DOUBLE–DOUBLE

A New Perspective in The

Manufacture and Design of Composites
AUTHOR & EDITOR
Stephen W. Tsai
 DOUBLE–DOUBLE
A New Perspective in The
Manufacture and Design of Composites
AUTHOR & EDITOR
Stephen W. Tsai
II
 III

DOUBLE–DOUBLE
A New Perspective in The
Manufacture and Design of Composites
AUTHORS & EDITORS
Stephen W. Tsai
Erik Kappel
Antonio Miravete
Aniello Riccio
Francesco Di Caprio
Surajit Roy
Kirk Ming Yeoh
Jialong Liu
Tong-Earn Tay
Vincent Tan
Dan Wang
Shuguang Li
Mingming Xu
Elena Sitnikova
Chuanxiang Zheng
Bo Jin
Albertino Arteiro
Naresh Sharma
Thierry Massard
IV

4-6

2022
 V

Foreword

Practicing composite structures design engineers, have initially relied on their

brain to predict the final strength of laminates subjected to in-plane simple static
loads; dynamic loads and buckling unleashed a plethora of rules, such as balanced
and symmetric laminates, that only computer number crunching is able to esti-
mate the strength and stiffness of such complex structures.

Industry has handled this increased complexity using Legacy ply angles, together
with ever more complicated rules that cannot be all complied with, due to their
contradictory and empirical nature. Weight reduction initiatives, further contribute
to the relaxation of the rules, which results in significant deviations from the origi-
nal objective, therefore the regulator reliance on testing for certification.

The established angle standards (quad) do not preclude, as it was initially as-
sumed, high material qualification and aircraft certification costs. Perhaps, giv-
en this facts, it is now necessary for the composite professionals to look at this   
From a different perspective. 

Professor Tsai’s book looks at the problem with mathematical elegance, without
ignoring the practical aspects.
 
The former, is clearly explained in this book by using “trace” an invariant that
conveys the laminate material stiffness, also known as Tsai’s modulus. Materi-
al choice can be done easily due to the “trace” scaling ability. It is also simply
explained how the laminate stiffness can be understood by combining “trace” with
the angle layup definition.

The simplicity extends to the latter: the “double-double” new angles proposal,
offers an alternative to the legacy “quad”; layup is considerably easy and removes
all the complexity imposed by the Legacy rules. Particularly, ply removal due to
weight reduction will not impact as much the original design intent strength and
VI

stiffness. Though, it will be hard to relinquish the current practice to use zeros and
nineties angles to accommodate varied load case structures.

Professor Tsai’s work offers a credible challenge to well established, mostly em-
pirical methods, that evolved little during the last 50 years. Remarkable engineer-
ing successes were possible, specifically in aerospace, even though at a consider-
able premium.

Perhaps, it is about time to give a chance to a different approach based on simpler

methodology, based on his vast experience and rigorous scientific theories, fo-
cused as well in the simplification of the inherent manufacturing layup technolo-
gy, demanded by industry.

Paulo Lage
Bristol, UK
April 2022
 VII

Foreword II
VIII
IX
X
 XI

Preface

Double-double (DD) is a new class of composite laminates, replacing the conven-

tional quad that limits ply angles to 0, ±45, 90, and many other laminates called
unconventional. In contrast, DD consists of two pairs of ply angles: [±q1,±q2].
The goal is to have laminates that will be easier and faster to produce with lower
weight and lower cost. Many manufacturing innovations can be achieved with DD
and are not otherwise possible with the conventional quad and unconventional
laminates.

For some time, we have been advocating the use of one parameter for stiffness
in trace, one parameter for failure criterion by leveraging Nettles circle, individ-
ual ply drops instead of symmetric pairs, one-axis layup with no cross-plying,
and one continuous layup without stopping for mid-plane symmetry. We are now
advocating one test for interlaminar stress, one laminate for design allowable
generation, and one of two stacking sequences for DD to reach homogenization
the fastest, and more simplifications to come. All these steps that will make com-
posites easier and lower cost to produce are enabled because of the homogeniza-
tion of DD laminates. They are like orthotropic metals, but better than real metals
because DD can have directional properties; DD can be tapered to save weight
with which neither conventional and unconventional laminates, nor metals, can
compete.

At the beginning of composite materials and structures for aerospace applications

in the 1960s design rules were made without much challenge. Many were more
philosophical than rational. The most prominent rules include the following:

1. Laminates must have mid-plane symmetry in order to avoid warpage

2. Laminates must be balanced; i.e., to be orthotropic so it is easier to model
3. Laminates must have 10 percent in each of quad angles to guard against
secondary loads
4. Ply grouping to be 4 or less layers so interlaminar stresses can be minimized
5. Inter-ply angle should be 45 degree or less also to minimize interlaminar
stresses
XII

These rules impose severe penalties in laminates design and cause many self-in-
flicted complexities in manufacturing. As we will see in this book, many of
these rules are not necessary, often incur a weight penalty, and their intent can
be satisfied by other means. For example, mid-plane symmetry can be replaced
by through-the-thickness homogenization which is naturally symmetric. A direct
benefit of this rule change beyond the faster and less prone to error in layup is to
allow ply drops to be in singles rather than in symmetric pairs. Single ply drops
can be located at the exterior surfaces. The laminate interior can now be void of
discontinuities and wrinkles. When a component is homogenized, warpage and
twist are prevented. Many benefits in manufacturing can be derived directly from
homogenization.

There are other practices which have made composites difficult to understand and
produce. One major deterrent is the design allowable generation process. It calls
for testing multiple laminates, multiple batches, and multiple environments. In
this book, we recognize the existence of master ply and modeling of failure modes
that can lead to testing of one laminate, one batch, and one set of environmental
conditions. A [±23/±75], for example, can be one such laminate, as derived in
Chapter 2. Vincent Tan in Chapter 7 found that the interlaminar stress is the same
for all homogenized DD laminates. Testing any one laminate will be sufficient to
know what all the other laminates will do. Albertino Arteiro in Chapter 11 ex-
plores the same one-laminate concept to his design allowable generation for lam-
inates with and without hole. Orders of magnitude in the number of test coupons
can be systematically reduced. New materials and processes would be more easily
exploited in making advances in production possible.

There are also many practices which have never been tested for their scientific
foundation. Fiber and matrix dominated property, behavior and/or quality is an
example. It is at best a vague description of the failure of a uniaxial tensile test. It
is not an appropriate description of a laminate which may be subjected to different
loading conditions. Their responses can be very complex and not sorted out into
two categories of fiber- and matrix-dominated. DD has been unfairly tagged to be
matrix dominated, not sufficient to be fiber dominated. Such simplistic judgement
is subjective and has no evidence that it is true.

The 10 percent rule is another fuzzy rule. It is hard to prove that the laminate
would be stronger or tougher with this rule. It only outlaws many laminates which
might have performed more than adequately otherwise. The equivalent of a 10
percent rule for double-double would be to limit laminate options to those of qua-
si-isotropic angles; i.e., all inter-ply angles are to be between 40 and 50 degrees.
In fact a more rational approach to what the inter-ply angles should be is covered
by the work of Vincent Tan, et al. Single-double can be the optimum and presents
no intrinsic fear. A good example would be [±45] as the best buckling laminate for
 XIII

many boundary conditions with constant and tapered laminates. This work is done
by Dan Wang in Chapter 8.

