.4

Questions: 1. How does the modulator react at greater signal amplitudes (e.g. û = 1 V)?
2. Is the slope overload signal frequency-dependent? Measure the maximum codable
amplitude at different information frequencies.
3. Can the slope overload be shifted to higher signal amplitudes by increasing the
sampling frequency?

Answers:

Repetition questions for chapter 8

Question 1: How does the delta modulation differ from the pulse code modulation?

Answer:

Question 2: Where is simple delta modulation used?

Answer:
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication S1

Solutions

2. Addition and Multiplication

2.1 The Adder

1st part of experiment

U 1 = Low level U 1 = High level

Key not pressed Key pressed

U1 / V 0.1 0.1 U1 / V 3.5 3.5

U2 / V 1 -1 U2 / V 1 -1

U out / V 1.1 -0.9 U out / V 4.5 2.5

Table 2.1.1

Question 1: Is the polarity taken into account in the addition?

Answer: Yes

Question 2: What output voltage results when the same voltage U = 1 V is applied to all three inputs?
(Explain with circuit diagram fig. 2.1.3)

Answer: An output voltage of 3 V results.

Since the adding point is virtually at ground,

R1 I1 I4
R4
E1 a voltage of 1 V should be measured at
R2 I2
every input resistance (R 1 , R 2 , R 3 ). The re-
E2 -
R3 I3 sultant input currents can only flow out
+ U out
E3
through the feedback resistance R 4 .
a d di ng po i nt
I4 = I1 + I2 + I3
To enable a current to flow in the direction
Fig. 2.1.3 shown in the drawing, the output voltage of
the operational amplifier must become nega-
tive. Since all resistors are equal in the drawn circuit, the voltage U R 4 is equal to the sum of the individ-
ual voltages (U in 1 to U in 3 ) on account of the current I 4 . However, it must be taken into account that the
voltage is negative. This is corrected by connecting an inverter in series.
S2 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

2nd part of experiment

Addition of a sinewave oscillation and a DC voltage

U1 [V ] 1

0
0 .5 1
t [m s ]

U2 [V ] 1

0
0 .5 1
t [m s]
-1

U ou t [ V ] 3

0
0 .5 1
t [m s]
-1

-2

Fig. 2.1.5
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication S3

Setting values:
U1 DC voltage U=1V
U2 f = 1 kHz û = 1.5 V

Settings on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 1 V / div.
t = 0.2 ms / div.
-0

Fig. 2.1.7
S4 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

3rd part of the experiment

Addition of two sinewave oscillations of equal frequency

U1 [ V ] 1

0
0 .5 1
t [m s]
-1

U2 [ V ] 1

0
0 .5 1
t [m s]
-1

Uou t [ V ] 3

0
0. 5 1
t [m s]
-1

-2

-3

Fig. 2.1.8
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication S5

Setting values:
U1 = U2 f = 1 kHz û = 1.5 V

Settings on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 1 V / div.
t = 0.2 ms / div.

-0

Fig. 2.1.10

Question: Does the phase relation of the output voltage shift as the input voltage amplitude changes?

Answer: No
S6 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

4th part of the experiment

Graphic addition of equifrequent, dephased signals

U1 [V] 1

ϕ = 0°
1
0,5 1
t [ms]
-1

U2 [V] 1

ϕ = 7 0°
2
0,5 1
t [m s]
-1

U ou t [ V ] 3

U ou t 1
U2

U1
0,5 1
t [ms]
-1

-2

Fig. 2.1.13
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication S7

U 1 [ V] 1

ϕ = 0°
1
t [m s]

-1

ϕ2 = 90°
U 2 [ V] 1

t [m s]

-1

Uo u t [ V ] 2

ϕ = 33°
A
1

t [m s]

-1

-2

0.5
Fig. 2.1.15

Measured and graphically determined values match well f A ≈ 33°, û = 1.8 V

Question 1: What curve shape is produced by addition of equifrequent, sinewave oscillations?

Answer: A sinusoidal oscillation is produced with the same frequency as the input voltage.

Question 2: What effect does a change in the amplitude of voltage U 2 have on the output voltage U out ?
(The variable gain amplifier can be circuited between the differentiator output and the adder
for this.)

Answers: When the amplitude of the voltage U 2 is changed, not only the amplitude of the output volt-
age U out changes but also its phase relationship.
S8 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

5th part of the experiment

Addition of equifrequent, but opposite phase signals

Setting values:
U1 f = 1 kHz û 1 = 1.5 V

f = 1 kHz û 1 = 1.5 V

û2 / V 1 1.5 2

ûA / V 0.5 0 0.5

Table 2.1.2

Question 1: What is the result of the addition of opposite phase signals of equal value?

Answer: Addition of opposite phase signals of equal value cancel each other out.

Question 2: Can you think of a practical application for addition of opposite phase signals?

Answer: A stereo radio transmitter should be received in mono by mono receivers, at the same time
the stereo receivers should receive the broadcast in stereo (compatibility). The following
signal is generated in the transmitter for this:

1 9 k Hz
p il ot t on e
L+R
L-R L- R

0.03 15 23 38 53 f [ kH z ]

mono / s t er eo s up p l em en t ar y s ig na l

The mono receiver only decodes the frequency band L + R. The stereo receiver also needs the stereo
supplementary signal to recover the R and L signal.

Addition in the so-called matrix gives: Subtraction (= opposite phase addition) gives:
(L + R) + (L - R) = 2 ⋅ L (L + R) - (L - R) = 2 ⋅ R
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication S9

6th part of the experiment

Addition of signals of different frequency

Setting values:
U1 f = 1 kHz û 1 = 1.5 V
U2 f = 20 kHz û2 = 2V

Settings on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 1 V / div.
t = 0.2 ms / div.
-0

Fig. 2.1.18

Setting values:
U1 f = 1 kHz û 1 = 1.5 V
U2 f = 2 kHz û2 = 2V

Settings on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 1 V / div.
t = 0.5 ms / div.
-0

Fig. 2.1.19
S 10 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

Setting values:
U1 f 1 = 20 kHz û 1 = 1.5 V
U2 f 2 = 24 kHz û 2 = 1.5 V

Settings on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 1 V / div.
t = 0.1 ms / div.
-0

Fig. 2.1.20

7th part of the experiment

Frequency analysis of the aggregate signal

The spectrum contains only the two frequencies 1 kHz and 2 kHz.

