MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 425 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Permutations
and
combinations 10
syllabus ref
efer
erence
ence
Core topic:
Structures and patterns

In this cha
chapter
pter
10A The addition and
multiplication principles
10B Factorials and
permutations
10C Arrangements involving
restrictions and like
objects
10D Combinations
10E Applications of
permutations and
combinations
10F Pascal’s triangle, the
binomial theorem and the
pigeonhole principle
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426 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

Introduction
Combinatorics deals with determining the number of ways in which activities or events
may occur.
The study of combinatorics provides ways of
answering questions such as:
1. How many doubles teams can be selected from a
group of 6 volleyball players?
2. From a group of 4 candidates, in how many ways
can a class captain and deputy class captain be
selected?
3. How many different outfits can be chosen from 3
skirts and 5 tops?
4. If a Lotto ticket consists of a choice of 6 numbers
from 45, how many different tickets are there?
5. How many different car number plates of 3 digits
and 3 letters can be made using the digits 0 to 9 and
the letters A, B and C?

The addition and multiplication

principles
To count the number of ways in which an activity can occur, first make a list. Let each
outcome be represented by a letter and then systematically list all the possibilities.
Consider the following question:
In driving from Melbourne to Sydney I can take any one of 4 different roads and in
driving from Sydney to Brisbane there are 3 different roads I can take. How many
different routes can I take in driving from Melbourne to Brisbane?
To answer this, let M1, M2, M3, M4 stand for the 4 roads from Melbourne to Sydney
and B1, B2, B3 stand for the 3 roads from Sydney to Brisbane.
Use the figure to systematically list the roads:
M1B1, M1B2, M1B3 M1
M2 B1
M2B1, M2B2, M2B3 M B
M3 S B2
M3B1, M3B2, M3B3 M4 B3
M4B1, M4B2, M4B3
Hence, there are 12 different ways I can drive from Melbourne to Brisbane.
In the above example it can be argued logically that if there are 4 ways of getting
from Melbourne to Sydney and 3 ways of getting from Sydney to Brisbane then there
are 4 × 3 ways of getting from Melbourne to Brisbane.
This idea is formalised in the multiplication principle.
The multiplication principle should be used when there are two operations or events
(say, A and B), where one event is followed by the other.
It states:
If there are n ways of performing operation A and m ways of performing
operation B, then there are n × m ways of performing A and B.
Note: In this case ‘and’ means to multiply.
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Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 427

A useful technique for solving problems based on the multiplication principle is to
use boxes. In the example above we would write

1st 2nd
4 3

The value in the ‘1st’ column represents the number of ways the first operation —
the trip from Melbourne to Sydney — can be performed.
The value in the ‘2nd’ column stands for the number of ways the second operation
— the trip from Sydney to Brisbane — can be performed.
To apply the multiplication principle you multiply the numbers in the lower row of boxes.
Now consider a different situation, one in which the two operations do not occur one
after the other.
I am going to travel from Melbourne to either Sydney or Adelaide. There are 4 ways
of travelling from Melbourne to Sydney and 3 ways of travelling from Melbourne to
Adelaide.
How many different ways can I travel to my destination?
It can be seen from the figure that there are 1
4 + 3 = 7 ways of completing the journey. 1
2
A 2 S
This idea is summarised in the addition M
3
3 4
principle.
The addition principle should be used when two distinct operations or events occur
in which one event is not followed by another.
It states:

If there are n ways of performing operation A and m ways of performing

operation B then there are n + m ways of performing A or B.
Note: In this case ‘or’ means to add.

WORKED Example 1
Two letters are to be chosen from A, B, C, D and E, where order is important.
a List all the different ways that this may be done.
b State the number of ways that this may be done.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Begin with A in first place and make a list of a AB AC AD AE
each of the possible pairs.
2 Make a list of each of the possible pairs with B BA BC BD BE
in the first position.
3 Make a list of each of the possible pairs with C CA CB CD CE
in the first position.
4 Make a list of each of the possible pairs with D DA DB DC DE
in the first position.
5 Make a list of each of the possible pairs with E EA EB EC ED
in the first position.
Note: AB and BA need to be listed separately as
order is important.
Continued over page
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428 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

THINK WRITE
b Method 1 b There are 20 ordered pairs.
Count the number of ordered pairs and answer
the question.
Alternatively, the multiplication principle could have
been used to determine the number of ordered pairs.
b Method 2 b
Rule up two boxes which represent the pair. 5 4
1
2 Write down the number of letters which may
be selected for the first box. That is, in first
place any of the 5 letters may be used.
3 Write down the number of letters which may be
selected for the second box. That is, in second place,
any of the 4 letters may be used.
Note: One less letter is used to avoid repetition.
4 Evaluate. 5 × 4 = 20 ways
5 Answer the question. There are 20 ways in which 2 letters
may be selected from a group of 5
where order is important.

A selection where order is important is called an arrangement.

WORKED Example 2
How many ways could an arrangement of 5 letters be chosen from A, B, C, D, E and F?
THINK WRITE
1 Instead of listing all possibilities, draw 5 boxes to
represent the 5 letters chosen.
Label each box on the top row as 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th
and 5th.
Note: The word arrangement implies order is
important.
2 Fill in each of the boxes showing the number of
ways a letter may be chosen.
(a) In the 1st box there are 6 choices for the first
letter.
(b) In the 2nd box there are 5 choices for the
second letter as 1 letter has already been used.
(c) In the 3rd box there are 4 choices for the third 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
letter as 2 letters have already been used. 6 5 4 3 2
(d) Continue this process until each of the 5 boxes
is filled.
3 Use the multiplication principle as this is an No. of ways = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2
‘and’ situation. = 720
4 Answer the question. An arrangement of 5 letters may be
chosen 720 ways.
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Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 429

WORKED Example 3
One or two letters are to be chosen from 6 letters A, B, C, D, E and F. In how many ways
can this be done?
THINK WRITE
1 Determine the number of ways of choosing 1 letter. No. of ways of choosing 1 letter = 6.
2 Rule up two boxes for the first and second letters.
3 Determine the number of ways of choosing 2 letters
from 6. 1st 2nd
(a) In the 1st box there are 6 choices for the first letter. 6 5
(b) In the 2nd box there are 5 choices for the second
letter as 1 letter has already been used.
4 Use the multiplication principle (as this is an No. of ways of choosing 2 letters
‘and’ situation) to evaluate the number of ways of =6×5
choosing 2 letters from 6. = 30
5 Determine the number of ways of choosing 1 or 2 The number of ways of choosing
letters from 6 letters. Use the addition principle as 1 or 2 letters is 6 + 30 = 36.
this is an ‘or’ situation.
6 Answer the question. There are 36 ways of choosing 1 or 2
letters from 6.

WORKED Example 4
Jeannine’s restaurant offers its patrons a choice
of 3 entrees, 9 main courses and 4 desserts.
a How many choices of 3-course meals
(entree, main, dessert) are available?
b How many choices of entree and main
course are offered?
c How many choices of main course and
dessert are offered?
d How many choices of 2- or 3-course meals
are available (assuming that a main course
is always ordered)?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Rule up 3 boxes to represent each course — a
E M D
entree, main, dessert. Label each box on the
top row as E, M and D. 3 9 4
2 Determine the number of ways of choosing
each meal: entree = 3, main = 9, dessert = 4.
3 Use the multiplication principle (as this is an No. of choices = 3 × 9 × 4
‘and’ situation) to evaluate the number of = 108
choices of 3-course meals.
4 Answer the question. There are 108 choices of 3-course
meals.
Continued over page
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430 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

THINK WRITE
b 1 Rule up 2 boxes to represent each course — b
entree, main. Label each box on the top row as E M
E and M. 3 9

2 Determine the number of ways of choosing

each meal: entree = 3, main = 9.
3 Use the multiplication principle (as this is No. of choices = 3 × 9
an ‘and’ situation) to evaluate the number = 27
of choices of entree and main courses.
4 Answer the question. There are 27 choices of entree and
main course.

c 1 Rule up 2 boxes to represent each course — c

main and dessert. Label each box on the top M D
row as M and D.
9 4

2 Determine the number of ways of choosing

each meal: main = 9, dessert = 4.
3 Use the multiplication principle (as this is No. of choices = 9 × 4
an ‘and’ situation) to evaluate the number = 36
of choices of main course and dessert.
4 Answer the question. There are 36 choices of main
course and dessert.

d 1 Determine the number of ways of choosing d The number of ways of choosing

2- or 3-course meals, assuming that a main 2- or 3-course meals, assuming
course is always ordered. that a main course is always
Use the addition principle as this is an ordered, is:
‘or’ situation. 108 + 27 + 36 = 171
2 Answer the question. There are 171 ways of choosing
2- or 3-course meals, assuming
that a main course is always
ordered.

remember
remember
1. The multiplication principle should be used when there are two operations or
events (say, A and B) where one event is followed by the other. It states:
If there are n ways of performing operation A and m ways of performing
operation B, then there are n × m ways of performing A and B.
2. The addition principle should be used when two distinct operations or events
occur in which one event is not followed by another. It states:
If there are n ways of performing operation A and m ways of performing
operation B, then there are n + m ways of performing A or B.
3. A selection where order is important is called an arrangement.
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Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 431

The addition and
10A multiplication principles
WORKED 1 Two letters are to be chosen from A, B and C, where order is important.
Example
1 a List all the different ways that this may be done.
b State the number of ways that this may be done.
2 List all the different arrangements possible for a group of 2 colours to be chosen from
B (blue), G (green), Y (yellow) and R (red).
3 List all the different arrangements possible for a group of 3 letters to be chosen from
A, B and C.
WORKED 4 a In how many ways can an arrangement of 2 letters be chosen from A, B, C, D, E,
Example
2
F and G?
b In how many ways can an arrangement of 3 letters be chosen from 7 different
letters?
c In how many ways can an arrangement of 4 letters be chosen from 7 different
letters?
d How many different arrangements of 5 letters can be made from 7 letters?
5 a A teddy bear’s wardrobe consists of 3 different hats, 4 different shirts and 2 dif-
ferent trousers. How many different outfits can the teddy bear wear?
b A surfboard is to have 1 colour on its top and a different colour on its bottom. The
3 possible colours are red, blue and green. In how many different ways can the
surfboard be coloured?
c A new computer system comes with a choice of 3 keyboards, 2 different monitors
and 2 different mouse attachments. With these choices, how many different
arrangements are possible?
d Messages can be sent by placing 3 different coloured flags in order on a pole. If
the flags come in 4 colours, how many different messages can be sent?
e A yacht race has a field of 12 competitors. In how many different ways can first,
second and third place be filled by these 12 yachts?
WORKED 6 a One or 2 letters are to be chosen from the letters A, B, C, D, E, F and G. In how
Example
3
many ways can this be done?
b Two or 3 letters are to be chosen from the letters A, B, C, D, E, F and G. In how
many ways can this be done?
c How many 1- or 2-digit numbers can be made using the digits 1, 3, 5 and 7 if no
digit can be used more than once?
7 Nadia is in a race with 10 other girls.
a If we are only concerned with the first, second and third placings, in how many
ways can:
i Nadia finish first?
ii Nadia finish second?
b In how many ways can Nadia finish first or second?
8 White Wolf is a horse in a race with 7 other runners. If we are concerned only with
the first, second and third placings, in how many ways can White Wolf finish first or
second or third?
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432 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

