TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF MOMBASA

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

Engineering Thermodynamics II TMC 4315 CLASS: BTME Y3S1

LECTURE NOTES

Prepared by: Njeru Gatumu

 Engineering Thermodynamics II
UNIT:
TMC 4315
Learning Outcomes for the Unit:

At the end of this course the student will be able to:

1. Apply the laws of thermodynamics to both open and closed systems;
2. Apply the laws of thermodynamics to flow processes in various types of equip-
ment/devices;
3. Analyse the energy conversion efficiencies of various processes;
4. Apply the laws of thermodynamics to steam and gas power plants and common
engine cycles, compressors and nozzles;
5. Apply the laws of thermodynamics to power generation processes.

So God created man in His own image; in the image of God

He created him; male and female He created them. Then God
blessed them, and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply;
fill the earth and subdue it; have dominion over the fish of the
sea, over the birds of the air, and over every living thing that
moves on the earth” Genesis 1  27  28.

1
Chapter 1
The Gas Power Cycle
Learning outcomes:
After completing solving of problems, and reading explanations and examples in this chap-
ter, the student should be able to:
1. Explain the terminologies used in heat engine cycles, entropy in relation to reversible
processes and irreversibility,
2. Describe processes of different gas power cycles by applying the p-v diagram,
3. Derive the expressions governing gas power cycles’ properties and efficiencies,
4. Apply derived equations of gas power cycles to solve problems,
5. Relate given gas power cycles to their practical applications in thermodynamics.

1.1 Introduction
In this chapter the heat engine cycle is discussed more fully and gas power cycles are
considered. It can be shown that there is an ideal theoretical cycle which is the most
efficient conceivable; this cycle is called the Carnot cycle. The highest thermal efficiency
possible for a heat engine in practice is only about half that of the ideal theoretical Carnot
cycle, between the same temperature limits. This is due to irreversibilities in the actual
cycle, and to deviations from the ideal cycle, which are made for various practical reasons.
The choice of a power plant in practice is a compromise between thermal efficiency and
various factors such as the size of the plant for a given power requirement, mechanical
complexity, operating cost, and capital cost.

1.2 The Carnot cycle

It can be shown from the Second Law of Thermodynamics that no heat engine can be
more efficient than a reversible heat engine working between the same temperature limits.
Carnot showed that the most efficient possible cycle is one in which all the heat supplied
is supplied at one fixed temperature, and all the heat rejected is rejected at a lower fixed
temperature. The cycle therefore consists of two isothermal processes joined by two adia-
batic processes. Since all processes are reversible, then the adiabatic processes in the cycle
are also isentropic. The cycle is most conveniently represented on a T-s diagram as shown
in Figure 1.1.
Process 1 to 2 is isentropic expansion from T1 to T2 .

2
Process 2 to 3 is isothermal heat rejection.
Process 3 to 4 is isentropic compression from T2 to T1 .
Process 4 to 1 is isothermal heat supply.
The cycle is completely independent of the working substance used. The cycle efficiency of
a heat engine, defined in section 1.1, is given by the net work output divided by the gross
heat supplied,

i.e. η 
 @W @Q (1.1)
Q1 Q1

Figure 1.1: Carnot cycle on a T-s

diagram

In the Carnot cycle, with reference to Figure 1.1, it can be seen that the gross heat supplied,
Q1 , is given by the area 41BA4,

i.e. Q1 area 41BA4 T1 sB  sA 

Similarly, the net heat supplied, @ Q, is given by the area 41234 (= area 41BA4 - area 32BA3)
and, AQ T1 sB  sA   T2 sB  sA  T1  T2  sB  sA 

Hence Carnot cycle efficiency,

T1  T2  sB  sA 
ηcarnot
T1 sB  sA 

T2
i.e. ηcarnot 1 (1.2)
T1
If a sink for heat rejection is available at a fixed temperature T2 (e.g. a large supply of
cooling water), then the ratio T2 / T1 will decrease as the temperature of the source T1
is increased. From equation 1.2 it can be seen that as T2 / T1 decreases, then the thermal
efficiency increases. Hence for a fixed lower temperature for heat rejection, the upper
temperature at which heat is supplied must be made as high as possible. The maximum
possible thermal efficiency between any two temperatures is that of the Carnot cycle.

3
Example 1.1
Determine the highest possible theoretical efficiency of a heat engine operating with a hot
` `
reservoir of furnace gases at 2000 C when the cooling water available is at 10 C.
Solution:
T2
From equation 1.2, ηcarnot ηmax. 1
T1

T2 10  273 283
and ηmax. 1  1 1 

T1 2000  273 2273

i.e. Highest possible efficiency 1  0.1246

0.8754 or 87.54%

It should be noted that a system in practice operating between similar temperatures (e.g. a
steam-generating plant) would have a thermal efficiency of about 30%. The discrepancy is
due to losses due to irreversibility in the actual plant, and also because of deviations from
the ideal Carnot cycle made for various practical reasons. It is difficult in practice to devise
a system which can receive and reject heat at constant temperature. A wet vapour is the
only working substance which can do this conveniently, since for a wet vapour the pressure
and temperature remain constant as the specific enthalpy of vaporization is supplied or
rejected. A Carnot cycle for a wet vapour is as shown in Figure 1.2. Although this cycle
is the most efficient possible vapour cycle, it is not used in steam plant. The theoretical
cycle on which steam cycles are based is known as the Rankine cycle.

Figure 1.2: Carnot cycle for a wet

vapour on a T-s diagram

1.3 Absolute temperature scale

In the previous work a temperature scale based on the perfect gas thermometer has been
assumed. Using the Second Law of Thermodynamics it is possible to establish a temper-
ature scale which is independent of the working substance. For any heat engine as is in

4
from equation 1.1,
η
@Q
Q1

Also the efficiency of an engine operating on the Carnot cycle depends only on the tem-
peratures of the hot and cold reservoirs. Denoting temperature on an arbitrary scale by
X,

η ϕ X1 , X2  (1.3)
where ϕ is a function, and X1 and X2 are the temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs.
Combining equations 1.1 and 1.2,


@Q ϕ X1 , X2 

Q1

There are a large number of possible temperature scales which are all independent of the
working substance. Any working scale can be chosen by suitably selecting the value of the
function ϕ. The function can be chosen that

1
@Q X2
(1.4)
Q1 X1

Also from equation 1.2,

T2
η 1
T1
Hence using equation 1.1
@Q η 1
T2
Q1 T1

or 1
@Q T2
(1.5)
Q1 T1

Comparing equations 1.4 and 1.5 it can be seen that the temperature X is equivalent to
the temperature T. Thus by suitably choosing the function ϕ, the ideal temperature scale
is made equivalent to the scale based on the perfect gas thermometer.

1.4 The Carnot cycle for a perfect gas

A Carnot cycle for a perfect gas is shown on a T-s diagram in Figure 1.3. Note that
the pressure of the gas changes continuously from p4 to p1 during the isothermal heat
supply, and from p2 to p3 during the isothermal heat rejection. In practice it is much more
convenient to heat a gas at approximately constant pressure or at constant volume, hence
it is difficult to attempt to operate an actual heat engine on the Carnot cycle using a gas
as working substance. Another important reason for not attempting to use the Carnot
cycle in practice is illustrated by drawing the cycle on a p-v diagram, as in Fig. 5.4. The
net work output of the cycle is given by the area 12341. This is a small quantity compared
with the gross work output of the expansion processes of the cycle, given by area 412BA4.
The work of the compression processes (i.e. work done on the gas) is given by the area

5
234AB2. The ratio of the net work output to the gross work output of the system is called
the work ratio. The Carnot cycle, despite its high thermal efficiency, has a low work ratio.

Figure 1.3: The Carnot cycle for

a perfect gas

Figure 1.4: Carnot cycle on a p-v

diagram

Example 1.2
` `
A hot reservoir at 800 C and a cold reservoir at 15 C are available. Calculate the thermal
efficiency and the work ratio of a Carnot cycle using air as the working fluid, if the maximum
and minimum pressures in the cycle are 210 bar and 1bar.
Solution:
The cycle is shown on a T-s and p-v diagram in Figures 1.5(a) and (b) respectively. Using
equation 1.2,
T2 15  273
η 1 1 1  0.268
T1 800  273

i.e. ηcarnot 0.732 or 73.2%

6
In order to find the work output and the work ratio it is necessary to find the entropy change
p
(s1 - s4 ). For an isothermal process from 4 to A, using equation sA  s4  R ln  p1 ,
2

210
i.e. sA  s4  0.287 ln 
1.535 kJ/kg K
1

At constant pressure from A to 2, we have

T1 1073
sA  s2  cp ln 
1.005 ln 
1.321 kJ/kg K
T2 288

Figure 1.5:
Carnot cycle
for Example
3.2 on p-v and
T-s diagrams

From the diagram and mathematically,

s2  s4 sA  s4   sA  s2  s1  s4   s2 s1 

and, s1  s4 1.535  1.321 0.214kJ/kg K

As seen earlier (section )

Net work output area12341 T1  T2  s1  s4  1073  288  0.214 168 kJ/kg

Gross work output is

Work output 4 to 1 + work output 1 to 2
From equation for an isothermal process, Q + W 0,

i.e. W41 Q41 area under line4  1on Figures 1.5 a

s1  s4   T1 0.214  1073
229.6 kJ/kg
For an isentropic process from 1 to 2, from equation , W u2  u1 , therefore for a perfect
gas
W21 cv T1  T2 
0.718 1073  288 563.6 kJ/kg
Therefore,
Gross work output 229.6  563.6 793.2 kJ/kg

7
 net work output 168
i.e. Work ratio 0.212
gross work output 793.2

1.5 The constant pressure cycle

In this cycle the heat supply and heat rejection processes occur reversibly at constant
pressure. The expansion and compression processes are isentropic. The cycle is shown on
a T-s diagram and a p-v diagram in Figures 1.5(a) and (b). This cycle was at one time used
as the ideal basis for a hot-air reciprocating engine, and the cycle was known as the Joule
or Brayton cycle. Nowadays the cycle is the ideal for the closed cycle gas turbine unit. A
simple line diagram of the plant is shown in Figure 1.5, with the numbers corresponding
to those of Figure 1.5( a) and (b). The working substance is air which flows in steady flow
round the cycle, hence, neglecting velocity changes, and applying the steady-flow energy
equation to each part of the cycle,

Work input to compressor h2  h1  cp T2  T1 

Work output from turbine h3  h4  cp T3  T4 

Heat supplied in heater h3  h2  cp T3  T2 
Heat rejected in cooler h4  h1  cp T4  T1 

Figure 1.6: Constant pressure cy-

cle on p-v and T-s diagrams

Figure 1.7: Closed-cycle gas tur-

bine unit

8
Then from equation 1.2;i.e.η
@Q
Q1

and η
@Q cp T3  T2   cp T4  T1
1
T4  T1
Q1 cp T3  T2  T3  T2

Now since processes 1 to 2 and 3 to 4 are isentropic between the same pressures p2 and
p1 , using equation,
T2 p2 γ 1©γ T3 γ 1©γ
 rp
T1 p1 T4

where, rp is the pressure ratio p2 /p1

γ 1©γ γ 1©γ
i.e. T3 T4 rp and T2 T1 rp
γ 1©γ
T3  T2 rp T4  T1 
Hence, substituting in the expression for the efficiency

T4  T1 γ 1©γ 1
η 1 r 1 γ 1©γ
(1.6)
T4  T1  p rp

Thus for the constant pressure cycle the cycle efficiency depends only on the pressure ratio.
In the ideal case the value of y for air is constant and equal to 1.4. In practice, due to the
eddying of the air as it flows through the compressor and turbine which are both rotary
machines, the actual cycle efficiency is greatly reduced compared to that given by equation
1.6. The work ratio of the constant pressure cycle may be found as follows:

Net work output cp T3  T4   cp T2  T1 

Work ratio
Gross work output cp T3  T4 
T2
T1   1
(i)
T2  T1 T1
1 1
T3  T4 T3
T4   1

T4

Now, as previously,
T2 γ 1©γ T3
rp
T1 T4
therefore,
γ 1©γ T3
T2 T1 rp and T4 γ 1©γ
(ii)
rp

Hence substituting equation (ii) in equation (i)

γ 1©γ
T1 rp  1 T1 T1
Work ratio 1 γ 1©γ
1 1
T4 rp  1 T4 T3
γ 1©γ
rp

9
 T1 γ 1©γ
Thus, 1 r (1.7)
T3 p

It can be seen from equation 1.7 that the work ratio depends not only on the pressure
ratio but also on the ratio of the minimum and maximum temperatures. For a given
inlet temperature, T1 , the maximum temperature, T3 , must be made as high as possible
for a high work ratio. For an open-cycle gas turbine unit the actual cycle is not such a
good approximation to the ideal constant pressure cycle, since fuel is burned with the air,
and a fresh charge is continuously induced into the compressor. The ideal cycle provides
nevertheless a good basis for comparison, and in many calculations for an ideal open-cycle
gas turbine the effects of the mass of fuel and the charge in the working fluid are neglected.

Example 1.3
`
In a gas turbine unit air is drawn at 1.02 bar and 15 C, and is compressed to 6.12 bar.
Calculate the thermal efficiency and the work ratio of the ideal constant pressure cycle,
`
when the maximum cycle temperature is limited to 800 C.
Solution:

The ideal cycle is shown on a T-s diagram in Figures 1.8. From equation 1.6

1
Thermal efficiency,η 1 γ 1©γ
rp

 0.4
6.12  1.4 
i.e. η 1
1  0.599
1.02

Figure 1.8: T-s diagram for Ex-

ample 3.3

Thermal efficiency,η 0.401or40.1%

The net work output of the cycle is given by the work output of the turbine minus the
work input in the compressor,

i.e. Net work output cp T3  T4   cp T2  T1 

10
From equation,
T2 p2 γ 1©γ

T1 p1

T3 6.12 1.41©1.4

1.669
T4 1.02

therefore,
T2 1.669  T1 1.669  288 480.5 K

where,
T2 15  273 288 K

T3 1073
and, T4 642.9 K
1.669 1.669
also,
T3 800  273 1073 K
.

Net work output 1.005 1073  642.9  1.005 480.5  288 238.8 kJ/kg

Gross work output work output of the turbine cp T3  T4 

1.005 1073  642.9 432.3 kJ/kg

net work output 238.8

Then, Work ratio 0.553
gross work output 432.3

1.6 The air standard cycle

Cycles in which the fuel is burned directly in the working fluid are not heat engines in the
true meaning of the term since the system is not reduced to its initial state. The working
fluid undergoes a chemical change by combustion and the resulting products are exhausted
to the atmosphere. In practice such cycles are used frequently and are called internal-
combustion cycles. The fuel is burned directly in the working fluid which is normally
air. The main advantage of such power units is that high temperatures of the fluid can
be attained, since heat is not transferred through metal walls to the fluid. It is seen
from equation 1.2, η 1  T2 ©T1 , that for a given sink for the rejection of heat at T2 ,
the temperature of the source, T1 , must be as high as possible. This applies to all heat
engines. By supplying fuel inside the cylinder as in the internal-combustion engine, higher
temperatures for the working fluid can be attained. The maximum temperature of all

11
cycles is limited by the metallurgical limit of the materials used. The fluid in an internal-
combustion engine may reach a temperature as high as 3000 K. This is made possible by
externally cooling the cylinder by water or air cooling; also, due to the intermittent nature
of the cycle, the working fluid reaches its maximum temperature for only an instant during
each cycle.
Examples of internal-combustion cycles are the open cycle gas turbine unit, the petrol
engine, the diesel engine or oil engine, and the gas engine. The open cycle gas turbine
unit, although an internal combustion cycle, is nevertheless in a different category to the
other internal-combustion engines; the cycle is a steady-flow cycle in which the working
fluid flows from one component to another round the cycle. It will be assumed, therefore,
that the gas turbine unit, whether operating on the open or the closed cycle, can be
satisfactorily compared with the ideal constant pressure cycle, dealt with in section . Gas
turbine cycles are considered in more detail in later works.
In the petrol engine a mixture of air and petrol is drawn into the cylinder, compressed by
the piston, then ignited by an electric spark. The hot gases expand, pushing the piston
back, and are then swept out to exhaust, and the cycle recommences with the induction
of a fresh charge of petrol and air. In the diesel or oil engine the oil is sprayed under
pressure into the compressed air at the end of the compression stroke, and combustion is
spontaneous due to the high temperature of the air after compression. In a gas engine
a mixture of gas and air is induced into the cylinder, compressed, and then ignited as
in the petrol engine, by an electric spark. Reciprocating internal-combustion engines are
considered in more detail in later studies. To give a basis of comparison for the actual
internal-combustion engine the air standard cycle is defined. In an air standard cycle
the working substance is assumed to be air throughout, all processes are assumed to be
reversible, and the source of heat supply and the sink for heat rejection are assumed to
be external to the air. The cycle can be represented on any diagram of properties, and is
usually drawn on the p-v diagram, since this allows a more direct comparison to be made
with the actual engine machine cycle. It must be stressed that an air standard cycle on a
p-v diagram is a true thermodynamic cycle, whereas a record of pressure variations in an
engine cylinder against piston displacement is a machine cycle.