2.2 The Multiplier

1st part of the experiment

uA 0.5 V
k = = = 0.5 ⋅ V−1
u1 ⋅ u2 1V ⋅ 1V

Question: At what DC voltage U 2 is the output voltage U out equal to the input voltage U 1 ?

uA 1V
Answer: u2 = = = 2V
u1 ⋅ k 1 V ⋅ 0.5 ⋅ V−1

If the DC voltage U 2 is set to 2 V, the output voltage U out is equal to the input voltage U 1 .
V 0130 Addition and Multiplication S 11

2nd part of the experiment

Multiplication of two equifrequent sinewave voltages

U1 [ V] 1

0
0 .5 1
t [ ms]
-1

U2 [ V] 1

0
0 .5 1
t [ ms]
-1

U ou t [V ] 2

0
0 .5 1
t [m s]
-1

-2

Fig. 2.2.5
S 12 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

Setting values:
U in f = 1 kHz û=1V
U in
-0 Setting on the oscilloscope
Y 1 = 0.5 V /div.
Y 2 = 0.5 V / div.
t = 0.2 ms / div.

U out
-0

Fig. 2.2.7

Question 1: Are the graphically calculated and the measured values equal?

Answer: The curve shape of the measured value is identical with the graphically calculated value.
The DC offset which shifts the curve into the positive range is absent in the practical
measurement because the output voltage U out is capacitively coupled out.

Question 2: Can you name one of the applications for the circuit?

Answer: The circuit could be used for frequency doubling.

V 0130 Addition and Multiplication S 13

3rd part of the experiment

Multiplication of two oscillations of different frequency

Setting values:
U1 f = 20 kHz û 1 = 1.5 V
U2 U2 f = 2 kHz û 2 = 1.5 V
U out

Setting on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 0.5 V / div.
Y 2 = 0.5 V / div.
-0 t = 0.1 ms / div.

Fig. 2.2.9

Fig. 2.2.10

Question: Can a generally valid statement on the origination of new frequencies in the multiplication
of sinewave signals of different frequencies be made on the basis of the measured values?

Answer: The sum and difference frequency is produced by multiplication of sinusoidal oscillations
of different frequencies.
S 14 Addition and Multiplication V 0130

Repetition questions for chapter 2

Question 1: Does the addition of two signals of different frequencies produce new frequencies?

Answer: No

Question 2: What is the result of addition of two equifrequent, but opposite phase signals with equal
amplitude?

Answer: They cancel each other out.

Question 3: What frequencies are to be measured at the output of a multiplier at input frequencies of
2 and 20 kHz?

Answer: The sum and difference frequencies can be measured at the output, in this case:
20 kHz ± 2 kHz = 18 kHz and 22 kHz
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation S 15

3. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

3.2 Modulation on a Non-linear Characteristic

1st part of the experiment

Origination of distortions on a non-linear characteristic

Setting values:
U in f = 20 kHz û=2V
U DC U = 2.5 V

Settings on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 1 V / div.
t = 50 µs / div.

-0

Fig. 3.2.3

Fig. 3.2.4
S 16 Amplitude Modulation V 0130

Setting values:
U in f = 20 kHz û=2V
U DC U=1V

Settings on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 0.5 V / div.
t = 50 µs / div.

-0

Fig. 3.2.5

Fig. 3.2.6

Question 1: Under what conditions are new frequencies produced?

Answer: New frequencies are produced in modulation of a non-linear characteristic. In the first
measuring setting fig. 3.2.3 the linear range of the characteristic was used.
The output voltage is undistorted. Therefore there is no new frequency.
In the second measuring setting, the output voltage is distorted. New frequencies can be
measured in the spectrum.
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation S 17

Question 2: Do newly produced frequencies have a specific relationship with the original frequency?

Answer: The newly produced frequencies are integer multiples of the basic frequency, i.e. 40 kHz,
60 kHz... These are also referred to as harmonics.

2nd part of the experiment

Generation of an amplitude modulated oscillation with a diode modulator

Fig. 3.2.9
S 18 Amplitude Modulation V 0130

Question 1: What frequencies does the output voltage contain at the specified input values?

Answer: Fig. 3.2.10 shows the frequency spectrum of the output voltage U out .

Fig. 3.2.10

Question 2: Do the newly produced frequencies have a specific relationship with the input frequencies?

Answer: The frequencies of the input voltages can be proven in the spectrum (2 kHz, 20 kHz).
On account of the non-linear characteristic, sum and difference frequency is produced at
18 kHz and 22 kHz. Integer multiples of these frequencies can also be measured.
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation S 19

3rd part of the experiment

Suppression of undesirable modulation products with a band-pass filter

Setting values:
UT f = 20 kHz û = 2.0 V
U inf f = 2 kHz û = 1.5 V
-0 U DC U=1V
U out
Setting on the oscilloscope
Y 1 = 1 V / div.
Y 2 = 1 V / div.
t = 0.2 ms / div.

-0
U in

Fig. 3.2.13

Fig. 3.2.14
S 20 Amplitude Modulation V 0130

Question 1: In what rhythm does the carrier amplitude change?

Answer: The amplitude fluctuates in the rhythm of the information frequency.

Question 2: Into what function blocks can a diode modulator be divided?

Answer: Carrier oscillations and information voltage are added (superposed) in the adder. The
operating point of the following modulator is determined with the DC voltage. In the second
module, the actual diode modulator, modulation takes place on the non-linear characteristic.
To suppress undesirable frequencies, a band-pass filter is connected in series with the diode
modulator.

Question 3: Of what frequencies does the spectrum of an amplitude modulated oscillation consist
(f T = 20 kHz, f inf = 1 kHz)?

Answer: The spectrum consists of 19 kHz, 20 kHz and 21 kHz.

Question 4: What is radiated by an AM transmitter when there is a pause in the broadcast?

Answer: The unmodulated carrier is radiated without sideband oscillations.

V 0130 Amplitude Modulation S 21

3.3 Amplitude Modulation with a Multiplier

Question 1: On what variable does the shape of the envelope curve depend?

Answer: The shape of the envelope curve depends on the amplitude and frequency of the infor-
mation voltage.

Question 2: How are different amplitudes of the message signal represented in the output signal?

Answer: Small amplitudes of the message signal cause slight changes in the carrier amplitude
whereas large amplitudes cause major fluctuations of the carrier.

Question 3: Is the addition of a band-pass filter necessary, as for the diode modulator?

Answer: A band-pass filter is not necessary because no undesirable modulation products are pro-
duced.

1st part of the experiment

Measuring the modulation factor from the line diagram

Setting values:
UT f = 20 kHz û = 2.5 V
U inf f = 2 kHz û = 1.0 V
U DC U = 2.0 V

Setting on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 1 V / div.
-0
t = 0.1 ms / div.