9 multiple choice
There are 12 people on the committee at the local softball club. In how many ways
can a president and a secretary be chosen from this committee?
A 2 B 23 C 132 D 144 E 66
10 multiple choice
Phone numbers consist of 8 digits. The first
must be a 9. The second digit can be a 3, 4, 5
or 8. There are no restrictions on the
remaining digits. How many different tele-
phone numbers are possible?
A 4320 B 499 999
C 4 000 000 D 4 999 999
E 10 000 000

11 multiple choice
A TV station runs a cricket competition
called Classic Catches. Six catches,
A to F, are chosen and viewers are asked
to rank them in the same order as the
judges. The number of ways in which this
can be done is:
A 1 B 6 C 30
D 720 E 128
12 The local soccer team sells ‘doubles’ at each
of their games to raise money. A ‘double’ is
a card with 2 digits on it representing the
score at full time. The card with the actual full time score on it wins a prize. If the
digits on the cards run from 00 to 99, how many different tickets are there?
13 Marcus has a briefcase that has a 4-digit security code. He remembers that the first
number in the code was 9 and that the others were 3, 4 and 7 but forgets the order of
the last 3 digits. How many different trials must he make to be sure of unlocking the
briefcase?
14 Julia has a briefcase that has two 4-digit locks. She
remembers that she used the digits 1, 3, 5 and 7 on the
left lock and 2, 4, 6 and 8 on the right lock, but can not
remember the order. What is the maximum number of
trials she would need to make before she has opened
both the left lock and the right lock?
15 How many different 4-digit numbers can be made from the numbers 1, 3, 5 and 7 if
the numbers can be repeated (that is 3355 and 7777 are valid)?
16 How many 4-digit numbers can be made from the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 2 if the
numbers can be repeated?
17 How many 4-digit numbers can be made from the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 0 if the
numbers can be repeated? (Remember — a number cannot start with 0.)
18 How many numbers less than 5000 can be made using the digits 2, 3, 5, 7 and 9 if
repetition is not permitted?
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Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 433

19 A combination lock has 3 digits each from 0 to 9.
9
a How many combinations are possible? 8 0
2 3
The lock mechanism becomes loose and will open if the 1
4 5 6

7
digits are within one either side of the correct digit. For

1
4
0

7 8
2 3
example if the true combination is 382 then the lock will

5
9
9 0 1

2
open on 271, 272, 371, 493 and so on. 8 7
6

b What is the minimum number of guesses required 5

4
3

before being sure of opening the lock?

c List the possible combinations that would open the lock
if the true combination is 382.

WORKED 20 Hani and Mary’s restaurant offers its patrons a choice of 4 entrees, 10 main courses
Example
4
and 5 desserts.
a How many choices of 3-course meals (entree, main, dessert) are available?
b How many choices of entree and main course are offered?
c How many choices of main course and dessert are offered?
d How many choices of 2- or 3-course meals are available (assuming that a main
course is always ordered)?

21 Jake is able to choose his work outfits from the following items of clothing: 3 jackets,
7 shirts, 6 ties, 5 pairs of trousers, 7 pairs of socks and 3 pairs of shoes.
a How many different outfits are possible if he wears one of each of the above
items? (He wears matching socks and shoes.)
b If Jake has the option of wearing a jacket and each of the above items, how many
different outfits are possible? Explain your answer.

Factorials and permutations

Factorials
The Physical Education department is to display 5 new trophies along a shelf in the
school foyer and wishes to know how many ways this can be done.
Using the multiplication principle from the previous section, the display may be
done in the following way:

Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Position 4 Position 5

5 4 3 2 1

That is, there are 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 ways.

Depending on the number of items we have, this method could become quite time
consuming.
In general when we need to multiply each of the integers from a particular number,
n, down to 1, we write n!, which is read as n factorial.
Hence: 6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
= 720
8! = 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
= 40 320
n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × (n − 3) × . . . × 3 × 2 × 1
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 434 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

434 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

Factorials may be evaluated on the TI-83 graphics calculator.

To evaluate 12! we enter 12, then press MATH and select PRB and 4:! and press
ENTER .
Check to see that you can use this function by evaluating 12! = 479 001 600.
1. The number of ways n distinct objects may be arranged is n! (n factorial) where:
n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × (n − 3) × . . . × 3 × 2 × 1
That is, n! is the product of each of the integers from n down to 1.
2. A special case of the factorial function is: 0! = 1.

WORKED Example 5
Evaluate the following factorials.
18! 9! ( n – 1 )!
a 7! b 13! c -------
5!
- d ----
3!
- e ------------------
( n – 3 )!
-

THINK WRITE
a 1 Write 7! in its expanded form and a 7! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
evaluate. = 5040
2 Verify the answer obtained using the
factorial function on the calculator.
b 1 Write 13! in its expanded form and b 13! = 13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4
evaluate. ×3×2×1
= 6 227 020 800
2 Verify the answer obtained using the
factorial function on the calculator.
c 1 Write each factorial term in its c 8! 8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
----- = --------------------------------------------------------------------
expanded form. 5! 5×4×3×2×1
2 Cancel down like terms. =8×7×6
3 Evaluate. = 336
4 Verify the answer obtained using the
factorial function on the calculator.
d 1 Write each factorial term in its d 9! 9×8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
----- = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
expanded form. 3! 3×2×1
2 Cancel down like terms. =9×8×7×6×5×4
3 Evaluate. = 60 480
4 Verify the answer obtained using
the factorial function on the
calculator.
e 1 Write each factorial term in its e ( n – 1 )!
------------------
expanded form. ( n – 3 )!
( n – 1 ) ( n – 2 ) ( n – 3 ) ( n – 4 ) ×… × 3 × 2 × 1
= -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(n – 3)(n – 4) × … × 3 × 2 × 1
2 Cancel down like terms. = (n − 1)(n − 2)
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 435 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 435

In parts c, d and e of worked example 5, there was no need to fully expand each fac-
torial term.
8! 8 × 7 × 6 × 5!
The factorial ----- could have first been simplified to -------------------------------- and then the
5! 5!
5! terms cancelled.
9! 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3!
The factorial ----- could have first been simplified to ------------------------------------------------------------ and
3! 3!
then the 3! terms cancelled.
( n – 1 )! ( n – 1 ) ( n – 2 ) ( n – 3 )!
The factorial ------------------ could have first been simplified to ----------------------------------------------------- and
( n – 3 )! ( n – 3 )!
then the (n − 3)! terms cancelled.

Permutations
The term permutation is often used instead of the term arrangement and in this section
we begin by giving a formal definition of permutation.
Previously, we learned that if you select 3 letters from 7 where order is important,
the number of possible arrangements is:
1st 2nd 3rd
7 6 5
The number of arrangements = 7 × 6 × 5
= 210
7 × 6 × 5 × 4! 7!
This value may also be expressed in factorial form: 7 × 6 × 5 = -------------------------------- = -----
4! 4!
Using more formal terminology we say that in choosing 3 things from 7 things
where order is important the number of permutations is 7P3 = 7 × 6 × 5. The letter P is
used to remind us that we are finding permutations.

The number of ways of choosing r things from n distinct things is given by the rule:
n
Pr = n × (n − 1) × . . . × (n − r + 1)
n ¥ ( n – 1 ) ¥ º ¥ ( n – r + 1 ) ( n – r )!
= -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
( n – r )!
-
n!
= -----------------
( n – r )!
-

The definition of nPr may be extended to the cases of nPn and nP0.
n
Pn represents the number of ways of choosing n objects from n distinct things.
n
Pn = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × . . . × (n − n + 1)
= n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × . . . × 1
= n!
From the definition:
n!
n
Pn = ------------------
( n – n )!
n!
= -----
0!
n!
Therefore, equating both sides, we obtain: n! = ----- .
0!
This can occur only if 0! = 1.
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 436 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

436 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

n!
P0 = ------------------
n
( n – 0 )!
n!
= -----
n!
=1
In summary, the two special cases are:
1. nPn = n!
2. nP0 = 1

WORKED Example 6
a Calculate the number of permutations for 6P4 by expressing it in expanded form.
b Write 8P3 as a quotient of factorials and hence evaluate.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write down the first 4 terms beginning with 6. a 6P4 = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3
2 Evaluate. = 360

b n!
1 Write down the rule for permutations. b nPr = ------------------
( n – r )!
2 Substitute the given values of n and r into the 8!
permutation formula.
8
P3 = ------------------
( 8 – 3 )!
8!
= -----
5!
40 320
3 Use a calculator to evaluate 8! and 5! = ----------------
120
4 Evaluate. = 336

WORKED Example 7
The netball club needs to appoint a president, secretary and treasurer. From the
committee 7 people have volunteered for these positions. Each of the 7 nominees is happy
to fill any one of the 3 positions. In how many different ways can these positions be filled?
THINK WRITE
n!
1 Write down the rule for permutations. n
Pr = ------------------
( n – r )!
Note: Order is important, so use permutations.
7!
2 Substitute the given values of n and r 7
P3 = ------------------
( 7 – 3 )!
into the permutation formula.
7!
= -----
4!
5040
3 Use a calculator to evaluate 7! and 4! = ------------
24
4 Evaluate. = 210
5 Answer the question. There are 210 different ways of filling the
positions of president, secretary and treasurer.
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Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 437

Graphics Calculator tip! Calculating permutations

To find the number of permutations of n objects taken r
at a time, enter the number of objects, then press MATH ,
select PRB, and choose 2:nPr and enter the value of r.

Arrangements in a circle
Consider this problem: In how many different ways can 7 people be seated, 4 at a time,
on a bench?
By now you should quickly see the answer: 7P4 = 840.
Let us change the problem slightly: In how many different ways can 7 people be
seated, 4 at a time, at a circular table?
The solution must recognise that when people are seated on a bench, each of the
following represents a different arrangement:
ABCD BCDA CDAB DABC
However, when sitting in a circle each of the following A D
represents the same arrangement. B A
D C
In each case B has A on the left and C on the right.
C B
We conclude that the number 7P4 gives 4 times the number
C B
of arrangements of 7 people in a circle 4 at a time. Therefore,
7P D B C A
4
the number of arrangements is --------- = 210 . A D
4
In general, the number of different ways n people can be seated, r at a time, in a
nP
r
circle is: --------
-
r

WORKED Example 8
How many different arrangements are possible if, from a group of 8 people, 5 are to be
seated at a round table?
THINK WRITE

1 Write down the rule for the number of nP

arrangements in a circle. --------r
r
2 Substitute the given values of n and r 8P
5
into the formula. = ---------
5
6720
3 Use a calculator to evaluate 8P5. = ------------
5
4 Evaluate. = 1344
5 Answer the question. The number of ways of seating 5 from a group
of 8 people at a round table is 1344.
 MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 438 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

438 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

remember
remember
1. (a) The number of ways n distinct objects may be arranged is n! (n factorial)
where:
n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × (n − 3) × . . . × 3 × 2 × 1
(b) 0! = 1
(c) 1! = 1
2. (a) The number of different arrangements (permutations) when r things are
chosen from n things and order is important is given by the rule nPr , where:
n n!
Pr = ------------------
( n – r )!
(b) nPn = n!
(c) nP0 = 1
3. The number of different ways n people can be seated, r at a time, in a circle is:
nP
--------r
r

10B Factorials and permutations

d 1 Write each of the following in expanded form.
hca
a 4! b 5! c 6! d 7!
Mat

Factorials
WORKED 2 Evaluate the following factorials.
Example
5a, b
a 4! b 5! c 6! d 10!
e 14! f 9! g 7! h 3!