1.7 The Otto cycle

The Otto cycle is the ideal air standard cycle for the petrol engine, the gas engine, and
the high-speed oil engine. The cycle is shown on a p-v diagram in Figures 1.9.
Process 1 to 2 is isentropic compression,
Process 2 to 3 is reversible constant volume heating,
Process 3 to 4 is isentropic expansion,
Process 4 to 1 is reversible constant volume cooling.

To give a direct comparison with an actual engine the ratio of the specific volumes, v1 ©v2 ,
is taken to be the same as the compression ratio of the actual engine,

v1
i.e. Compression ratio, rv v2

swept volume + clearance volume

(1.8)
clearance volume
12
 Figure 1.9: Otto cycle on a p-v
diagram

The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle can be found using equation 1.1,

i.e. ηOtto
@Q
Q1

The heat supplied, Q1 , at constant volume between T2 and T3 is given by equation Q1

cv T3  T2  per unit mass of air.
Similarly the heat rejected per unit mass at constant volume between T4 and T1 is given
by equation , cv T4  T1 . The processes 1 to 2 and 3 to 4 are isentropic and therefore
there is no heat flow during these processes.

η
@Q cv T3  T2   cv T4  T1 
 1
cv T4  T1 

Q1 cv T3  T2  cv T3  T2 

Now since processes 1 to 2 and 3 to 4 are isentropic, then using equation,

T2 v1 γ 1 v4 γ 1 T3 γ 1

T1 v2 
v3 T4
rv

where rv is the compression ratio from equation 1.8.

γ 1 γ 1
Then T3 T4 rv and T2 T1 rv
Hence substituting;

T4  T1 1
η 1 γ 1
1 γ 1
(1.9)
T4  T1 rv rv

It can be seen from equation 1.9 that the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle depends only
on the compression ratio, rv .

Example 1.4

13
Calculate the ideal air standard cycle efficiency based on the Otto cycle for a petrol engine
3
with a cylinder bore of 50 mm, a stroke of 75 mm, and a clearance volume of 21.3 cm .
Solution:
π 2 3 3
Swept volume  50  75 147200 m 147.2 cm
4

Therefore,
3
Total cylinder volume 147.2  21.3 168.5 cm

168.5
i.e. Compression ratio, rv 7.914©1
21.3

Then using equation 1.9

1 1
η 1 γ 1
1 1  0.437 0.563 or 56.3%
rv 7.9140.4

1.8 The diesel cycle

The engines in use today which are called diesel engines are far removed from the original
engine invented by Diesel in 1892. Diesel worked on the idea of spontaneous ignition of
powdered coal, which was blasted into the cylinder by compressed air. Oil became the
accepted fuel used in compression-ignition engines, and the oil was originally blasted into
the cylinder in the same way that Diesel had intended to inject the powdered coal. This
gave a cycle of operation which has as its ideal counterpart the ideal air standard diesel
cycle shown in Figure 1.10.
As before the compression ratio, rv , is given by the ratio, v1 ©v2 .
Process 1 to 2 is isentropic compression.
Process 2 to 3 is reversible constant pressure heating.
Process 3 to 4 is isentropic expansion.
Process 4 to 1 is reversible constant volume cooling.

From equation 1.1,

i.e. ηDiesel
@Q
Q1

At constant pressure from equation Q1 cp T3  T2  per kg of air.

Also at constant volume the equation cv T4  T1 , gives the heat rejected per kilogram of
air.
There is no heat flow in processes 1 to 2 and 3 to 4 since these processes are isentropic.
Hence by substituting in the expression for thermal efficiency the following equation may
be derived:

14
 Figure 1.10: Diesel cycle on a p-v
diagram

γ
β  1
η 1 γ 1
(1.10)
β  1rv γ

where, β v3 ©v2 = cut-off ratio. Equation 1.10 shows that the thermal efficiency depends
not only on the compression ratio but also on the heat supplied between 2 and 3, which
fixes the ratio, v3 ©v2 .
Equation 1.10 is derived by expressing each temperature in terms of T1 and rv or β. The
derivation is not given here because it is believed that the best method of working out the
thermal efficiency is to calculate each temperature individually round the cycle, and then
apply equation 1.1, η @ Q©Q1 . This is illustrated in Example 1.5.

Example 1.5
`
A diesel engine has an inlet temperature and pressure of 15 C and 1 bar respectively. The
`
compression ratio is 12/1 and the maximum cycle temperature is 1100 C. Calculate the
air standard thermal efficiency based on the diesel cycle.
Solution:
Referring to Figure 1.11, T1 = 15 + 273 = 288 K and T3 = 1100 + 273 = 1373 K. From
equation,
T2 v1 γ 1 γ 1 0.4
 rv 12 2.7
T1 v 2

i.e. T2 2.7  288 778 K

At constant pressure from 2 to 3, since pv = RT for a perfect gas, then,

T3 v3
T2 v2

v3 1373
i.e. v2 1.765
778
Therefore,
v4 v4 v2 v1 v2 1
v3 v2 v3 v2 v3 12  6.8
1.765

15
 Figure 1.11: Diesel cycle on a p-v
diagram for Example 3.5

T3 v4 γ 1

Then using equation,
T4 v3

T3 0.4
Thus, 6.8 2.153
T4

1373
i.e. T4 638 K
2.153
Then from equation Q1 cp T3  T2 , per kilogram of air,

Q1 1.005 1373  778 598 kJ/kg

Also, from equation cv T4  T1 , per kilogram of air, the heat rejected

0.718 638  288 251 kJ/kg

Therefore substituting in equation 1.1

η A Q©Q 1
598  251
598
0.58 or 58%

1.9 The dual-combustion cycle

Modern oil engines, although still called diesel engines, are more closely derived from an
engine invented by Ackroyd-Stuart in 1888. All oil engines today use solid injection of the
fuel; the fuel is injected by a spring-loaded injector, the fuel pump being operated by a
cam driven from the engine crankshaft (details are provided in later studies. The ideal
cycle used as a basis for comparison is called the dual-combustion cycle or the mixed cycle,
and is shown on. a p-v diagram in Figure 1.11.
Process 1 to 2 is isentropic compression,
Process 2 to 3 is reversible constant volume heating,
Process 3 to 4 is reversible constant pressure heating,
Process 4 to 5 is isentropic expansion and

16
 Figure 1.12: Dual combustion cy-
cle on a p-v diagram

Process 5 to 1 is reversible constant volume cooling.

The heat is supplied in two parts, the first part at constant volume and the remainder at
constant pressure, hence the name ‘dual-combustion’. In order to fix the thermal efficiency
completely, three factors are necessary: these are the compression ratio, rv v1 ©v2 , the
ratio of pressures, k p3 ©p2 , and the ratio of volumes, β v4 ©v3 . Then it can be shown
that
γ
kβ  1
η 1 γ 1
(1.11)
 k  1  γk β  1rv

Note that when k = 1 (i.e. p3 p2 ), then the equation 1.12 reduces to the thermal
efficiency of the diesel cycle given by equation 1.10. The efficiency of the dual-combustion
cycle depends not only on the compression ratio but also on the relative amounts of heat
supplied at constant volume and at constant pressure. Equation 1.12 is much too cum-
bersome to use, and the best method of calculating thermal efficiency is to evaluate each
temperature round the cycle and then use equation 1.1, η @ Q©Q1 . The heat supplied,
Q1 , is found by using equations cv T4  T3  and cp T3  T2 for the heat added at constant
volume and at constant pressure respectively,

i.e. Q1 cv T4  T3   cp T3  T2 

The heat rejected is given by cv T3  T1 

.

Example 1.6
`
An oil engine takes in air at 1.01 bar, 20 C and the maximum cycle pressure is 69 bar.
The compressor ratio is 18/1. Calculate the air standard thermal efficiency based on the
dual-combustion cycle. Assume that the heat added at constant volume is equal to the
heat added at constant pressure.
Solution:

The cycle is shown on a p-v diagram in Figure 1.13.

17
 Figure 1.13: Dual combustion cy-
cle for Example 3.6

Using equation
T2 v1 γ 1

T1 v2
,
T2 0.4
Thus, 18 3.18
T1

i.e. T2 3.18  T1 3.18x293 931 K

where, T1 20  273 293 K.
From 2 to 3 the process is at constant volume, hence

p3 T3 p3 v3 p2 v2
p2 since and v3 v2
T2 T3 T2

p3 69  931
i.e. T3 p2  T2 p2

p v1 γ 1.4
To find p2 , equation p2 
v2 18 57.2
1
,

i.e. p2 57.2  1.01 57.8 bar

Then substituting,

69  931
T3 1112 K
57.8

Now the heat added at constant volume is equal to the heat added at constant pressure in
this example, therefore
cv T3  T2  cp T4  T3 

i.e. 0.718 1112  931 1.005 T4  1112

18
therefore,
0.718  181
T4  1112
1.005

1241.4 K

To find T5 it is necessary to know the value of the volume ratio, v5 ©v4 . At constant
pressure from 3 to 4

v4 T4 1241.4
v3 1.116
T3 1112

As seen in Figure 1.13,v5 v1 and v2 v3

v5 v1 v1 v3
Thus, v4 v4 v4 v2

v5 v1 v3 1
Rearranging, v4 v2 v4 18  16.14
1.116
Then using equation
T4 v5 γ 1

T5 v4
,

T4 0.4
and, 16.14 3.04
T5

T4 1241.4
i.e. T5 408 K
3.04 3.04
Now the heat supplied, Q1 is given by

i.e. Q1 cv T3  T2   cp T4  T3  or Q1 2cv T3  T2 

since in this example the heat added at constant volume is equal to the heat added at
constant pressure.
Therefore,

Q1 2  0.718  1112  931 260 kJ/kg

The heat rejected is given by

cv T5  T1  0.718 408  293 82.6 kJ/kg

Then from equation η @ Q©Q 1

260  826
i.e. η 1  0.318 0.682 or 68.2%
260

19
It should be mentioned here that the modern high-speed oil engine operates on a cycle for
which the Otto cycle is a better basis of comparison. Also, since the Otto cycle calculation
for thermal efficiency is much simpler than that of the dual-combustion cycle, then this is
another reason for using the Otto cycle as a standard of comparison.

1.10 Mean effective pressure

The term work ratio is defined in section , and is shown to be a useful criterion for practical
power plants. For internal-combustion engines work ratio is not such a useful concept, since
the work done on and by the working fluid takes place inside one cylinder. In order to
compare reciprocating engines another term is defined called the mean effective pressure.
The mean effective pressure is defined as the height of a rectangle having the same length
and area as the cycle plotted on a p-v diagram. This is illustrated for an Otto cycle
in Figure 1.14. The rectangle ABCDA is the same length as the cycle 12341, and area
ABCDA is equal to area 12341. Then the mean effective pressure, Pm , is the height AB
of the rectangle. The work output per kilogram of air can therefore be written as,

W = area ABCDA = Pm v1  v2  (1.12)

Figure 1.14: Mean effective pres-

sure on a p-v diagram

The term v1  v2  is proportional to the swept volume of the cylinder, hence it can be seen
from equation 1.12 that the mean effective pressure gives a measure of the work output
per swept volume. It can therefore be used to compare similar engines of different size.
The mean effective pressure discussed in this section is for the air standard cycle. It will
be shown in later studies that the indicated mean effective pressure of an actual engine
can be measured from an indicator diagram and used to evaluate the indicated work done
by the engine.

Example 1.7
Calculate the mean effective pressure for the cycle of Example 3.6.

20
Solution:

In Example 3.6 the heat supplied, Q1 , and the cycle efficiency were found to be 260 kJ/kg
and 68.2 % respectively. From equation (4.2)

η -W©Q1

 W ηQ1 0.682  260 177 kJ/kg

Now from the definition of mean effective pressure, and equation ??,

W pm v1  v2 

Using equation, pv = RT and equation , rv v1 ©v2 18,

v1 17 17 RT1 17  287  293

then v1  v2 v1  v
18 18 1 18 p1 18  1.01  105

3
i.e., v1  v2 0.786 m ©kg

Then substituting,
3
W pm  0.786 or pm W©0.786 kJ©m

3
177  10
i.e., Mean effective pressure 2.25 bar
105  0.786

1.11 The Stirling and Ericsson cycles

It has been shown that no cycle can have an efficiency greater than that of the Carnot
cycle working between given temperature limits T1 and T2 . Cycles which have an efficiency
equal to that of the Carnot cycle have been defined and are known as the Stirling and
Ericsson cycles and they are superior to the Carnot cycle in that they have higher work
ratios. The Stirling cycle is shown in the p-v diagram in Figure 1.15(a) and is represented
diagrammatically in Figure 1.15(b): it must be emphasized that this is not a physical
description of a Stirling engine but one which may help to give an understanding of the
way the processes which make up the cycle are related.
Heat is supplied to the working fluid from an external source, process 2-3, as the gas
expands isothermally ( T2 = T3 ), and heat is rejected to an external sink, process 4-1,
as the gas is compressed isothermally ( T1 = T4 ). The two isothermals are connected
by the reversible constant volume processes 1-2 and 3-4 during which the temperature
v
changes are equal to ( T2 = T1 ). The heat rejected during process 3-4, c T2  T1 , is
v v
used to heat the gas during process 1-2, c T2  T1  c T2  T1  and this is assumed
to take place ideally and reversibly in a regenerator. The regenerator requires a matrix

21
 Figure 1.15: Stir-
ling engine and the
Stirling cycle

of material which separates the heating and cooling gases, but allows the temperatures
to change progressively by infinitesimal and corresponding amounts during the processes.
This regenerative process takes place at constant volume and is internal to the cycle. The
efficiency of the Stirling cycle is obtained by considering the heat transfers between the
system and the bodies external to it, i.e. a high-temperature heat supply and a low-
temperature sink to which heat is rejected. Heat supplied from the hot source, using
p
equations W = mRT ln  p2 and Q + W = 0,for an isothermal process
1

p
Q23 W23 RT2 ln  p2 per unit mass of gas
3

Similarly,

p
Heat rejected to the coldsink = W41 RT1 ln  p1
4

AQ p p
RT2 ln  p2  RT1 ln  p1
3 4

and as the cycle efficiency,η

@Q
Q23
,

p
RT1 ln  p1
4
Then, η 1 p
RT2 ln  p2
3

For the constant volume process 1-2,

p2 T2 p T3 T2
p1 and for process 3-4, p1
T1 3 T4 T1

p2 p2 p2 p1

p1 p1 and p3 p4

thus,

T1
η 1 the Carnot efficiency
T3

22
This result can be deduced without formal proof as the heat supply and rejection processes
take place at constant temperatures.

net work output W23  W41

Work ratio
gross work output W23

@ Q
cycle efficiency,η since  W23 Q23 
Q23
The practical interpretation of the ideal cycle will not be described in detail here and
the reader is advised to consult the specialist literature for the mechanical arrangements
employed and the performance assessments (see sections and ). Figure 1.15(b) gives a
simplified representation of the engine and shows the necessity for two pistons, a working
piston and a displacing piston, which in fact work in different parts of the same cylinder and
not as represented. It is necessary to the ideal cycle for the pistons to move discontinuously
and this is only approximated to by the mechanisms employed. The result is that the
processes of the ideal cycle are not achieved and there is a considerable ‘rounding off’ of
the ideal p-v diagram as the heating and cooling processes merge to depart considerably
from the constant volume heating concept.
The attractions of the Stirling engine are that it can utilize any form of heat from conven-
tional or indigenous fuel, solar or nuclear sources, provided the temperature created is high
enough. The engines are quiet, with an efficiency equal to or better than the best internal
combustion engines and with little vibration due to the nature of the drive needed to give
the differential movements between the working and displacing pistons. The possible range
of application of the Stirling engine is wide and includes marine use, electricity generation
for peak loads and as a stand-by unit, automotive purposes, particularly in comparison
with the diesel engine, and for situations when unconventional fuels or heat sources can,
or must, be used. The most important applications up to now have been as an air engine
and as a refrigerator; with the Stirling cycle reversed, it is capable of reaching the low
temperatures of the cryogenic regions. The Ericsson cycle is similar to the Stirling cycle
except that the two isothermals are connected by constant pressure processes, as shown in
Fig. 5.16.