Fig. 3.3.5
Upp max − Upp min 7.76 V − 2.56 V
m= = = 0.5
Upp max + Upp min 7.76 V + 2.56 V
S 22 Amplitude Modulation V 0130

2nd part of the experiment

Determining the modulation factor with the modulation trapezium

Fig. 3.3.8

Setting on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 2 V / div. Y = 2 V / div.
t = 0.1 ms / div. X = 0.5 V / div.
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation S 23

3.4 Spectrum and Bandwidth of the AM

Fig. 3.4.3

f o min = 1 MHz + 0.3 kHz = 1000.3 kHz

f u min = 1 MHz - 0.3 kHz = 999.7 kHz
f o max = 1 MHz + 3.4 kHz = 1003.4 kHz
f u max = 1 MHz - 3.4 kHz = 996.6 kHz
b = 2 ⋅ 3.4 kHz = 6.8 kHz
S 24 Amplitude Modulation V 0130

Setting on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 1 V / div.
Y 2 = 1 V / div.
t = 0.2 ms / div.

Fig. 3.4.5
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation S 25

The amplitude of the sideband oscillations is the same in all settings. Only the carrier amplitude changes.
If the DC voltage becomes smaller, parts of the information voltage have negative polarity. The phase re-
lationship of the AM changes in these parts, phase jumps are produced. An amplitude modulation with
suppressed carrier is produced without DC offset. The image of a beat is produced.

Question 1: How can the modulation factor be determined from the frequency spectrum?

Answer:

^ + u
u ^
o
m= u
^
uT

Question 2: How great is the amplitude of the lower sideband oscillation when the modulation factor is
60 % and the carrier has an amplitude of 10 V?

^ + u
u ^
o
Answer: m= u Since the upper and lower sideband oscillations are equal, the following
^
u T also applies:

^
2 ⋅ u ^
m ⋅ u 0.6 ⋅ 10 V
u T
m= m= = = 3V
^
u 2 2
T

3.5 AM-DSB with Suppressed Carrier

Vu
0.. . 2.5
20 kHz

∑
2k Hz
UT U DSB U AM
U i nf

Fig. 3.5.1
S 26 Amplitude Modulation V 0130

3.6 The Multiplier in Balanced Modulator Mode

U in f [ V ] 2

0
t [m s]

-1

-2

UT [V] 2

0
t [m s ]

U out 1 [V ] 2

0
t [ ms]

-1

-2

U out 2 [ V ] 1

0
t [ ms]

-1

0.25

Fig. 3.6.4
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation S 27

Question: Does the spectrum of the output voltage U out 1 or U out 2 contain the carrier frequency or
the information frequency?

U out 1 = f ( f )

U out 1 [ V ]

10 20 30 f [k H z ]

U out 2 = f ( f )

U out 2 [ V ]

10 20 30
f [k H z ]

Answer: The information frequency is contained in the voltage U out 1 . A double sideband AM should
be measured after the band-pass filter. This is an indication that the carrier was suppressed
during modulation.
S 28 Amplitude Modulation V 0130

3.7 The Multiplier in Ring Modulator Mode

Setting values:
Up f = 20 kHz û = 2 V (pulse-shaped)
U inf f = 2 kHz û = 2 V (sine-shaped)
U DC U = -1 V

By slightly altering the DC voltage, the symmetry of the output signal U out 1 can be improved.

UT [V ] 1

0
t [m s]

-1

U o ut 1 [ V ] 5

0
t [m s]

-5

U ou t 2 [ V ] 0 .5

0
t [m s]

- 0 .5

Fig. 3.7.3
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation S 29

Question 1: At what DC voltage (U DC ) is balanced mode set with a sinusoidal carrier?

Answer: Balanced mode is set at least 2 V DC voltage.

General: The carrier may not change polarity.

Question 2: At what DC voltage (U DC ) is ring modulator mode produced with a sinusoidal carrier?

Answer: Ring modulator mode is achieved without DC voltage.

Question 3: How does the frequency spectrum change when the DC voltage changes?

Answer: The DC voltage is used to determine whether the information frequency appears in the
spectrum of the output voltage U out 1 or not. Since this frequency division is filtered out by
the band-pass filter, it is not possible to detect from the voltage U out 2 whether ring modu-
lator mode or balanced modulator mode is active.
In discrete modulators of this type the amplitude of the sideband oscillations would also
change when the DC voltage is changed.
S 30 Amplitude Modulation V 0130

3.8 Single Sideband Modulation

setting values:
U = f (f)
f inf = 2 kHz
U [V]
û =2V
0 6
setting values on
the oszilloscope
3
Y = 0.5 V / div.
t = 0.2 ms / div.
10 20 30 f [kHz]

setting values:
U = f (f)
f inf = 1 kHz
U [V]
û=2V
0 6
setting values on
the oszilloscope
3
Y = 0.5 V / div.
t = 0.2 ms / div.
10 20 30 f [kHz]

setting values:
U = f (f)
f inf = 500 Hz
U [V]
û =2V
0 6
setting values on
the oszilloscope
3
Y = 0.5 V / div.
t = 0.2 ms / div.
10 20 30 f [kHz]
Fig. 3.8.6

At an information frequency of 2 kHz, the upper side-

band oscillation is well suppressed. If the information U [V] f g = 1 9 . 75 k H z
frequency gets smaller, the upper and lower sideband
1.0
oscillations move closer to the limit frequency of the im-
plemented low-pass filter and cannot be separated due
to the finite filter slope. When using 500 Hz, the curve
shape of the oscillogram suggests a ,,normal AM“. The 0.5

envelope curve changes, however, in the rhythm of 1kHz

The frequency spectrum also shows that this is not a
,,normal AM“ because only the two sideband oscillations
10 20 f [ k Hz]
can be measured.
V 0130 Amplitude Modulation S 31

Repetition questions for chapter 3

Question 1: In what ways can the modulation factor be determined?

Answer: It can be determined:

- from the line diagram
- with the modulation trapezium
- from the frequency spectrum

Question 2: How great does the bandwidth need to be in amplitude modulation if a speech band of
150 Hz ... 4.5 kHz is to be transmitted?

Answer: 2 ⋅ 4.5 kHz = 9 kHz

Question 3: How great is the carrier amplitude when the amplitude of one sideband is 1 V and the
modulation factor is m = 40%?

^ + u ^ ^ ^
Answer:
u
m= u
o ^ = uu + uo = 1 V + 1 V = 5 V
uT
^
uT m 0.4

Question 4: Why is the carrier fed symmetrically in a balanced modulator?

