THE CHALLENGES

FOR BUILDING IN THE

LOCAL CLIMATE OF
OMAN

Prepared by: Sarah Al-Harthy

Date of Distribution: 28-04-2022
The Challenges for Building in the Local Climate of Oman Sarah Al-Harthy

ABSTRACT

Oman is a country situated in the Arabian Peninsula, making its climate distinctive seeing as it has weather
conditions for both a desert environment and a coastal environment. This can influence the process of
building, for it can affect many aspects including the materials chosen and even the construction process.

The weather in Oman is, for the most part, hot. It can be either arid of humid depending on the region and
whether it is coastal or inland. This paper highlights how this can have an affect on the materials and in some
cases damage them, as well ways to prevent them from being affected negatively.

This paper also highlights the common impairments in which buildings in Oman have acquired due to the
weather, and how the conditions have contributed to a delay in the construction process, and finally the
solutions to these challenges that factor into the building process.

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The Challenges for Building in the Local Climate of Oman Sarah Al-Harthy

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT …………………………………………….…….…. 1
INTRODUCTION ………………………..……………………… 3

THE CLIMATE IN OMAN …………………...………………… 3

CHOOSING THE RIGHT MATERIAL ………............…...……. 5

CURRENT ISSUES FOUND IN LOCAL BUILDINGS ….…..... 5
AFFECTS ON THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS ...………..…. 6
CONCLUSIONS ……………………………...….….…………… 6

REFERENCES ………………...……………..........……….…….. 7

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The Challenges for Building in the Local Climate of Oman Sarah Al-Harthy

INTRODUCTION

The materials chosen for a building can differ between the different regions in Oman. But with the rising
temperature, even these normally compressively strong materials could be damaged. This paper highlights the
different weather conditions that pervade Oman, and the difficulties they can cause in the process of selecting
the materials for the building as well as constructing it. It also talks about how these materials can be affected
in the Omani weather conditions in detail.

THE CLIMATE IN OMAN

This section is a background on the weather conditions in Oman to later help in understanding the way in
which they affect the building process. Oman’s climate has been historically characterized as being
unbearably hot, dry, and humid. This narrative of the climate is also reflected in the regions surrounding the
country, as it is a desert environment. Dry and humid may sound contradicting, but in Oman the coastal
regions up north; facing the Sea of Oman, and especially the southernmost coast; facing the Arabian Sea, are
considered humid. The average annual percentage of humidity in Muscat according to Weather&Climate
(2022) is 59% (Figure 1.), whereas the desert inlands are considered arid.

Figure 1. The mean monthly relative humidity over the year in Muscat, Oman. (Weather&Climate, 2022)

In Oman, the climate can differ depending on the region. For instance, in the capital; Muscat, the temperature
during summer is at an average of 34°C, and a high which can reach upwards of 40°C (Figure 2.). Meanwhile
the southern-most region of the country (Dhofar) has lower temperatures during the summer with the average
resting at 20°C and a high of 30°C (Figure 3.).

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The Challenges for Building in the Local Climate of Oman Sarah Al-Harthy

Muscat - Average temperatures Salalah - Average temperatures

Min Max Mean Min Max Mean Min Max Mean Min Max Mean
Month Month
(°C) (°C) (°C) (°F) (°F) (°F) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°F) (°F) (°F)
January 17 25 21 63 77 69.8 January 19 28 23.5 66 82 74.3
February 18 26 22 64 79 71.6 February 20 28 24 68 82 75.2
March 20 30 25 68 86 77 March 22 30 26 72 86 78.8
April 24 35 29.5 75 95 85.1 April 24 32 28 75 90 82.4
May 29 40 34.5 84 104 94.1 May 27 33 30 81 91 86
June 30 40 35 86 104 95 June 27 32 29.5 81 90 85.1
July 30 38 34 86 100 93.2 July 25 29 27 77 84 80.6
August 28 36 32 82 97 89.6 August 24 27 25.5 75 81 77.9
September 27 36 31.5 81 97 88.7 September 24 29 26.5 75 84 79.7
October 24 35 29.5 75 95 85.1 October 23 31 27 73 88 80.6
November 21 30 25.5 70 86 77.9 November 22 31 26.5 72 88 79.7
December 18 27 22.5 64 81 72.5 December 20 29 24.5 68 84 76.1
Year 23.9 33.2 28.45 75 91.8 83 Year 23.1 29.9 26.45 73.6 85.9 79.5
Figure 2. In contrast to the northern tip, along the northern Figure 3. In Salalah, the capital of Dhofar, the daytime
coast (called Al Batinah), where Muscat is located, the hottest temperature reaches 32/33 °C (90/91 °F) in May and June, but
month is June…. Here are the average temperatures of Muscat. then it goes down to 27/29 °C (81/84 °F) in July and August….
(Climates to Travel, 2022) (Climates to Travel, 2022)