WORKED 3 Evaluate the following factorials.

Example
5c, d 9! 10! 7! 6!
a ----- b -------- c ----- d -----
5! 4! 3! 0!

WORKED 4 Evaluate the following factorials.

Example
5e n! ( n + 3 )! ( n – 3 )! ( n – 2 )!
a ------------------ b ------------------- c ------------------ d -------------------
( n – 5 )! ( n + 1 )! n! ( n + 2 )!

HEET
10.1 WORKED 5 Calculate each of the following by expressing it in expanded form.
Example
a 8P2 b 7P5 c 8P7
SkillS

6a

WORKED 6 Write each of the following as a quotient of factorials and hence evaluate.
d Example
hca
6b
a 9P6 b 5P2 c 18P5
Mat

Permutations
7 Use your calculator to find the value of:
a 20P6 b 800P2 c 18
P5
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 439 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 439

WORKED 8 A soccer club will appoint a president and a vice-president. Eight people have L Spread
Example XCE

sheet
volunteered for either of the two positions. In how many different ways can these

E
7
positions be filled? Permutations

9 The school musical needs a producer, Producer Director Coach Musical

director, musical director and script coach. Director
Nine people have volunteered for any of
these positions. In how many different ways
can the positions be filled? (Note: One
person cannot take on more than 1 position.)
10 There are 14 horses in a race. In how many different ways can the 1st, 2nd and 3rd
positions be filled?
11 There are 26 horses in a race. How many different results for 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th can
occur?
12 A rowing crew consists of 4 rowers who sit in a definite order. How many different
crews are possible if 5 people try out for selection?
WORKED
ORKED 13 How many different arrangements are possible if, from a group of 15 people, 4 are to
Example
8
be seated in a circle?
14 A round table seats 6 people. From a group of 8 people, in how many ways can 6
people be seated at the table?
15 At a dinner party for 10 people all the guests were seated at a circular table. How
many different arrangements were possible?
16 At one stage in the court
of Camelot, King
Arthur and 12 knights
would sit at the round
table. If each person
could sit anywhere how
many different arrange-
ments were possible?

17 multiple choice
Which one of the following permutations cannot be calculated?
A 1000P100 B 1P0 C 8P8 D 4P8 E 5
P4

18 multiple choice
The result of 100! is greater than 94!.
Which of the following gives the best comparison between these two numbers?
A 100! is 6 more than 94! B 100! is 6 times bigger than 94!
C 100! is about 6! times bigger than 94! D 100! is about 10 000 more than 94!
E 100! is 100P6 times bigger than 94!

For questions 19 to 21 show your answers in the form nPr and then evaluate.
19 In how many ways can the letters of the word TODAY be arranged if they are used
once only and taken:
a 3 at a time? b 4 at a time? c 5 at a time?
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 440 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

440 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

20 In how many ways can the letters of the word TUESDAY be arranged if they are used
once only and taken:
a 3 at a time? b 4 at a time? c 7 at a time?
21 In how many ways can the letters of the word NEWTON be arranged if they are used
once only and taken 6 at a time, assuming:
a the first N is distinct from the second N?
b there is no distinction between the two Ns?

Arrangements involving restrictions

and like objects
A 5-letter word is to be made from 3 As and 2 Bs. How many different arrangements
can be made?
If the 5 letters were all different, it would be easy to calculate the number of arrange-
ments. It would be 5! = 120. Perhaps you can see that when letters are repeated, the
number of different arrangements will be less than 120. To analyse the situation let us
imagine that we can distinguish one A from another. We will write A1, A2, A3, B1 and
B2 to represent the 5 letters.
As we list some of the possible arrangements we notice that some are actually the
same, as shown in the table.

A1A2B1A3B2 A1A2B2A3B1 Each of these 12

A1A3B1A2B2 A1A3B2A2B1 arrangements is the
A2A1B1A3B2 A2A1B2A3B1 same — AABAB.
A2A3B1A1B2 A2A3B2A1B1
A3A1B1A2B2 A3A1B2A2B1
A3A2B1A1B2 A3A2B2A1B1
B2A1A2B1A3 B1A1A2B2A3 Each of these 12
B2A1A3B1A2 B1A1A3B2A2 arrangements is the
B2A2A1B1A3 B1A2A1B2A3 same — BAABA.
B2A2A3B1A1 B1A2A3B2A1
B2A3A1B1A2 B1A3A1B2A2
B2A3A2B1A1 B1A3A2B2A1

The number of repetitions is 3! for the As and 2! for the Bs. Thus, the number of
5!
different arrangements is ---------------- .
3! × 2!
The number of different ways of arranging n things made up of groups of
indistinguishable things, n1 in the first group, n2 in the second group and so on is:
n!
-------------------------------------- .
n 1!n 2!n 3!ºn r!
Note: If there are elements of the group which are not duplicated, then they can be
considered as a group of 1. It is not usual to divide by 1!; it is more common to show
only those groups which have duplications.
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 441 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 441

WORKED Example 9
How many different arrangements of 8 letters can be made from the word PARALLEL?
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the number of letters in the The word PARALLEL contains 8 letters;
given word. therefore n = 8.
2 Write down the number of times any of The letter A is repeated twice; therefore n1 = 2.
the letters are repeated. The letter L is repeated 3 times; therefore n2 = 3.
3 Write down the rule for arranging n!
groups of like things. ------------------------------------
n 1!n 2!n 3!…n r!
4 Substitute the values of n, n1 and n2 into 8!
= ----------------
the rule. 2! × 3!
5 Evaluate each of the factorials. 40 320
= ----------------
2×6
6 Simplify the fraction. 40 320
= ----------------
12
7 Evaluate. = 3360
8 Answer the question. 3360 arrangements of 8 letters can be made
from the word PARALLEL.

WORKED Example 10
How many different arrangements of 7 counters can be made from 4 black and 3 white
counters?
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the total number of There are 7 counters in all; therefore n = 7.
counters.
2 Write down the number of times any of There are 3 white counters; therefore n1 = 3.
the coloured counters are repeated. There are 4 black counters; therefore n2 = 4.
3 Write down the rule for arranging n!
groups of like things. ------------------------------------
n 1!n 2!n 3!…n r!
4 Substitute the values of n, n1 and n2 into 7!
= ----------------
the rule. 3! × 4!
5 Evaluate each of the factorials. 5040
= ---------------
6 × 24
6 Simplify the fraction. 5040
= ------------
144
7 Evaluate. = 35
8 Answer the question. Thirty-five different arrangements can be made
from 7 counters, of which 3 are white and 4 are
black.
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 442 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

442 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

WORKED Example 11
A rowing crew of 4 rowers is to be selected, in order from the first seat to the fourth seat,
from 8 candidates. How many different arrangements are possible if:
a there are no restrictions?
b Jason or Kris must row in the first seat?
c Jason must be in the crew, but he can row anywhere in the boat?
THINK WRITE
n!
a 1 Write down the permutation formula. a n P r = ------------------
Note: 4 rowers are to be selected from ( n – r )!
8 and the order is important.
8!
2 Substitute the given values of n and r = ------------------
8
P4
into the permutation formula. ( 8 – 4 )!
8!
= -----
4!
3 Use a calculator to evaluate 8! 40 320
and 4!. = ----------------
24
4 Evaluate. = 1680
5 Answer the question. There are 1680 ways of arranging 4 rowers
from a group of 8.
b 1 Apply the multiplication principle b No. of arrangements = no. of ways of filling
since two events will follow each other; the first seat × no. of
that is, Jason will fill the first seat and the ways of filling the
remaining 3 seats will be filled in remaining 3 seats.
7 × 6 × 5 ways or Kris will fill the first No. of arrangements = 2 × nPr
seat and the remaining 3 seats will be
filled in 7 × 6 × 5 ways.
J 7 6 5 or K 7 6 5
2 Substitute the values of n and r into No. of arrangements = 2 × 7P3
the formula.
3 Evaluate. = 2 × 210
= 420
4 Answer the question. There are 420 ways of arranging the 4 rowers
if Jason or Kris must row in the first seat.
c 1 Apply the addition principle, since Jason c No. of arrangements =
must be in either the first, second, third No. of arrangements with Jason in seat 1
or fourth seat. The remaining 3 seats will + No. of arrangements with Jason in seat 2
be filled in 7 × 6 × 5 ways each time. + No. of arrangements with Jason in seat 3
J 7 6 5 + 7 J 6 5 + + No. of arrangements with Jason in seat 4.

7 6 J 5 + 7 6 5 J
2 Substitute the values of n and r into No. of arrangements = 1 × 7P3 + 1 × 7P3
the formula.
+ 1 × 7P3 + 1 × 7P3
= 4 × 7P3
= 4 × 210
3 Evaluate. = 840
4 Answer the question. There are 840 ways of arranging the 4
rowers if Jason must be in the crew of 4.
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 443 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 443

WORKED Example 12
a How many permutations of the letters in the word COUNTER are there?
b In how many of these do the letters C and N appear side by side?
c In how many permutations do the letters C and N appear apart?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Count the number of letters in the a There are 7 letters in the word COUNTER.
given word.
2 Determine the number of ways the 7 The 7 letters may be arranged 7! = 5040
letters may be arranged. ways.
3 Answer the question. There are 5040 permutations of letters in the
word COUNTER.
b 1 Imagine the C and N are ‘tied’ together b Let C and N represent 1 unit.
and are therefore considered as 1 unit. They may be arranged 2! = 2 ways.
Determine the number of ways C and
N may be arranged: CN and NC.
2 Determine the number of ways 6 things Six things may be arranged 6! = 720 ways.
can be arranged.
Note: There are now 6 letters: the ‘CN’
unit along with O, U, T, E and R.
3 Determine the number of permutations in The number of permutations = 2 × 6!
which the letters C and N appear together.
4 Evaluate. = 2 × 720
= 1440
5 Answer the question. There are 1440 permutations in which the
letters C and N appear together.
c 1 Determine the total number of c Total number of arrangements = 7!
arrangements of the 7 letters. = 5040
2 Write down the number of Arrangements with C and N together = 1440
arrangements in which the letters C and
N appear together, as obtained in a.
3 Determine the difference between the The number of arrangements = 5040 − 1440
values obtained in steps 1 and 2. = 3600
Note: The number of arrangements in
which C and N are apart is the total
number of arrangements less the number
of times they are together.
4 Answer the question. The letters C and N appear apart 3600 times.

remember
remember
1. The number of different ways of arranging n things made up of groups of
indistinguishable things, n1 in the first group, n2 in the second group and so on
n!
is: ------------------------------------ .
n 1!n 2!n 3!…n r!
2. When restrictions apply to arrangements, use the multiplication and addition
principles as well as nPr .
 MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 444 Monday, October 15, 2001 10:36 AM

444 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

Arrangements involving
10C restrictions and like objects
WORKED 1 How many different arrangements can be made using the 6 letters of the word
d Example
hca NEWTON?
9
Mat

Permutations
2 How many different arrangements can be made using the 11 letters of the word
ABRACADABRA?
WORKED 3 How many different arrangements of 5 counters can be made using 3 red and 2 blue
reads Example
L Sp he counters?
10
et
EXCE

Permutations
4 How many different arrangements of 9 counters can be made using 4 black, 3 red and
2 blue counters?