Answer:
V1
I1

U in f U out 1 U out 2

I2

V2

UT

Suppression of the carrier is achieved by symmetrical feeding. Opposite partial currents in

the transformers cancel each other out.
S 32 Amplitude Modulation V 0130

Question: 5: How many transmitters can be accommodated in the medium-frequency range

(526.5 kHz - 1606.5 kHz)?
The highest information frequency is 4.5 kHz.

Answer: The bandwidth per transmitter is 2 x 4.5 kHz = 9 kHz.

The medium-frequency range covers 1606.5 kHz - 526.5 kHz = 1080 kHz.

1080 kHz
= 120 transmitters can therefore be accommodated
9 kHz

Given the different line diagrams below, draw the corresponding frequency spectrum!

Setting on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 1 V / div.
t = 0.2 ms / div.

Setting on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 2 V / div.
t = 0.1 ms / div.

Fig. 3.8.7
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques S 33

4. Angle Modulation Techniques

4.2 Generation of Frequency Modulated Signals

1st part of task

U in / V -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 +0.5 +1.0 +1.5 +2.0 +2.5 +2.97

f VCO / kHz 2.58 8.37 14.2 19.9 25.6 31.3 36.9 42.6 48.2 53.4

Table 4.2.1

f = f (Uin )

f [ k H z]
60

50

40

30

20

10

-2 -1 0 1 2 3

Ui n [ V ]

Fig. 4.2.2
S 34 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

2nd part of task

Question 1: How does the output voltage differ at:

a) smaller and greater signal amplitude (input voltage)?
b) lower and higher signal frequency?

Answer: a) A small amplitude of the input voltage causes a slight change in frequency
( → small frequency deviation)
Large amplitudes cause large frequency fluctuations
( → large frequency deviation)
b) A low signal frequency causes less ,,frequency change“ than a high signal frequency.

Question 2: How do you recognize the frequency of the input voltage from the FM signal?

Answer: The frequency of the input voltage determines at what time spacing the ,,compression and
thinning areas“ follow each other. The time spacing of two ,,compression and thinning areas“
corresponds to the period T inf of the modulation oscillation.

1
finf =
Tinf

Notes on measuring technique:

Since two signals need to be measured in this measurement which do not have a particular frequency ra-
tio, it is practically impossible to get both signals static on the oscilloscope.

Remedy:

Use a storage oscilloscope or shift the basic frequency of the VCO slightly with a DC offset.

1 kH z

∑
U
f
U out
+ 1.5 V
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques S 35

4.3 Measuring the Frequency Deviation

Setting values:
UE f = 1 kHz û = 0.5 V

T min = 41 µs T max = 68 µs

f max = 1 = 1 = 24.39 kHz f min = 1 = 1 = 14.71 kHz

Tmin 41 µs Tmax 68 µs

∆ f = 1 ⋅ (fmax − fmin)
2

= 1 ⋅ (24.39 kHz − 14.71 kHz)

2

= 4.84 kHz

Setting values:
UE f = 1 kHz û=1V

T min = 33 µs T = 92 µs

f max = 1 = 1 = 30.30 kHz f max = 1 = 1 = 10.87 kHz

Tmin 33 µs Tmin 92 µs

∆ f = 1 ⋅ (fmax − fmin)
2

= 1 ⋅ (30.30 kHz − 10.87 kHz)

2

= 9.715 kHz

Question 1: To what input variable of the VCO is the frequency deviation proportional?

Answer: The frequency deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the information signal.

Question 2: Does the frequency deviation depend on the frequency of the information signal?

Answer: No
S 36 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

4.4 Determining the Modulation Index

∆f at û inf = 0.1 V ∆f at û inf = 0.25 V ∆f at û inf = 0.5 V

f inf = 500 Hz 1.2 kHz 2.3 kHz 5.1 kHz

f inf = 1 kHz 1.2 kHz 2.3 kHz 5.3 kHz

f inf = 2 kHz 1.0 kHz 2.3 kHz 5.0 kHz

Table 4.4.1

∆ f = f ( û i nf )

∆ f [ k H z]

0 .1 0. 2 0 .3 0 .4 0. 5
û i nf [ V ]

Fig. 4.4.2

η at û = 0.1 V η at û = 0.25 V η at û = 0.5 V

f inf = 500 Hz 2.4 4.6 10.2

f inf = 1 kHz 1.2 2.3 5.3

f inf = 2 kHz 0.5 1.15 2.5

Table 4.4.2
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques S 37

η = f ( û i nf )

11
f in f = 500 Hz
10

6
f in f = 1 kHz

3 f in f = 2 kHz

0 .1 0. 2 0 .3 0 .4 0.5
û i n f [V ]

Fig. 4.4.3

Question 1: On which parameter of the input signal does the frequency deviation depend?

Answer: The frequency deviation depends on the amplitude of the information signal but not on the
frequency of the information.

Question 2: How does the modulation index change when different modulation frequencies are used
at the same signal amplitude?

Answer: The modulation index is inversely proportional to the modulation frequency.

If the signal frequency increases at constant signal amplitude, the modulation index de-
creases.
S 38 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

4.5 Frequency Spectrum of an FM Oscillation

Setting values:
U inf f inf = 1 kHz û inf = 200 mV

Fig. 4.5.4

Setting values:
U inf f inf = 1 kHz û inf = 1 V

Fig. 4.5.5
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques S 39

Setting values:
U inf f inf = 2 kHz û = 200 mV

Fig. 4.5.6

Setting values:
U inf f inf = 2 kHz û inf = 1 V

Fig. 4.5.7
S 40 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

Question 1: On what variable of the information signal does the distance of the sideband oscillation
depend?

Answer: The distance of the sideband oscillations depends on the frequency of the information
signal?

Question 2: How does the bandwidth change in relation to increasing signal amplitude?

Answer: The greater the signal amplitude becomes, the greater the bandwidth required.

Question 3: What bandwidth does an FM transmitter require when its frequency deviation is 75 kHz
and its highest modulation frequency is 15 kHz?

Answer: B ≈ 2 ⋅ (∆f + f inf ) = 2 ⋅ (75 kHz + 15 kHz) = 180 kHz

Question 4: What bandwidth does a similar AM transmitter require?

Answer: B = 2 ⋅ 15 kHz = 30 kHz

V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques S 41

4.6 Generation of Phase Modulated Signals

1st part of experiment

Examining a differentiator

f / kHz 0.5 1 2

û out / V 0.32 0.7 1.25

^
u
Vu = out
0.32 0.7 1.25
^
u in

Table 4.6.1

Vu = f ( f )

Vu

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

1 2
f [ k H z]

Fig. 4.6.2

Question: What can you expect at the output when you apply a DC voltage to the differentiator input?