Homogenization is the most important quality of laminates in our view of the

composites world. It will supersede the need for mid-plane symmetry and open up
ply drops in singles and more flexible locations. Better quality laminates with no
interior defects and no gross warpage become possible. There are only 2 optimum
stackings for double-double laminates, and they can be found by Antonio Mirave-
te in Chapter 4. Conventional quad and unconventional laminates are heteroge-
nous, just the opposite of homogeneous. Such laminates can have millions if not
billions anisotropic flexural stiffness components making optimization impos-
sible. Stacking sequence and blending challenges are self-inflicted. They would
simply go away if laminates are homogenized. It is not surprising that only DD
with 4-ply sub-laminate can be homogenized. There is a recommended practice
to put plies to carry principal load in the center of a laminate. This practice is just
the opposite of homogenization. Another practice of putting [±45] fabrics on the
exterior surface to increase surface toughness. It assumes that an incoming object
can distinguish between [±45] from [0/90].

On the fundamental side of laminates, carpet plots can now be replaced by lam-
inate parameter plots. Carpet plot was invented to facilitate laminate design. It
turned out to be a restricting factor that stymied growth in laminates. The [0] and
[90] plies were locked in, and the only easy extension would be the change of
[±45] to [±q]. Also being able to only adjust the percentage of plies is excessively
confining because plies are locked in discrete numbers: one cannot have 1.2 plies;
there has to be 1 or 2 plies, and nothing in between. Thus, the percentage plies is
not a continuous variable. One cannot have 37 percent [0], for example. Worse for
quad is that the building block sub-laminates keep getting larger and larger, from
4 to 5 to 10 to 16 and even 32. Homogenization would be out of the question.
Ply drops to save weight would not work because the laminate properties would
not remain the same. As we will see in Chapter 2, lamination parameter plots can
handle any laminate from quad to the unconventional to the DD. Direct compari-
son among all laminates can be made. It also drives laminate design based on field
theory, and no longer remains a collection of discrete laminates.

Even more fundamental is the uncertainty of the interaction term in the Tsai-Wu
failure criterion. We are happy to have Shuguang Li in Chapter 9 to show that -1/2
is in fact the correct value for the interaction term if it is assumed that the failure
envelope is a paraboloid (with very large resistance to triaxial compression, the
same assumption made for the von Mises criterion for isotropic materials). It is
important to have removed one critical uncertainty of the Tsai-Wu criterion.
XIV

Tapering of composite laminates in lightly loaded areas is one way to save weight.
With DD that is homogenized, tapering is achieved through the reduction in the
number of repeats. Laminate properties remain constant while its thickness is
reduced. For quad laminates that have thick sub-laminates, ply drops will change
laminate properties. Optimization becomes so complex if possible at all.

The effect of the inter-ply angle on laminate toughness is also presented. To keep
it at 45 or less degrees, the number of allowable quad laminates is reduced from
27 to 11. The reason for this drastic reduction in allowable quad is that the [0]
must not be next to [90] plies, [+45] must be separated from [-45] plies. In these
cases, the inter-ply angle is 90 degree. For DD, the only time when there is a 90
degree inter-ply angle for DD is when the laminate is [0/90]. In all other cases, the
angle is always less than 90. Any constraint imposed by the inter-ply angle must
also consider the effect of stacking and how DD may be produced as a non scrimp
fabric.

Weight reduction by the ANASYS program by Aniello Riccio and Francesco Di

Caprio in Chapter 5 made a very significant demonstration of what DD can offer.
The program first considers the most feasible weight reduction by assuming that
each element of the structure can have its own thickness or number of repeats.
The new ply drops would be included in the next iteration in the stress analysis to
determine a more refined stress at each element. In the end, all elements have as
close to unity strength ratio R as possible. To make weight reduction feasible in
production, at least 3 options are offered. One is with constant thickness for the
entire component. The resulting weight savings reflects the advantage of DD over
quasi-isotropic laminate assuming that is the starting laminate. Two 1-axis layup
will also be considered; one with layup along the x-axis, the other along the y-ax-
is. In all 3 cases, the maximum weight savings were reduced to facilitate layup.
This conversion program is available for all interested parties free of charge.
Surajit also showed that a homogenized laminate will improve its resistance to
transverse impact.

A similar conversion program in ABAQUS is available from Surajit Roy in Chap-

ter 6. More detail of his program can be found in his chapter. His program is also
available free for interested parties.

In Chapter 13 Thierry Massard showed how Lam search, an optimizer, can select
the best laminate from either the DD or quad family of laminates. Unique features
of this Excel-based program include an easy to use material data file, load defini-
tion including auto-filled random loading after primary load sets, strength ratios
for each load determined from 4 failure criteria (i.e., Tsai-Wu, max strain, unit
circle and Nettles circle). Built-in load sets include wide band, fuselage, upper and
lower wings, bulkheads, submarines, and shaft. A free download of a copy of this
is also available. Lam search is also useful to rate different materials, as described
in Chapters 1 and 2.
 XV

The greatest impact of double-double is on manufacturing. Erik Kappel in Chap-

ter 3 and Bo Jin in Chapter 1 have shown how quality tapered stringers and panels
can be produced with the card sliding technique. Ply drops are placed on the exte-
rior surfaces; consequently, in the interior of laminates there are no defects from
discontinuities, wrinkles and voids. The components do not warp, and easy to add
plies for hard points and repair. Layup speed in 1- axis layup without cross-plying
can be 6X faster, and less prone to error because layup is continuous and need not
stop at the mid-plane to change stacking sequence.

Double-double is more than a replacement of quad laminates. It offers manufac-

turing and design that has no counterpart with quad and other laminates. The grid/
skin structure is a double-double that takes advantage of the water jet and wire
cutting on metals for the grid. This effort was done by Chuangxiang Zheng as
one of the authors of Chapter 10. Assembly of grid/skin was done be using [±60]
CFRP skin which has negative thermal expansion. This was done by chilling the
components for an exterior skin (or by heating them for an interior skin) by Erik
Kappel and Bo Jin. The pattern of the grid is totally flexible. Ribs can be straight
or curved. They can different cross sections and in non repeating patterns. This
assembly can be done in matter of hours, with no glue or fasteners. External skin
will be pre-tensioned so buckling can be avoided. Dan Wang was the analyst in
the design of grid and skin for their unusual properties.

A new path for certification for DD is described in Chapter 12 by Naresh Sharma.

With many new ideas proposed by the authors of this book, certification can be a
smoother and more expedient process.

In the end, double-double is conceptually straightforward but needs some effort to

learn what it is. Casual observation to dismiss it is not fair. DD laminates are not
matrix dominated. They are not delamination prone just because inter-ply angles
greater than 45 degree is always present; i.e., if one inter-ply angle is less than 45
degree, its complement is always more than 45. This rule is not enforceable. DD
opens up the world of optimization. With DD, optimization becomes more feasi-
ble and is readily implemented. New measures of laminate quality have emerged.
Homogenization is the key. Optimum ply thickness is a function of laminate
thickness, not an absolute measurement of 125 GSM, for example. For thick
laminates, ply thickness should be 1/16 of the total thickness. In other words, all
laminated panels can be done with 16 layers if homogenization is the criterion.
Reaching out to manufacturing engineers is our most important challenge. It is
our fondest hope that we can achieve this through this book.
XVI

Double-double is a new field. It is easy to reach the leading edge with effort and
moral commitment. In nearly every case, the authors joined the DD team and
within a matter of months they would have discovered new solutions that are
patentable and/or publishable. This is not so for many same old, same old topics
which offer only incremental advances at best. We welcome new believers in DD,
and can help them to switch to DD and see immediate realization of surprising
benefits. The train is at the station ready to leave. Each new believer can be the
go-to, not the me-too, person in his/her company. Members of our team will do
our best to help him/her.