5 A collection of 12 books is to be arranged on a

d
hca shelf. The books consist of 3 copies of Great
Mat

Factorials Expectations, 5 copies of Catcher in the Rye

and 4 copies of Huntin’, Fishin’ and Shootin’.
How many different arrangements of these
books are possible?

6 A shelf holding 24 cans of dog food is to be stacked using 9 cans of Yummy and 15
cans of Ruff for Dogs. In how many different ways can the shelf be stocked?

WORKED 7 A cricket team of 11 players is to be selected, in batting order, from 15. How many
Example
11
different arrangements are possible if:
a there are no restrictions?
b Mark must be in the team at number 1?
c Mark must be in the team but he can be anywhere from 1 to 11?

8 The Student Council needs to fill the positions of president, secretary and treasurer
from 6 candidates. Each candidate can fill only one of the positions. In how many
ways can this be done if:
a there are no restrictions?
b Jocelyn must be secretary?
c Jocelyn must have one of the 3 positions?

9 The starting 5 in a basketball team is to be picked, in order, from the 10 players in the
squad. In how many ways can this be done if:
a there are no restrictions?
b Jamahl needs to play at number 5?
c Jamahl and Anfernee must be in the starting 5?

WORKED 10 a How many permutations of the letters in the word MATHS are there?
Example
12
b In how many of these do the letters M and A appear together?
c In how many permutations do the letters M and A appear apart?
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 445 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 445

11 A rowing team of 4 rowers is to be
selected in order from 8 rowers.
a In how many different ways can this
be done?
b In how many of these ways do 2
rowers, Jane and Lee, sit together in
the boat?
c In how many ways can the crew be
formed without using Jane or Lee?

12 A horse race has 12 runners.

a In how many ways can 1st, 2nd and 3rd be filled?
b In how many ways can 1st, 2nd and 3rd be filled if Najim finishes first?

13 multiple choice
If the answer is 10, which of the following statements best matches this answer?
A The number of ways 1st and 2nd can occur in a race with 5 entrants.
B The number of distinct arrangements of the letters in NANNA.
C The number of permutations of the letters in POCKET where P and O are
together.
D The number of permutations of the letters in POCKET where P and O are apart.
E 10P2 ÷ 4P2

14 multiple choice
If the answer is 480, which of the following statements best matches this answer?
A The number of ways 1st and 2nd can occur in a race with 5 entrants.
B The number of distinct arrangements of the letters in NANNA.
C The number of permutations of the letters in POCKET where P and O are
together.
D The number of permutations of the letters in POCKET where P and O are apart.
E 10P2 ÷ 4P2

15 The clue in a crossword puzzle says that a particular answer is an anagram of

STOREY. An anagram is another word that can be obtained by rearranging the letters
of the given word.
a How many possible arrangements of the letters of STOREY are there?
b The other words in the crossword puzzle indicate that the correct answer is O--T--
How many arrangements are now possible?
c Can you see the answer?

16 There are 30 students in a class. The students are arranged in order and asked to give
the month and date of their birthday.
SHE
ET 10.1
a How many different arrangements of these dates are possible?
Work

b How many arrangements of these dates are possible if no 2 students have the same
birthday?
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 446 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

446 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

Combinations
A group of things chosen from a larger group where order is not important is called a
combination. In previous sections we performed calculations of the number of ways a
task could be done where order is important — permutations or arrangements. We now
examine situations where order does not matter.
Suppose 5 people have nominated for a committee
consisting of 3 members. It does not matter in what
order the candidates are placed on the committee, it
matters only whether they are there or not. If order
was important we know there would be 5P3, or 60,
ways in which this could be done. Here are the
possibilities:

ABC ABD ABE ACD ACE ADE

BDE BCD BCE CDE CAB DAB

EAB DAC EAC EAD EBD DBC

EBC ECD BCA BDA BEA CDA

CEA DEA DEB CDB CEB DEC

CBA DBA EBA DCA ECA EDA

EDB DCB ECB EDC BAC BAD

BAE CAD CAE DAE DBE CBD

CBE DCE ACB ADB AEB ADC

AEC AED BED CDB BEC CED

The 60 arrangements are different only if we take order into account; that is, ABC is
different from CAB and so on. You will notice in this table that there are 10 distinct
committees corresponding to the 10 distinct rows. Each column merely repeats, in a
different order, the committee in the first row. This result (10 distinct committees) can
be arrived at logically:
1. There are 5P3 ways of choosing or selecting 3 from 5 in order.
2. Each choice of 3 is repeated 3! times.
3. The number of distinct selections or combinations is 5P3 ÷ 3! = 10.
This leads to the general rule of selecting r things from n things:

1. The number of ways of choosing or selecting r things from n distinct things

where order is not important is given by the rule nCr , where:
nP
r
n
Cr = r! -
--------

2. The letter C is used to represent combinations.

MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 447 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 447

WORKED Example 13
Write these combinations as statements involving permutations, then calculate them.
a 7C2 b 20C3
THINK WRITE
nP
a 1 Write down the rule for nCr . a n r
Cr = --------
r!
7P
2
2 Substitute the given values of n and r 7
C2 = ---------
into the combination formula. 2!

 7!
-----
 5!
3 Simplify the fraction. = ----------
2!
7!
= ----- ÷ 2!
5!
7! 1
= ----- × -----
5! 2!
7!
= ----------
5!2!
7 × 6 × 5!
= -----------------------
5! × 2 × 1
7×6
4 Evaluate. = ------------
2×1
42
= ------
2
= 21

nP
b 1 Write down the rule for nCr . b n r
Cr = --------
r!
20 P
3
2 Substitute the values of n and r into 20
C3 = -----------
3!
the formula.
 20!
--------
Simplify the fraction.  17!
3 = -------------
3!
20!
= -------- ÷ 3!
17!
20! 1
= -------- × -----
17! 3!
20!
= -------------
17!3!
Continued over page
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 448 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

448 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

THINK WRITE
20 × 19 × 18 × 17!
= --------------------------------------------
17! × 3 × 2 × 1
20 × 19 × 18
4 Evaluate. = ------------------------------
3×2×1
6840
= ------------
6
= 1140

WORKED Example 14
In how many ways can a basketball team of 5 players be selected from a squad of 9 if the
order in which they are selected does not matter?
THINK WRITE
nP
r
1 Write down the rule for nCr . n
Cr = --------
Note: Since order does not matter use the nCr rule. r!
9P
5
2 Substitute the values of n and r into the formula. 9
C5 = ---------
5!
3 Simplify the fraction.
 9!
-----
 4!
= ----------
5!
9!
= ----- ÷ 5!
4!
9! 1
= ----- × -----
4! 5!
9!
= ----------
4!5!
9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5!
= ------------------------------------------
4 × 3 × 2 × 1 × 5!
4 Evaluate. 9×8×7×6
= ------------------------------
4×3×2×1
3024
= ------------
24
= 126

The formula we use to determine the number of ways of selecting r things from n
distinct things, where order is not important, is useful but needs to be simplified.
nP
r
n
Cr = --------
r!
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 449 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 449

n!
------------------
( n – r )!
= -----------------------
r!
n!
= -----------------------
( n – r )!r!

n!
n
Cr = (----------------------
n – r )!r!
-

Note: nCr may also be written as   .

n
 r

WORKED Example 15
b  
12 10
Determine the value of the following. a C5
 2
THINK WRITE
n!
a 1 Write down the rule for nCr . a Cr = -----------------------
n
( n – r )!r!
12!
2 Substitute the given values of n and r 12
C5 = ---------------------------
( 12 – 5 )!5!
into the combination formula.
12!
= ----------
7!5!
12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7!
3 Simplify the fraction. = ------------------------------------------------------------
7! × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8
= -------------------------------------------------
5×4×3×2×1
95 040
4 Evaluate. = ----------------
120
= 792
Write down the rule for   . b   = nCr
n n
b 1  r
 r
n!
= -----------------------
( n – r )!r!

2 Substitute the given values of n and r  10 = --------------------------

10!
-
 2  ( 10 – 2 )!2!
into the combination formula.
10!
= ----------
8!2!
10 × 9 × 8!
3 Simplify the fraction. = --------------------------
8! × 2 × 1
10 × 9
= ---------------
2×1
4 Evaluate. 90
= ------
2
= 45
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 450 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

450 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

WORKED Example 16
A committee consisting of 3 men and 4 women is to be chosen from 7 men and 9 women.
In how many ways can this be done?
THINK WRITE
n!
1 Write down the rule for nCr . n
Cr = -----------------------
( n – r )!r!
Note: Since order does not matter, use
the nCr rule.

2 Write down the number of ways of Number of ways of choosing 3 men = 7C3.
choosing 3 men from 7.

3 Write down the number of ways of Number of ways of choosing 4 women = 9C4.
choosing 4 women from 7.

7! 9!
4 Evaluate each of the combinations 7
C3 = ------------------------ C4 = ------------------------
9
( 7 – 3 )!3! ( 9 – 4 )!4!
obtained in steps 2 and 3.
7! 9!
= ---------- = ----------
4!3! 5!4!
7 × 6 × 5 × 4! 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5!
= -------------------------------- = ------------------------------------------
4!3 × 2 × 1 5! × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
7×6×5 9×8×7×6
= --------------------- = ------------------------------
3×2×1 4×3×2×1
210 3024
= --------- = ------------
6 24
= 35 = 126

5 Use the multiplication principle to find The number of ways of choosing 3 men and
the number of ways of choosing men 4 women = 7C3 × 9C4
and women. = 35 × 126
= 4410

6 Answer the question. There are 4410 ways of choosing 3 men and 4
women.

Graphics Calculator tip! Calculating

combinations
To find the number of combinations of n objects taken r
at a time, enter the number of objects, then press MATH ,
select PRB, choose 3:nCr and enter the value of r.
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 451 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 451

WORKED Example 17
Evaluate the following using your calculator and comment on your results.
a 9C3 b 9C6 c 15C5 d 15C10 e 12C7 f 12C5
THINK WRITE
a-f Use a graphics calculator (see above for steps) a 9
C3 = 84
to evaluate the listed combinations. b 9
C6 = 84
c 15
C5 = 3003
d 15
C10 = 3003
e 12
C7 = 792
f 12
C5 = 792
Comment on your results. So 9C3 = 9C6, 15C5 = 15C10 and
12
C7 = 12C5.