Answer: Application of a DC voltage at the output should not have any effect.
S 42 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

2nd part of experiment

Measurements on a modulator for phase modulated signals

∆f at û inf = 0.1 V ∆f at û inf = 0.25 V ∆f at û inf = 0.5 V

f inf = 500 Hz 0.49 kHz 0.88 kHz 1.55 kHz

f inf = 1 kHz 0.77 kHz 1.54 kHz 2.49 kHz

f inf = 2 kHz 1.15 kHz 2.77 kHz 5.74 kHz

Table 4.6.2

∆ f = f ( û inf )

∆ f [ k H z]

6 f i nf = 2 kHz

3 f i nf = 1 kHz

2 f i nf = 500 Hz

0 .1 0. 2 0 .3 0 .4 0. 5
û i nf [ V ]

Fig. 4.6.4

η at û inf = 0.1 V η at û inf = 0.25 V η at û inf = 0.5 V

f inf = 500 Hz 0.98 1.76 3.1

f inf = 1 kHz 0.77 1.54 2.49

f inf = 2 kHz 0.58 1.38 2.87

Table 4.6.3
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques S 43

η = f ( û in f )

11

10

4
f in f = 500 Hz

2 f in f = 1 kHz

f in f = 2 kHz
1

0.1 0. 2 0 .3 0 .4 0.5
û in f [ V ]

Fig. 4.6.5

Question 1: How does the frequency deviation change in relation to increasing signal frequency?

Answer: In PM, the frequency deviation increases with increasing signal frequency, whereas in FM
it remains constant.

Question 2: How does the modulation index change at different signal frequencies?

Answer: The modulation index is not dependent on the signal frequency in PM. (Compare figs. 4.4.3
and 4.6.5.)
S 44 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

3rd part of experiment

Comparison of FM and PM

FM PM

500 Hz ∆f = 1.2 kHz ∆f = 0.49 kHz

1 kHz ∆f = 1.2 kHz ∆f = 0.77 kHz

2 kHz ∆f = 1.0 kHz ∆f = 1.15 kHz

Table 4.6.4 for diagram ∆f = f (f inf )

∆ f = f (f inf) û inf = 0.1 V

∆ f [kHz]

FM
1

PM

0.5 1 1.5 2
f inf [kHz]

Fig. 4.6.6

FM PM

500 Hz η = 2.4 η = 0.98

1 kHz η = 1.2 η = 0.77

2 kHz η = 0.5 η = 0.58

Table 4.6.5 for diagram η = f (f inf )

V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques S 45

η = f ( f in f ) û i nf = 0 . 1 V
2.6
η FM
2.4

2.2

2.0

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

PM
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 .5 1 1 .5 2
f i nf [ k H z ]
Fig. 4.6.7

Fill in the gaps in the following texts

The following The frequency deviation is independent of the signal frequency.

applies for FM: The frequency deviation is proportional to the signal amplitude.

The following The phase deviation is independent of the signal frequency.

applies for PM: The phase deviation is proportional to the signal amplitude.

Question: What effect is produced when a demodulator for frequency modulated signals de-
modulates a phase modulated signal?

Answer: In the PM modulator the higher information frequencies are raised in amplitude.
This overaccentuation is not cancelled out by an FM modulator and the higher fre-
quencies in the receiver are raised.
S 46 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

4.7 Generation of Pulse Frequency Modulated Signals (PFM)

1st part of experiment

Measurement on a modulator for pulse frequency modulated signals

Setting values:
U inf f = 1 kHz û=1V

U inf [V ] 1

0 .5

0
t [m s ]

- 0 .5

-1

U FM [V ] 1

0
t [ ms]

-1

U1 [V ] 10

-10
t [m s ]

U PFM [V ] 10

0
t [ ms]

Fig. 4.7.4
V 0130 Angle Modulation Techniques S 47

Question: What additional measure is necessary to produce a pointer deflection proportional to wind
speed?

Answer: A monoflop is driven with the output pulse of the phototransistor. The output pulse of the
monoflop may be as long at maximum so that every output pulse triggers a pulse of the
monoflop even at the greatest measurable wind speed.
The pulse and pause time and thus the arithmetic average change with the wind speed.

4.8 Generation of Pulse Phase Modulated Signals (PPM)

Task

Draw the block diagram of a modulator for pulse phase modulated signals.

Extra questions for chapter 4

Question 1: By what means can frequency modulation be generated?

Answer: The most common method today is the use of a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). An-
other simple method is to use an LC oscillator, whereby a varicap represents part of the
resonant circuit capacitance.
S 48 Angle Modulation Techniques V 0130

Question 2: What can you read from the frequency spectrum shown below in fig. 4.8.2?

Fig. 4.8.2

Answer: In the illustrated spectrum, we probably have a frequency or phase modulation. The in-
formation frequency can be read from the spacing of the spectral lines, in this case 2 kHz.
The basic frequency of the oscillator is 20 kHz because the spectrum builds up symmetri-
cally around 20 kHz. The modulation index is 2.4 (first carrier null and amplitudes of the
sideband oscillations).
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques S 49

5. Digital Modulation Techniques

5.2 Generation of Amplitude Shift Keying Signals (ASK)

1st part of task

UT [V] 1

0
t [m s]

-1

U in f [ V ] 5

0
t [m s]

U AS K [ V ] 1

0
t [m s]

-1

Fig. 5.2.4

Question 1: Which TTL level closes the analog switch and which opens it?

Answer: The switch is closed with H level and opened with L level.
S 50 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

Question 2: What modulation rate corresponds to the used frequency of 250 Hz?

Answer: v s = 2 ⋅ f s = 2 ⋅ 250 Hz = 500 s -1 = 500 Bd

Question 3: How is a modulator for toned keying assembled? Draw and assemble the circuit.

Answer:

2 0 kH z

f
2 kH z
f
n

∑ U AM U AS K
+ 2.5 V

25 0H z

First an AM signal is generated which serves as an input signal for the analog switch. The
keying may be done either with the switch or a signal, for example 250 Hz.

2nd part of task

Question: What effect does the capacitor in the input circuit have?

Answer: Feeding in the carrier oscillation 2 kHz through the capacitor does not cause any problems.
If, however, you try to feed in the TTL signal through the capacitor, the DC offset is cut off
and a phase keyed output signal results.

2k H z

f
n 250 Hz
U ASK

Fig. 5.2.5
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques S 51

5.3 Spectrum of Amplitude Shift Keying Signals

1st part of task

Draw the frequency spectrum of the input voltages and the amplitude keyed signal.