Figure 1.16: Ericsson cycle on a p-v dia-

gram

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
Question One
23
 3
A four-cylinder petrol engine has a swept volume of 2000 cm and the clearance volume
3
in each cylinder is 60 cm . Calculate the air standard cycle efficiency. If the introduction
` `
conditions are 1 bar and 24 C, and the maximum cycle temperature is 1400 C, calculate
the mean effective pressure based on the air standard cycle. (59.1%; 5.28 bar)
Question Two
An air standard dual-combustion cycle has a mean effective pressure of 10 bar. The
`
minimum pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 17 C respectively, and the compression
ratio is 16/1. Calculate the maximum cycle temperature when the cycle efficiency is 60%.
The maximum cycle pressure is 60 bar.
`
(1959 C)
Tutorial
`
1. Two reversible heat engines operate in series between a source at 527 C and a sink at
`
17 C If the engines have equal efficiencies and the first rejects 400 kJ to the second,
calculate:
(i) the temperature at which heat is supplied to the second engine;
(ii) the heat taken from the source;
(iii) the work done by each engine.
Assume that each engine operates on the Carnot cycle.
`
(Answers: 208.7 C; 664.4 kJ; 264.4 kJ; 159.2 kJ)
`
2. In a Carnot cycle operating between 307 and 17 C the maximum and minimum
pressures are 62.4 bar and 1.04 bar. Calculate the cycle efficiency and the work
ratio. Assume air to be the working fluid.
(Answers:50%; 0.286)
3. A closed-cycle gas turbine unit operating with maximum and minimum temperatures
`
of 760 and 20 C has a pressure ratio of 7/1. Calculate the ideal cycle efficiency and
the work ratio.
(Answers:42.7%; 0.505)
4. In an air standard Otto cycle the maximum and minimum temperatures are 1400
`
and 15 C. The heat supplied per kilogram of air is 800 kJ. Calculate the compression
ratio and the cycle efficiency. Calculate also the ratio of maximum to minimum
pressures in the cycle.
(Answers:5.27/1; 48.5%; 30.65/1)
3
5. A four-cylinder petrol engine has a swept volume of 2000 cm and the clearance
3
volume in each cylinder is 60 cm . Calculate the air standard cycle efficiency. If the
`
introduction conditions are 1 bar and 24 C, and the maximum cycle temperature is
`
1400 C, calculate the mean effective pressure based on the air standard cycle.
(Answers:59.1%; 5.28 bar)
6. Calculate the cycle efficiency and mean effective pressure of an air standard diesel
cycle with a compression ratio of 15/1, and maximum and minimum cycle tempera-
` `
tures of 1650 C and 15 C respectively. The maximum cycle pressure is 45 bar.
(Answers:59.1%; 8.38 bar)
`
7. In a dual-combustion cycle the maximum temperature is 2000 C and the maximum
pressure is 70 bar. Calculate the cycle efficiency and the mean effective pressure

24
 `
when the pressure and temperature at the start of compression are 1 bar and 17 C
respectively. The compression ratio is 18/1.
(Answers:63.6% ; 10.46 bar)
8. An air standard dual-combustion cycle has a mean effective pressure of 10 bar. The
`
minimum pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 17 C respectively, and the com-
pression ratio is 16/1. Calculate the maximum cycle temperature when the cycle
efficiency is 60%. The maximum cycle pressure is 60 bar.
`
(Answer: 1959 C)

References
1.1: EASTOP T. D. and McCONKEY A. 1993 Applied Thermodynamics For Engineering
th
Technologists, 5 edn. Pearson.
1.2: WINTERBONE D. E. and Turan A.2015 Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers,
nd
2 edn. Elsevier.
rd
1.3: RAJPUT R.K. 2007 Engineering Thermodynamics,3 edn. Laxmi.
1.4: ROGERS G F C and MAYHEW Y R 1987 Thermodynamic and Transport Properties
th
of Fluids 4 edn. Basil Blackwell.

Laboratory Work
Obtain actual petrol and diesel indicator diagrams for purpose of comparing the cycle
efficiencies with those for Otto and Diesel air standard cycles.

25
Chapter 2
Reciprocating Internal - combustion
Engines
Learning outcomes:
After completing reading explanations and examples and solving of problems, in this chap-
ter, the student should be able to:
1. Explain the terminologies used in internal combustion engines (ICE),
2. Describe construction and operation of of the TWO types of reciprocating ICEs by
applying the timing and p-v diagrams,
3. Derive the expressions governing performance,heat balance and efficiencies of ICEs,
4. Apply derived equations and performance diagram to solve ICEs problems,
5. Relate ICEs working processes to their practical applications in thermodynamics
systems.

2.1 Introduction
Theoretical power cycles are considered in Chapter , and the p-v diagrams analysed are
similar to those obtained from actual reciprocating engines. There are, however, fundamen-
tal mechanical and thermodynamic differences between the cycles, which make comparison
less valuable than might be expected. In the theoretical cycles there is no chemical change
in the working fluid, which is assumed to be air, and the heat exchanges in the cycle are
made externally to the working fluid. In the practical cycle the heat supply is obtained
from the combustion of a fuel in air and thus the air charge is consumed during combustion
and the combustion products must be exhausted from the cylinder before a fresh charge
of air can be induced for the next cycle. The practical cycle consists of the exhaust and
induction processes together with the compression and expansion processes as in the the-
oretical cycle. Further differences between the ideal and the actual cycles are discussed in
other works not covered by the present study.

2.2 ICE Construction and Types

The reciprocating engine mechanism consists of a piston which moves in a cylinder and
forms a movable gas-tight plug, a connecting-rod and a crankshaft (Figure 2.1). If the
engine has more than one cylinder then the cylinders, pistons, etc. are identical, and all

26
the connecting-rods are fastened to a common crankshaft. The angular positions of the
crank-pins are such that the cylinders contribute their power strokes in a selected and
regular sequence. By means of this arrangement the reciprocating motion of the piston is
converted to rotary motion at the crankshaft.
Figure 2.1: Recip-
rocating IC engine

There are many types and arrangements of engines, and some classification is necessary to
describe a particular engine adequately. The methods of classification are as follows:
(i) By the fuel used and the way in which the combustion is initiated. Petrol engines and
gas engines have spark ignition (SI). Diesel engines or oil engines have compression
ignition (CI). In the SI engine the air and the fuel are mixed before compression. In
the CI engine the air only is compressed, and the fuel is injected into the air which
is then at a sufficiently high temperature to initiate combustion.
(ii) By the way in which the cycle of processes is arranged. This is defined by the number
of complete strokes of the piston required for one complete cycle. The stroke of the
piston is the distance it moves from the position most extreme from the crankshaft
to that nearest it. This takes place over half a revolution of the crankshaft. In petrol
engine practice the extreme positions of the piston are referred to as top dead centre
(TDC), and bottom dead centre (BDC) (Figure 2.1). In oil-engine practice they

27
 are referred to as outer dead centre and inner dead centre respectively. An engine
which requires four strokes of the piston (i.e. two revolutions of the crankshaft) to
complete its cycle is called a four-stroke cycle engine. An engine which requires only
two strokes of the piston (i.e. one crankshaft revolution) is called a two-stroke cycle
engine.
In all reciprocating internal-combustion (IC) engines the gases are induced into and
exhausted from the cylinder through ports, the opening and closing of which are
related to the piston position. In a two-stroke engine the ports can be opened or
closed by the piston itself, but in the four-stroke engine a separate shaft, called
the camshaft, is required; this is driven from the crankshaft through a 2 to 1 speed
reduction. The cams on this shaft operate valves, called poppet valves, either directly
or by means of push rods. Modern high-speed petrol engines have two camshafts, one
operating the exhaust valves, and the other operating the inlet valves. The timing
of the valves and the point of ignition are fundamental to the engine performance,
and the specified timing is a result of compromise between the many factors involved
and is determined empirically. The beginning and end of each process does not
coincide with the TDC and BDC positions, although nominally each process may
be associated with a piston stroke. The timing of the valves can be indicated on a
p-V diagram (Figure 2.2), but is more conveniently represented by means of a timing
diagram (Figure 2.3) in terms of crankshaft angle.

2.3 Operation of ICEs

As noted one way classifying ICEs by their cycle. Modern ICE operate by either four-stroke
cycle or two-stroke cycle.
(a) Four-Stroke Cycle. A four-stroke cycle experiences four piston movements over two
engine revolutions for each cycle.
(b) Two-Stroke Cycle. A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one revolution
for each cycle.

2.3.1 Four-stroke cycle

Figure 2.2 shows a typical p-V diagram for a SI petrol engine. The individual strokes are
given under the headings below.
Induction stroke, 1-2

The air-plus-fuel charge is induced into the cylinder as the piston moves from TDC to
BDC. Due to the movement of the piston the pressure in the cylinder is reduced to a value
below the atmospheric pressure, and air flows through the induction system because of
this pressure difference. On its way to the cylinder the air passes through the carburettor
in which the metered amount of petrol is added to the air. Nominally the inlet valve closes
at point 2, but in fact this does not occur until the piston has moved part of the way along
the return stroke.

28
 Figure 2.2:
Pressure-volume
diagram for a SI
engine.

Compression stroke, 2-3

With both valves closed the charge is compressed by the piston. At the TDC position the
charge occupies the volume above the piston, which is called the clearance volume, and
consists mainly of the volume of the combustion chamber. The spark is timed to occur at
a point such as S, which is before TDC. There is a time delay between S and the actual
commencement of combustion. The combustion process occurs mainly at almost constant
volume, and there is a large increase in pressure and temperature of the charge during this
process.

Working stroke, 3-4

The hot high-pressure gas expands, pushing the piston down the cylinder. It would appear
that this expansion should proceed to completion at 4, but in order to assist in exhausting
the gaseous products the exhaust valve opens at some point E which is before BDC. At
this point the pressure is about 3.5 bar or higher and about 60% of the gas is exhausted
between E and 4 as the pressure in the cylinder falls to nearly atmospheric pressure.

Exhaust stroke, 4-1

The returning piston clears the swept volume of exhaust gas, and the pressure during this
stroke is slightly higher than atmospheric pressure. In a normally aspirated engine as
described, the clearance volume cannot be exhausted, and at the commencement of the
next cycle this volume is full of exhaust gas at about atmospheric pressure. The mixture
which is compressed thus consists of the fresh air plus fuel mixture, diluted by a quantity of
exhaust gas from the previous cycle. It should be remembered that the maximum volume
of fresh charge which can be induced is equal to the swept volume, V., but the actual mass
induced in practice is less than the maximum possible, for reasons which will be considered
later.

Timing diagrams
A typical timing diagram for a four-stroke petrol engine is shown in Figure 2.2, and the

29
angular positions in terms of crank angle position are quoted in relation to the TDC and
BDC positions of the piston. The points on the diagram are as follows:
` `
IO Inlet valve opens - The actual position is between 10 before TDC and 15 after TDC,

Figure 2.3: Timing diagram

for a four-stroke SI engine.

`
IC Inlet valve closes - This occurs 20-40 after BDC to take advantage of the momentum
of the rapidly moving gas.

`
S Spark occurs - This is 20-40 before TDC when the ignition is fully advanced, and is
at TDC when the ignition is fully retarded.
`
EO Exhaust valve opens - The average value of this position is about 50 before BDC,
but it is greater than this in racing-car engines.
` `
EC Exhaust valve closes - This occurs 0 to 10 after TDC.
There may be an overlap between IO and EC such that both valves are open at the same
instant.
It should be appreciated that the values of angular position quoted are average ones, and
considerable differences occur between different engines. The points shown are the normal
opening and closing positions for each valve. The time required to open and close the
valves means that each valve will be fully open for a crank angle movement much less
than that indicated by the timing diagram. Another point to be borne in mind is that
at the dead centre positions a considerable amount of crank movement produces a small
corresponding movement of the piston; this is shown by a consideration of crank-connecting
rod geometry. Crank angle displacements can be translated into time values if the engine
rotational speed is known and can be assumed to be constant. The p-V diagram for a CI
engine with mechanical or solid injection of the fuel is shown in Figure 2.4. The ideal cycle
for the engine is the dual combustion cycle (section ) in which the heat input is partly

30
at approximately constant volume, and partly at approximately constant pressure. With
modern high-speed engines the fuel injection is well advanced and the greater proportion
of fuel is burnt at approximately constant volume. A diagram from the same engine with
a later point of injection would be flatter at the top, as indicated by the dotted line in
Figure 2.4. The shape of the diagram is also influenced by the design of the combustion
chamber.
Figure 2.4: Pressure-volume dia-
gram for a CI engine.

With engines having the fuel injected by means of an air blast, the p-V diagram is similar
to that shown in Figure 2.5. In this cycle the air which enters the cylinder with the fuel
on injection helps to maintain a constant pressure over the early part of the return stroke,
and this increases the area of the diagram.
Figure 2.5: Pressure-volume
diagram for a blast-injection
CI engine.

This method of injection is now practically obsolete due to the difficulties and cost of
supplying the high-pressure air required. Figure 2.6 shows a typical timing diagram for a
four-stroke oil engine which has average values for the valve positions as follows:

31
 `
IO Up to 30 before TDC,
`
IC Up to 50 after BDC,
`
EO About 45 before BDC,
`
EC About 30 after TDC,
`
Injection About 15 before TDC.

Figure 2.6: Timing diagram

for a four-stroke CI engine.

2.3.2 Two-stroke cycle

Figure 2.7 represents the cylinder of a two-stroke petrol engine with crankcase compres-
sion. As the piston ascends on the compression stroke the next charge is drawn into the
crankcase, C, through the spring-loaded automatic valve, S. Ignition occurs before TDC,
and at TDC the working stroke begins. As the piston descends through about 80% of the
working stroke, the exhaust port,E, is uncovered by the piston and exhaust begins.
The transfer port, T, is uncovered later in the stroke due to the shape of the piston or the
position of the port in relation to the port E, and the charge in the crankcase, C, which has
been compressed by the descending piston, enters the cylinder through the port T. The
piston can be shaped to deflect the fresh gas across the cylinder to assist the scavenging of
the cylinder; this is called cross-flow scavenge. As the piston rises, the transfer port, T, is
closed slightly before the exhaust port E, and after E is closed compression of the charge
in the cylinder begins. The p-V diagram and the timing diagram for a two-stroke petrol
engine are shown in Figure 2.8(a) and (b).
Instead of the spring-loaded valve, S, a design with a third port may be used. This is an
induction port controlled by the piston, and through which the mixture is drawn into the
crankcase.

32
 Figure 2.7: Two-stroke SI
engine with crankcase com-
pression.

Figure 2.8:
Pressure-
volume
(a) and
timing (b)
diagrams
for a two-
stroke SI
engine.(I)
inlet angle
`
(80 ap-
prox.); (E)
exhaust
angle (
`
120 ap-
prox.);
(T) trans-
fer angle
`
( 100
approx.).

The above description of the two-stroke cycle applies also to CI engines with the exception
that air only is compressed, and the sparking plug is replaced by a fuel injector.

33
Crankcase compression has been described but the scavenging and charging of the cylinder
may be achieved by other means. A separately phased pump cylinder with its piston driven
from the crankshaft may be used. A positive displacement compressor or blower driven
from the engine is a third way of charging the cylinder.
The deflector piston, which is unbalanced and can cause ’rattle’, may be dispensed with
and a flat piston used. The scavenging is then obtained by using two transfer ports which
divert the incoming air up the cylinder. This is called ’reverse flow’, or ’inverted flow’, and
the system is called loop scavenge.There are mainly three types of scavenging method on
the base of the flow of air
(i) Cross flow scavenging
(ii) Reverse or Loop scavenging
(iii) Uniflow scavenging
ˆ Cross flow scavenging Cross flow and Revere loop scavenging take place with the
help of piston movement. Cross flow scavenging, transfer port (inlet) and exhaust
port are situated on the opposite side of the cylinder. The exhaust gas is pushed out
by cross flow. The piston head is designed to have a hump shape called deflector.
The fresh air enters in the engine cylinder is deflected to the upward by a deflector
and pushing exhaust gas down the other side.
ˆ loop scavenging Before loop scavenging invented, almost all two-stroke engines use
this method.Similar to the cross flow scavenging, but the inlet ad exhaust port are
placed the same side of the engine cylinder. The gases are encouraged to move loops.
This type of scavenging used carefully designed transfer port (inlet) to loop fresh air
rise towards the cylinder head on one side and pushes the burnt gas down to the
exhaust port installed just above the inlet. It has a flat or slightly domed piston
crown. This is the most used type of scavenging system.

In engines which have simple inlet ports and poppet or sleeve valve controlled exhaust
ports, the inlet and exhaust ports are placed at opposite ends of the cylinder and the fresh
charge sweeps along the cylinder towards the exhaust port. This is called uni-flow scavenge
and is applied with great mechanical simplicity in opposed piston engines.
For several reasons the two-stroke cycle has more application in the CI field than in the
SI field, especially for stationary constant-speed engines. In such engines a number of
ingenious arrangements have been patented in an attempt to dispense with the scavenge
blower. Some designs have used the Kadenacy effect, which employs the high vacuum
created by suddenly releasing the exhaust gas through large-area, sharp-edged ports. With
constant-speed engines it is possible to ‘tune’ the exhaust system such that the HP exhaust
gas leaving one cylinder can be used to ‘pack’ another cylinder which is on the early part
of its induction stroke.