Support of this book by JEC is hereby acknowledged. Michel Cognet, Anne-Car-

ole Barbarin and Andrew Mafeld have made this book project possible. We also
thank Alice Zheng and Thierry Massard for their design and compilation of this
book.

Stephen W. Tsai
Honolulu April 30, 2022
 XVII

About Authors

Stephen W. Tsai
BE 1952, DEng 1961, Yale. Ford Motor, Washington Univer-
sity, US Air Force Materials Laboratory, Stanford University.
Known for his Tsai-Hill failure criterion; lamination pa-
rameters with Pagano; Tsai-Wu failue criterion and strength
ratios; Halpin-Tsai micromechanics formula; trace, master
ply, omni envelopes, and unit circle failue criterion with
Melo; double- double laminates; Lam search with Massard
and Shah; metallic grid/[±60] CFRP skin for glueless assem-
bly with Zheng, Wang, Kappel, and Jin. He is a member of
the US Academy of Engineering since 1995.

Erik Kappel
Research Associate at German Aerospace Center’s (DLR)
Institute of Composite Structures and Adaptive Systems in
Braunschweig. Research Interest:
• Composite design, analysis and manufacturing with a
strong focus on process-induced distortions (PID) of CFRP
components in aerospace applications, efficient numerical
PID prediction and compensation-measure definition.
• Doctoral degree in Mechanical Engineering from Otto v.
Guericke University Magdeburg in 2013 and a Diploma de-
gree in Mechanical Engineering from the Leibniz University
of Hannover in 2009. Currently compiling his Habilitation at
the Technical University of Braunschweig.
• Visiting researcher at the Materials-Engineering Depart-
ment of the University of British Columbia (UBC) in 2013.
• Lecturer for “Composites in Consumer Product” at the
Technical University of Braunschweig.

Antonio Miravete
He has a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering and 40+ years of
experience in analysis, design and manufacturing of organic
matrix composite materials. He started his collaboration
with Prof. Tsai in the 1980’s. He has authored or co-authored
several books published in the US and Europe. Associated
with academic institutions since the beginning of his career,
XVIII

he is a research affiliate at the Department of Aeronautics

and Astronautics, MIT. His major interests are double –
double, nanoscale materials to enhance performance of
advanced composite materials and continuous carbon fiber
additive manufacturing. He is also a US chess master.

Aniello Riccio
Graduated in Aeronautical Engineering at the University
of Naples in 1996. He got his PhD in 1999 at the Second
University of Naples (SUN). In 2000, his PhD thesis was
awarded with the first prize in the frame of “the Pratt &
Whitney-EREAAward”. Between 2000 and 2010, he was
engaged by the Italian Aerospace Research Centre (CIRA).
In 2003, he became member (chairman in 2008-2011) of
the Structures and Materials Group of Responsibles (GoR)
within the GARTEUR organization. Since 2004, he has been
reviewer for many scientific journals. Between 2006 and
2012, he acted as chairman of European Projects and Mod
funded projects. From 2010 he joined the SUN (then Uni-
versity of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”). From 2018, he is full
professor in aerospace Structures. Prof. Riccio is author of
several Publications on advanced materials and structures in
international Journals and Conference proceeding. He also
acts as associate editor for several international scientific
Journals. Main topics of Research are fracture mechanics,
design with composite materials, development of Finite Ele-
ments based numerical tools for Design and Optimization of
Double-Double Composites.

Francesco Di Caprio
Graduated cum laude in Aerospace Engineering and com-
pleted the university education by achieving the PhD in
Aerospace Science and Technology at Second University of
Naples (currently University Campania “Luigi. Vanvitelli”)
with a thesis on damage tolerant composite structures.
He has been working with CIRA (Italian Aerospace Re-
search Centre) since 2011 in Airframe Design and Dynamic
laboratory. He is author of several scientific works published
on international peer-reviewed journals and Conference
proceedings. His main research topics are: numerical meth-
ods for structural analysis; multi-objective optimization;
design for additive manufacturing; composite materials;
crashworthiness; development of numerical methods for
Double-Double composites.
 XIX

Surajit Roy Assistant Professor in the Department of

Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at California State
University, Long Beach. He obtained his Ph.D. degree from
the Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics at Stanford
University in 2014. He teaches senior design capstone course
in mechanical engineering at CSULB. He has mentored
several industry sponsored projects in the past from SoCal
gas, Boeing, Aerospace Corporation, and some local compa-
nies in the region. His current research interests are damage
tolerance of novel composite materials, development of
prognostic models for material ageing under harsh environ-
ments, non-destructive testing techniques, and data-driven
algorithms for structural health monitoring.

Kirk Ming Yeoh is a Ph.D. candidate at the Department of

Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore.
He obtained his B.Eng. in Mechanical Engineering from
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. His doctoral
thesis is on the development of a multiscale and multiphys-
ics numerical model for heterogeneous structures, focusing
on its application towards fibre-reinforced composites. His
research interests are in computational homogenization,
multiscale modelling and composite materials.

Dr. Liu Jialong obtained his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engi-

neering at the National University of Singapore. Currently,
his research interests are in composite structure design and
optimization, bioinspired composites, composite manufac-
turing, and composite structural batteries. His specialization
is composite structure design. It focuses on improving the
mechanical performance of various composite materials
through microscale and mesoscale structure design. The
composite materials include natural fiber reinforced com-
posites, healable composites, impact-resistant composites,
3D printed composites, fiber-reinforced thermoplastic com-
posites, and hybrid composites.

T.E. (Tong-Earn) Tay is full Professor at the Department of

Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore
(NUS). He earned his PhD from the University of Mel-
bourne, Australia in 1989. His research interests are in pro-
gressive damage, failure, fracture, impact, joining and multi-
scale computational analysis of fiber-reinforced composite
structures. He is a recipient of JEC Life Achievement Award,
XX

a registered Professional Engineer (PE), Chartered Engineer

(CEng), Founding Fellow of the Singapore Academy of En-
gineering (FSAE). He was previously Head of Department
of Mechanical Engineering, NUS (2011 to 2015), and Vice-
Dean for Research for Faculty of Engineering, NUS (2009 to
2011).

Vincent Tan is an Associate Professor at the National Uni-

versity of Singapore. After obtaining his BEng and MEng
in Mechanical Engineering from NUS, he pursued his PhD
at Northwestern University, USA. His research interests are
in computational homogenization, multiscale modelling,
and fibre reinforced composites. He serves on the editorial
boards of several journals, including Composites Part B, Me-
chanics of Materials, and International Journal of Applied
Mechanics. He is a Vice President and Fellow of the Associa-
tion for Computational Mechanics (Singapore) and a Gener-
al Council Member of both the International Association of
Computational Mechanics and Asian Pacific Association for
Computational Mechanics.