For each of the preceding examples, it can be seen that nCr = nCn − r . This may be
derived algebraically:
nP
n–r
n
Cn − r = ------------------
( n – r )!
 -------------------------------
n!
-
 [ n – ( n – r ) ]!
= -------------------------------------
( n – r )!
 -----
n!
 r! 
= ------------------
( n – r )!
n!
= ----- ÷ (n − r)!
r!
n! 1
= ----- × ------------------
r! ( n – r )!
n!
= -----------------------
r! ( n – r )!
n!
= -----------------------
( n – r )!r!
= nCr

remember
remember
1. The number of ways of selecting r things from n things when order is
important is nPr .
2. The number of ways of selecting r things from n things when order is not
important is nCr .
nP
r
3. nCr = --------
r!
n!
= -----------------------
( n – r! )r!
4. nCr may also be written as   .
n
 r
5. nCr = nCn − r
 MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 452 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

452 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

10D Combinations

WORKED 1 Write each of the following as statements in terms of permutations.

Example
13
a 8C3 b 19C2 c 1C1 d 5C0
2 Write each of the following using the notation nCr .
8P 9P 8P 10P
2 3 0
a --------- b --------- c --------- 4
d ----------
2! 3! 0! 4!
WORKED 3 A committee of 3 is to be chosen from a group of people. In how many ways can this
Example
14
be done if the group contains:
a 3 people? b 6 people? c 10 people? d 12 people?
d 4 A cricket team of 11 players is to be chosen from a squad of 15 players. In how many
hca
ways can this be done?
Mat

Combinations
5 A basketball team of 5 players is to be chosen from a squad of 10 players. In how
many ways can this be done?
WORKED 6 Determine the value of the following:
reads Example
L Sp he a 12C4 b 11C1 c C0 15
d 12
C12
15
et
EXCE

e   f   g   h  
Combinations 21 10 100 17
 15  7  1   14

10.2 7 From a pack of 52 cards, a hand of 5 cards is dealt.

HEET a How many different hands are there?
SkillS

b How many of these hands contain only red cards?

c How many of these hands contain only black cards?
d How many of these hands contain at least one red and one black card?
WORKED 8 A committee of 3 men and 3 women is to be chosen from 5 men and 8 women. In
Example
16
how many ways can this be done?
9 A mixed netball team must have 3 women and 4 men in the side. If the squad has 6
women and 5 men wanting to play, how many different teams are possible?
10 A rugby union squad has 12 forwards and 10 backs in training. A team consists of 8
forwards and 7 backs. How many different teams can be chosen from the squad?
11 A quinella is a bet made on a horse race which pays a win if the punter selects the
first 2 horses in any order. How many different quinellas are possible in a race that
has:
a 8 horses?
b 16 horses?
12 A CD collection contains 32 CDs. In how many ways can 5 CDs be chosen from the
collection?
13 multiple choice
At a party there are 40 guests and they decide to have a toast. Each guest ‘clinks’
glasses with every other guest. How many clinks are there in all?
A 39 B 40 C 40! D 780 E 1560
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 453 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 453

14 multiple choice
On a bookshelf there are 15 books — 7 geography books and 8 law books. Jane
selects 5 books from the shelf — 2 geography books and 3 law books. How many dif-
ferent ways can she make this selection?
A 3003 B 360 360 C 1176 D 366 E 15

Questions 15, 16 and 17 refer to the

following information. The Maryborough
Tennis Championships involve 16 players.
The organisers plan to use 3 courts and
assume that each match will last on average 2
hours and that no more than 4 matches will
be played on any court per day.
15 In a ‘round robin’ each player plays every
other player once. If the organisers use a
round robin format:
a How many games will be played in all?
b For how many days does the tourna-
ment last?
16 The organisers split the 16 players into two
pools of 8 players each. After a ‘round
robin’ within each pool, a final is played
between the winners of each pool.
a How many matches are played in the
tournament?
b How long does the tournament last?
17 A ‘knock out’ format is one in which the
loser of every match drops out and the win-
ners proceed to the next round until there is
only one winner left.
a If the game starts with 16 players how many matches are needed before a winner
is obtained?
b How long would the tournament last?
18 Lotto is a gambling game played by choosing 6 numbers from 45. Gamblers try to
match their choice with those numbers chosen at the official draw. No number can be
drawn more than once and the order in which the numbers are selected does not matter.
a How many different selections of 6 numbers can be made from 45?
b Suppose the first numbers drawn at the official draw are 42, 3 and 18. How many
selections of 6 numbers will contain these 3 numbers?
c Suppose the first numbers drawn at the official draw are 42, 3, 18 and 41. How
many selections of 6 numbers will contain these 4 numbers?
Note: This question ignores supplementary numbers. Lotto is discussed further in the
next section.
WORKED 19 Calculate the value of:
Example
17
a 12C3 and 12C9 b 15C8 and 15C7 c 10C1 and 10C9
8 8 10 10
d C3 and C5 e C0 and C10 f What do you notice?
Give your answer as a general statement such as ‘The value of nCr is . . .’.
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454 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

Applications of permutations and

combinations
Counting techniques, particularly those involving permutations and combinations, can
be applied in gambling, logistics and various forms of market research. In this section
we investigate when to use permutations and when to use combinations as well as
examining problems associated with these techniques.
Permutations are used to count when order is important. Some examples are:
1. the number of ways the positions of president, secretary and treasurer can be filled
2. the number of ways a team can be chosen from a squad in distinctly different
positions
3. the number of ways the first three positions of a horse race can be filled.
Combinations are used to count when order is not important. Some examples are:
1. the number of ways a committee can be chosen
2. the number of ways a team can be chosen from a squad
3. the number of ways a hand of 5 cards can be dealt from a deck.
An interesting application of combinations as a technique of counting is a game that
Australians spend many millions of dollars on each week — Lotto. To play, a player
selects 6 numbers from 45 numbers. The official draw chooses 6 numbers and 2 sup-
plementary numbers. Depending on how the player’s choice of 6 numbers matches the
official draw, prizes are awarded in different divisions.
Division 1: 6 winning numbers
Division 2: 5 winning numbers and one or both supplementary
Division 3: 5 winning numbers
Division 4: 4 winning numbers
Division 5: 3 winning numbers and one or both supplementary
If the official draw was:
3
Winning numbers Supplementaries
13 42 6 8 20 12 2 34
8
A player who chose:
8 34 13 12 20 45
would win a Division 4 prize and a player who chose:
11
8 34 13 12 22 45
would win a Division 5 prize.

Lotto systems
40
A player may have 7 lucky numbers 4, 7, 12, 21, 30, 38 and 45, and may wish
to include all possible combinations of these 7 numbers in a Lotto entry.
This can be done as follows: 25
4 7 12 21 30 38
4 7 12 21 30 45
4 7 12 21 38 45
4 7 12 30 38 45
4 7 21 30 38 45
4 12 21 30 38 45
7 12 21 30 38 45
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 455 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 455

The player does not have to fill out 7 separate entries to enter all combinations of
these 7 numbers 6 at a time but rather can complete a ‘System 7’ entry by marking 7
numbers on the entry form.
A System 9 consists of all entries of 6 numbers from the chosen 9 numbers.

WORKED Example 18
a Ten points are marked on a page and no three of these points are in a straight line.
How many triangles can be drawn joining these points?
b How many different 3-digit numbers can be made using the digits 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9
without repetition?
THINK WRITE
n!
a 1 Write down the rule for nCr . a n
Cr = -----------------------
( n – r )!r!
Note: A triangle is made by choosing 3
points. It does not matter in what order
the points are chosen, so nCr is used.
10!
2 Substitute the given values of n and r C3 = ---------------------------
10
( 10 – 3 )!3!
into the combination formula.
10!
= ----------
7!3!
3 Simplify the fraction. 10 × 9 × 8 × 7!
= -----------------------------------
7! × 3 × 2 × 1
10 × 9 × 8
= ------------------------
3×2×1
4 Evaluate. 720
= ---------
6
= 120
5 Answer the question. 120 triangles may be drawn by joining 3
points.
6 Verify the answer obtained by using the
combination function on the calculator.
n!
b 1 Write down the rule for nPr . b n
Pr = ------------------
( n – r )!
Note: Order is important here.
5!
2 Substitute the given values of n and r 5
P3 = ------------------
( 5 – 3 )!
into the permutation formula.
5!
= -----
2!
3 Evaluate. 5 × 4 × 3 × 2!
= --------------------------------
2!
=5×4×3
= 60
4 Answer the question. Sixty 3-digit numbers can be made without
repetition from a group of 5 numbers.
5 Verify the answer obtained by using the
permutation function on the calculator.
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456 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

WORKED Example 19
Jade and Kelly are 2 of the 10 members of a basketball squad. In how many ways can a
team of 5 be chosen if:
a both Jade and Kelly are in the 5?
b neither Jade nor Kelly is in the 5?
c Jade is in the 5 but Kelly is not?
THINK WRITE
n!
a 1 Write down the rule for nCr . a n
Cr = -----------------------
( n – r )!r!
Note: Order is not important, so nCr is
used.
8!
2 Substitute the given values of n and r 8
C3 = ------------------------
( 8 – 3 )!3!
into the combination formula.
Note: If Jade and Kelly are included 8!
= ----------
then there are 3 positions to be filled 5!3!
from the remaining 8 players.
3 Simplify the fraction. 8 × 7 × 6 × 5!
= --------------------------------
5! × 3 × 2 × 1
8×7×6
= ---------------------
3×2×1
4 Evaluate. 336
= ---------
6
= 56
5 Answer the question. If Jade and Kelly are included, then there are
56 ways to fill the remaining 3 positions.

n!
b 1 Write down the rule for nCr . b n
Cr = -----------------------
( n – r )!r!
Note: Order is not important, so nCr is
used.
8!
2 Substitute the given values of n and r 8
C5 = ------------------------
( 8 – 5 )!5!
into the combination formula.
Note: If Jade and Kelly are not 8!
= ----------
included then there are 5 positions to 3!5!
be filled from 8 players.
3 Simplify the fraction. 8 × 7 × 6 × 5!
= --------------------------------
3 × 2 × 1 × 5!
8×7×6
= ---------------------
3×2×1
4 Evaluate. 336
= ---------
6
= 56
5 Answer the question. If Jade and Kelly are not included, then there
are 56 ways to fill the 5 positions.
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 457 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 457

THINK WRITE
n!
c 1 Write down the rule for nCr . c n
Cr = -----------------------
( n – r )!r!
Note: Order is not important, so nCr is used.
8!
2 Substitute the given values of n and r 8
C4 = ------------------------
( 8 – 4 )!4!
into the combination formula.
Note: If Jade is included and Kelly is 8!
= ----------
not then there are 4 positions to be filled 4!4!
from 8 players.
3 Simplify the fraction. 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4!
= ------------------------------------------
4 × 3 × 2 × 1 × 4!
8×7×6×5
= ------------------------------
4×3×2×1
4 Evaluate. 1680
= ------------
24
= 70
5 Answer the question. If Jade is included and Kelly is not, then
there are 70 ways to fill the 4 positions.
6 Verify each of the answers obtained by
using the combination function on the
calculator.