2.3.3 Other types of engine

In the early days of development of the four-stroke engine one of the difficulties was the
noisy poppet valve mechanism. As an alternative the sleeve valve became popular. A
sliding sleeve is fitted in between the piston and the cylinder, the movement of the sleeve
being controlled by an overhung crank-pin driven from a shaft at half crankshaft speed.
The movement of this valve controls the inlet and exhaust ports in the cylinder.

34
Engines have been developed which are called multijuel engines; such engines will run
on any petroleum fuel from diesel fuel to premium petrol. The main application of such
engines is for military purposes and it is unlikely that they will have extensive commercial
application.
The dual-juel engine is of considerable industrial interest. Some diesel engines, naturally
aspirated or turbocharged (section ) can be used as dual-fuel engines. They are started on
diesel oil and then run on an available gaseous fuel such as methane, natural gas, sewage
gas, coal gas, etc. The combustion process requires a pilot injection of oil which amounts
to 7-10% of the full power supply when running as a diesel engine. The changeover from
diesel fuel to gas can be done automatically or manually. To supply the pilot injection of
oil a second set of pumps is required which delivers fuel to the standard injectors. A con-
siderable amount of effort has been put into the development of the free piston engine. In
this type of engine the crankshaft and connecting-rod are dispensed with, and two opposed
but connected pistons operating in the same cylinder are used. The free piston engine is
described more fully in other works which are not subject for this study. One of the main
applications of the engine is that instead of having a separate air compressor driven by
an IC engine the compressor and the engine can be combined with the result that the
intermediate rotating shafts are eliminated and a more compact unit is obtained. This is
especially important for portable air compressors which are used extensively. Another use
for the free piston engine is as a ‘gasifier’ from which the gaseous products of combustion
are exhausted at a suitable pressure and allowed to expand through a gas turbine. No
power output is taken from the free piston engine, the power output of the unit being that
obtained from the turbine. The potential field for the smaller size free piston engine is re-
garded as being with road, rail, and tracked vehicles, earth-moving equipment, high-speed
marine craft, cargo ships, and in generating stations.
Some classification of IC engines has been given, but this is not exhaustive. The appli-
cations for such engines are wide, both in the type of duty to be performed and in the
power required. Modern developments promise the application of IC engines not only as
individual units but as part of a complete plant to suit some specialized purpose.

2.4 Criteria of performance

An engine is selected to suit a particular application, the main consideration being its
power/speed characteristics. Important additional factors are initial capital cost and run-
ning cost. In order that different types of engines or different engines of the same type
may be compared, certain performance criteria must be defined. These are obtained by
measurement of the quantities concerned during bench tests, and calculation is by standard
procedures. The results are plotted graphically in the form of performance curves.

2.4.1 Indicated power (IP)

This is defined as the rate of work done by the gas on the piston as evaluated from an
indicator diagram obtained from the engine. An indicator diagram has the form shown in
Figure 2.9 and shows both the power and the pumping loops.
The mean effective pressure has been defined in section and may be applied here.
Net work done per cycle š (area of powerloop - area of pumping loop)

35
 Figure 2.9: Pressure-volume
diagram for a reciprocating
engine

Therefore indicated mean effective pressure, p1 ; is given by,

net area of diagram

i.e., P1  constant (2.1)
length of diagram

(the constant depends on the scales of the recorder).

Considering one engine cylinder

Work done per cycle = P1  A  L

where A is the area of piston and L the length of stroke.

Power output/ unit time work done per cycle  cycles per minute

or, ip = P1 AL  cycles/ unit time

The number of cycles per unit time depends on the type of engine; for four-stroke engines
the number of cycles per unit time is N/2, and for two strokes the number of cycles per unit
time is N, where N is the engine speed. The formula for IP then becomes for four-stroke
engines

P1 ALN n
IP (2.2)
2

for two-stroke engines

IP P1 ALN n (2.3)

36
where n is the number of cylinders.
The main recorder in use is the pressure sensors, transducers engine control unit (CPU)
and PC to display the pressure trace obtained (Figure 2.10).
Modern methods of instrumentation, data acquisi-
tion, and analysis, based on recent advances in elec-
tronics, digital methods, and the application of mi-
croprocessors, have become applicable to engine test-
ing, development, and control. Engine test and con-
trol systems have become increasingly ’computer-
ized’ and it is regretted that space requirements do
not allow a comprehensive treatment of this very im-
portant aspect of engineering. Learners are encour-
aged to obtain copies of the excellent publications
by engine and equipment supplies which will give a
state-of-the-art description of the latest equipment
and techniques. Figure 2.10: Pressure against crank
angle for a typical reciprocating IC
engine.
2.4.2 Brake power (BP)
This is the measured output of the engine. The engine is connected to a brake or dy-
namometer which can be loaded in such a way that the torque exerted by the engine can
be measured. The dynamometer may be of the absorption or the transmission type. Ab-
sorption dynamometers are the more usual and can be classified as: (i) friction type, used
for the smaller powered, lower-speed engines; (ii) hydraulic; (iii) electrical; (iv) air-fan type
. With types (i), (ii), and (iii), the torque is obtained by reading off a net load, W, at a
known radius, R, from the axis of rotation, and hence the torque, T, is given by,

T = WR (2.4)

The brake power is then given by,

BP 2πNT (2.5)

In the transmission type of dynamometer the torque, T, transmitted by the driving shaft
is measured directly, and the BP is obtained by substitution in equation 2.4. With air fans
the torque is obtained from a calibration curve for the fan.

2.4.3 Friction power (FP) and mechanical efficiency, ηM

The difference between the IP and the BP is the friction power (FP), and is that power
required to overcome the frictional resistance of the engine parts,

i.e., FP IP  BP (2.6)

The mechanical efficiency (ηM ) of the engine is defined as,

37
 BP
ηM (2.7)
IP

Figure 2.11: Variation of mechanical

efficiency with brake power.

where ηM usually lies between 80 and 90%. The FP is very nearly constant at a given
engine speed; if the load is decreased giving lower values of BP, then the variation in ηM
with BP is as shown in Figure 2.11. At zero BP at the same speed the engine is developing
just sufficient power to overcome the frictional resistance.
Mechanical efficiency depends on the IP and BP, and is therefore found by evaluating
these experimentally. A considerable amount of literature has been published dealing with
mechanical efficiency and the analysis of engine power losses. Useful report on this subject
are available, and the conclusion is that no single method is satisfactory in every respect
for the evaluation of mechanical efficiency.
The four main methods are as follows:
(i) Measurement of the IP and the BP by the means already described in the preceding
subheadings.
(ii) Measurement of the BP at a given speed followed by ‘motoring’ of the engine with
the fuel supply cut off. This method can only be used on engines with an electrical
dynamometer, the dynamometer being used as a motor instead of as a generator in
order to motor the engine at the firing speed. The torque can be measured under
firing and under motoring conditions and the mechanical efficiency evaluated. The
fact that an electrical dynamometer can be used to find the mechanical efficiency in
this way is one of the main advantages of this type of dynamometer.
(iii) The Morse test: this is only applicable to multi-cylinder engines. The engine is
run at the required speed and the torque is measured. One cylinder is cut out, by
shorting the plug if an SI engine is under test, or by disconnecting an injector if a CI
engine is under test. The speed falls because of the loss of power with one cylinder
cut out, but is restored by reducing the load. The torque is measured again when the
speed has reached its original value. If the values of IP of the cylinders are denoted
by I1 , I2 , I3 , and I4 (considering a four-cylinder engine), and the power losses in

38
 each cylinder are denoted by L1 , L2 , L3 , and L4 , then the value of BP, B, at the
test speed with all cylinders firing is given by,

B I1  L1   I2  L2   I3  L3   I4  L4 

If number 1 cylinder is cut out, then the contribution I1 is lost; and if the losses due
to that cylinder remain the same as when it is firing, then the BP, B1 , now obtained
at the same speed is,

B1 0  L1   I2  L2   I3  L3   I4  L4 

Subtracting the second equation from the first gives,

B - B1 I1 (2.8)

By cutting out each cylinder in turn the values I2 , I3 , and I4 can be obtained from
equations similar to (13.8). Then for the engine,

I = I1  I2  I3  I4 (2.9)

(iv) ‘Willan’s line’: this method is applicable to CI engines only. At a constant engine
speed the load is reduced in increments and the corresponding BP and gross fuel con-
sumption readings are taken. A graph is then drawn of fuel consumption against BP,
as in Figure 2.12. The graph drawn is called the ‘Willan’s line’, and is extrapolated
back to cut the BP axis at the point A. The reading OA is taken as the power loss
of the engine at that speed. The fuel consumption at zero BP is given by OB; if the
relationship between fuel consumption and BP is assumed to be linear, then a fuel
consumption OB is equivalent to a power loss of OA.

2.4.4 Brake mean effective pressure (bmep), thermal efficiency,

and fuel consumption
The BP of an engine can be obtained accurately and conveniently using a dynamometer.
From equation equation eq:pricef
BP ηM  IP

Therefore, substituting for IP from equation eq:priceb for a four-stroke engine,

ηM  pi ALN n
BP
2

Since ηM and p1 are difficult to obtain they may be combined and replaced by a brake
mean effective pressure, pb ,

pb ALN n
i.e., BP (2.10)
2
39
 Figure 2.12: Fuel consumption
against brake power for a CI engine.

where, Pb ηM  Pi
The bmep may be thought of as that mean effective pressure acting on the pistons which
would give the measured BP if the engine were frictionless. The bmep is a useful criterion
for comparing engine performance. Taking the two equations for BP, equations (2.5) and
(2.10), and putting them together,

pb ALN n
2πNT
2

therefore, pb KT
where K is a constant.
Therefore bmep is directly proportional to the engine torque and is independent of the
engine speed.
The power output of the engine is obtained from the chemical energy of the fuel supplied.
The overall efficiency of the engine is given by the brake thermal efficiency, ηBT ,

brake work
i.e., ηBT
energy supplied

BP
therefore, ηBT (2.11)
ṁf  Qnet,v

where, ṁf is the mass of fuel consumed per unit time, and Qnet,v the net calorific value of
the fuel.
The specific fuel consumption (sfc) is the mass flow rate of fuel consumed per unit power
output, and is a criterion of economical power production,

40
 ṁf
i.e., sfc (2.12)
BP

The indicated thermal efficiency, ηIT is defined in a similar way to ηBT ,

IP
i.e., ηIT (2.13)
ṁf  Qnet,v

Dividing equation (2.11) by equation (2.13) gives,

ηBT BP
ηIT ηM
IT

therefore, ηBT ηM  η (2.14)

Example 2.1
A four-cylinder petrol engine has a bore of 57 mm and a stroke of 90 mm. Its rated speed
is 2800 rev/min and it is tested at this speed against a brake which has a torque arm of
0.356 m. The net brake load is 155 N and the fuel consumption is 6.74 1/h. The specific
gravity of the petrol used is 0.735 and it has a lower calorific value, Qnet,v of 44 200
kJ/kg. A Morse test is carried out and the cylinders are cut out in the order 1, 2, 3, 4,
with corresponding brake loads of 111, 106.5, 104.2, and 111 N, respectively. Calculate
for this speed, the engine torque, the bmep, the brake thermal efficiency, the specific fuel
consumption, the mechanical efficiency and the imep.
Solution:
Using equation (2.4),

Torque, T = WR 155  0.356 55.2Nm

Using equation (2.5),

2π  2800  55.2
BP 2πNT kN m/s 16.2 kW
60  103

From equation (2.10),

3
BP  2 16.2  2  4  60  10
bmep 7.55 bar
ALN n π  0.0572  0.09  2800  4  105

From equation (2.11),

41
 BP 16.2
ηBT 0.266or26.6%
ṁf  Qnet,v 0.001376  44200
where, ṁf 6.74©3600  1  0.735 0.001376 kg/s.
Using equation (2.11),
ṁf 0.00l376
sfc 0.000085 kg/kJ
BP 16.2

It is more convenient to express sfc in terms of fuel consumption rate per unit power and
to express the fuel consumption rate in kilograms per hour rather than kg/s,

i.e.. sf c 0.000085  3600 0.306 kg/kWh

Using equation (2.8),

for each cylinder in turn, and substituting brake loads instead of the values of BP since
the speed is constant,
I1 = B - B1 = 155 - 111 = 44 N
I2 = B - B2 = 155 - 106.5 = 48.5 N
I3 = B - B3 = 155 - 104.2 = 50.8 N
I4 = B - B4 = 155 - 111 = 44 N
Hence for the engine, the indicated load, I, is given by
I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = 44 + 48.5 + 50.8 + 44 = 187.3 N
Therefore, from equation (2.7) bp

BP 155
ηM 0.828 or 82.8%
IP 187.3
From the definition of bmep given by equation (2.10),

bmep ηM  imep

bmep 7.55
i.e., imep ηM 9.12 bar
0.828

2.4.5 Volumetric efficiency, ηv

The power output of an IC engine depends directly upon the amount of charge which can be
induced into the cylinder. This is referred to as the breathing capacity of the engine and is
expressed quantitatively by the volumetric efficiency, which is defined as for reciprocating
compressors by equations shown ahead. For IC engines, the volumetric efficiency is the
ratio of the volume of air induced, measured at the free air conditions to the swept volume
of the cylinder,

V
i.e., ηv (2.15)
Vs

42
The power output of an engine depends on its capacity to breathe, and if a particular
engine had a constant thermal efficiency then its output would be in proportion to the
amount of air induced. The volumetric efficiency with normal aspiration is seldom above
80%, and to improve on this figure, supercharging is used. Air is forced into the cylinder
by a blower or fan which is driven by the engine. More will be said about supercharging
in a section ahead.
The volumetric efficiency of an engine is affected by many variables such as compres-
sion ratio, valve timing, induction and port design, mixture strength, specific enthalpy
of vaporization of the fuel, heating of the induced charge, cylinder temperature, and the
atmospheric conditions.

Example 2.2

In Example 2.1 an analysis of the dry exhaust showed no oxygen and negligible carbon
`
monoxide. The engine was tested in an atmosphere at 1.013 bar and 15 C. Estimate the
volumetric efficiency of the engine.

Solution:
The condition of the exhaust implies a stoichiometric air-fuel ratio which for petrols can
be taken to be 14.5/1. From Example 2.1,

ṁf 0.001376 kg/s

Air mass flow rate 14.5  0.001376 0.01995 kg/s

0.01995  287  288

and, Volume drawn m per unit t1me,V̇
105  1.013
3
0.0163 m ©s

3 ALnN 3
Now, Swept volume of engine ALn m ©cycle m ©min
2

2
π  0.057  0.09  4  2800 3
i.e., V̇s 0.0214 m ©s
4  2  60

Then using equation (2.15),

V̇ 0.0163
ηv 0.76 or 760%
V̇s 0.0214

43
2.5 Engine output and efficiency
The power output of an engine depends on the conditions under which it is tested. In
order to make reported performances acceptable and comparable, standard procedures are
established which define the quantities to be measured, the methods of measurement to
be used, and the procedure to be adopted for reporting. The standards which apply are
defined in British Standard (BS) 5514 (ref. 3.3) which is equivalent to the corresponding
standards ISO 3046 of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). In the
United States the standards are those of the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and
are described in the SAE Handbook, 1984, volume 3 or its replacement. In Germany the
standards are those of the Deutsche Industrie Norm (DIN) and in the UK also the power
and torque outputs of engines are often quoted to the DIN procedures. Standards are
withdrawn or updated from time to time and the different standards may become fewer
as a single international standard emerges.
The power output changes with the atmospheric conditions of pressure, temperature, and
humidity and if the test conditions are not those of the relevant standard the readings
of power and fuel consumption taken must be corrected to the defined conditions and
procedures of the standard. The power output also depends on the form in which the
engine is tested with regard to the auxiliaries with which it is fitted, i.e. fully or partly
equipped. Diesel engine power, torque and fuel consumption values or complete charac-
teristics are readily available; for petrol engines maximum values of power (kilowatts) and
torque (Newton metres) are quoted, but fuel consumption figures are not so readily come
by. For private vehicle use the overall vehicle performance figures are quoted as power
and torque to the specified standard, usually DIN, and the fuel consumption figures to
official tests under the Passenger Car Fuel Consumption Order 1983 in litres/ 100 km at
the specified test speeds of 90 and 120 km/h (56 and 75 mph).
Diesel engine competition with the petrol engine for the private car market is an interesting
study exercise. The principles of the diesel engine were well known at the start of the
century and prior to the Second World War a few diesel-engined cars had been built as
conversions from petrol engines. The advantages of the diesel of better fuel consumption
and longer engine life were well known, particularly for use in taxis which are used for
short journeys and have high annual mileages. For such applications the savings in fuel
cost favour the diesel engine but its relative progress has been slow. An increase in number
of diesel private cars in use over the years has been noted. The performance of an early
(1974) diesel-engined vehicle compared favourably with that of a smaller petrol engine,
e.g. a 1.8 litre diesel compared with a 1.3 litre petrol engine gave similar journey times
and overall fuel costs of about half those of the petrol engine. The noise level of the diesel
engine was not acceptable and the diesel was regarded as being sluggish in comparison with
the petrol engine. Modern diesel engine design has narrowed the gap between the two with
engines becoming lighter, quieter, and more responsive. The better fuel consumption of the
diesel makes it an attractive power unit for the taxi and vehicle fleet owner, provided the
price of diesel fuel remains sufficiently lower than that of petrol. Another important factor
is the frequency and cost of service work required by the diesel and petrol equivalents.
Diesel engines required more frequent servicing, but the intervals between servicing are
approaching equality.
Due to environmental pollution concern by ICEs running on liquid fossil fuel (diesel and
petrol) the developed world have formulated schedules (albeit varying) for phasing out ICE
vehicles and replace them with Electric Vehicles (EVs). For instance UK government’s ban
on the sale of new petrol and diesel cars will come into effect from 2030 with the sale of

44
hybrid ones being outlawed from 2035. By 2035, all new vehicles sold in China must
be powered by ‘new-energy’, the Chinese authorities have said. Half of them must be
either electric, fuel cell or plug-in hybrid and the remaining 50% be hybrid vehicles. The
Netherlands wants all new cars to be emissions free by 2030 - effectively banning petrol and
diesel sales. Last year (2021) Germany’s Bundesrat passed a resolution to ban the internal
combustion engines starting in 2030. France has also said it will ban sales of petrol and
diesel cars by 2040. India is facing an air pollution crisis that is responsible for 1.2 million
deaths per year and costing the economy an estimated 3% of GDP. For that reason the
Indian government has announced that it wants to sell only electric cars within the next
13 years. Following on the same policy, all new vehicles sold in Japan by the mid-2030s
will be hybrid or electric as the government begins to unveil concrete steps for reaching
its goal of becoming carbon neutral by 2050. A number of states in USA have also passed
legislation to outlaw use of diesel and petrol ICEs in vehicles, i.e. in mid-April 2021, the
U.S. state of Washington passed an amendment to a bill stating that “all publicly owned
and privately owned passenger and light duty vehicles of model year 2030 or later that
are sold, purchased, or registered in Washington state shall be electric vehicles”. State of
New York has also proclaimed that from 2035, only new zero-emission cars and light-duty
vehicles shall be allowed to be sold. Kenya and other countries of under-developed world
are yet to formulate a policies that address the use of ICEs vis-a-vis pollution control.