Dan Wang is currently a Scientist working in the depart-

ment of Engineering Mechanics (EM) at Agency for Science,
Technology and Research (A*STAR Research Entities), Sin-
gapore. She is an expert on structural optimization with the
emphasis on composite structures. Her research interest is
in the development of optimization methodologies in order
to explore the large design space and high tailorability of
novel composite materials and hierarchical structures, such
as Double-Double (DD) laminate layup, curved fiber paths,
and non-periodic stiffener layout. She received a Master and
a PhD (Combined program) in 2013 from Northwestern
Polytechnical University (NWPU), China in Mechanical
Engineering and did a Postdoc at the group of Aerospace
Structures and Computational Mechanics in Delft University
of Technology (TU-Delft), the Netherlands. She was award-
ed the National Outstanding PhD thesis of China on the
subject of Aeronautical and Astronautical Science and tech-
nology, 2016 (only 15 award winners nationwide that year).
Dan Wang currently works closely with Prof Steven Tsai on
numerical simulation and buckling optimization of DD lam-
inates including thickness tapering and grid stiffeners.
 XXI

Shuguang Li
Professor of Aerospace Composites, is a part of the Institute
for Aerospace Technology, Faculty of Engineering, Universi-
ty of Nottingham, UK. He obtained his PhD from University
of Manchester in 1993 and was appointed to his present
position in 2012. He was one of the two advisors to the 2nd
World Wide Failure Exercise for polymer composites (on
3D failure theories). He is one of the organisers for the 3rd
Exercise of the same (on damage theories). The outcomes
have been published in Journal of Composite Materials. His
recent research on the subject of composites failure criteria
has led a number of publications aiming at the rationalisa-
tion of existing criteria, so that users will be able to apply
them to the limit of their applicability with confidence. He is
on the editorial board of International Journal of Mechani-
cal Sciences. He is a visiting professor at Nanjing University
of Aeronautics and Astronautics and Zhejiang University,
China. He has published over 100 academic articles, most
of them in highly reputable international journals. His main
research interest is in the area of analysis of composite ma-
terials and structures; in particular, on subjects of damage
and failure, micromechanics and characterisation. As an
outcome of his research on micromechanical modelling of
composites, a monograph entitled ‘Representative Volume
Elements and Unit Cells© Concepts, Theory, Applications
and Implementation’ was published by Elsevier in 2020. An
open-source software named as UnitCells© has also been
made available by Elsevier which offers material scientists
and structural designers a useful tool for the characterisa-
tion of modern materials in terms of effective properties of
elasticity and thermal and electric conductivity.

Elena Sitnikova
Research Fellow in the department of Mechanical, Materials
and Manufacturing Engineering at the University of Not-
tingham, which she joined in 2013. Prior to this, she took
position of Research Associate at the University of Liver-
pool. She has PhD in Engineering from the University of
Aberdeen, which was awarded for research into the problem
of vibration reduction and control in impact systems using
shape memory alloys. She obtained a BSc and an MSc in
Applied Mathematics and Mechanics from Saint Petersburg
State University. Elena’s research interests and expertise span
a wide range of subjects, with her main published research
XXII

outputs being in the fields of composite materials, applied

dynamics and dynamic failure of materials. These were for-
malised as 20 journal publications. Among her most sub-
stantial achievements is publication of a monograph ‘Rep-
resentative Volume Elements and Unit Cells ­— Concepts,
Theory, Application and Implementation”, to which she
contributed as co-author. It advances the subject of formu-
lation and application of RVEs and UCs, which are essential
tools for the analysis of complex materials and their multi-
scale modelling. Elena’s present research efforts are focused
on the design and application of textile composites. Another
subject of special interest is failure of materials under high
intensity loading. Elena is developing the generalised dy-
namic failure analysis framework that would be applicable to
both isotropic and anisotropic materials.

Mingming Xu
PhD student (2017-2022) in the Composites Research
Group of Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham,
UK. He obtained his master’s and bachelor’s degrees from
the Beijing Institute of Technology in 2016 and 2014, respec-
tively. His main research interest is in the multiscale analysis
of textile composites and lightweight structures, nonlinear
and dynamic behaviour of composites, in particular, blast
and impact resistance.

Chuanxiang Zheng
Professor of Zhejiang University, China. Specialization
in composite pressure vessels. He obtained his Bachelor’s
degree, Master’s degree, and Doctor’s degree from Zhejiang
University in Chemical Process Machinery (Pressure
Vessels). He started teaching at Zhejiang University from
1998, and was appointed as a professor in 2009. He visited
the Aeronautic & Astronautic Department of Stanford Uni-
versity as a Visiting Scholar in 2008, and from 2011 to 2014.
His research interests include composite pressure vessels,
carbon fiber structure design, and strength analysis of car-
bon fiber tubes.
 XXIII

Bo Jin
A faculty at the University of Southern California. He
teaches graduate and undergraduate courses at USC’s Aero-
space and Mechanical Engineering, and conducts research
at USC’s M.C. Gill Composites Center. He specializes in
composites design, composites manufacturing and charac-
terization methods, computational mechanics, and Finite
Element Analysis. He was an assistant research scientist at
the Spanish National Lab IMDEA Materials, and a compos-
ites FEA Engineer at MSC NASTRAN.
Bo is the recipient of several awards, including an ACM-
ICPC Gold Medal, an SME Outstanding Young Manufactur-
ing Engineer Award, a SAMPE National Leadership Award,
a 1st Place of NASTRAN Simulating Reality Contest, and
several best paper awards in major composites conferences
including CAMX/SAMPE. He serves on the editorial board
of the Journal of Composites Science, and as the conference
chair and technical committee member at SAMPE/CAMX.
Bo has published ~60 peer-reviewed journal and conference
papers including a few featured articles in top journals in the
composites field.

Albertino Arteiro is currently Assistant Professor at the

Materials and Technological Processes Group of the Depart-
ment of Mechanical Engineering (DEMec) of the Faculty
of Engineering – University of Porto. His research interests
include material development and numerical modelling at
different length-scales, design and analysis of composite
materials based on new concepts, and composites man-
ufacturing. He received a Master’s Degree in Mechanical
Engineering - Specialization in Structural Engineering and
Machine Design - from the Faculty of Engineering - Uni-
versity of Porto in 2012, and a Doctoral Degree in Mechan-
ical Engineering (cum Laude) from the same University in
2016, during which he was a Visiting Student Researcher at
the Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics of Stan-
ford University. He was awarded the Best PhD Thesis by the
Portuguese Association of Theoretical, Applied and Compu-
tational Mechanics (APMTAC).
XXIV

Naresh Sharma is the CEO and Founder of NASHERO, a

light aircraft manufacturer out of North Italy. NASHERO
designs, develops, produces and sells carbon composite
aircraft. With the impending AS9100 certification, they
plan on supplying larger OEMs with technology, composite
and complex precision machined metal parts. Since 2008,
Naresh is an ASTM member and an active contributor to
the ASTM’s aviation standards including those for General
Aviation.
Naresh earned a Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering and Com-
puter Sciences from the Delft University of Technology
in 1997, a Master’s in Aeronautical Engineering from the
Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur in 1989, and a
Bachelor’s in Mechanical Engineering from IIT, Kanpur in
1986.