WORKED Example 20
Use the information on Lotto systems given on page 454.
A player uses a System 8 entry with the numbers 4, 7, 9, 12, 22, 29, 32 and 36.
The official draw for this game was 4, 8, 12, 15, 22, 36 with supplementaries 20 and 29.
a To how many single entries is a System 8 equivalent?
b List 3 of the player’s entries that would have won Division 4.
c How many of the player’s entries would have won Division 4?
THINK WRITE
n!
a 1 Write down the rule for nCr . a n
Cr = -----------------------
( n – r )!r!
Note: Order is not important, so nCr
is used.
8!
2 Substitute the given values of n and r into C6 = ------------------------
8
( 8 – 6 )!6!
the combination formula.
Note: A System 8 consists of all entries 8!
= ----------
consisting of 6 numbers chosen from 8. 2!6!
3 Simplify the fraction. 8 × 7 × 6!
= -----------------------
2 × 1 × 6!
8×7
= ------------
2×1
Continued over page
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 458 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

458 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

THINK WRITE
4 Evaluate. 56
= ------
2
= 28
5 Answer the question. A System 8 is equivalent to 28 single
entries.
6 Verify each of the answers obtained by
using the combination function on the
calculator.

b List 3 of the player’s entries that would have b Some of the possibilities are:
won Division 4. 4 12 22 36 7 9
Note: Division 4 requires 4 winning numbers. 4 12 22 36 7 29
The player’s winning numbers are 4, 12, 22 4 12 22 36 7 32
and 36. Any of the other 4 numbers can fill
the remaining 2 places.

n!
c 1 Write down the rule for nCr . c n
Cr = -----------------------
( n – r )!r!
Note: Order is not important, so nCr is
used.
4!
2 Substitute the given values of n and r into 4
C2 = ------------------------
( 4 – 2 )!2!
the combination formula.
Note: To win Division 4 the numbers 4, 12, 4!
= ----------
22 and 36 must be included in the entry. The 2!2!
other 2 spaces can be filled with any of the
other 4 numbers in any order.
3 Simplify the fraction. 4 × 3 × 2!
= -----------------------
2 × 1 × 2!
4×3
= ------------
2×1
4 Evaluate. 12
= ------
2
=6
5 Answer the question. Six of the player’s entries would have
won Division 4.
6 Verify each of the answers obtained by
using the combination function on the
calculator.

remember
remember
1. Permutations are used to count when order is important.
2. Combinations are used to count when order is not important.
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 459 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 459

Applications of permutations
10E and combinations
WORKED 1 How many ways are there:
Example
18
a to draw a line segment between 2 points on a page with 10 points on it?
b to make a 4-digit number using the digits 2, 4, 6, 8 and 1 without repetition?
c to allocate 5 numbered singlets to 5 players?
d to choose a committee of 4 people from 10 people?
e for a party of 15 people to shake hands with one another?
2 How many ways are there:
a for 10 horses to fill 1st, 2nd and 3rd positions?
b to give only 5 players in a group of 10 an unnumbered singlet?
c to choose a team of 3 cyclists from a squad of 5?
d to choose 1st, 2nd and 3rd speakers for a debating team from 6 candidates?
e for 20 students to seat themselves at 20 desks arranged in rows?
3 The French flag is known as a tricolour
flag because it is composed of the 3
bands of colour. How many different tri-
colour flags can be made from the
colours red, white, blue and green, if
each colour can be used only once in
one of the 3 bands?

4 In a taste test a market research company has asked people to taste 4 samples of
coffee and try to identify each as one of four brands. Subjects are told that no 2
samples are the same brand. How many different ways can the samples be matched to
the brands?
5 In the gambling game roulette, if a
gambler puts $1 on the winning number
he will win $35. Suppose a gambler
wishes to place five $1 bets on 5
different numbers in one spin of the
roulette wheel. If there are 36 numbers
in all, in how many ways can the five
bets be placed?

WORKED 6 A volleyball team of 6 players is to be

Example
19
chosen from a squad of 10 players. In
how many ways can this be done if:
a there are no restrictions?
b Stephanie is to be in the team?
c Stephanie is not in the team?
d two players, Stephanie and Alison, are not both in the team together?
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460 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

7 A cross-country team of 4 runners is to be chosen from a squad of 9 runners. In how

many ways can this be done if:
a there are no restrictions?
b Tony is to be one of the 4?
c Tony and Michael are in the team?
d either Tony or Michael but not both are in the team?
8 A soccer team of 11 players is to be chosen from a squad of 17. If one of the squad is
selected as goalkeeper and any of the remainder can be selected in any of the pos-
itions, in how many ways can this be done if:
a there are no restrictions?
b Karl is to be chosen?
c Karl and Andrew refuse to play in the same team?
d Karl and Andrew are either both in or both out?

9 multiple choice
A netball team consists of 7 different positions: goal defence, goal keeper, wing
defence, centre, wing attack, goal attack and goal shooter. The number of ways a
squad of 10 players can be allocated to these positions is:

A 10! B 7! 10! D 10
P7 E 10
C7
C --------
7!

10 multiple choice
A secret chemical
formula requires
the mixing of 3
chemicals. A
researcher does
not remember the
3 chemicals but
has a shortlist of
10 from which to
choose. Each time
she mixes 3
chemicals and
tests the result,
she takes 15
minutes. How
long does the researcher need, to be absolutely sure of getting the right combination?
A 1 hour B 7.5 hours C 15 hours D 30 hours E 120 hours

WORKED 11 Use the information on Lotto given on page 454.

Example
20 A player uses a System 8 entry with the numbers 9, 12, 14, 17, 27, 34, 37 and 41. The
official draw for this game was 9, 13, 17, 20, 27, 41 with supplementaries 25 and 34.
a To how many single entries is a System 8 equivalent?
b List 3 of the player’s entries that would have won Division 4.
c How many of the player’s entries would have won Division 4?
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 461 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 461

12 Use the information on Lotto given on page 454.
A player uses a System 9 entry with the numbers 7, 10, 12, 15, 25, 32, 35, 37 and
41. The official draw for this game was 7, 11, 15, 18, 25, 39 with supplementaries
23 and 32.
a To how many single entries is a System 9 equivalent?
b List 3 of the player’s entries that would have won Division 5.
c How many of the player’s entries would have won Division 5?
Questions 13 and 14 refer to the following information: Keno is a popular game in
clubs and pubs around Australia. In each round a machine randomly generates 15
numbers from 1 to 50. In one entry a player can select up to 15 numbers.
13 Suppose a player selects an entry of 6 numbers.
The payout for a $1 bet on 6 numbers is:
Match 6 $1500 Match 5 $85
Match 4 $5 Match 3 $1
a In how many ways can an entry of 6 numbers contain 6 winning numbers?
Suppose an entry of 6 numbers has exactly 3 winning numbers in it.
b In how many ways can the 3 winning numbers be chosen?
c In how many ways can the 3 losing numbers be chosen?
d How many entries of 6 numbers contain 3 winning numbers and 3 losing numbers?
14 Suppose a player selects an entry of 12 numbers.
The payout for a $1 bet on 12 numbers is:
Match 12 $160 000
Match 11 $56 000
Match 10 $7600
Match 9 $600
Match 8 $80
Match 7 $15
Match 6 $4
Match 5 $1
Match 1 $1
Match 0 $4
a In how many ways can an entry of 12 numbers contain 12 winning numbers?
b Suppose an entry of 12 numbers has exactly 6 winning numbers in it.
i In how many ways can the 6 winning numbers be chosen?
ii In how many ways can the 6 losing numbers be chosen? ET 10.2
SHE
iii How many entries of 12 numbers contain 6 winning numbers and 6 losing
Work

numbers?
iv How many entries of 12 numbers contain no winning numbers?

Pascal’s triangle, the binomial theorem

and the pigeonhole principle
Combinations are useful in other areas of mathematics, such as probability and
binomial expansions. If we analyse the nCr values closely, we notice that they produce
the elements of any row in Pascal’s triangle or each of the coefficients of a particular
binomial expansion.
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462 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

Counting paths
A B C D E F G Dorothy and Toto enter a maze, and they have a compass.
1 To prevent themselves from going round in circles they
2 decide that they will only travel south or east and never
3 north or west. The maze is shown at left and each intersec-
4 tion is labelled.
5
6
7

Dorothy and Toto enter the maze at A1.

There are 2 ways to get to B2:
A1 → A2 → B2 or A1 → B1 → B2
Are you able to list the 6 ways of going from A1 to C3? (Remember that they
can only travel south or east.)
If you answered: A1 → A2 → A3 → B3 → C3
A1 → A2 → B2 → B3 → C3
A1 → A2 → B2 → C2 → C3
A1 → B1 → B2 → B3 → C3
A1 → B1 → B2 → C2 → C3
A1 → B1 → C1 → C2 → C3
then you are correct.
How many different ways can they travel to get to D6, E5 and E6?
If you answered 56, 70 and 126 A B C D E F G
respectively, then you are correct. 1
Can you devise a method of
counting the number of ways of 2 2
getting to each intersection and so
show that there are 924 ways of
3 6
getting to G7? Use the grid at right
to help record your results.
4
This activity provides a link
between two apparently separate
ideas — combinations and Pascal’s 5 70
triangle. Let us consider Pascal’s
triangle and then look at its 6 56 126
connection with combinations.
7
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Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 463

Pascal’s triangle
The triangle below was named after the French mathematician Blaise Pascal. He was
honoured for his application of the triangle to his studies in the area of probability.

0th row
1st row
1
0th position 2nd row
1 1

1 2 1
This 5 is in the
1st position in 1 3 3 1
the 5th row.
1 4 6 4 1

1 5 10 10 5 1

1 6 15 20 15 6 1

The next entry here

is 21. It is the sum of
the 2 numbers above
it — 6 and 15.