Fig. 5.3.3
S 52 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

Setting values:
U T = 2 kHz û=1V
U inf = 250 Hz TTL level

U = f (f)

U [V ]

1 .0 2.0 3 .0 4. 0 5 .0
f [ k H z]

Fig. 5.3.5

Question 1: How great is the necessary bandwidth?

Answer: The bandwidth should theoretically be infinite; because this is unrealistic, a bandwidth
limiting is carried out.

Question 2: How does the spectrum change when the information frequency U inf has a frequency of
500 Hz?

Answer: The distance of the sideband oscillations to cach other increases to 2 x 500 Hz = 1 kHz.
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques S 53

Bandwidth limiting / Soft keying

U 1 = f (f )

U1[V ]

4
Setting on
the oscilloskope 2
Y1 = 0.5 V / di v.
t = 0.1 ms / d i v.
10 20 30 f [ kH z]

U2 = f ( f )

U2[ V]

4
Setting on
the oscilloskope 2
Y1 = 0. 5 V / di v.
t = 0.1 ms / d i v.
10 20 30 f [ kH z]

Fig. 5.3.8

Question: What data transmission speed can be achieved by the described system? (The bandwidth
of the band-pass filter can be assumed to be 10 kHz.)

Answer: B min ≈ 2 ⋅ fs ⋅ 1.5

Bmin 10 kHz
fs ≈ = = 3.33 kHz
2 ⋅ 1.5 3
1 1
Ts = = = 151 µs
2 ⋅ fs 2 ⋅ 3.33 kHz
1 1
vD = vs = = = 6.66 kbit ⋅ s−1
Ts 151 µs
S 54 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

5.4 Generation of Frequency Shift Keying Signals (FSK)

Setting values:
U1 f = 1 kHz û=1V
U0 f = 2 kHz û=1V
-0
Setting on the oscilloscope
Y 1 = 5 V / div.
Y 2 = 0.5 V / div.
t = 1 ms / div.

-0

Fig. 5.4.2

Question: What is the frequency deviation and virtual carrier frequency of the circuit being examined.

fo − f1 2 kHz − 1 kHz
Answer: ∆f = = = 0.5 kHz
2 2

fo + f1 2 kHz + 1 kHz
fT = = = 1.5 kHz
2 2
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques S 55

5.5 Spectrum of Frequency Shift Keying Signals

U = f ( f)

UASK [ V ]

1 .0 2.0 3 .0 4. 0 5 .0
f [ k H z]

U ASK = f ( f )

U ASK [ V ]

1.0 2. 0 3 .0 4 .0 5.0
f [ k H z]

U FSK = f ( f )

U FSK [ V ]

1.0 2. 0 3 .0 4 .0 5.0
f [ k H z]
Fig. 5.5.2
S 56 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

Question: What can you say about the measured frequency spectra?

Answer: The first and second measurements show the typical ASK spectrum. The third measure-
ment shows that the spectrum of an FSK can be imagined as made up of two ASK spectra.

5.6 Generation of Phase Shift Keying Signals (PSK)

UT [V ] 1

0
t [m s ]

-1

U inf [V ] 5

0
t [m s]

U P S K [V ] 1

0
t [m s ]

-1

2.5
Fig. 5.6.3
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques S 57

Question: How can a PSK modulator be assembled with the product modulator?
Draw the circuit diagram and assemble the circuit.

Answer:

5.7 Spectrum of Phase Shift Keying Signals

U PSK = f (t)

Setting on oscilloscope
Y 1 = 0.5 V / div.
Y 2 = 5 V / div.
-0 t = 0.1 ms / div.

-0

Fig. 5.7.3
S 58 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

Fig. 5.7.4

U out = f (t)

Setting on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 0.5 V / div.
Y 2 = 5 V / div.
-0

Fig. 5.7.5
V 0130 Digital Modulation Techniques S 59

U out = f ( f)

U out [ V ]

10 20 30 40 50
f [k H z]

Fig. 5.7.6

Question 1: What is the amplitude of the carrier frequency in the spectrum of the output voltage U PSK ?

Answer: The carrier frequency no longer appears in the output voltage.

Question 2: To which modulation technique is the screen display of the output voltage U out similar?

Answer: The resultant, soft keyed PSK signal is similar to the double sideband AM with suppressed
carrier.
S 60 Digital Modulation Techniques V 0130

Repetition questions for chapter 5

Question 1: Draw the principle signal curve of an ASK, FSK and PSK signal.

Answer:

Question 2: Name one of the applications for the digital modulation techniques.

Answer: Modems or DSR (Digital Satellite Radio)

Question: Why are signals soft keyed?

Answer: Soft keying of signals limits the necessary bandwidth.

Question 4: What types of soft keying are you familiar with?

Answer: - soft keying by a transmission filter

- soft keying of the information signal before modulation
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques S 61

6. Pulse Modulation Techniques

6.2 Generation of a Pulse Amplitude Modulated Signal

Fig. 6.2.4
S 62 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Question: How can the circuit in fig. 6.2.3 be extended to produce a unipolar PAM signal?
Extend the circuit and draw the output voltage in the diagram, fig. 6.2.5.

Answer:

1kHz ASK

∑
f SYNC
15 µs

+ 1 .5 V UP AM
8 kHz

f
f
n
4kHz

The information voltage should be shifted to the positive or negative range with a DC
voltage.

Setting on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 1 V / div.
t = 0.2 ms / div.

-0

Fig. 6.2.5
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques S 63

6.3 Frequency Spectrum of the Pulse Amplitude Modulated Signal

Setting values:
U inf U DC = 2.5 V U s 8 kHz TTL level

U = f (f )

U [V ]

0 4

20 40 60 80 f [ kHz ]

Setting values:
U inf 1 kHz û=2V U DC = 0 V U s 8 kHz TTL level

U = f (f)

U [V]

0 4

20 40 60 80
f [ k H z]

Setting values:
U inf 1 kHz û = 1.5 V U DC = 2.5 V U s 8 kHz TTL level

U = f (f )

U [V ]

4
0
2

20 40 60 80
f [ kHz ]

Fig. 6.3.3
S 64 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Question 1: At what frequency can the first minimum be observed in the amplitude of the spectral lines?

Answer: The first minimum can be found at about 70 kHz.

1
Question 2: Are the measured minimum and the calculated value f = identical?
τ
1 1
Answer: In the calculation, the minimum must be f = = = 66.6 kHz . This matches the
τ 15 µs
measured value very well.