Thierry Massard
Graduates from Ecole Centrale in material engineering
(1975) and he holds a PhD from Ecole Centrale in mechan-
ics of composite materials (1979).
Thierry Massard is an expert for innovative materials, espe-
cially in the field of composite materials. He was assistant
professor on composite materials at ENSTA ParisTech. En-
gineering School. He is a World Fellow of the International
Committee on Composite Materials.
He and Prof Tsai have been working together for more than
40 years. Together they have contributed to many topics in
the field of composite materials. Thierry Massard is the head
of Think Composites Europe a no-for-profit organization
for the promotion of composite materials in the industry
(https://www.think-composites.com/) . He developed many
software for the optimum design of composite laminates. Re-
cently he contributed with Prof Tsai to Lam search, a power-
ful tool for the design of optimum Double Double laminates
a cutting edge technique that will revolutionize the way to
design and build composites structures.
 XXV

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Manufacturing opportunities in DD 1

1.1 Laminate thickness 1
1.2 Simplification of lamination 3
1.3 Matching strength 6
1.4 Tapered laminates 6
1.5 Weight savings 10
1.6 Negative constants 12
1.7 DD in summary 13

Chapter 2 Foundaton of DD 15
2.1 Homogenization 15
2.2 One parameter stiffness 17
2.3 Invariant formulation and properties 19
2.4 Carpet plots 24
2.5 Lamnation parameters for [A] and [D] 26
2.6 Quad in carpet and laminations parameter plots 29
2.7 DD in lamination parameter plots 32
2.8 Tools for DD conversion 42
2.9 Failure criteria 43
2.10 Omni strength envelopes 45
2.11 Target laminate 50
2.12 Conclusions 52

Chapter 3 Double-double laminates - unique manufacturing 55

3.1 Double-double family of laminates 58
3.2 Double-double omega stringer 61
3.3 Tapering by “card sliding” 63
3.4 Saving weight by tapering 68
3.5 Lamnate quality and the effect of ply thickness 68
3.6 Shell components for aerospace application 70
3.7 Special-purpose structures and applications 72
3.8 Conclusions & outlook 77

Chapter 4 Preferred stacking for homogenization 79

4.1 Hoogenization, that great unknown 82
4.2 Double-double building block sequences 85
4.3 Well-dispersed DD angles enhances homogenization 90
4.4 The single-double case 91
 XXVI

4.5 Validation of the minimum number of repeats 92

4.6 Convergence rate to homogenization 94
4.7 lamnation parameter graphs and their relationship with the
stacking sequences 99
4.8 Symmetric double-double: enforced symmetry 102
4.9 Bending-twisting coupling 105
4.10 Minimum guage 107
4.11 DD2 107
4.12 Lamination parameter diagrams for various cases 109

Chapter 5 Optimization of a regional acircraft fuselage barrel by with

re-designing with double-double laminates 113
5.1 Introduction 114
5.2 Background on double-double laminates 115
5.2.1 Advantages of Double-Double laminates over Quasi-isotropic
quad laminates 116
5.2.2 Tsai’s modulus and master ply concept 116
5.2.3 Laminate homogenization 117
5.3 DD - design optimization tool 118
5.3.1 Lam search tool 118
5.3.2 DD - design workflow 119
5.4 Application to a regional aircraft composite fuselage barrel 121
5.4.1 Geometrical and FE model description 122
5.4.2 Optimization process 124
5.5 Conclusions 128

Chapter 6 Finite Element Simulation Tool for Optimal Double-double

Search using ABAQUS 131
6.1 Overview 131
6.2 Optimal DD for Static Loading 131
6.3 Optimal DD for Dynamic Loading 136
6.4 Summary 139

Chapter 7 Interlaminar shear stress and failure of quad and double-double

laminates 141
7.1 Estimating interlaminar shear stresses 141
7.2 Interlaminar shear stresses of quad laminates 144
7.3 Interlaminar shear stresses of DD laminates 147
7.4 A proposed measure of homogenisation 151
7.5 Effect of inter-ply mismatch angle on interlaminar shear strength 154
7.6 Conclusion 156

Chapter 8 Buckling optimization of DD 167

8.1 Buckling optimization of DD laminates by varying ply
orientations 168
 XXVII

8.2 Buckling optimization of tapered DD laminates by varying

laminate thickness profile 169
8.3 Buckling optimization of tapered DD laminates with spacing
constraints 171
8.4 Conclusions and recommendations 172

Chapter 9 Fully Rationalised Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion for Transversely

Isotropic Materials 175
9.1 Introduction 175
9.2 The original Tsai-Wu criterion and a critical examination 177
9.3 A logical choice of the quadric surface resulting from a
quadratic failure criterion 182
9.4 The consequence of the failure envelope being an elliptic
paraboloid 184
9.5 The sensitivity of the quadratic failure criterion to the coeffi-
cients involved 185
9.6 The fully rationalised Tsai-Wu failure criterion 187
9.7 A practical aspect of the Tsai-Wu criterion and its
implications 188
9.8 Special cases of the fully rationalised Tsai-Wu failure criterion
as necessary verifications 190
9.9 Transverse shear strength: its true significance and
appropriate role 192
9.9.1 As a means of validation of the theory 193
9.9.2 As a means of calibrating other transverse strength properties 196
9.10 The strain-based Tsai-Wu failure criterion and its rationalised
presentation 199
9.11 Conclusions 203

Chapter 10 Grid/skin structures 209

10.1 Background 209
10.2 Metallic grids 210
10.3 Negative thermal expansion 213
10.4 Grid/skin assembly 216
10.5 Applications 218
10.6 Conclusions 218

Chapter 11 Notched response of DD 219

11.1 Structural components 219
11.2 Material selection and characterization 226
11.3 Notched strength of DD laminates 227
11.4 Conclusions 229
 XXVIII

Chapter 12 Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD 233

12.1 A case in point, the motivation for DD 233
12.2 General Aviation Aircraft 235
12.3 Optimum DD for General Aircraft Structures 235
12.4 Composite Aircraft Certification 236
12.5 Introduction to the Certification of Aircraft Structures 237
12.5.1 Material Allowables 238
12.5.2 Fatigue and Durability 240
12.5.3 Environmental degradation 242
12.6 The Certification of Composite Aircraft Structures in Practice 244
12.6.1 Material Allowables 244
12.6.2 Fatigue and Durability 245
12.7 Proposal for Certification of Composite Aircraft Structures 247
12.8 Manufacture of DD Composites 248
12.8.1 Manufacturing process consistency 248
12.8.2 Production molds and parts for composite aircraft structures 249

Chapter 13 Case Studies Using Lamsearch and MicMac to Find the Best DD 255
Case study 1 255
Case study 2 258
Case study 3 259
Case study 4 262
Other Lamsearch Tool 266
 Chapter 1 Manufacturing Opportunities in DD 1

CHAPTER 1
Ch.1
Manufacturing Opportunities in DD
2 Chapter 1 Manufacturing Opportunities in DD
1.2 Simplification of lamination 3

Ch.1
4 Chapter 1 Manufacturing Opportunities in DD
1.3 Matching Strength 5

Ch.1
6 Chapter 1 Manufacturing Opportunities in DD
1.4 Tapered Laminates 7

Ch.1
8 Chapter 1 Manufacturing Opportunities in DD

Nashero,
1.4 Tapered Laminates 9

Ch.1
10 Chapter 1 Manufacturing Opportunities in DD

ϕ ψ

percent
 1.5 Weight Savings 11

Ch.1

competitive.
12 Chapter 1 Manufacturing Opportunities in DD
1.7 DD in Summary 13

Ch.1
14 Chapter 1 Manufacturing Opportunities in DD
 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD 15