Each element in Pascal’s triangle can be calculated using combinations. For

example, 10 is the 2nd element in the 5th row of Pascal’s triangle; that is, 5C2 = 10 (this
assumes 1 is the zeroth (0th) element).
Compare the values from Pascal’s triangle with the number of ways of getting to
each intersection in the investigation ‘Counting paths’. What do you notice?
Pascal’s triangle shows that the rth element of the nth row of Pascal’s triangle is
given by nCr . It is assumed that the 1 at the beginning of each row is the 0th element.
Another application of combinations is the binomial theorem. This theorem gives a
rule for expanding an expression such as (a + b)n. Expanding expressions such as this
may become quite difficult and time consuming using the usual methods of algebra.
(a + b)1 = a + b
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4
To use the binomial theorem you will need to recall the following conventions and
terminology of algebra:
1. In the term 3a2b, ‘3’ is called the coefficient of the term.
2. In the term a2b, the coefficient of the term is 1 even though it is not written.
3. In the term 3a2b, the power of ‘a’ is 2 and the power of ‘b’ is 1.
The binomial theorem is defined by the rule:
(a + b)n = nC0 an + nC1an − 1b + nC2 an − 2b2 + . . . + nCr an − rbr + . . . + nCnbn
= an + nC1an − 1b + nC2 an − 2b2 + . . . nCr an − rbr + . . . + bn
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 464 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

464 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

When expanding brackets which are in the form (a + b)n using the binomial theorem, recall:
1. The power of a in the first term of the expansion corresponds to the power of n and
in each successive term decreases by 1 until it corresponds to the power of 0.
2. The power of b starts at 0 and in each successive term increases by 1 until it
corresponds to the power of n.
3. The coefficient of the rth term is nCr .
4. The rth term is obtained by using nCr an − r br.
Again, this assumes that the initial term of the expansion is the 0th element.
The binomial theorem is particularly useful in probability calculations.

WORKED Example 21
Refer to Pascal’s triangle on page 463 and answer the following questions.
a What number is in the 4th position in the 6th row?
b Complete the 7th row in Pascal’s triangle.
c The numbers 7 and 21 occur side by side in the 7th row. What element in the 8th row
occurs below and in between these numbers?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Locate the 6th row and the 4th position. a 6th row ⇒ 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
Note: Remember the 0th row is 1 and the
first row is 1 1. In the 6th row the 1 on
the left is in the 0th position.
2 Answer the question. The number in the 4th position in the 6th
row is 15.
b 1 Write down the elements of the 6th row. b 6th row ⇒ 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
2 Obtain the 7th row.
(a) Place the number 1 at the beginning of 7th row ⇒ 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
the row.
(b) Add the first 2 adjacent numbers from
the 6th row (1 and 6).
(c) Place this value next to the 1 on the
new row and align the value so that it
is in the middle of the 2 numbers
(directly above) which created it.
(d) Repeat this process with the next 2
adjacent numbers from the 6th row
(6 and 15).
(e) Once the sums of all adjacent pairs
from the sixth row have been added,
place a 1 at the end of the row.
3 Answer the question. The 7th row is
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1.
c 1 Add the numbers 7 and 21 in order to c 7 21
obtain the element in the 8th row which
occurs below and in between these 28
numbers.
2 Answer the question. The element in the 8th row which occurs
below and in between 7 and 21 is 28.
MQ Maths C Yr 11 - 10 Page 465 Wednesday, October 10, 2001 10:52 AM

Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 465

WORKED Example 22
Use combinations to calculate the number in the 5th position in the 9th row of Pascal’s
triangle.
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the combination rule. n
Cr
2 Substitute the values for n and r into 9
C5 = 126
the rule.
Note: The row is represented by n = 9.
The position is represented by r = 5.
3 Evaluate using a calculator.
4 Answer the question. The value of the number in the 5th position in
the 9th row is 126.

WORKED Example 23
Use the binomial theorem to expand (a + 2)4.
THINK WRITE

1 Write down the rule for the binomial (a + b)n = an + nC1an − 1b1 + . . . nCr an − rbr + . . . bn
theorem.
2 Substitute the values for a, b and n into (a + 2)4 = a4 + 4C1a321 + 4C2a222 + 4C3a123 + 24
the rule: a = a, b = 2 and n = 4.
3 Simplify. = a4 + 4 × a3 × 2 + 6 × a2 × 4 + 4 × a × 8 + 16
= a4 + 8a3 + 24a2 + 32a + 16

WORKED Example 24
What is the 4th term in the expansion of (x + y)7?
THINK WRITE

1 Write down the rule for the rth term. rth term = nCr an − rbr
Note: The rule for the 4th term is obtained
from the binomial theorem:
(a + b)n = an + nC1an − 1b1 + . . . nCr an − rbr
+ . . . bn
2 Substitute the values for a, b, n and r into n
Cr an − rbr = 7C4x7 − 4y4
the rule: a = x, b = y, n = 7 and r = 4.
3 Simplify. = 35x3y4
Note: The 0th term corresponds to the first
element of the expansion.
4 Answer the question. The 4th term is equal to 35x3y4.
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466 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

Pigeonhole principle
Henri Poincaré, a famous mathematician, once described mathematics as ‘the art of
giving the same name to different things’. Consider three phenomena, which on the
surface appear different — population growth, the value of investments and radioactive
decay. Each can be described by one mathematical concept: exponential change. The
mathematician gives three seemingly different things the same name.
The pigeonhole principle is a good example of how mathematics gives the same
name to different things.
The pigeonhole principle states that:
If there are n + 1 pigeons to be placed in n pigeonholes then there is at least one
pigeonhole with at least two pigeons in it.
In this statement:
1. Note the precise use of language; in particular the importance of the word ‘least’.
2. Some may view the pigeonhole principle as an obvious statement, but used cleverly
it is a powerful problem-solving tool.

WORKED Example 25
In a group of 13 people show that there are at least 2 whose birthday falls on the same
month.
THINK WRITE
1 Think of each person as a pigeon and There are 12 months and 13 people.
each month as a pigeonhole.
2 If there are 13 pigeons to be placed in Using the pigeonhole principle:
12 holes at least one hole must contain 13 people to be assigned to 12 months.
at least two pigeons. At least one month must contain two people.
That is, at least two people have birthdays
falling on the same month.

Generalised pigeonhole principle:

If there are nk + 1 pigeons to be placed in n pigeonholes then there is at least one
pigeonhole with at least k + 1 pigeons in it.

WORKED Example 26
In a group of 37 people show that there are at least 4 whose birthdays lie in the same month.
THINK WRITE
1 Think of each person as a pigeon and There are 12 months and 37 people.
each month as a pigeonhole.
2 Use the generalised pigeonhole Using the generalised pigeonhole principle:
principle. 37 people to be assigned to 12 months.
3 nk + 1 pigeons to be allocated to n The value of n is 12 and k is 3. So at least one
holes; month has 4 people in it.
n = 12 → k = 3 That is, at least 4 people have birthdays falling
on the same month.
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Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 467

WORKED Example 27
On resuming school after the Christmas
vacation, many of the 22 teachers of
Eastern High School exchanged handshakes.
Mr Yisit, the social science teacher said
‘Isn’t that unusual — with all the
handshaking, no two people shook hands
the same number of times’.
Not wanting to spoil the fun, the
mathematics teacher, Mrs Pigeon said
respectfully, ‘I am afraid you must have
counted incorrectly. What you say is not
possible.’
How can Mrs Pigeon make this
statement?

THINK WRITE
1 Think of the possible number of handshakes For each person there are 22 possible
by a person as a pigeonhole. numbers of handshakes; that is 0 to 21.

2 If two or more people have 0 handshakes, the 1 person with 0 handshakes:

problem is solved. Consider the cases where If there is 1 person with 0 handshakes
there is 1 person with 0 handshakes or 0 there can be no person with 21 hand-
persons with 0 handshakes. shakes. Thus there are 21 people to be
assigned to 20 pigeonholes. Therefore
there must be at least one pigeonhole with
two people in it.
0 people with 0 handshakes:
If there is no person with 0 handshakes
there are 22 people to be assigned to 21
pigeonholes. Therefore there must be at
least one pigeonhole with two people in it
(at least two people have made the same
number of handshakes).

3 Conclude using a sentence. Thus, there are at least two people who
have made the same number of hand-
shakes.
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468 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

remember
remember
1. Pascal’s triangle shows that the rth element of the nth row of Pascal’s triangle
is given by nCr .
2. Each new row in Pascal’s triangle is obtained by first placing a 1 at the
beginning and end of the row and then adding adjacent entries from the
previous row.
3. Row 1 is the row containing the elements ‘1 and 1’.
4. The ‘1’ on the left-hand side of each row is in the 0th position of that row.
5. The binomial theorem is defined by the rule:
(a + b)n = an + nC1an − 1b + nC2an − 2b2 + . . . + nCr an − rbr + . . . + bn
0th term rth term
6. When expanding brackets which are in the form (a + b)n using the binomial
theorem, recall:
(a) The power of a in the first term of the expansion corresponds to the power
of n and in each successive term decreases by 1 until it corresponds to the
power of 0.
(b) The power of b starts at 0 and in each successive term increases by 1 until
it corresponds to the power of n.
(c) The coefficient of the rth term is nCr .
(d) The rth term is obtained by using nCr an − rbr.
Again, this assumes that the initial term of the expansion is the 0th element.
7. The pigeonhole principle: If there are n + 1 pigeons to be placed in n
pigeonholes then there is at least one pigeonhole with at least two pigeons in it.

Pascal’s triangle, the

10F binomial theorem and the
pigeonhole principle
1 Write the first 8 rows in Pascal’s triangle.
reads
L Sp he WORKED 2 Refer to Pascal’s triangle on page 463 and answer the following questions.
et
EXCE

Example
Pascal’s 21 a What number is in the 4th position in the 8th row?
triangle b Complete the 9th row in Pascal’s triangle.
c If 9 and 36 occur side by side in the 9th row, what element in the 10th row occurs
below and in between these numbers?

WORKED 3 Use combinations to:

Example
22 a calculate the number in the 7th position of the 8th row of Pascal’s triangle
d b calculate the number in the 9th position of the 12th row of Pascal’s triangle
hca
c generate the 10th row of Pascal’s triangle.
Mat

Binomial WORKED
Example
theorem 4 Use the binomial theorem to expand:
23
a (x + y)2 b (n + m)3 c (a + 3)4
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Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 469

WORKED 5 a What is the 4th term in the expansion of (x + 2)5?
Example
b What is the 3rd term in the expansion of (p + q)8?
24
c What is the 7th term in the expansion of (x + 2)9?