Question 3: At what frequency spacing do the spectral lines follow one another when only the sampling
pulse is analysed?

Answer: The spectral lines follow at a spacing of 8 kHz, i.e. at 8 kHz, 16 kHz, 24 kHz ...

Question 4: How does the spectrum of an unipolar and a bipolar PAM differ?

Answer: The sampling frequency and its multiples also appear in the spectrum of the unipolar PAM
on account of the DC offset.

Question 5: How can a PAM signal be demodulated?

Answer: Since the information frequency is also in the spectrum of the PAM signal, this can be fil-
tered out again with a low-pass filter.
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques S 65

6.4 Explanation of the Sampling Theorem

U = f (f)
U inf 1 kHz
û=2V
U [V]

U DC = 2.5 V 4

Us 8 kHz 2
TTL level

10 20 30
f [kHz]

U = f (f)
U inf 2 kHz
û=2V
U [V]

U DC = 2.5 V 4

Us 8 kHz 2
TTL level

10 20 30
f [kHz]

U = f (f)
U inf 1 kHz
û=2V
U [V]

U DC = 2.5 V 4

Us 4 kHz 2
TTL level

10 20 30
f [kHz]

U inf 2 kHz U = f (f)

û=2V
U [V]

U DC = 2.5 V 4

Us 4 kHz 2
TTL level

10 20 30
f [kHz]

Fig. 6.4.4
S 66 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Question: In what cases can the information signal no longer be filtered out of the PAM signal by a
low pass f g = 3.4 kHz?

Answer: A sideband oscillation is produced at a sampling frequency of 4 kHz and an information

frequency of 1 kHz. This is no longer suppressed with a low pass filter fg = 3.4 kHz.
The 1 kHz and 3 kHz oscillation are then superposed.

6.5 Time Division Multiplexing

Fig. 6.5.5
V 0130 Pulse Modulation Techniques S 67

Fig. 6.5.6

Question 1: Is the voltage U PAM a unipolar or bipolar PAM?

Answer: It is a bipolar PAM.

Question 2: How many channels could you transmit theoretically whilst retaining the 8 kHz sampling
frequency at 15 ms pulse width?

Answer: z = number of channels

1 1
T s = pulse duration Tp = = = 125 µs
fs 8 kHz

T p = pulse period

Tp 125 µs
f s = sampling frequency z = = = 8.33 ≈ 8 channels
Ts 15 µs

A safety distance must be kept in order to avoid the so-called frame crosstalk.
S 68 Pulse Modulation Techniques V 0130

Question 3: Why is the PAM multiplex technique not used on transmission lines?

Answer: The pulse amplitude modulation does not bring any improvement on transmission lines in
comparison with other analog modulation techniques because it is just as susceptible to
interference as the amplitude modulation with sinusoidal carrier.

Extra questions for chapter 6

Question 1: How great should the bandwidth of a transmission system be when the pulse width is 15 ms?

1
Answer: The first zero of the envelope curve of the spectrum is at f = = 66.6 kHz . The band-
15 µs
width should reach at least up to this frequency.

Question 2: With what sampling frequency must a signal whose maximum frequencies are 15 kHz be
sampled?

Answer: fs > 2 ⋅ f inf

The sampling frequency must be >30 kHz.

Question 3: Why does frequency band limiting have to take place before sampling?

Answer: The low-pass filters are necessary so that the spectra resulting during sampling do not over-
lap.

Question 4: What pulse sequence frequency does a system have which is sampled with 8 kHz and has
32 channels?

Answer: 8 kHz ⋅ 32 = 256 kHz

V 0130 Puls Code Modulation S 69

7. Pulse Code Modulation

7.2 Experiments with the Pulse Code Modulator

1st part of experiment

b in ar y c ode w or d
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
n u m b er of t h e 2 55
MSB LSB q u ant i zat ion
i n t e r v al

1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 23

1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 91

1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 59

127
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

-3 -2 -1 1 2 U in [ V]

0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 95

0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 63

0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 31

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Fig. 7.2.2
S 70 Puls Code Modulation V 0130

Question 1: Is the quantization characteristic linear or non-linear?

Answer: The quantization characteristic is linear because all quantization intervals are equal.

Question 2: Which amplitude range can be converted?

Answer: Amplitudes in the range from -2.34 to 2.30 V can be converted (slight deviations are possible).

Question 3: How great is the quantization interval?

amplitude range 4.64 V

Answer: = = 18.1 mV ⁄ interval
number of quantization intervals 256

Question 4: Can the polarity of the original signal be read from the digital code word?

Answer: Yes. The diagram shows clearly that the MSB is always set at positive voltage (top LED).
V 0130 Puls Code Modulation S 71

2nd part of experiment

Setting values:
U inf f = 2 kHz û = 2.6 V

U inf [V ] 2

0
t [ m s]

-2

Us [V] 4

0
t [m s]

U S /H [V ] 2

0
t [m s ]

-2

U PCM [V ] 2

0
t [m s]

0 .25

Fig. 7.2.4
S 72 Puls Code Modulation V 0130

Question 1: With what sampling frequency is the information signal sampled?

Answer: 16 kHz are used for sampling because the system is designed for processing a dual
channel PAM signal and each of these signals is sampled with 8 kHz.

Question 2: Does the coded PCM signal correspond in time to the voltage U S/H ?

Answer: The amplitude values are correctly quantized and coded, e.g. all bits are set to 1 at the maxi-
1
mum positive amplitude. The serial bit word does not arrive, however, until = 62.5 µs
16 kHz
later, i.e. when a new sampling value is applied to the input of the A/D converter. The LOAD
signal for the parallel/serial converter, with which transfer is started, only arrives shortly be-
fore A/D conversion of the new sampling value.

Question 3: In what order are the bits transmitted (first MSB or LSB)?

Answer: Every bit word begins with the least significant bit (LSB) and ends with the most significant
bit (MSB). This can be checked simply by pulling out the 2 mm connecting plug.
V 0130 Puls Code Modulation S 73

Setting values:
U inf 1 f = 1 kHz û = 1.5 V
U inf 2 DC U = 2.5 V

U inf 1 [V ] 1

0
t [ m s]

-1

Uinf 2 [ V ] 2

0
t [m s]

U P AM [ V ] 2

0
t [m s]

-1

U S /H [ V ] 2

0
t [m s]

-1

0 .5

Fig. 7.3.2
S 74 Puls Code Modulation V 0130

U P CM [ V ] 2

0
t [m s]

U s yn c [ V ] 2

0
t [m s]

U P CM S [ V ] 2

0
t [m s]

channel channel channel channel channel channel channel channel

2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1

0 .2 5
Fig. 7.3.3

Question 1: What is the frequency and duration of the synchronous pulse?