CHAPTER 2
Foundation of DD
Ch.2
16 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD

and [B] = 0. This is so different from heterogeneous laminates where a given laminate
in [A] can have hundreds and thousands of [D], making laminate optimization so
complex if not impossible. Stacking sequence will no longer be an issue to consider.
2.2 One Parameter Stiffness 17

Ch.2
18 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.3 Invariant Formulation and Properties 19

Ch.2
20 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD

Using trigonometric identities between power and multiple angles, shown in the top part
2.3 Invariant Formulation and Properties 21

Ch.2
22 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.3 Invariant Formulation and Properties 23

Ch.2
24 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.4 Carper Plots 25

Ch.2
26 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.5 Lamination Parameters for [A] and [D] 27

Ch.2
28 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.6 Quad in Carpet and Lamination Parameter Plots 29

Ch.2
30 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.6 Quad in Carpet and Lamination Parameter Plots 31

Ch.2
32 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.7 DD in Lamination Parameter Plots 33

Ch.2
34 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.7 DD in Lamination Parameter Plots 35

Ch.2
36 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.7 DD in Lamination Parameter Plots 37

Ch.2
38 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.7 DD in Lamination Parameter Plots 39

Ch.2
40 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.7 DD in Lamination Parameter Plots 41

Ch.2
42 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.8 Tools for DD Conversion 43

Ch.2
44 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.10 Omni Strength Envelopes 45

Ch.2
46 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.10 Omni Strength Envelopes 47

Ch.2
48 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
2.10 Omni Strength Envelopes 49

Ch.2
50 Chapter 2 Foundation of DD
Having one target laminate is better than not having one at all. The conventional
2.11
practice of testing [0/90], [QI], [Hard] and [Soft] for design allowable Target Laminate
generation is so 51
expensive in cost and months if not years to complete can be shortened so new materials
and processes can have a better chance to be considered for use. Having a target
laminate may provide one way to reduce the extent of testing. As described in data for
interlaminar failure in Chapter 7 only one DD laminate is needed because for all
homogenized DD laminates their interlaminar failure strength are equal. Thus the target
laminate as a coupon for interlaminar strength will be as good as any other DD
laminates.

2.12 Conclusions
Ch.2
The foundation of DD as we have presented can lead to a renaissance how composites
are manufactured and designed. If the Handbook 17 is an indication of the conventional
practice, many distinctions can be drawn.

First, the conventional quad of 0, ±45, 90 has been cited to be relaxed to 0, ±, 90. Is
this a half way to DD? The new quad is still a collection of discrete laminates in 0 and
90. The number of plies to cover a wide range of properties will still have to be large.
Keeping homogenization of this new quad will have the same degree of difficulty. A
half way change does not reach a field-based family of laminates that DD offers.

Secondly, many recommended practices are philosophies with little or no scientific

support. The stacking sequence of laminates consumed many paragraphs none of which
had any model or data to show. To put ply orientations along the principal load
direction was cited many times. To place these plies near the center of the laminate
makes laminate more heterogeneous. In fact homogenization was mentioned but never
realized for its ability to eliminate not only the stacking sequence but also the blending
issues. The best solution to reach homogenization would be the use of DD. To treat
laminates like parallel springs is just as unreliable. This is like the golf shaft people
who take pride in selecting [0] plies for bending and [±45] for twist. We would like to
think that we can do better than that.

Thirdly, allowable generation calls for many laminates, and many batches. There is no
attempt to use trace to reduce the number of tests, and to recognize that homogenization
can reduce interlaminar strength to test of one laminate. Variations caused by batches,
environmental factors and stress raisers like open and filled holes can also be reduced to
one laminate. The laminate can be [±22.5/±75]. For stiffness of laminates, there is only
one constant in trace, U2* or U3*. Only one test is needed. Select the easiest one. Not
the difficult ones like the shear and compression tests. For strength, there is one test for
FPF that can be the transverse tensile, and two for LPF in longitudinal tensile and
compressive tests. For interlaminar shear, there is one test (like short beam shear) on
any homogenized laminate. Modeling helps 51to eliminate difficult tests. Bi-axial tests
for example are critical but rarely used because of their complexity and lack of
confidence.

Finally carpet plots can now be replaced by Lam search or lamination parameter plots.
In fact Lam search can supplement pages of derivations of laminated plate theory in the
Handbook 17 and make it a search engine for composites engineers. The handbook
does not recognized the potential of scaling to simplify design allowable generation.
Scaling is made possible when laminate stiffness is recognized as the product of trace
and its partitioning for given laminates. Similar scaling can be applied to the omni
strength envelopes where its multipliers are not sensitive to ply materials. That is
comparable to the master ply partitioning of laminate stiffness.

Manufacture and design of composite materials and structures can be simplified and
strengthened by innovative solutions. Only DD offers such opportunities. The good
news is that all laminates can readily converted to DD thereby receiving the benefits of
better manufacturing and design. Not the same old, same old. The old quad is ready to
be retired. Several cases have been presented here and other chapters of this book. We
 Handbook 17 and make it a search engine for composites engineers. The handbook
52 does not recognized
Chapter 2 Foundationthe of
potential
DD of scaling to simplify design allowable generation.
Scaling is made possible when laminate stiffness is recognized as the product of trace
and its partitioning for given laminates. Similar scaling can be applied to the omni
strength envelopes where its multipliers are not sensitive to ply materials. That is
comparable to the master ply partitioning of laminate stiffness.

Manufacture and design of composite materials and structures can be simplified and
strengthened by innovative solutions. Only DD offers such opportunities. The good
news is that all laminates can readily converted to DD thereby receiving the benefits of
better manufacturing and design. Not the same old, same old. The old quad is ready to
be retired. Several cases have been presented here and other chapters of this book. We
are in the beginning of a new venture. Many new discoveries can be expected. So will
substantiation of claims to be forthcoming by test data or new solutions. It is with
excitement that new approaches for the benefit of composites technology are emerging.
It is hoped that engineers with wills to improve can find DD a good choice to learn, to
understand, and to use.