2.6 Performance characteristics

The testing of IC engines consists of running them at different loads and speeds and
taking sufficient measurements for the performance criteria to be calculated. As well as
the measurements required for the criteria of section the airflow is required to give the
air-fuel ratio and the combustion products can be analysed (studied earlier).
An energy balance is sometimes presented for an engine, and the heat taken by the cooling
water is obtained by measuring the rate of flow of the water and its temperature rise.
`
The outlet temperature of the cooling water is usually limited to about 80 C to prevent
the formation of steam pockets. To estimate the energy of the exhaust gas, an exhaust
calorimeter can be fitted; this is simply a heat exchanger in which the exhaust gas is cooled
by circulating water, the rate of flow and temperature rise of which are measured. In order
to avoid condensation of the steam in the gas, the gas is not usually cooled below about
`
50 C.
The items usually included in an energy balance and expressed as percentages of the energy
supplied by the fuel (i.e., ṁf  Qnet,v ) are as follows:
(i) BP;
(ii) the heat to cooling water;
(iii) the energy of the exhaust referred to inlet conditions, or as obtained by an exhaust
calorimeter;
(iv) unaccounted losses obtained by difference and which include radiation and convection
losses, etc.
The energy balance usually presented is not an accurate account of the energy distribution,
but it is a useful one. The BP is conveniently and accurately measured and the percentage
of the input energy to the BP is the most important item in the balance. The heat

45
transferred to the cooling water may be used as an indication of how much heat could be
usefully obtained if this water were used for other heating purposes in a combined plant.
The energy to exhaust is best obtained by means of the exhaust calorimeter as described.
Ideally the exhaust gas should be cooled to the temperature of the inlet air, and the
heat taken by the cooling water in the calorimeter per minute would give item (iii) of the
balance. The temperature at which the exhaust gas enters the calorimeter is most likely
not that at which it passes through the exhaust valve, and some of the energy to the
exhaust will have been taken by the cooling water or lost to the atmosphere. To obtain
item (iii) by calculation is more speculative since the gas is chemically different from the
inlet air and the mass flow has increased due to the addition of the fuel. The error involved
in choosing the datum is likely to be less than that produced by using an inaccurate value
for the exhaust temperature, which is not easy to obtain with accuracy. It is sufficient to
write
Energy to exhaust ma  mf he  ma ha
where ma and me are the air and fuel mass flow rates, ha is the specific enthalpy of the
`
exhaust gas (dry exhaust + steam), reckoned from 0 C, and ha is the specific enthalpy of
`
the air at inlet reckoned from 0 C. A suitable value for cp for the dry exhaust gas must be
calculated or assumed.
For a diesel engine at full load typical values would be: to BP 35%; to cooling water
20%; to exhaust 35%; to radiation, etc. 10%. The heat to the jacket cooling water and
exhaust can be utilized in industries which have heating loads such as space and heating
and hot-water systems, and which require either steam or hot water for process work. The
heat to the jacket water is recoverable and about 18% of the total energy supplied can be
recovered from the exhaust gas.
The most elementary power test is that which gives the power-speed and the torque-speed
characteristics, as shown in Figure 2.13. The test is carried out at constant throttle setting
in the petrol engine, and at constant fuel pump setting in the CI engine.

Figure 2.13: Engine char-

acteristics of power, imep,
bmep, and mechanical effi-
ciency against engine speed.

46
In Figure 2.13 are shown the engine power characteristics for both IP and BP. As the
speed increases from the lower values the two curves are similar, the difference between
the IP and the BP at any speed being the FP, which increases with speed. Both curves
show maximum values, but they occur at different speeds. The IP falls after the maximum
because of a reduction in volumetric efficiency with increased speed. This is influenced
by gas temperatures, valve timing, valve mechanism dynamics, and the pressure pulsation
patterns in the induction and exhaust manifolds. This fall in volumetric efficiency affects
also the BP curve, but this is further decreased by an increase in the FP. This latter effect
is predominant since the BP reaches its maximum at a lower speed than the IP.
The variation of volumetric efficiency with speed is indicated in Figure 2.14, and that
of mechanical efficiency with speed in Figure 2.13. The various methods used for the
determination of mechanical efficiency are discussed in section .

Figure 2.14: Variation of vol-

umetric efficiency with en-
gine speed.

2.6.1 SI engines
These engines are quantity governed, by the opening or closing of a throttle valve which
regulates the mass flow of charge to the cylinders. Some gas engines are throttled by
alteration of the lift of the admission valve, and this can be controlled from the engine
governor. The governed speed can be adjusted to select any value in its range.
The petrol engine will operate on air-fuel ratios in the range 10/1-22/1, but not necessarily
satisfactorily at the extremes. There is some variation between engines. An important
test is to run the engine with the air-fuel ratio as the only variable. This is carried out
at constant speed, constant throttle opening, and constant ignition setting. The specific
fuel consumption is plotted to a base of bmep and a ‘hook curve’ or ‘consumption’ ‘loop’
is obtained. For a single-cylinder engine at full throttle the curve is sharply defined as
in Figure 2.13. The air-fuel ratio is a minimum at A (i.e. the richest mixture). As the
air-fuel ratio is increased the bmep increases until a maximum is reached at B (usually for

47
an air-fuel ratio between 10/1 and 13/1). Further increase in the air-fuel ratio produces
a decrease in bmep with increasing economy until the position of maximum economy is
reached at D. Beyond D, for increasing air-fuel ratios, both bmep and consumption values
are adversely affected.

Figure 2.15: Specific fuel

consumption against bmep
for a spark-ignition engine.

Near the point A the engine could be running unsteadily and there may be combustion
of the mixture in the exhaust system. At E, with the weakest mixture, running will
be unsteady and the combustion may be so slow that the gases continue burning in the
clearance volume until the next induction stroke begins; this causes popping back through
the carburettor. Point C is the point of chemically correct or stoichiometric air-fuel ratio,
and is about 14.5/1. The mixture strengths range between those at B and D, which
are for maximum power and maximum economy respectively. The indicator diagrams
corresponding to mixtures B, C, and D are shown in Figure 2.16.

Figure 2.16:
Pressure-
volume and
timing dia-
grams for rich,
weak, and
stoichiometric
mixtures for a
SI engine.

For multi-cylinder engines the consump-

tion loops are less distinct, but are gener-
ally similar in shape to that for the single-
cylinder engine. This is also true for tests
made at part throttle openings. A series of

48
readings obtained at different throttle po-
sitions at constant speed is shown in Fig-
ure 2.17.
In the above tests the ignition has been as-
sumed to be constant, but other tests can
be included to show the effect of ignition
timing on the consumption loop. Alterna-
tively the ignition setting can be adjusted
at each mixture strength to give maximum
power at the speed of the test; by this
means the rate of pressure rise on combustion can be kept approximately constant.
Bmep and sfc may be plotted against air-fuel ratio as shown in Figure 2.18. To the same
base of air-fuel ratio the variation of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and carbon monoxide contents
of the dry exhaust can be plotted as shown in Figure 2.19.

Figure 2.18: Specific fuel

consumption and bmep
against air-fuel ratio for a SI
engine.

Figure 2.19: Exhaust gas

analysis against air-fuel ratio
for a SI engine.

49
Energy balances can be drawn up for the principal points taken from the consumption
loop.
Testing the SI engine at part load shows the deficiency of the method of governing by
throttling the charge since the efficiency falls with decreasing load. The induction pressure
is reduced and the pumping losses increase. The dilution of the fresh charge by exhaust
gas increases at lower loads, the clearance volume containing practically the same amount
of exhaust gas since the back pressure in the exhaust process remains constant. For this
type of mixture a greater amount of fuel is required for combustion to be possible.

2.6.2 Cl engines
In the main CI engines are not controlled by throttling but by adjusting the amount of fuel
supplied to the engine, and hence are quality governed. When adjusting the fuel supplied
to a CI engine the limiting condition is given by the smoke limit, which is the appearance of
black smoke in the exhaust. Engines should not be operated with mixtures rich enough to
produce smoke, although such a mixture may give a greater power output. The efficiency
under these conditions is low, and the engine soon becomes dirty. The smoke limit occurs
at air-fuel ratios of about 16/1. The engine is tested at different speeds to the smoke limit,
which can be observed visually or measured by a smoke meter. The values of torque, bp,
fuel consumption, and specific fuel consumption are then plotted against engine speed in
revolutions per minute.
A consumption loop for a CI engine has the form shown in Figure ??. This shows a
minimum sfc and therefore a maximum brake thermal efficiency at part load (i.e. less
than the maximum bmep). The curve is reasonably flat over a wide range of values of
bmep, which shows the virtue of the CI engine compared with the SI engine for part
load operation, a condition often prevailing in road vehicle engines. The reduction in the
thermal efficiency at part load is less for the CI engine than for the SI engine.
Mechanical efficiencies and minimum values of sfc are plotted against speed to provide
further characteristics.
For a given engine the individual characteristics described in this section are usually suf-
ficient for normal use, but if comparisons are to be made with other engines, perhaps of
different types, then the more comprehensive presentation by means of a performance map
is an advantage. Figure ?? shows the form of such a map for a petrol engine and Figure ??
shows the form for a diesel engine. In the maps bmep is plotted against engine (or piston)
speed with curves of constant specific fuel consumption and power per unit piston area. If
the engine is to be used in a vehicle the road requirement can be included as a bmep-speed
characteristic.

2.6.3 Supercharging
Figure 2.14 shows how the power output of an engine is affected by the reduction in vol-
umetric efficiency at increased engine speed. The purpose of supercharging is to raise the
volumetric efficiency above that obtained with normal aspiration. The main attraction of
supercharging engines is to obtain a high power output from a small engine hence giving a
good power-weight ratio with a corresponding saving in space which is important in some
applications such as road and rail vehicles. In this case the engine is designed as a super-

50
charged engine to withstand the higher loads and temperatures reached in supercharging
compared with normal aspiration.
Greater benefits are to be expected from supercharging the diesel engine than from the
petrol engine because of the different methods of charging the cylinders and the quite
different combustion characteristics of the two types of engine. The diesel induces air
only and the fuel is injected under pressure into the cylinder with self-ignition of the
fuel in the air; the petrol engine induces a mixture of air and fuel which is spark ignited
and burns as described in section giving fundamental combustion problems which do not
occur with the diesel engine. To avoid charge detonation or ‘knocking’ in the petrol engine,
giving uncontrolled combustion, the compression ratio may have to be reduced, an action
which adversely affects the thermal efficiency of the engine. Alternatively a fuel of higher
octane rating may be necessary. With the diesel engine higher boost pressures can give
more satisfactory combustion conditions with a wider range of usable fuels, reduced delay
periods, controlled pressure rise and an engine which is smoother and quieter in operation.
The main features of supercharging are illustrated in the p-V diagrams for the idealized
constant-volume four-stroke cycle in Figure 2.20 and the plant line diagrams in Figure 2.21.
Figure Figure 2.20(a) shows the normally aspirated cycle with line 1-5 representing both
the induction and exhaust strokes at about the ambient air pressure Pa . The early appli-
cations of supercharging were for piston-engined aircraft in which the ‘blower’ was driven
mechanically from the engine as shown in Figure 2.21(a). The power output of the engine
was increased by the higher flow of air, and hence the fuel consumed, but part of this
increase in power was required to drive the blower. The effects on the p- V diagram, as
shown in Figure 2.20(b), are to increase the pressures (and temperatures) reached during
the cycle and to give a positive pumping loop, 15671, to add to the main working loop
12341.
Figure 2.20:
Pressure-volume
diagram for a four-
stroke CI engine
with supercharging
(a) and without
supercharging (b).

Figure 2.21: Dia-

grams of a four-
stroke,four-cylinder
CI engine with
mechanical su-
percharging (a)
and with turbo-
charging (b).

The power required to drive a blower mechanically connected to the engine must be sub-
tracted from the engine output to obtain the net BP of the supercharged engine. Then,

51
 area12341  area15671
imep 
 constant (2.16)
length of diagram

and, BP ηM  IP  power to drive blower (2.17)

(for mechanically driven blowers only).

Example 2.3
3
The average IP developed in a CI engine is 12.9 kW/m of free air induced per minute.
The engine is a 3-litre four-stroke engine running at 3500 rev/min, and has a volumetric
`
efficiency of 80%, referred to free air conditions of 1.013 bar and 15 C. It is proposed to
fit a blower, driven mechanically from the engine. The blower has an isentropic efficiency
of 75% and works through a pressure ratio of 1.7. Assume that at the end of induction
the cylinders contain a volume of charge equal to the swept volume, at the pressure and
temperature of the delivery from the blower. Calculate the increase in BP to be expected
from the engine.
[Take all mechanical efficiencies as 80%].
Solution:
3
Engine capacity = 3 litres = 0.003 m ,

3500 3
Swept volume =  0.003 = 5.25 m /mm,
2
3
Unsupercharged induced volume = 0.8  5.25 = 4.2 m /min
Blower delivery pressure = 1.7  1.013 = 1.72 bar
1.41©1.4
Temperature after isentropic compression = 288  1.7
= 335.2 K

335.2  288

Blower delivery temperature 288  

351 K
0.75
3
The blower delivers 5.25 m /min at 1.72 bar and 351 K.

` 5.25  1.72  288

Equivalent volume at 1.013 bar and 15 C =
1.013  351
3
= 7.32 m /min
and,
3
Increase in induced volume = 7.32 - 4.2 = 3.12 m /min
Increase in IP due to the increased induction pressure

5
1.72  1.013  10  5.25
62 kW
103  60
i.e., Total increase in IP 40.2  6.2 46.4 kW

52
therefore,
Increase in engine BP 0.8  46.4 37.l kW
From this must be deduced the power required to drive the blower.