Answer: f = 8 kHz t ≈ 11 µs

Question 2: How do you recognize which bit word comes from which input channel?
Draw which channel the bit combinations are to be assigned to in the diagram UPCMS = f (t).

Answer: Change the amplitude of the DC voltage and you will see that every second bitword changes.
These bit words have the same bit combinations due to the DC voltage at the input.
V 0130 Puls Code Modulation S 75

Repetition questions for chapter 7

Question 1: What are the advantages of the PCM technique over other modulation techniques?

Answer: The advantages are the high resistance to interference and the regenerability of the digital
signals. A PCM signal can be regenerated as often as you like and can therefore be trans-
mitted over long distances without losses.

Question 2: With what frequency must an information frequency of 20 kHz be sampled and how many
messages must be transmitted per second when the signal is quantized in 256 stages and
binary coded?

Answer: If the information frequency is 20 kHz, the sampling frequency must be at least 40 kHz.
256 amplitude stages mean an 8-bit coding. This in turn means that 8 bits ⋅ 40 000 = 320 000
bits per second have to be transmitted.

Question 3: With what time does sampling take place in a PCM-30 system and is available for
transmitting a channel?

Answer: Sampling frequency in PCM-30 system: 8 kHz

Number of channels: 32

1
Pulse frame frequency: = 125 µs
8 kHz
125 µs
Time for one channel: = 3.91 µs
32
S 76 Puls Code Modulation V 0130

Notes
V 0130 Delta Modulation S 77

8. Delta Modulation

8.2 Generation of Delta Modulated Signals

Setting on the oscilloscope

Y 1 = 0.2 V / div.
Y 2 = 2 V / div.
-0

-0

Fig. 8.1.4

Question 1: How does the modulator react at greater signal amplitudes (e.g. û = 1 V)?

Answer: If the amplitude of the information signal becomes too great, the modulator can no longer
follow this great difference in amplitude and slope overload occurs. The modulator used
here can no longer distinguish amplitudes above û ≈ 0.8 V at f inf = 500 Hz.

Question 2: Is the slope overload signal frequency-dependent? Measure the maximum codable ampli-
tude at different information frequencies.

Answer: Yes. Example: The slope of a 500 Hz oscillation to maximum amplitude takes place in
double the time which a 1 kHz oscillation takes for this slope. If the modulator can just
follow the 500 Hz oscillation (this depends on the sampling frequency and the value of the
voltage jumps of the integrator), slope overload will occur at a 1 kHz signal of the same
amplitude.
S 78 Delta Modulation V 0130

maximum codable amplitude at f inf = 500 Hz : û inf = 0.8 V

at f inf = 1 kHz : û inf = 0.55 V
at f inf = 2 kHz : û inf = 0.28 V

The maximum codable amplitude of the voltage jump û p depends on:

û p = value of the voltage jump of the integrator
f s = of the sampling frequency
f inf = of the information frequency
The theoretical amplitude of the voltage jump û p is:

finf 1 kHz
û p = û inf ⋅ = 550 mV ⋅ = 27.5 mV
fs 20 kHz

The following maximum codable amplitudes can thus be calculated:

fs 20 kHz
û inf = û p ⋅ = 27.5 mV ⋅ = 1.1 V at 500 Hz
finf 0.5 kHz
20 kHz
= 27.5 mV ⋅ = 0.55 V at 1 kHz
1 kHz

20 kHz
= 27.5 mV ⋅ = 0.275 V at 2 kHz
2 kHz

Question 3: Can the slope overload be shifted to higher signal amplitudes by increasing the sampling
frequency?

Answer: Normally doubling of the sampling frequency should also lead to a doubling of the maximum
fs
codable voltage (û inf = û p ⋅ ). Since, however, the value of the voltage jump of the
finf
integrator is also approximately halved with the sampling frequency in the modulator, the
maximum codable amplitudes remain roughly the same. At higher sampling frequency, how-
ever, the quantization noise is reduced, the so-called granular noise.

Circuit for generating a 40 kHz sampling pulse:

V 0130 Delta Modulation S 79

Repetition questions for chapter 8

Question 1: How does the delta modulation differ from the pulse code modulation?

Answer: The delta modulation transmits an information on the difference of two consecutively
sampled signal levels. The PCM transmits the information of every single sampled signal
level in digital form. The delta modulation is technically simpler to realize than the PCM.

Question 2: Where is simple delta modulation used?

Answer: The delta modulation can process lower amplitude values at higher frequencies and is
therefore suitable for transmitting speech signals which have their highest amplitude values
at low frequencies.
S 80 Delta Modulation V 0130

Notes
V 0130 Appendix A1

Appendix

1. Equipment required for conducting the experiments

- MODULATION BOARD 4280

- Connecting leads (with 2 mm plugs)

10 (contained in accessory kit 4280.1)

- Connecting plugs (2 mm)

5 (contained in accessory kit 4280.1)

3. Technical data of the measuring equipment used in this manual

(The data are minimum requirements.)

Oscilloscope

- Channels: 2

- Bandwidth: 10 MHz

The following are recommended additionally in order to be able to carry out all the measurements in the
experiments:

- 1 spectrum analyser or selective level meter: frequency range 0.1 ... 60 kHz

- frequency counters and multimeters are not absolutely necessary for the exercises but do make
them easier.
A2 Appendix V 0130

4. List of Abbreviations and Symbols

b . . . . . . . . bandwidth

∆φ . . . . . . . . phase deviation

f . . . . . . . . . frequency

f g . . . . . . . . limit frequency

f max . . . . . . . maximum frequency

f min . . . . . . . minimum frequency

f inf . . . . . . . . information or modulation frequency

∆f . . . . . . . . frequency deviation
T . . . . . . . . period

T i . . . . . . . . pulse duration

t p . . . . . . . . pause duration, pulse duration

T T . . . . . . . . period of the carrier oscillation

U . . . . . . . . voltage
U out . . . . . . . output voltage

U in . . . . . . . input voltage

Vu . . . . . . . . voltage amplification

û inf . . . . . . . peak value of the information voltage

η . . . . . . . . modulation index

τ. . . . . . . . . time constant

ϕ . . . . . . . . phase shift angle

ω . . . . . . . . radian frequency

U DC . . . . . . . DC voltage

UT . . . . . . . . carrier voltage

m . . . . . . . . modulation factor

vs . . . . . . . . modulation rate

vD . . . . . . . . data transmission speed

fs . . . . . . . . sampling frequency

SQ . . . . . . . signal/granular noise ratio