References

[1] S.W. Tsai, S.D.D. Melo, Composite Materials Design and Testing (2015)
Composites Design Group, Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics, Stanford
University

[2] L. Jia, C. Zeng, J. Li, L Yao, C. Tang, “Validation and development of trace-based
approach for composite laminates,” Composites Science and Technology 221 (2022)
109348

[3] S.W. Tsai, “Double-double – a new family of laminates,” AIAA Journal, Vol 39,
No. 11, November 2021, 4293-4305

[4] S.W. Tsai, N.J. Pagano, “Invariants properties of composite materials,” Composite
Materials Workshop (1968) 223-253, Technomic

[5] S.W. Tsai, H.T. Hahn, Introduction to composite materials (1980) Technomic

[6] M. Miki, “A graphical method of design of laminated fibre composite plates with
required in-plane stiffness,” Trans JSCM 9, 2, (1983) 51-55

52
 Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunity 53

CHAPTER 3
Unique Manufacturing Opportunity

Ch.3
54 Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunities
Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunity 55

Ch.3
56 Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunities
3.1 Double-Double Family of Laminates 57

Ch.3
58 Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunities
3.2 Double-Double Omega Stringer 59

Ch.3
60 Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunities
3.3 Tapering by “Card Sliding“ 61

Ch.3
62 Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunities
3.3 Tapering by “Card Sliding“ 63

Ch.3
64 Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunities
3.3 Tapering by “Card Sliding“ 65

Ch.3
66 Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunities
3.4 Saving Weight by Tapering 67

Ch.3
68 Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunities
3.5 Shell Components for Aerospace Application 69

Ch.3
70 Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunities

plies
3.7 Special-purpose Structures and Applications 71

Ch.3
72 Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunities
 3.8 Conclusion & Outlook 73

A flat [30, -30]8T laminate sample has been created from Hexcel’s M21E/IMA UD prepreg to
verify the negative CTE. Figure 26 shows the created raw data from the tests and the determined Ch.3
linear coefficients of thermal expansion in all three principal laminate directions. The analysis
substantiates the negative CTE in the laminate’s x-direction and a comparably high CTE in the
in-plane transverse direction. The CTE in the laminate’s through-thickness direction is found
comparable to regular quad laminates.

Figure 26: [30,-30]8T M21E/IMA laminate CTEs, determined with thermo-mechanical analysis
74 Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunities
References 75

Ch.3
76 Chapter 3 Unique Manufacturing Opportunities
 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization 77

CHAPTER 4
Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization

Ch.4
78 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization 79

Ch.4
80 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.1 Homogenization, That Great Unknown 81

Ch.4
82 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.2 Double-Double Building Block Stacking Sequences 83

Ch.4
84 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.2 Double-Double Building Block Stacking Sequences 85

Ch.4
86 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.2 Double-Double Building Block Stacking Sequences 87

Ch.4
88 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.3 Well-Dispersed Double-Double Angles Enhances Homogenization 89

Ch.4
90 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.5 Validation of the Minimum Number of Repeats 91

Ch.4
92 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.6 Convergence Rates to Homogenization 93

Ch.4
94 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.6 Convergence Rates to Homogenization 95

Ch.4
96 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.7 Lamination Parameters and Their Relationship with the Stacking Sequences 97

Ch.4
98 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.7 Lamination Parameters and Their Relationship with the Stacking Sequences 99

Ch.4
100 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.8 Symmetric Double-Double: enforced symmetry delays homoge- 101

Ch.4
102 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.9 Bending – Twisting Coupling 103

Ch.4
104 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.10 Minimum Gauge 105

Ch.4
106 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
4.12 Lamination Parameter Diagrams for Various Cases 107

Ch.4
108 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
References 109

Ch.4
110 Chapter 4 Preferred Stacking Sequences for Homogenization
 Chapter 5 Conversion of Fuselage to DD 111

CHAPTER 5
Optimization of a Regional Aircraft Fuselage Barrel by
Re-Designing with Double-Double Laminates
112 Chapter 5 Conversion of Fuselage to DD
5.1 Introduction 113

Ch.5
114 Chapter 5 Conversion of Fuselage to DD

2
 5.2 Background on Double-Double (DD) Laminates 115

Ch.5

2
116 Chapter 5 Conversion of Fuselage to DD

3
 5.3 DD – Design Optimization Tool 117

Ch.5

3
118 Chapter 5 Conversion of Fuselage to DD
5.4 Application to a Reginal Aircraft Composite Fuselage Barrel 119

Ch.5
120 Chapter 5 Conversion of Fuselage to DD
5.4 Application to a Reginal Aircraft Composite Fuselage Barrel 121

Ch.5
122 Chapter 5 Conversion of Fuselage to DD
5.4 Application to a Reginal Aircraft Composite Fuselage Barrel 123

Ch.5
124 Chapter 5 Conversion of Fuselage to DD
5.5 Conclusions 125

Ch.5
126 Chapter 5 Conversion of Fuselage to DD
References 127

Ch.5
128 Chapter 5 Conversion of Fuselage to DD

With George Springer and Jocelyn Patterson Seng, both life long collaborators
 Chapter 6 Conversion of DD Abaqus 129

CHAPTER 6
Finite Element Simulation Tool for Optimal Double-double
Search using ABAQUS
130 Chapter 6 Conversion to DD Abaqus
6.2 Optimal DD for Static Loading 131

Ch.6
132 Chapter 6 Conversion to DD Abaqus
6.2 Optimal DD for Static Loading 133

Ch.6
134 Chapter 6 Conversion to DD Abaqus
6.3 Optimal DD for Dynamic Loading 135

Ch.6
136 Chapter 6 Conversion to DD Abaqus
6.4 Summary 137

Ch.6
138 Chapter 6 Conversion to DD Abaqus

With Thierry Massard and Daniel Melo, a collaborator on trace, master ply,
omni envelopes and unit circle failure criterion, and organizer of Composites
Design Workshops
 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD 139

CHAPTER 7
Interlaminar Shear Stress and Failure of Quad and
Double-double Laminates
140 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD
7.2 Estimating Interlaminar Shear Stresses 141

Ch.7
142 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD
7.3 Interlaminar Shear Stresses of Quad Laminates 143

Ch.7
144 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD
7.4 Interlaminar Shear Stresses of DD Laminates 145

Ch.7
146 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD
7.4 Interlaminar Shear Stresses of DD Laminates 147

Ch.7
148 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD
7.5 A Proposed Measure of Homogenisation 149

Ch.7
150 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD
7.5 A Proposed Measure of Homogenisation 151

Ch.7
152 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD
7.6 Effect of Inter-ply Mismatch Angle on Interlaminates Shear Strength 153

Ch.7
154 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD
7.7 Conclusion 155

Ch.7
156 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD
Appendix 157

Ch.7
158 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD
Appendix 159

Ch.7
160 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD
Appendix 161

Ch.7
162 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD
Appendix 163

Ch.7
164 Chapter 7 Interlaminar Shear Stress in DD

With Michel Cognet at JEC World, the first believer

and supporter of bi-angle non crimp fabric

With Thierry Massard at JEC World. Collaborated over 40 years,

and developed MicMac and Lam search
 Chapter 8 Buckling Optimization of DD 165

CHAPTER 8
Buckling Optimization of DD
166 Chapter 8 Buckling of Tapered Panel

)
8.1 Buckling Optimization of DD Laminates by Varying ply Orientations 167

Ch.8
168 Chapter 8 Buckling of Tapered Panel

)
8.3 Buckling Optimization of Tapered DD Laminates with Spacing Constraints 169

Ch.8
170 Chapter 8 Buckling of Tapered Panel

8.4
Conclusions and Recommendations 171

Ch.8
172 Chapter 8 Buckling of Tapered Panel

With Iris and Yasushi and Noriko Miyano. Together we organized Composites
Durability Workshops for 20 years held over a dozen cities around the world

With Valery Vasiliev, the fist proponent of isogrid, in Riga, 1975

 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion 173

CHAPTER 9
Fully Rationalised Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion for
Transversely Isotropic Materials
174 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
9.2 The Original Tsai-Wu Criterion and a Critical Examination 175

Ch.9
176 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
9.2 The Original Tsai-Wu Criterion and a Critical Examination 177