According to an academic paper (Future temperature in southwest Asia projected to exceed a threshold for
human adaptability) (2015) published by Jeremy S. Pal and Elfatih A. B. Eltahir, heat and humidity in the
Arabian Peninsula (including Oman) will increase due to the constant change in climate caused by global
warming (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Spatial distributions of extreme wet bulb temperature and extreme temperature. a–f, Ensemble average of the 30-year
maximum TWmax (a–c) and Tmax (d–f) temperatures for each GHG scenario: historical (a,d), RCP4.5 (b,e) and RCP8.5 (c,f).
Averages for the domain excluding the buer zone (DOM), land excluding the buer zone (LND) and the Arabian Peninsula (AP) are
indicated in each plot. TWmax and Tmax are the maximum daily values averaged over a 6-h window. (Pal and Eltahir, 2015)

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The Challenges for Building in the Local Climate of Oman Sarah Al-Harthy

Another weather condition that greatly affects buildings in the coastal regions is salinity. This is a result of the
evaporation of seawater, leaving the salts behind on the walls of buildings. This can corrode materials such as
concrete, bricks, limestone, and sandstone (Brianne Christopher, 2015).

The previously mentioned weather factors should be observed and studied before planning a building in
Oman. “Essentially, all these factors work together and cause different kinds of building defects. For instance,
the base of a building absorbs part of its dampness from water that exists in the surrounding ground. This
dampness carries an amount of salt into the walls of the building. Solar heat and wind circulation vaporize the
dampness in hot weather and leave the salt stored in the building’s structure.” (S. Al Rubaiey, N. Md Ulang, F.
Baharum, 2014)

CHOOSING THE RIGHT MATERIAL

The most repeatedly used building material in Oman, like most countries today, is reinforced concrete.
Reinforced concrete is a reliable material when it comes to strength, durability, noncombustability factors, and
ease of fabrication (Venkatesh Kodur, 2014). However, when it comes to thermal factors, it is not the most
dependable material.

Concrete is a thermal bridge, meaning it conducts the outside weather conditions, whether it is hot or cold.
This can be an issue it the hot Omani climate and is the cause for a lot of the country’s energy consumption.
“In GCC countries, air conditioning counts for more than 60% of the total energy consumption (Elsarrag &
Alhorr, 2012). Energy-efficient houses are mostly designed and constructed for cold regions, with the aim of
reducing energy demand for space heating. Nevertheless, the principles of an energy-efficient house are being
studied in hot and arid regions, such as in Oman.” (Alalouch, C., Al-Saadi, S., Al Waer, H., & Al-Khaled, K.,
2019) A solution to this would be to add an insulator layer to the building. However, in Oman there are no
laws stating that insulation is necessary, and as a result most buildings won’t use insulation to save
construction costs.

When it comes to non-structural materials, it is hard to find a material suitable to the Omani climate. Wood is
prone to damage in humid climates and can expand in heat. These issues with wood can be solved by treating
it, but this only adds to the cost and can still be vulnerable to damage from weather conditions. Other obvious
materials like glass and metal are susceptible to letting heat into the building.

CURRENT ISSUES FOUND IN LOCAL BUILDINGS

A study on the impacts of the materials and maintenance considerations of public buildings in Oman by S. Al
Rubaiey, N. Md Ulang, F. Baharum, included a survey with respondents with architectural and civil
engineering backgrounds. The participants were asked: “Which of the following environmental issues are
challenging when designing for easy maintenance?” 73% of the answers showed that salt was the main

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The Challenges for Building in the Local Climate of Oman Sarah Al-Harthy

challenging factor causing building defects. Solar heat was chosen as the second environmental factor that
causes building defects with a vote of 53%.

