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Week 2 Day 1 Module Physical Science

The document discusses how nuclear fusion in stars leads to the formation of heavier elements. It describes two main hydrogen fusion processes: the proton-proton chain and the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle. These fuse hydrogen into helium. Further fusion of helium nuclei can produce elements up to iron. Heavier elements are formed through neutron capture and proton capture processes, which occur during supernovae. Elements heavier than iron cannot be formed through fusion due to decreasing nuclear binding energy.

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Eunice Acuna
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176 views3 pages

Week 2 Day 1 Module Physical Science

The document discusses how nuclear fusion in stars leads to the formation of heavier elements. It describes two main hydrogen fusion processes: the proton-proton chain and the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle. These fuse hydrogen into helium. Further fusion of helium nuclei can produce elements up to iron. Heavier elements are formed through neutron capture and proton capture processes, which occur during supernovae. Elements heavier than iron cannot be formed through fusion due to decreasing nuclear binding energy.

Uploaded by

Eunice Acuna
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Nuestra Señora De Guia Academy

MODULE IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE


Grade 12
The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars
Week 2 / Day 1

OVERVIEW
Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed in the cores and
shells of the stars through nuclear fusion reactions. Nuclear fusion is a type of reaction that
fuses lighter elements to form heavier ones. It requires very high temperatures and
pressures. It is the reaction that fuels the stars since stars have very high temperatures and
pressures in their cores.
Hydrogen is the lightest element and the most abundant in space. Thus, the formation
of heavier elements starts with hydrogen. Hydrogen burning is the stellar process that
produces energy in the stars. There are two dominant hydrogen burning processes, the
proton-proton chain and carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1. explain how elements are formed in stars through nuclear fusion; and
2. describe how elements heavier than iron is formed.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle is a catalytic cycle of gamma emission and beta decay that
converts hydrogen into helium.
Hydrogen burning is the stellar process that produces energy in the stars. There are two
dominant hydrogen burning processes, the proton-proton chain and carbon-nitrogen-
oxygen (CNO) cycle.
Nuclear fusion is a type of reaction that fuses lighter elements to form heavier ones.
Proton-proton chain is a sequence of thermonuclear reactions in the stars. It is the main
source of energy radiated by the sun and other stars.

DISCUSSION
HOW ELEMENTS ARE FORMED IN STARS THROUGH NUCLEAR FUSION
Proton-Proton Chain
The proton-proton chain is a series of
thermonuclear reactions in the stars. It is the main
source of energy radiated by the sun and other
stars. It happens due to the large kinetic energies
of the protons. If the kinetic energies of the
protons are high enough to overcome their
electrostatic repulsion, then proton-proton chain
proceeds.
The sequence proceeds as follows:
1. The chain starts when two protons fuse.
When the fused proton breaks, one proton is
transmuted into a neutron.
2. The proton and neutron then pairs, forming
an isotope of hydrogen called deuterium.
3. Another proton collides with a deuterium
forming a helium-3 nucleus and a gamma
ray.
4. Finally, two helium-3 nuclei collide, and a
helium-4 is created with the release of two
protons.

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Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) Cycle

For more massive and hotter stars, the


carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle is the more
favorable route in converting hydrogen to
helium.

The cycle proceeds as follows:

1. Carbon-12 captures a proton and gives off


a gamma ray, producing an unstable nitrogen-
13.

2. Nitrogen-13 undergoes beta decay to form


carbon-13. 3. Carbon-13 captures a proton
and releases a gamma ray to become
nitrogen-14.

4. Nitrogen-14 then captures another proton


and releases a gamma ray to produce
oxygen-15. 5. Oxygen-15 undergoes beta
decay and becomes nitrogen-15. 6. Finally,
nitrogen-15 captures a proton and gives off
helium (alpha particle) ending the cycle and
returning to carbon-12.

Unlike the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle


is a catalytic process. Carbon-12 acts a
catalyst for the cycle. It is used in the initial
reaction and is regenerated in the final one.

HOW ELEMENTS HEARVIER THAN IRON IS FORMED

The stellar nucleosynthesis produced nuclei that are heavier than helium-4 by nuclear fusion. It
started by fusing two helium-4 nuclei to form beryllium-8 accompanied by a release of energy in the
form of gamma radiation (γ). This process continues until nickel-56. However, nickel-56 is unstable
and undergoes positron ( +10β) emission. Recall that positron emission results in a nucleus with lower
atomic number.

𝐴 𝐴
𝑍x→ 𝑍−1y + +10β

A is mass number, Z is atomic number, x is the seed nucleus,


and y is the new nucleus formed
Nickel-56 radioactively decomposes to a more stable iron-56 through subsequent emission of two
positrons.

The fusion reactions cannot produce nuclei higher than iron-56 because fusion reaction becomes
unfavorable. This is because the nuclear binding energy per nucleon, the energy that holds the
nucleus intact, decreases after iron-56. Therefore, different pathways are needed for the synthesis
of heavier nuclei.
Synthesis of heavier nuclei happens via neutron or proton capture processes.
Neutron Capture
In neutron capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus. The addition of neutron produces a
heavier isotope of the element.

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For example, iron-56 captures three neutrons to produce iron-59.

The generated isotope, when unstable, undergoes beta ( −10β) decay. This decay results in an
increase in the number of protons of the nucleus by 1. Hence, a heavier nucleus is formed.

Beta decay results in the formation of a new element. For example, the unstable iron-59 undergoes
beta decay to produce cobalt-59.

This kind of nucleosynthesis is also called supernova nucleosynthesis.

Proton Capture

Proton capture (p-process) is the addition of a proton in the nucleus. It happens after a supernova,
when there is a tremendous amount of energy available.

Proton capture produces a heavier nucleus that is different from the seed nucleus.

For example, molybdenum-94 undergoes proton capture to produce technetium-95.

EVALUATION
Directions: Write complete nuclear reactions of the following.
Proton Capture: 8. tellurium- 120
1. xenon-136 9. iodine- 113
2. tellurium-122 10. barium- 137
3. barium-132 Neutron Capture:
4. antimony-121 1. Antimony- 123
2. Lanthanum -139
5. cesium-133
3. cadmium-114
6. Lanthanum -139 4. tellurium- 124
5. iodine- 11
7. cadmium-114
Essay:
1. Are there elements found in the outer space that are not present in the earth?

REFERENCES

• Physical Science by Karen S. Santiago (Phoenix Publication)


• Physical Science for Senior High School by Olivia B. Ungson (Trinitas Publishing
Inc.)
• Quipper School: E-learning System

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