Ch.9
178 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
9.2 The Original Tsai-Wu Criterion and a Critical Examination 179

Ch.9
180 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
9.3 A logical Choice of the Quadric Surface Resulting from a Quadratic Failure Criterion 181

Ch.9
182 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion

22
9.4 The Consequence of the Failure Envelope Being an Elliptic Paraboloid 183

Ch.9
184 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
9.6 The Fully Rationalised Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion 185

Ch.9
186 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
9.7 A Practical Aspect of the Tsai-Wu Criterion and Its Implications 187

Ch.9
188 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
9.8 Special Cases of the Fully Rationalised Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion as Necessary Verifications 189

Ch.9
190 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
9.9 Transverse Shear Strength: Its Ture Significance and Appropriate Role 191

Ch.9
192 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
9.9 Transverse Shear Strength: Its Ture Significance and Appropriate Role 193

Ch.9
194 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
9.9 Transverse Shear Strength: Its Ture Significance and Appropriate Role 195

Ch.9
196 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
9.10 The Strain-Based Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion and Its Rationalised Presentation 197

Ch.9
198 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
9.10 The Strain-Based Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion and Its Rationalised Presentation 199

Ch.9
200 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
9.11 Conclusions 201

Ch.9
202 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
References 203

Ch.9
204 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion
References 205

Ch.9
206 Chapter 9 Interaction terms for Tsai-Wu Criterion

With Becky and Edward Wu of the Tsai-Wu failure criterion.

Ed passed away 10 years ago.

With Manuel Torres at JEC World, a self-made innovator,

passed away in November 2020
 Chapter 10 Grid/skin Structures 207

CHAPTER 10
Grid/skin Structures
208 Chapter 10 Grid/skin Structures
10.2 Metallic Grids 209

Ch.10
210 Chapter 10 Grid/skin Structures
10.3 Manufacturing Opportunity Due to Negative Thermal Expansion of Composite Skin 211

Ch.10
212 Chapter 10 Grid/skin Structures
10.3 Manufacturing Opportunity Due to Negative Thermal Expansion of Composite Skin 213

Ch.10
214 Chapter 10 Grid/skin Structures
10.4 Grid/Skin Assembly 215

Ch.10
216 Chapter 10 Grid/skin Structures
 Chapter 11 Notched Response of DD 217

CHAPTER 11
Notched Response of DD

Albertino Arteiro
DEMec, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto
Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
218 Chapter 11 Notched Response of DD
11.1 Structural Components 219

Ch.11
220 Chapter 11 Notched Response of DD
11.1 Structural Components 221

Ch.11
222 Chapter 11 Notched Response of DD
11.1 Structural Components 223

Ch.11
224 Chapter 11 Notched Response of DD
11.2 Material Selection and Characterization 225

Ch.11
226 Chapter 11 Notched Response of DD
11.4 Conclusions 227

Ch.11
228 Chapter 11 Notched Response of DD
References 229

Ch.11
230 Chapter 11 Notched Response of DD

Younger son, Ming, who cooked for the vice presidents

who became presidents soon after

Granddaughter Lauren Tsai, an artist, and TV and movie actress now

working in Tokyo
 Chapter 12 Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD 231

CHAPTER 12
Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD

Nashero, Italy
232 Chapter 12 Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD
12.2 General Aviation Aircraft 233

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234 Chapter 12 Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD
12.4 Composite Aircraft Certification 235

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236 Chapter 12 Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD
12.5 Introduction to the Certification of Aircraft Structures 237

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238 Chapter 12 Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD
12.5 Introduction to the Certification of Aircraft Structures 239

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240 Chapter 12 Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD
12.5 Introduction to the Certification of Aircraft Structures 241

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242 Chapter 12 Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD
12.6 The Certification of Composite Aircraft Structures in Practice 243

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244 Chapter 12 Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD
12.7 Proposal for Certification of Composite Aircraft Structures 245

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246 Chapter 12 Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD
12.8 Manufacture of DD Composites 247

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248 Chapter 12 Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD
12.8 Manufacture of DD Composites 249

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250 Chapter 12 Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD
 References 251

Ch.12

Iris birthday celebration with our older son Ming Stephen at Kahala Nui in Honolulu
252 Chapter 12 Certifiable General Aviation Structures in DD

Steve’s parents, Stephen and Lily Tsai,

passed away when they were 92 and 95, respectively

Celebrating birthday at his favorite restaurant China Stix in Santa Clara,

CA, in 2019
 Chapter 13 Case Studies Using Lamsearch and MicMac to Find the Best DD 253

CHAPTER 13
Case Studies Using Lamsearch and MicMac
to Find the Best DD
254 Chapter 13 Case Studies Using Lamsearch and MicMac to Find the Best DD
Case Study 1 255

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256 Chapter 13 Case Studies Using Lamsearch and MicMac to Find the Best DD
Case Study 2 257

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258 Chapter 13 Case Studies Using Lamsearch and MicMac to Find the Best DD
Case Study 3 259

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260 Chapter 13 Case Studies Using Lamsearch and MicMac to Find the Best DD
Case Study 4 261

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262 Chapter 13 Case Studies Using Lamsearch and MicMac to Find the Best DD
Case Study 4 263

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264 Chapter 13 Case Studies Using Lamsearch and MicMac to Find the Best DD
Other Lamsearch Tool 265

Ch.13
266 Chapter 13 Case Studies Using Lamsearch and MicMac to Find the Best DD
 Free Download 267

Ch.13

[email protected]
https://www.think-composites.com/software/
This double-double came before ours and is very popular in California and Arizona.
Should be as easy to swallow as our DD
 DOUBLE–DOUBLE
A New Perspective in The
Manufacture and Design of Composites

DD enables homogenization that enables simplicity and robust manu-

facturing not possible with conventional laminates. With repeated 4-ply
building blocks mid-plane symmetry is no longer needed. Every quad and
non standard laminates can be matched by DD in stiffness and strength –
exactly in most cases. Ply drops in singles, not in symmetric pairs, placed
at the exterior surfaces are easier to layup and prevent defects and wrinkles
formed in the laminate interior. Resulting laminates will be tougher and
will not warp. There are only two DD stacking sequences to be selected,
not hundreds and thousands normally. Interlaminar stress from transverse
loading will be the same for all homogenized DD laminates – making de-
sign and testing simple. Lightly loaded regions can be thinner that would
reduce weight, cost and layup time. With pre-made DD non crimp fabric
1-axis layup is possible without cross-plying. Not only the layup speed can
be 6X, DD is less prone to error and visible ply drops make inspection con-
tinuous and simple. For design, trace can separate material from geometry
factors. Such trace-based master ply stiffness and strength, independent
of material factor, make optimization possible and practical. With such
rational foundation, data generation may require only one laminate and
one batch, not multiple laminates and multiple batches. While several
known mysteries remain to be solved DD has come just in time to replace
conventional laminates that have so many self-inflicted complications
making composites less optimal, more costly and overweight. In this book
numerous insights and shortcuts can bring about benefits of significant
proportion. The goal of innovation is to simplify and demystify rather
than to complicate. One constant for property or process is great because
it can be used to scale. Conceptually simple, DD will take an open mind
and dedication to fulfill the promises of the emerging advanced composites
started in the 1960’s.

E-book: ISBN 978-0-9819143-2-9

Hard bound: ISBN 978-0-9819143-3-6. 149 euro, available at JEC