5
1.72  10  5.25
Mass of air de11vered by blower 0.149 kg/s
60  287  351

Work input to blower ṁcp 351  288 0.149  1.005  63

0.149  1.005  63
thus, Power required 11.8 kW
0.8

and, Net increase in BP 37.1  11.8 25.3 kW

Figure 2.20(a) shows the start of the exhaust process at 4 at a pressure substantially
greater than the ambient, Pa . This means that over 60% of the cylinder charge is suddenly
exhausted by a free expansion which constitutes a considerable loss of the energy released
on combustion; of about 30-40% between diesel and petrol engines. The attraction of
‘turbo-charging’ is evident as the energy lost in this way is used to drive a turbine wheel
integral with a compressor wheel which delivers compressed air or charge to the cylinder.
The additional work available from the gas is indicated, after continuing the reversible
adiabatic expansion line 3-4 down to the pressure Pa at 6, by area 4614. The physical
arrangement is shown in Figure 2.21(b) and there is no mechanical connection to the
engine. The turbocharger combination is a free-running unit with approximately equal
mass flow rates over the turbine and compressor wheels reaching an equilibrium speed in
the range 20000-80000 rev/min.
The simplest form of the supercharged cycle shows constant pressures created in the inlet
manifold, Pi , and in the exhaust manifold, Pe , and it is essential that Pi % Pe [Fig-
ure 2.22(a)]. This pressure difference, Pi - Pe , can be utilized to scavenge residual gas
from the combustion chamber if there is some overlap between the exhaust and inlet valve
operation and particularly so for the diesel engine. This is called constant pressure su-
percharging and requires a large enough exhaust manifold to create a constant pressure
supply to the turbine from a highly pulsating delivery from the engine cylinders. The T-s
diagram for the turbocharger is shown in Figure 2.22(b) and, using the methods used in
the next topic to evaluate air power of air air compressors, the energy balance for the unit
is obtained as follows:
The compressor power input,

p γa 1©γa
Ẇc ṁa cpa Ta  p i  1 ©ηc
a

The turbine power output,

p γg 1©γg
ẆT ṁe cpe Te 1   pa  ηT
e

53
 Figure 2.22:
Pressure-
volume dia-
gram (a) and
T-s diagram
(b) for the
engine and
turbocharger
for ‘constant-
pressure’
supercharging.

where ηc and ηT are the isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine respectively.
For a balance of mass flow rates,

ṁe ṁf
ṁe ṁa  ṁf , 1 1  F ©A
ṁa ṁa

where F/A = fuel to air ratio ṁf ©ṁa .

Also Ẇc ẆT  ηM , where, ηM mechanical efficiency of the drive,

pi γa 1©γa pa γg 1©γg cpe Te

 1 1   

pa 
pe cpa  Ta
1  F©A  ηo

where, ηo ηM  ηT  ηC the overall efficiency of the turbocharger.

This expression shows how the manifold pres-

sure Pi depends mainly upon ηo and Te , as the
effect of the F/A ratio is small. A set of charac-
teristics can be drawn of pi /pa against ηo for
different values of Te . A set is obtained for
each value of Pe and the minimum requirement
to sustain the limit is pe = pi as shown in Fig-
ure 2.23.
The usual arrangement for a turbocharger is a
single-stage centrifugal compressor driven by a
single-stage axial-flow turbine for the medium
and large-size engines for industrial, rail, and
marine applications, and by a radial-flow tur-
bine for the smaller engines used in automo-
tive applications, transport vehicles and cars.
It is somewhat against earlier expectations that
most car manufacturers now include super-
charged petrol-engined cars in their product Figure 2.23: Turbocharger character-
range with apparent overlap with their normally istics of pressure ratio against tur-
aspirated engines of different capacities. This is bocharger overall efficiency for various
exhaust gas temperatures
54
in spite of the fact that cars spend a great deal
of their time at part throttle and that additional control is necessary to restrict the boost
pressure and prevent the onset of knock by retarding the ignition. The above description
has been confined to the constant-pressure charging of four-stroke cycle engines. The blow-
ing of the two-stroke engine is attractive as the cycle does not include a separate exhaust
stroke, and a means of improving the scavenging process would improve the breathing and
hence the power output. The two-stroke is particularly sensitive to exhaust back pressure
which is increased by turbo-charging and its use would require additional care in port
timing and the matching of characteristics.
In any cycle the gas leaves the engine cylinders at high speed through the opening valve
and possesses high kinetic energy which is dissipated in the large manifold of the constant-
pressure system. To utilize the kinetic energy more fully a pulsed system of charging can be
used provided the turbocharger is designed to cope with the conditions created. For multi-
cylinder engines the cylinders are grouped, taking cylinders alternately from their firing
order for entry into the turbine and this also groups them into the front and rear cylinders,
as shown in Figure 2.24. To improve the charging of the cylinders the compressed air can
be cooled by passing it through a water- or air-cooled inter-cooler thereby increasing its
density.

2.7 Alternative forms of

IC engines
In recent years there have been several at-
tempts to produce power units which would Figure 2.24: Grouping of cylinders in a tur-
be superior to the IC engine in its con- bocharged multi-cylinder CI engine.
ventional forms. Some attempts have been
merely to improve the breathing of the re-
ciprocating engine by alternative designs of
the valve mechanism. The more ambitious projects have had the object of basic improve-
ments, and have included engines which have a fundamentally different geometry.

2.7.1 The Wankel engine

One engine with this object is the Wankel rotary engine, the most successful of many
proposed rotary engine designs. For many years inventors have worked to produce an
engine which would fulfill all the promises of the rotary engine concept, with improved
power-to-weight ratio, and compete successfully with the reciprocating engine. A simplified
representation of the Wankel engine is shown in Figure 2.25 and the engine is briefly
described below.
The rotor, which has a profile defined by three circular arcs PQ, QS, and SP, is attached
through a roller-bearing to an eccentric which is an integral part of the engine main shaft.
The bearing (and rotor) centre is at an eccentricity e to the mainshaft centre. The rotor
radius R to the apex points P, Q and S is the generator radius for the enclosing ‘cylinder’
or housing. The profile of the cylinder is of epitrochoidal form and is followed by the
rotor by means of the epicyclic gear formed by the gear-wheel which is fixed to the casing
and the internal gear of the rotor. The pitch circle diameter of the fixed gear-wheel is

55
two-thirds that of the rotor gear-wheel, With this mechanism the rotor turns at one-third
of the speed of the mainshaft (or eccentric). As each of the three faces of the rotor is
concerned in turn with one power cycle, for each revolution of the rotor the mainshaft
receives one working stroke’ per revolution. Thus the single-rotor Wankel compares with a
single-cylinder two-stroke cycle engine. The rotor is shown in Figure 2.25 in two positions,
one in dotted outline and the other in full line; for the former position the eccentric OA’ (
= e) and the generator radius A’P’ ( = P) are in line to show OP’ equal to half the length
of the major axis ( = R + e). The rotor turns clockwise and to give the position P the
` `
mainshaft (or eccentric) has turned through 90 from OA’ and the rotor through 30 (i.e.
90/3).
Figure 2.25:
Simplified
representation
of a Wankel
engine.

By continuing this construction for other mainshaft positions the epitrochoidal profile can
`
be generated and is repeated for apex S which is displaced 120 with regard to P and
similarly for Q. For the full line position OS forms half of the minor axis length ( = R -
e). In the diagram the pitch circle of the bearing coincides with that of the rotor gear for
simplicity of drawing.
The three parts of the cylinder are sealed by peripheral seals at P, Q, and S and side
seals which are held in the flanks of the rotor on both sides and these constitute a sealing
system corresponding to that of the piston rings and valves in the reciprocating engine.
The peripheral seals take gas loads only and do not influence the movement of the rotor.
In the full line position shown PQ is at TDC and defines the minimum or clearance
volume of the engine. This volume can be varied by forming a recess in the rotor. The
maximum cylinder volume will be shown when S takes up a position just on completion
of its movement across the inlet port. The difference between the two volumes gives the
swept volume of the engine per rotor face. As PQ moves towards the position occupied
by QS the working stroke is performed and exhaust begins when the cylinder space is
uncovered by the seal as it passes over the exhaust port. Continued movement of the
rotor opens the space to the inlet and the induction of the fresh charge and so there is a
considerable overlap between exhaust and inlet phases and this can be considered to be a
basic limitation of the design. When the apex seal passes over the inlet port, compression
of the charge begins up to the TDC position after which the cycle is repeated. To the right
of Figure 2.25 a ‘skeleton’ figure shows the essentials of the ‘generating’ mechanism.
The basic design is attractive and offers advantages in comparison with a reciprocating
four-stroke engine with regard to compactness for a given power output, fewer working

56
parts lower mass, lack of vibrations and elimination of the poppet valve. There have been
many development problems which are not yet solved to the extent that the automotive
market shows a significant conversion to the rotary engine.
Some of the criticisms are basic and include the belief that the combustion space is the
wrong shape (long and narrow) for good combustion and the limitations on porting are a
disadvantage for good breathing, particularly at low speeds. These are fundamental to the
epitrochoidal geometry which also limits the attainable compression ratio, thereby making
a diesel version impossible without increased complication such as two cylinders working
in series. Another outcome of the geometry is the re-entrant shape or ‘cusp’ on the minor
axis which the peripheral seal finds difficult to follow at high speed because of the reversal
of acceleration experienced. The effectiveness of the sealing is held to be in doubt in spite
of the considerable development work which has taken place on these. It is also believed
that the rotor bearing is subject to adverse conditions, being close to the hot rotor surface
without adequate cooling. Solutions to these problems have been applied such as dual,
phased ignition and side porting as well as peripheral ports and the use of different seal
designs and materials. The assessment and development of the Wankel engine has been
undertaken by companies in many countries of the world and for many applications other
than for motor vehicle purposes, for much smaller engines and much larger power, lower
speed units.
The SI petrol engine is predominant in the light power and high-speed field, and for
automobile purposes, but is receiving some competition from the high-speed diesel engine.
They have geometries which are basically identical and both are subject to continuous
development; it is not likely that they will be replaced to any great extent in their particular
field by any other unit for some time. Other power units may appear for particular purposes
and may be modifications to the conventional layouts, or they may be combined units.
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
Question ONE
A V-8 four-stroke petrol engine is required to give 186.5 kW at 4400 rev/min. The brake
thermal efficiency can be assumed to be 32 % at the compression ratio of 9/1. The air-fuel
ratio is 12/1 and the volumetric efficiency at this speed is 69%. If the stroke to bore ratio
is 0.8, determine the engine displacement required and the dimensions of the bore and
stroke. The Qnet,v of the fuel is 44200 kJ/kg, and the free air conditions are 1.013 bar and
`
15 C.
[Answers: 5.11; 100.5 mm; 80.4 mm]
Question TWO
A six-cylinder, four-stroke CI engine of 75 mm bore and 100 mm stroke has a brake power
output of 110 kW at 3750 rev/min. The volumetric efficiency at this operating condition
`
referred to ambient conditions of 1.013 bar and 20 C is 80%. The engine is now fitted
with a mechanically driven supercharger which has an isentropic efficiency of 0.7 and a
pressure ratio of 1.6. The supercharged version has a volumetric efficiency of 100% referred
to the supercharger delivery pressure and temperature. If it is assumed that the indicated
power developed per unit volume flow rate of induced air at ambient conditions is the same
for normal aspiration and supercharging, calculate the net increase in brake power to be
expected from the supercharged engine. Take the mechanical efficiency of the engine as
80% in both cases and the mechanical efficiency of the drive from engine to supercharger
as 95%.

57
[ Answers: 64.1 kW ]

Tutorial

2.1 A quality governed four-stroke, single-cylinder gas engine has a bore of 146 mm and a
stroke of 280 mm. At 475 rev/min and full load the net load on the friction brake is
433 N, and the torque arm is 0.45 m. The indicator diagram gives a net area of 578
mm 2 and a length of 70 mm with a spring rating of 0.815 bar per mm. Calculate the
IP, BP, and mechanical efficiency.
[ Answers: 12.49 kW; 9.69 kW; 77.6% ]

2.2 A two-cylinder, four-stroke gas engine has a bore of 380 mm and a stroke of 585 mm.
At 240 rev/min the torque developed is 11.86 kN m. Calculate:

(a) the hp;

(b) the mean piston speed in m/s;

(c) the bmep.

[ Answers: (a) 298.l kW; (b) 4.68 m/s; (c) 11.23 bar ]

2.3 The engine of Problem 2.2 is supplied with a mixture of gas and air in the proportion
of 1 to 7 by volume. The estimated volumetric efficiency is 85% and the Qnet.p of the
3
gas is 38.6 MJ/m . Calculate the brake thermal efficiency of the engine.
[ Answer : 27.4% ]

2.4 A four-cylinder racing engine of capacity 2.495 litres has a bore of 94 mm and a
compression ratio of 12/1. When tested against a dynamometer with a torque arm of
0.461 m a maximum load of 622 N was obtained at 5000 rev/min, and at the peak speed
of 6750 rev/min the load was 547 N. The minimum fuel consumption was 17.2 ml/s
at a speed of 5000 rev/min, the specific gravity of the fuel being 0.735, and Qnet,v =
44200 kJ/kg. Calculate the maximum bmep, the maximum hp, the minimum specific
fuel consumption, and the maximum brake thermal efficiency at maximum torque, and
compare this latter answer with the air standard efficiency.
[ Answers: 14.44 bar; 178 kW; 0.303 kg/kW h; 26.9%; 63% ]

2.5 A three-cylinder, direct-injection, water-cooled, two-stroke oil engine with two hori-
zontally opposed pistons per cylinder has a bore of 82.6 mm and each piston has a
stroke of 102 mm. The engine was tested against a brake with a torque arm of 0.381
m. The results taken on a variable speed test are as in Table 13.4. Plot curves of
torque, hp, and specific fuel consumption against speed. Convert the torque curve to
a bmep curve by calculation of the appropriate scale factor.

58
 Table 2.1: Data for Problem 2.5

Speed Brake load Fuel

(rev/min.) (N) (kg/min.)
1000 607.8 0.146
1100 614.6 0.157
1200 621.4 0.172
1300 621.4 0.185
1400 621.4 0.201
1500 621.4 0.216
1600 616.0 0.229
1700 609.0 0.241
1800 596.5 0.252

2.6 A four-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine has a bore of 212 mm and a stroke of 292 mm.
At full load at 720 rev/min the bmep is 5.93 bar and the specific fuel consumption
is 0.226 kg/kW h. The air-fuel ratio as determined by exhaust gas analysis is 25/l.
Calculate the brake thermal efficiency and the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
`
Atmospheric conditions are 1.01 bar and 15 C, and Qnet,v for the fuel may be taken as
44200 kJ/kg.
[ Answers: 36%; 76.1% ]
2.7 The engine of Problem 2.6 is to be used as a dual-fuel engine. It is to burn methane
3 `
(calorific value 33480 kJ/m at 1.013 bar and 15 C), and has a pilot injection of oil of
10% of the input when running as a diesel engine. The air-fuel ratio for the oil is 25/1
as before, and for the methane 8.5/1. If the volumetric efficiency and the power output
remain the same, obtain the brake thermal efficiency of the engine when running on
the dual fuel.
[ Answer : 23% ]
2.8 A four-cylinder petrol engine with a bore of 63 mm and a stroke of 76 mm was tested at
full throttle at 3000 rev/min over a range of mixture strengths. The following readings
were taken during the test:

Brake load/(N) 162 165.5 169 170 169 162 159

Fuel consumption/(ml/s) 2.08 2.04 2.17 2.50 2.84 3.40 3.56

The relative density of the fuel is 0.724. Calculate the corresponding values of bmep
and specific fuel consumption. Plot a consumption loop and obtain from it the cor-
responding values for maximum power and maximum economy. The bp in kilowatts
is given by WN /26 830, where W is the brake load in newtons and N is the engine
speed in revolutions per minute.
[ Answers: 8.02 bar; 0.34 kg/kW h; 7.84 bar; 0.28 kg/kWh ]
2.9 For the test outlined in Problem 2.8 an air box was fitted which had an orifice of
41.65 mm diameter with a discharge coefficient of 0.6. The corresponding manometer
readings in millimetres of water were as follows:

59
 Manometer/(mm water) 33.50 33.50 33.50 33.80 33.80 34.25 34.80

3
Take the density of the air at inlet as 1.215 kg/m
(a) Plot to a base of air-fuel ratio graphs of BP and specific fuel consumption,
(b) Calculate the air-fuel ratios at maximum power and maximum economy.
[ Answers: (b) (i) 12.8/1; (ii) 15.7/1 ]
2.10 A four-cylinder petrol engine has an output of 52 kW at 2000 rev/min. A Morse test is
carried out and the brake torque readings are 177, 170, 168, and 174 N m respectively.
For normal running at this speed the specific fuel consumption is 0.364 kg/kW h.
The Qnet,v of the fuel is 44 200 kJ/kg. Calculate the mechanical and brake thermal
efficiencies of the engine.
[ Answers: 81.6%; 22.4% ]
2.11 A four-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine develops 83.5 kW at 1800 rev/min with a
specific fuel consumption of 0.231 kg/kW h, and air-fuel ratio of 23/1. The analysis
of the fuel is 87% carbon and 13% hydrogen, and the Qnet,v is 43 500 kJ/kg. The
jacket cooling water flows at 0.246 kg/s and its temperature rise is 50 K. The exhaust
`
temperature is 316 C. Draw up an energy balance for the engine. Take R = 0.302
kJ/kg K and cp = 1.09 kJ/kg K for the dry exhaust gas, and cp = 1.86 kJ/kg K for
`
superheated steam. The temperature in the test house is 17.8 C, and the exhaust gas
pressure is 1.013 bar.
[ Answer : bhp 35.8 %; cooling water 22.1%; exhaust 25.3%; radiation and unaccounted
16.9% ]
2.12 (a) An eight-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine of 229 mm bore, 304 mm stroke, and
compression ratio 14/1, has an output of 375 kW at 750 rev/min. The volumetric
efficiency is 78%, the mechanical efficiency is 90%, and the air-fuel ratio is 25/1.
If the imep for the pumping loop is 0.345 bar, calculate the imep for the working
loop.
(b) The engine is now fitted with an exhaust-driven turbo-blower which delivers air to
the cylinders at 1.43 bar. The compression ratio is reduced to 13/1 and the mea-
sured volumetric efficiency is 102%. Assuming that the exhaust pressure remains
constant and equal to 1.013 bar and that the imep of the main loop is directly
proportional to the mass of air induced. Calculate the BP which can be expected
if the speed and mechanical efficiency remain the same.
(c) Compare the specific fuel consumption for the two cases, if the air-fuel ratio for
`
the supercharged engine is 26.8/1. The free air conditions are 1.013 bar and 15 C.
[ Answers: (a) 7.0 bar; (b) 514 kW; (c) 0.23 kg/kW h; 0.205 kg/kWh ]