6 multiple choice
x
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
A row of Pascal’s triangle is given above. What number is located at position x?
A 8 B 28 C 45 D 120 E 136

7 multiple choice
16x3 is definitely a term in the binomial expansion of:
A (x + 2)3 B (x + 4)3 C (x + 2)4 D (x + 4)4 E (x + 2)5

8 a In Pascal’s triangle, calculate the sum of all elements in the:

i 0th row ii 1st row iii 2nd row iv 3rd row
v 4th row vi 5th row
b i What do you notice?
ii Complete the statement: ‘The sum of the elements in the nth row of Pascal’s
triangle is . . .’
9 Use the result from question 8 to deduce a simple way of calculating:
6
C0 + 6C1 + 6C2 + 6C3 + 6C4 + 6C5 + 6C6
WORKED 10 In a cricket team consisting of 11 players, show that there are at least 2 whose phone
Example
25
numbers have the same last digit.
11 Two whole numbers add to give 21. Show that at least one of the numbers is greater
than 10.
WORKED 12 A squad of 10 netballers is asked to nominate when they can attend training. They can
Example
26
choose Tuesday only, Thursday only or Tuesday and Thursday. Show that there is at
least one group of at least 3 players who agree with one of these options.
13 S&M lollies come in five great colours — green, red, brown, yellow and blue. How
many S&Ms do I need to select to be sure I have 6 of the same colour?
14 The new model WBM roadster comes in burgundy, blue or yellow with white or black
trim. That is, the vehicle can be burgundy with white or burgundy with black and so
on. How many vehicles need to be chosen to ensure at least 3 have the same colour
combination?
15 Is it possible to show that in a group of 13 people, there are at least 2 whose birthdays
fall in February?
WORKED 16 Nineteen netball teams entered the annual state championships. However, it rained
Example
27
frequently and not all games were completed. No team played the same team more
than once. Mrs Organisit complained that the carnival was ruined and that no two
teams had played the same number of games. Show that she is incorrect in at least
part of her statement and that at least two teams played the same number of games.
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470 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

History of mathematics
B L A I S E PA S C A L — ( 1 6 2 3 – 1 6 6 2 )
During his life . . . He demonstrated that air pressure
Construction of the decreases with height by taking accurate
Taj Mahal is measurements at various levels on the side of
started. the Puy de Dôme mountain. He persuaded his
Rembrandt brother to climb the mountain and take
completes many measurements using a heavy barometer.
of his famous Like many mathematicians, Blaise Pascal
paintings. had arguments with other mathematicians,
Oliver Cromwell including René Descartes, who came to visit
governs England. him. Descartes did not believe that Pascal
was capable of such difficult mathematics and
claimed that Pascal had stolen some of his
Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician ideas from Descartes himself. Blaise Pascal
and physicist who studied combinatorics and developed the pattern of numbers now known
developed the theory of probability. as Pascal’s triangle that is used in probab-
He was born in the town of Clermont in ility, permutations and combinations.
France. His father was a taxation officer. His When Blaise Pascal’s father died, his sister
mother died when he was only 4. Pascal was went into a monastery and he was left to live
a sickly child and so was not sent to school free of family and spiritual conflicts. His
initially but was educated at home by his health improved and he took up an active
father. Because he was not healthy his father social life including gambling and driving a
forbad him from studying mathematics. It fast, horse-drawn carriage!
took about 5 years before Blaise could In late 1654 he was involved in an acci-
convince his father to let him try. dent. His horses went over the edge of a
When Blaise was 16, his father was in bridge and were killed, but he survived.
trouble with the courts because he would not Pascal was shaken up by this and again saw
set any more taxes. He had to leave Paris, and the event as a message from God. In 1655 he
the family moved to Rouen. moved in with his married sister. Later that
Blaise Pascal discovered and proved a year, Pascal became ill and eventually died
major theorem of geometry when he was only from the effects of a brain tumour and
16 years old. This theorem was about the stomach ulcer in 1662.
intersections of points on a conic plane. The computer language ‘Pascal’ is named
When he was 18 he became very ill. He after him.
eventually recovered, after being temporarily
paralysed and close to death. After this scare
Questions
he became very religious and started to study
1. How old was Pascal when he proved
philosophy and religion. His research into
his theorem on conics?
mathematics and science often conflicted
2. What did he develop at age 19 that
with his religious beliefs. earned him a lot of money?
At age 19, Pascal invented a calculating 3. Upon which mountain was his work on
machine that could do simple addition and air pressure done and who did the real
subtraction. He sold many of these machines work?
and they were so well made that some still 4. What is ‘Pascal’s triangle’ used for?
exist today. 5. What did he die from?
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Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 471

summary
The addition and multiplication principles
• Combinatorics is often called ‘counting’ and deals with counting the number of
ways in which activities or events can happen.
• The multiplication principle should be used when there are two operations or events
(say, A and B) where one event is followed by the other. It states that: If there are n
ways of performing operation A and m ways of performing operation B, then there
are n × m ways of performing A and B.
• The addition principle should be used when two distinct operations or events occur
in which one event is not followed by another. It states that: If there are n ways of
performing operation A and m ways of performing operation B then there are n + m
ways of performing A or B.
• A selection where order is important is called an arrangement.

Factorials and permutations

• The number of ways in which n distinct objects may be arranged is n! (n factorial)
where:
n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × (n − 3) × . . . × 3 × 2 × 1
• 0! = 1
• 1! = 1
• The number of different arrangements or permutations when r things are chosen
from n things and order is important is given by the rule nPr , where:
n!
• nPr = ------------------
( n – r )!
• nPn = n!
• nP0 = 1
• The number of different ways in which n people can be seated, r at a time, in a
circle is:
nP
--------r .
r

Arrangements involving restrictions and like objects

• The number of different ways of arranging n things made up of groups of
indistinguishable things, n1 in the first group, n2 in the second group and so on is:

n!
------------------------------------ .
n 1!n 2!n 3!…n r!

• When restrictions apply to arrangements use the multiplication and addition

principles as well as nPr .
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472 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

Combinations
• The number of ways of selecting r things from n things when order is not important
is nCr .
nP
r
• nCr = ---------
r!
n!
= -----------------------
( n – r )!r!
• nCr may also be written as   .
n
 r
• nCr = nCn − r

Applications of permutations and combinations

• Permutations are used to count when order is important.
• Combinations are used to count when order is not important.

Pascal’s triangle and the binomial theorem

• Pascal’s triangle shows that the rth element of the nth row of Pascal’s triangle is
given by nCr .
• Each new row in Pascal’s triangle is obtained by first placing a 1 at the beginning
and end of the row and then adding adjacent entries from the previous row.
• The top row is row 0.
• Row 1 is the row containing the elements ‘1 1’.
• The ‘1’ on the left-hand side of each row is in the 0th position of that row.
• The binomial theorem is defined by the rule:
• (a + b)n = an + nC1an − 1b + nC2 an − 2b2 + . . . + nCr an − rbr + . . . + bn

0th term rth term

• When expanding brackets which are in the form (a + b)n using the binomial
theorem, recall:
1. The power of a in the first term of the expansion corresponds to the power of n
and in each successive term decreases by 1 until it corresponds to the power of
0.
2. The power of b starts at 0 and in each successive term increases by 1 until it
corresponds to the power of n.
3. The coefficient of the rth term is nCr.
4. The rth term is obtained by using nCr an − rbr.
• Points 3 and 4 both assume that the initial term of the expansion is the 0th element.

The pigeonhole principle

• If there are n + 1 pigeons to be placed in n pigeonholes then there is at least one
pigeonhole with at least two pigeons in it.
• The generalised pigeonhole principle:
If there are nk + 1 pigeons to be placed in n pigeonholes then there is at least one
pigeonhole with at least k + 1 pigeons in it.
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Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 473

CHAPTER
review
1 multiple choice
10A
Barbie’s wardrobe consists of 5 different tops, 4 different skirts and 3 different pairs of
shoes. The number of different outfits Barbie can wear is:
A 5 B 12 C 60 D 80 E 120

2 multiple choice
10A
How many different 3-digit numbers can be made from the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 if the
numbers can be repeated?
A 60 B 125 C 243 D 729 E 999

3 multiple choice
10A
There are 7 candidates seeking election to the positions of either president or secretary of
the Soccer Club Committee. If one of these candidates, George, is to be either president or
secretary, in how many ways can positions be filled?
A 12 B 21 C 42 D 49 E 56

4 How many numbers less than 4000 can be made using the digits 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 9 if:
a repetition is not permitted? 10A
b repetition is permitted?

5 multiple choice
10B
The permutation 9P6 is equal to:
9! 9! 9!
A 9×8×7 B 9×8×7×6×5×4×3 C ----- D ----- E -----
6! 3! 4!

6 multiple choice
10B
There are 12 horses in a race. In how many different ways can the 1st, 2nd and 3rd positions
be filled?
A 12P3 B 123 C 312 D 12C3 E 12C12
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474 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

7 multiple choice
10B
A round table seats 5 people. From a group of 8 people, in how many ways can 5 people be
seated at the table:
9! 8P 8P
8 5 5 8
A ----- B P5 C --------- D --------- E C5
6! 5 5!

8 Use your calculator to place these in ascending order: 19P6, 12P9, 2000P2.
10B
9 multiple choice
10C
How many different arrangements can be made using the 8 letters of the word NONSENSE?
A 1680 B 2520 C 3360 D 5040 E 40 320

10 How many different arrangements of 4 letters can be made from the letters of the word
10C PILL?

11 multiple choice
10D
Which of the following is equivalent to 8C2?
6P 8P 8P 8P 8P
2 6 2 2 2
A --------- B --------- C ---------- D --------- E ---------
2! 2! 6!2! 6! 2!

12 multiple choice
10D A committee of 4 men and 3 women is to be formed from 5 men and 8 women. In how
many ways can this be done?
A 61 B 280 C 1320 D 20 160 E 40 320

13 Use your calculator to place these in ascending order: 19C6, 22C15, 2000C2.
10D
14 A committee of 3 men and 4 women is to be formed from 7 men and 5 women. In how
10D many ways can this be done?

15 Two cards are dealt from a pack of 52. What is the number of ways that:
10D a both are black?
b both are aces?
c the cards are of different colours?

16 multiple choice
10E
A cycling team of 3 riders is to be chosen from a squad of 8 riders. In how many ways can
this be done if one particular rider, Jorge, must be in the team?
A 56 B 336 C 21 D 210 E 420
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Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations 475

17 A ward in a city hospital has 15 nurses due to work on Friday. There are 3 shifts that need
to be staffed by 5 nurses on each shift. How many different arrangements for staffing these 10E
3 shifts are possible, assuming that each nurse only works 1 shift?

18 multiple choice
What is the 4th term in the expansion of (p + 1)7?
10F
A p4 B 35p3 C 35p4 D 21p3 E 21p4

19 multiple choice
A row of Pascal’s triangle is given below. What number is located at position x?
10F
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
x
A 48 B 120 C 56 D 210 E 252
20 a In the 10th row of Pascal’s triangle, what is the 6th entry?
b Write the 10th row of Pascal’s triangle using combinations. 10F
c What is the sum of the elements of the 10th row?

21 In the expansion of (x + 3)10, what is the:

a 2nd term? b 3rd term? c 9th term?
10F

Modelling and application

1 Assume that car number plates are sequenced as follows: DLV334 → DLV335 → ... DLV339
→ DLV340 → ... DLV999 → DLW000 and so on. Using this sequence, how many number
plates are there between DLV334 and DNU211 inclusive?
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476 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d

2 How many paths are there from A to B if you are only allowed to move either down or to the
right on the lines of the grid?

3 Poker is a card game in which initially each

person is dealt 5 cards.
a How many different hands are possible?
(Order is not important.)
b How many hands contain only diamonds?
c How many hands contain only red cards?
test
yourself d When Wild Bill Hickock died at Deadwood,
CHAPTER

Dakota he was holding in his hand 2 pairs —

10 aces and eights. This is called the dead man’s
hand. In how many ways can you be dealt the
dead man’s hand?