As previously mentioned, salt can cause corrosion in a buildings surface and in extreme cases cause them to
crumble. This is a big problem in coastal regions, especially when concrete is a common building material.

Meanwhile heat can cause materials such as concrete and wood to expand. In the case of concrete, this can
cause cracking when the concrete is cooling due to shrinkage, as it cannot pull the building back to shape.

Humidity can cause paint decay, decrease the compressive strength of materials such as concrete, and lead to
microbial growth on a buildings surface. Paint decay is a prominent problem due to the humidity and can be
observed throughout the country, the lack of a protective surface on a building can expose the inner, structural
part of the wall to the weather conditions- proving it easier for the previously mentioned issues to occur.

AFFECTS ON THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Weather conditions can have a direct impact on the productivity and efficiency of construction sites. The key
element that reduces labor productivity in construction projects, resulting in project delays, cost overruns, and
contractual claims between contractors and customers, is the weather. Construction work may be halted
partially or completely during excessively hot weather, resulting in a considerable drop in labor output. (Hajar
Al Balushi , Mubarak AL-Alawi , and Mohammed Al Shahri, 2020)

Heat stress can affect workers who are exposed to excessive heat, operate in hot surroundings (both indoors
and outdoors), or engage in physical exercise. Employers should perhaps arrange a work/rest plan for
employees and provide a cool atmosphere for them to rest and recover (airconditioned or shaded). These
necessities are set up to protect employees' health from heat stress and injury in hot situations.

CONCLUSION

The weather conditions in Oman can be harsh and challenge the building process, however this does not mean
there aren’t solutions to these challenges. It is the job of architects to make sure the materials used, and the
façade of the building is built in the best way regarding the weather conditions, and the government to provide
building guidelines that can aid in making sure the weather won’t affect new constructions.

There will always be new challenges, especially considering the change in climate over the next few years,
and its only time people as a collective recognize them and look for solutions.

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The Challenges for Building in the Local Climate of Oman Sarah Al-Harthy

REFERENCES
 Brianne Christopher (2015) Studying salt damage to the worlds crumbling buildings. [Online]
Available at: https://www.comsol.com/blogs/studying-salt-damage-to-the-worlds-crumbling-
buildings/#:~:text=Salt%20damage%2C%20sometimes%20referred%20to,it%20to%20break%20or%
20crumble.
 Climates to travel (n.d.) Climate – Oman. [Online] Available at:
https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/oman
 Hajar Al Balushi, Mubarak AL-Alawi, and Mohammed Al Shahri (2020) MODELING,
INVESTIGATING, AND QUANTIFICATION OF THE HOT WEATHER EFFECTS ON
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS IN OMAN Available at:
https://journals.squ.edu.om/index.php/tjer/article/view/3696/3010
 Halima Ghulam Al-Balushi, Himanshu Gaur (n.d.) A study on reinforcement corrosion of concrete
structures near coastal areas of Oman. Download available at:
https://www.jsr.org/index.php/path/article/download/936/806/5742
 International Timber (2015) How heat affects timber [Online] Available at:
https://internationaltimber.com/resources/how-heat-affects-
timber/#:~:text=When%20timber%20is%20subjected%20to,temperature%20changes%20within%20t
heir%20stride
 Jeremy S. Pal1,2 and Elfatih A. B. Eltahir2*, 2 (2015) Future temperature in southwest Asia projected
to exceed a threshold for human adaptability. Available at: https://eltahir.mit.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2015/08/Paper.pdf
 Oman E-visa (n.d.) What is the Oman Climate Like? [Online] Available at:
https://www.omanevisa.co.uk/oman-
climate/#:~:text=This%20area%20is%20very%20hot,high%20as%2050%20%C2%B0C
 Venkatesh Kodur (2014) Properties of concrete at Elevated Temperatures. Available at:
https://downloads.hindawi.com/archive/2014/468510.pdf
 Weather&Climate (2022) Average Humidity in Muscat [Online] Available at: https://weather-and-
climate.com/average-monthly-Humidity-perc,muscat,Oman