LABORATORY EXERCISE
To determine Brake power, Indicated Power, Fuel consumption and thermal efficiencies of
both unsupercharged and supercharged IC Engines by measurement in a dynanometer and
using morse test,

60
 References

References
2.1: EASTOP T. D. and McCONKEY A. 1993 Applied Thermodynamics For Engineering
th
Technologists, 5 edn. Pearson.
2.2: WINTERBONE D. E. and Turan A.2015 Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers,
nd
2 edn. Elsevier. 2.3: BS 5514 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines: Performance
Part 1 1987 Specification for Standard Reference Conditions and Declarations of Power,
Fuel Consumption and Lubricating Oil Consumption; Part 2 1988 Test Methods; Part 3
1979 Test Measurements
2.4: ROGERS G F C and MAYHEW Y R 1987 Thermodynamic and Transport Properties
th
of Fluids 4 edn. Basil Blackwell.
2.5: CIBSE 1986 Guide to Current Practice volume Bl4.16 & 14.7 KEMP D D 1990 Global
Environmental Issues Routledge

61
Chapter 3
Reciprocating Air Compressors
Learning outcomes:
After completing reading explanations and examples and solving of problems, in this chap-
ter, the student should be able to:
1. Explain the terminologies used in reciprocating air compressors,
2. Describe construction and operation of of the reciprocating air compressors applying
the p-v diagrams,
3. Derive the expressions governing work (air power),energy balance for both single and
multi-stage compressors,
4. Apply derived equations and performance diagram to solve reciprocating compressors
problems,
5. Correlate compressors working processes to their practical applications in thermody-
namics systems.

3.1 Introduction
The function of a compressor is to take a definite quantity of fluid (usually a gas, and most
often air) and deliver it at a required pressure. The most efficient machine is one which
will accomplish this with the minimum input of mechanical work. Both reciprocating and
rotary positive displacement machines are used for a variety of purposes. On the basis
of performance a general distinction can be made between the two types by defining the
reciprocating type as having the characteristics of a low mass rate of flow and high-pressure
ratios, and the rotary type as having a high mass rate of flow and low-pressure ratios. The
pressure range of atmospheric to about 9 bar is common to both types. Some rotary
machines are suitable only for low-pressure ratio work, and are applied to the scavenging
and supercharging of engines, and the various applications of exhausting and vacuum
pumping. For pressures above 9 bar the vane-type rotary machine can be used to supply
boost pressures, but for sustained high-pressure work up to 500 bar and above, for special
purposes, the reciprocating type is used. Both basic types exist in many different forms
each having its own characteristics. They may be single or multistage, and have either
air or water cooling. The reciprocating machine is pulsating in action which limits the
rate at which fluid can be delivered, but the rotary machine is continuous in action and
does not have this disadvantage. The rotary machines are smaller in size for a given flow,
lighter in weight and mechanically simpler than their reciprocating counterparts. The
treatment and scope of the following sections is fundamental and is not exhaustive. Many

62
compressors are designed to overcome the deficiencies of the basic machines and to satisfy
special requirements. For descriptions of these machines the excellent literature supplied
by the manufacturers concerned should be consulted. For a compressor which operates in
a cyclic or pulsating manner, such as a reciprocating compressor, the properties at inlet
and outlet are the average values taken over the cycle. Alternatively the boundary of the
control volume is chosen such that states 1 and 2 are constant with time, the positions
selected being remote from the pulsating disturbance.

3.2 Reciprocating compressors

Typical reciprocating compressor cylinder arrangements are shown in Figure 3.1(a) and
(b). The mechanism involved is the basic piston, connecting-rod, crank, and cylinder
arrangement.

Figure 3.1:
Single-acting
(a) and double-
acting (b) re-
ciprocating air
compressors.

63
Initially the clearance volume in the cylinder will be considered negligible. Also the working
fluid will be assumed to be a perfect gas. The cycle takes one revolution of the crankshaft
for completion and the basic indicator diagram is shown in Figure 3.2.
The valves employed in most air compressors are designed to give automatic action. They
are of the spring-loaded type operated by a small difference in pressure across them, the
light spring pressure giving a rapid closing action.

Figure 3.2:
Pressure vol-
ume diagram
for a re-
ciprocating
compressor
with clearance
neglected.

The lift of the valve to give the required airflow should be as small as possible and should
operate without shock. In Figure 3.2 the line d-a represents the induction stroke. The
mass in the cylinder increases from zero at d to that required to fill the cylinder at a. In the
ideal case the temperature is constant at T1 for this process and there is no heat exchange
with the surroundings. Induction commences when the pressure difference across the valve
is sufficient to open it. Line abc represents the compression and delivery stroke. As the
piston begins its return stroke the pressure in the cylinder rises and closes the inlet valve.
The pressure rise continues with the returning piston as shown by line ab until the pressure
is reached at which the delivery valve opens (a value decided by the valve and the pressure
in the receiver). The delivery takes place as shown by the line be, which is a process at
constant temperature T2 , constant pressure p2 , zero heat exchange, and decreasing mass.

64
At the end of this stroke the cycle is repeated. The value of the delivery temperature T2
depends upon the law of compression between a and b, which in turn depends upon the
heat exchange with the surroundings during this process. It may be assumed that the
n
general form of compression is the reversible polytropic (i.e. pV = constant). The net
work done in the cycle is given by the area of the p-V diagram and is the work done on
the gas.
Indicated work done on the gas per cycle
= area abcd
= area abef + area bcOe - area adOf

p2 v2  p1 v1
Using equation Work input for area abef,
n1
p2 vb  p1 va
Work input  p2 vb  p1 va
n1
1
p2 vb  p1 va   1

n1

1n1
p2 vb  p1 va  n

n
i.e., Work input p2 vb  p1 va  (3.1)
n1
From equation, p1 v1 mRT1 , we can write

p1 va mRT1 and p2 va mRT2

where m is the mass induced and delivered per cycle. Then,

n
Work input per cycle mR T2  T1  (3.2)
n1
Work done on the air per unit time is equal to
the work done per cycle times the number of
cycles per unit time. The rate of mass flow is
more often used than the mass per cycle; if the
rate of mass flow is given the symbol m, and
replaces m in equation (3.2), then the equation
gives the rate at which work is done on the air,
or the indicated power.
The working fluid changes state between a and
b in Figure 3.2, from p1 and T1 to p2 and T2 ,
the change being shown in Figure 3.3, which is
a diagram of properties (i.e. p against v).
The delivery temperature is given by the equa-
tion, Figure 3.3: Compression process on a p-
p2 n1©n
T2 T1  p v diagram
1

65
Example 3.1
3
A single-stage reciprocating compressor takes 1 m of air per minute at 1.013 bar and 15
` 1.35
C and delivers it at 7 bar. Assuming that the law of compression is pv = constant,
and that clearance is negligible, calculate the indicated power.

Solution:

P1 V1
Mass delivered per minṁ
RT1

5
1.013  1  10
1.226 kg/min
287  288
where T1 = 15 + 273 = 288 K.

1.351©1.35
p n1©n 7
Delivery temp.,T2 T1  p2 288 

1 1.013
475.4 K

From equation (3.2)

n
i.e., Indicated power (I.P.) ṁR T2  T1 
n1
where ṁ is the mass flow rate,

1.35  1.226  287  475.4  288

i.e., I.P.
103  1.35  1  60

4.238 kW

The actual power input to the compressor is larger than the indicated power, due to the
work necessary to overcome the losses due to friction, etc.
i.e., Shaft power indicated power + friction power (3.3)

The mechanical efficiency of the machine is given by,

indicated power
Compressor mechamcal efficiency (3.4)
shaft power
To determine the power input required the efficiency of the driving motor must be taken
into account, in addition to the mechanical efficiency. Then,

shaft power
Input power (3.5)
efficiency of motor and drive

66
Example 3.2
If the compressor of Example 3.1 is to be driven at 300 rev/min and is a single-acting,
single-cylinder machine, calculate the cylinder bore required, assuming a stroke to bore
ratio of 1.5/1. Calculate the power of the motor required to drive the compressor if the
mechanical efficiency of the compressor is 85% and that of the motor transmission is 90%.

Solution:
3
Volume dealt with per unit time at inlet = 1 m /min

therefore,

1 3
Volume drawn per cycle 0.00333 m ©cycle
300

3
i.e., Cylinder volume 0.00333 m

therefore,

π 2
dL 0.00333
4

where d is the bore and L the stroke,

π 2
i.e., d 1.5  d 0.00333
4

therefore,
3 3
thus d 0.00283 m
i.e., Cylinder bore 141.4 mm

4.238
Power input to the compressor = 4.99 kW
0.85

4.99
and Motor power 5.54 kW
0.9

Proceeding from equation (3.5), other expressions for the indicated work can be derived,
i.e.

n n T2
Indicated power (I.P.) ṁR T2  T1  ṁRT1   1

n1 n1 T1

T2 p2 n1©n

Also, from equation,
T1 p1

67
 n p n1©n

Indicated power ṁRT1 v p2  1| (3.6)
n1 1

n p n1©n
or, Indicated power p1 V̇ v p2  1| (3.7)
n1 1

where V̇ is the volume induced per unit time.

3.2.1 The condition for minimum work

The work done on the gas is given by the area of the indicator diagram, and the work
done will be a minimum when the area of the diagram is a minimum. The height of the
diagram is fixed by the required pressure ratio (when p1 is fixed), and the length of the line
da is fixed by the cylinder volume, which is itself fixed by the required induction of gas.
The only process which can influence the area of the diagram is the line ab. The position
taken by this line is decided by the value of the index n; Figure 3.4 shows the limits of the
possible processes.
Line ab1 is according to the law pV = constant (i.e. isothermal)
γ
Line ab2 is according to the law pV = constant (i.e. isentropic)
Both processes are reversible. Isothermal compression is the most desirable process between
a and b, giving the minimum work to be done on the gas. This means that in an actual
Possible compression processes on a p-v diagram

Figure 3.4:
Possible com-
pression pro-
cesses on a p-v
diagram.

compressor the gas temperature must be kept as close as possible to its initial value, and
a means of cooling the gas is always provided, either by air or by water.

68
The indicated work done when the gas is compressed isothermally is given by the area
ab1 ed.
Area ab1 cd = area ab1 ef + area b1 cOe - area adOf
P2 P2
Area ab1 ef p2 Vb1 ln from equation, W = p1 V1 ln 
P1 P1

P2
i.e., indicated work per cycle p2 Vb1 ln  p1 Vb1  p1 Va
P1

Also p1 Va p2 Vb1 , since the process ab1 is isothermal, therefore

P2
indicated work per cycle p2 Vb1 ln
P1

P2
p1 Va ln (3.8)
P1

P2
mRT ln (3.9)
P1

When m and Va in equations (3.8) and (3.9) are the mass and volume induced per unit
time, then these equations give the isothermal power.

3.2.2 Isothermal efficiency

By definition, based on the indicator diagram,

isothermal work
Isothermal efficiency (3.10)
indicated work

Example 3.3
Using the data of Example 3.1 calculate the isothermal efficiency of the compressor
Solution:

From equation (3.9)

P2 1.226  0.287  288 7

Isothermal power ṁRT ln  ln
P1 60 1.013
3.265 kW

From Example 3.1,

Indicated power = 4.238 kW

69
Therefore using equation (3.9) above,

3.265
Isothermal efficiency 0.77 or 77%
4.238

The least desirable form of compression in reciprocating compressors is that given by the
isentropic process (Figure 3.4). The actual form of compression will usually be one between
these two limits. The three processes are shown represented on a T-s diagram in Figure 3.5:
1-2’ represents isothermal compression
1-2” represents isentropic compression
n
1-2 represents compression according to a law pv = constant

Figure 3.5:
Isother-
mal,polytropic,
and isentropic
compression
processes on a
T-s diagram.

The value of n is usually between 1.2 and 1.3 for a reciprocating air compressor. The
main method used for cooling the air is by surrounding the cylinder by a water jacket and
designing for the best ratio of surface area to volume of the cylinder.

3.3 Reciprocating compressors including clearance

3.3.1 Effect of on clearance volume of machine work

Clearance is necessary in a compressor to give mechanical freedom to the working parts
and allow the necessary space for valve operations.

70
Figure 3.6 shows the ideal indicator diagram with the clearance volume included. For
good-quality machines the clearance volume is about 6% of the swept volume, and with a
sleeve-valve machine it can be as low as 2%, but machines with clearances of 30-35% are
also common.

Figure 3.6:
Ideal indicator
diagram for a
reciprocating
compressor
with clearance.

When the delivery stroke bc is completed the clearance volume V, is full of gas at pressure
p2 and temperature T2 . As the piston proceeds on the next induction stroke the air expands
behind it until the pressure P1 is reached. Ideally as soon as the pressure reaches P1 , the
induction of fresh gas will begin and continue to the end of this stroke at a. The gas is
n
then compressed according to the law pV = C, and delivery begins at b as controlled by
the valves. The effect of clearance is to reduce the induced volume at P1 and T1 from V.
to ( Va - Vd ). The masses of gas at the four principal points are such that ṁa ṁb and
ṁc ṁd . The mass delivered per unit time is given by ṁb  ṁe , which is equal to that
induced, given by ṁa  ṁd . The properties of the working fluid change in processes a-b
and c-d as shown in Figure 3.7.

Referring to Figure 3.6 the indicated work done is given by the area of the p-V diagram.

Indicated work = area abcd

= area abef - area cefd (area cefg is common for both areas).

Then, using equation (3.10) for work represented in a p-v diagram for polytropic compres-
sion, i.e.,
n
Indicated power ṁR T2  T1 
n1
71
 Figure 3.7:
Compres-
sion and
re-expansion
of masses of
gas in a re-
ciprocating
compressor.

Then work represented by the two area cefd, from area abef;
n n
and Indicated power ṁa R T2  T1   ṁd R T2  T1 
n1 n1

n
or R ṁa  ṁd  T2  T1 
n1

n
Rṁ T2  T1  (3.11)
n1

where ṁ is the mass induced per unit time = ṁa  ṁd .

A comparison of equations (3.11) and (3.11) shows that they are identical. The work done
on compressing the mass of gas ṁc (or ṁd ) on compression, a-b, is returned when the gas
expands from c to d. Hence the work done per unit mass of air delivered is unaffected
by the size of the clearance volume. Other expressions can be derived as before. From
equation (3.7)

n p n1©n
i.e., Indicated power p1 V̇ v p2  1|
n1 1

Also, if there are f cycles per unit time, then we have:

V̇ f (Va  Vd  (3.12)

n p n1©n

Indicated power p1 f (Va  Vd  v p2  1| (3.13)
n1 1

72
The mass delivered per unit time can be increased by designing the machine to be double
acting, i.e. gas is dealt with on both sides of the piston, the induction stroke for one side
being the compression stroke for the other (Figure 3.1).

Example 3.4
3
A single-stage, double-acting air compressor is required to deliver 14 m of air per minute
`
measured at 1.013 bar and 15 C. The delivery pressure is 7 bar and the speed 300 rev/min.
Take the clearance volume as 5% of the swept volume with a compression and re-expansion
index of n = 1.3. Calculate:
(a) the swept volume of the cylinder,
(b) the delivery temperature, and
(c) the indicated power.
Solution:
Referring to Figure 3.8
(a) Swept volume

Swept volume Va , Vc  Vs

and, Clearance volume, Vc 0.05Vs
i.e., Va 1.05Vs .

Using equation (3.12) for a double-acting machine

14
Volume induced per cycle, Va  Vd 
300  2

3
0.0233 m ©cycle

cycles per minute = revolutions per minute  cycles per revolution.

p2 1©n 7 1©1.3
Now, Vd Vc  p 0.05Vs 

1 1.013

i.e., Vd 0.221Vs

therefore,
3
Va  Vd  1.05Vs  0.221Vs . 0.0233 m ©cycle

0.0233 3
and, Vs 0.0281 m ©cycle
0.829

3
i.e., Swept volume of compressor 0.0281 m

73
 Figure 3.8:
Pressure-
volume di-
agram for
Example 3.4.

(b) Delivery temperature

From equation,
p2 n1©n
T2 T1  p
1

and, T1 15  273 288 K

1.31©1.3
7
Delivery temp., T2 288 

1.013

450 K

(c) Indicator power

Using the equation (3.7), for compressor’s indicated power,

n p n1©n
i.e., Indicated power p1 V̇ v p2  1|
n1 1

where V̇ is the volume induced per unit time.

1.31©1.3
1.3 5 7
then, Indicated power  1.013  10  14 w
 1} kW
0.3 1.013

where, V̇ is the volume induced per unit time.

74
 thus, Indicated power 57.6 kW

The approach used for a particular problem depends on how the data are stated and the
quantities evaluated during the solution. In some problems it is better to evaluate m and
T2 and then use equation (3.12) for the indicated power; e.g. in Example 3.4 above, T2
has been calculated, and the mass induced is given by

5
1.013  10  14
m 17.16 kg/min
0.287  288  103
Then, using equation (3.11),
n
Indicated power Rṁ T2  T1 
n1

1.3  17.16  0.287 450  288

0.3  60

= 57.6 kW as before

3.3.2 Actual indicator diagram

The diagrams previously shown (e.g. Figure 3.8) are ideal diagrams. An actual indicator
diagram is similar to the ideal except for the induction and delivery processes which are
modified by a valve action. This is shown in Figure 3.9. The waviness of the lines d-a and
b-c is due to valve bounce. Automatic valves are in general use (Figure 3.9), and these
are less definite in action than cam-operated valves; they also give more throttling of the
gas. The induction stroke d-a is a mixing process, the induced air mixing with that in the
cylinder.

3.3.3 Volumetric efficiency, ηv

It has been shown that one of the effects of clearance is to reduce the induced volume to
a value less than that of the swept volume. This means that for a required induction the
cylinder size must be increased over that calculated on the assumption of zero clearance.
The volumetric efficiency is defined as follows:

ηv the mass of gas delivered, divided by the mass of gas which would fill the
(3.14)
swept volume at the free air conditions of pressure and temperature
or
ηv the volume of gas delivered measured at the free air pressure and temperature,
divided by the swept volume of the cylinder.
(3.15)

75
 Figure 3.9: Ac-
tual indicator
diagram for a
reciprocating
compressor.

The volume of air dealt with per unit time by an air compressor is quoted as the free air
delivery (FAD), and is the rate of volume flow delivered, measured at the pressure and
temperature of the atmosphere in which the machine is situated.
In other words, FAD is the amount of compressed air delivered at the outlet of a compressor,
converted back to the actual inlet (free air) conditions before it was compressed.
To calculate the free air delivery of a compressor firstly the pressure and temperature at
the inlet of the compressor are needed. Then the pressure and temperature of the outlet
air along with the volume discharged are also measured. The output volume of the air is
referenced back to inlet conditions using the Ideal Gas Law as shown in the ahead.
Equations (3.14) and (3.15) can be shown to be identical, i.e. if the FAD per cycle is V,
at p and T, then the mass delivered per cycle is
pV
m
RT

The mass required to fill the swept volume, V., at p and T is given by
pVs
m
RT

Therefore by equation (3.14),

m pV RT V
ηv m RT pVs Vs

The volumetric efficiency can be obtained from the indicator diagram. Referring to Fig-
ure 3.10.
Volume induced Va  Vd Vs  Vc  Vd

76
 Figure 3.10: Indi-
cator diagram for a
reciprocating com-
pressor.

V1 p2 1©n

and using the general equation equation,
V2 p1

Vd p2 1©n p 1©n
i.e., 
p1 or Vd Vc  p2
Vc 1

p 1©n

, Volume induced Vs  Vc  Vc  p2
1

p 1©n
Vs  Vc v p2  1|
1

From the definition of volumetric efficiency,ηv as the volume of gas delivered measured at
the free air pressure and temperature, divided by the swept volume of the cylinder

1©n
Va  Vd Vs  Vc t p2 ©p1   1z
i.e., ηv
Vs Vs

Vc p2 1©n
thus, ηv 1 v  1| (3.16)
Vs p1

It is important to note that this definition of volumetric efficiency is only consistent with the
definition if the conditions of pressure and temperature in the cylinder during the induction
stroke are identical with those of the free air. In fact the gas will be heated by the cylinder
walls, and there will be a reduction in pressure due to the pressure drop required to induce
the gas into the cylinder against the resistance to flow. These modifications to the ideal
case require a more careful application of the formulae previously derived. For example,
when the FAD per cycle is denoted by V at p and T, then,

77
 pV p1 Va  Vd 
m
RT RT

Tp1
i.e., FAD/cycle, V Va  Vd  (3.17)
T1 p

where p1 and T1 are the suction conditions.

Example 3.5
3
A single-stage, double-acting air compressor has a FAD of 14 m /min measured at 1.013
`
bar and 15 C. The pressure and temperature in the cylinder during induction are 0.95 bar
`
and 32 C. The delivery pressure is 7 bar and the index of compression and expansion, n,
is equal to 1.3. If the clearance volume is 5% of the swept volume, Obtain:
1. the indicated power required, and
2. the volumetric efficiency.
Solution:
The p-V diagram is shown in Figure 3.11

pV̇
Mass delivered per unit time,ṁ
RT

Figure 3.11:
Pressure-volume di-
agram for Example
3.5.

where the FAD is V̇ at p and T,

5
1.013  14  10
i.e., ṁ 17.16 k/min
0.287  288  103
where, T = 32 + 273 = 305 K.

78
 p n1©n
also, from equation T2 T1  p 2
1

1.31©1.3
7
i.e., T2 305  
483.6 K
0.95

where, T1 = 32 + 273 = 305 K.

(a) Indicated power

n
Indicated power ṁR T2  T1 
n1

1.3  17.16  0.287 483.6  305

0.3  60

63.5 kW

(b) Volumetric efficiency

Vc p2 1©n 0.05Vs 7 1©1.3

thus, ηv 1 v  1| 1 w
 1}
Vs p1 Vs 0.95

0.818 or 81.8%

p 1©n
Also, as before Vd Vc  p2
1

7 1©1.3 0.769
i.e., Vd 0.05Vs 
0.05Vs  7.368
0.95

0.232Vs

Va  Vd Va  0.232Vs 1.05Vs  0.232Vs 0.818Vs

From the equation for FAD,

Tp1
i.e., FAD/cycle, V Va  Vd 
T1 p

288 0.95
0.818Vs   0.724Vs
305 1.013
79
As seen from the definition of ηv
V 0.724Vs
i.e., ηv 0.724 or 72.4%
Vs Vs

There is a considerable difference between the two values, since the former answer ignores
the difference in temperature and pressure between the free air conditions and the suction
conditions.

3.4 Multistage compression

It is shown in section that the condition for minimum work is that the compression
process should be isothermal. In general the temperature after compression is given by
n1©n
the equation, T2 T1 p2 ©p1  . The delivery temperature increases with the pressure
ratio. Further, from equation (3.16)

Vc p2 1©n
i.e., ηv 1 v  1|
Vs p1
it can be seen that as the pressure ratio increases the volumetric efficiency decreases. This
is illustrated in Figure 3.12.
For compression from p1 to p2 the cycle is abcd and the FAD per cycle is Va  Vd ;
¬
for compression from p1 to p3 the cycle is ab’c’d’ and the FAD per cycle is Va  Vd ; for
¬¬
compression from p1 to p4 the cycle is ab”c”d” and the FAD per cycle is Va  Vd . Therefore
for a required FAD the cylinder size would have to increase as the pressure ratio increases.
The volumetric efficiency can be improved by carrying out the compression in two stages.
After the first stage of compression the fluid is passed into a smaller cylinder in which the
gas is compressed to the required final pressure. If the machine has two stages, the gas
will be delivered at the end of this stage, but it could be delivered to a third cylinder for
higher pressure ratios. The cylinders of the successive stages are proportioned to take the
volume of gas delivered from the previous stage.
The indicator diagram for a two-stage machine is shown in Figure 3.13. In this diagram it
is assumed that the delivery process from the first or LP stage and the induction process
of the second or HP stage are at the same pressure.
The ideal isothermal compression can only be obtained if ideal cooling is continuous. This
is difficult to obtain during normal compression. With multistage compression the oppor-
tunity presents itself for the gas to be cooled as it is being transferred from one cylinder
to the next, by passing it through an intercooler. If intercooling is complete, the gas will
enter the second stage at the same temperature at which it entered the first stage. The
saving in work obtained by intercooling is shown by the shaded area in Figure 3.14 and
the diagram of the plant is shown in Figure 3.15. The two indicator diagrams abed and
a’b’c’d’ are shown with a common pressure, Pi · This does not occur in a real machine as
there is a small pressure drop between the cylinders. An after-cooler can be fitted after
the delivery process to cool the gas.
The delivery temperatures from the two stages are given by;

80
 Figure 3.12: Effect
on the volumet-
ric efficiency of
increasing the
delivery pressure.

p n1©n p n1©n
Ti T1  p i and T2 T1  p2
1 i

respectively. This assumes that the gas is cooled in the intercooler back to the inlet
temperature, and is called complete intercooling. To calculate the indicated power the
equations (3.12) and (3.13) can be applied to each stage separately and the results added
together. Two-stage compression with complete intercooling and after-cooling, and equal
pressure ratios in each stage, is represented on a T-s diagram in Figure 3.16.

Example 3.6
In a single-acting, two-stage reciprocating air compressor 4.5 kg of air per minute are
`
compressed from 1.013 bar and 15 C through a pressure ratio of 9 to 1. Both stages have
1.3
the same pressure ratio, and the law of compression and expansion in both stages is pV
= constant. Assuming that the clearance volumes of both stages are 5% of their respective
swept volumes and that the compressor runs at 300 rev/min. If inter-cooling is complete,
calculate:
(a) the indicated power, and
(b) the cylinder swept volumes required.
Solution:
The two indicator diagrams are shown superimposed in Figure 3.17. The LP stage cycle

81
 Figure 3.13:
Pressure-volume di-
agram for two-stage
compression.

Figure 3.14: Effect of intercool-

ing on the compression work

is abed and the HP cycle is a’b’c’d’.

Now, p2 9p1 , alsopi ©p1 p2 ©pi p; ,

82
 Figure 3.15: Plant showing in-
tercooling between compressor
stages.

Figure 3.16: T-s diagram show-

ing intercooling and aftercooling

Figure 3.17: Pressure-volume di-

agram showing both stages for
Example 3.6

2 2
therefore, pi p1 p2 9p1

Ó
and, pi ©p1 9 3

83
Using equation,
Ti pi n1©n

T1 p1

1.31©1.3
i.e., Ti 288  3

where T1 = 15 + 273 = 288 K, and T1 is the temperature of the air entering the inter-cooler,

i.e., Ti 288  1.289 371 K

(a) Indicated power: Now as n, ṁ, and the temperature difference are the same for
both stages, then the work done in each stage is the same. Therefore using equation 3.11,
i.e.
n
Indicated power Rṁ T2  T1 
n1
then for 2 stage machine,
n
total indicated power 2 ṁR T2  T1 
n1

2  1.3  4.5  0.287 371  288

0.3  60

15.5 kW

(b) Swept volume

The mass induced per cycle is,
4.5
0, 015 kg/cycle
300

This mass is passed through each stage in

turn.
For the LP cylinder, referring to Fig-
ure 3.18,

mRT1
Va  Vd p1
0.015287288
1.013105
3
0.0122 m ©cycle

Using equation 3.16 Figure 3.18: Pressure-volume diagram

Va  Vc Vc pi 1©n for LP stage for Example 3.6
i.e., ηv 1 v  1|
Vs Vs p1

1©1.3
1  0.05 3  1

therefore,
ηv 1  0.66 0.934

84
Then,

Va  Vd 0.0122 3
Vs 0.0131m ©cycle
0.934 0.934

3
i.e., Swept volume of LP cylinder 0.0131 m
`
For the HP stage, a mass of 0.015 kg/cycle is drawn in at 15 C and a pressure of pi ; = 3
 1.013 = 3.039 bar, therefore,

0.015  287  288

Vo1ume drawn in
3.039  105

3
0.00406 m ©cycle

Using equation 3.16 again for the HP stage,

Vc pi 1©n
i.e., ηv 1 v  1|
Vs p1

and since Vc /Vs . is the same as for the LP stage and also p2 ©pi pi ©p1 then ηv is 0.934
as above. Therefore,

0.00406 3
Swept volume of HP stage 0.00436 m
0.934
Note that the clearance ratio is the same in each cylinder, and the suction temperatures
are the same since inter-cooling is complete, therefore the swept volumes are in the ratio
of the suction pressures,
0.0131 3
i.e., VsH VsL 0.00436 m as above
3

3.4.1 The ideal intermediate pressure

The value chosen for the intermediate pressure Pi influences the work to be done on the gas
and its distribution between the stages. The condition for the work done to be a minimum
will be proved for two-stage compression but can be extended to any number of stages.
Total work = LP stage work + HP stage work.
Therefore using equation for power for single stage;

n p n1©n
i.e., Total power ṁRT1 v p i  1|
n1 1

n p n1©n
 ṁRT1 v p2  1| (3.18)
n1 i

85
It is assumed that inter-cooling is complete and therefore the temperature at the start of
each stage is T1 .

n p n1©n p2 n1©n
i.e., Total power ṁRT1 v p i 1
p  1| (3.19)
n1 1 i

If p1 , T1 , and p2 are fixed, then the optimum value of Pi which makes the power a minimum
can be obtained by equating d (power)© dpi  to zero, i.e. optimum value of Pi when,

d pi n1©n p2 n1©n
v 1  1|
dpi p1 pi 0

d 1 n1©n n1©n n1©n 1

n1©n
i.e. when, w
pi  p2 
 2} 0
dpi p1 pi

therefore, differentiating w.r.t pi ,

 n1©n n  1 r n1©nx1 n1©n 1  n r 1n©nx1


pi 
p1 n  p2
n
pi 0

 n1©n n  1 1©n n1©n n1 12n©n


and, p1 n
pi p2 
n
pi 0


r2 n 1x©n n1©n
or, pi p2 p1 

2
then, pi p2 p1 (3.20)

pi p2
or, p1 pi (3.21)

i.e. the pressure ratio is the same for each stage.

Total minimum power = 2  (power required for one stage)

nṁRT1 pi n1©n
2 v  1|
n1 p1

Or in terms of the overall pressure ratio p2 /p1 , we have, using equation

×
Ó p2
pi p1 p2 p1

Therefore,

nṁRT1 p2 n1©2n
Total minimum power 2 v  1|
n1 p1

This can be shown to extend to z stages giving in general,

86
 nṁRT1 p2 n1©zn
Total minimum power z v  1| (3.22)
n1 p1

p2 1©z

Also,pressure ratio for each stage p1 (3.23)

Hence the condition for minimum work is that the pressure ratio in each stage is the same
and that inter-cooling is complete. (Note that in Example 3.6 the information given implies
minimum work.)

Example 3.7
A three-stage, single-acting air compressor running in an atmosphere at 1.013 bar and 15
` 3
C has a free air delivery of 2.83 m /min. The suction pressure and temperature are 0.98
`
bar and 32 C respectively. If the delivery pressure is to be 70 bar, calculate the indicated
power required, assuming complete inter-cooling, n = 1.3, and that the machine is designed
for minimum work.

Solution:

5
pV 1.013  10  2.83
Mass of air delivered 3.47 kg/mm
RT 287  288
where, T = 15 + 273 = 288 K. Then using equation, Total indicated power
nṁRT1 p2 n1©zn
z v  1|
n1 p1

1.3 3.47  0.287  288 70 1.31© 31.3

3  w
 1}
0.3 60 0.98

24.2 kW

Besides the benefits of multistage compression already dealt with there are also mechanical
advantages. The higher pressures are confined to the smaller cylinders and a multi-cylinder
machine has less variation in rotational speed and requires a smaller flywheel.

3.4.2 Energy balance for a two-stage machine with intercooler

Referring to Figure 3.19, the steady-flow energy equation can be applied to the LP stage,
the intercooler, and the HP stage, in turn. Changes in kinetic energy and height can be
neglected, i.e. from equation,

2 2
C1 C2
h1   Q+W h2 
2 2
87
 Figure 3.19: Steady flow through
a two-stage reciprocating com-
pressor with lntercooler

for the LP stage, for unit mass flow rate,

h1  QL  WL hi

or for mass flow rate, ṁ

ṁcp T1  Q̇L  ẆL ṁcp Ti
therefore
Q̇L  sẆL  ṁcp Ti  T1 y

i.e. Heat rejected in LP stage ẆL  ṁcp Ti  T1  (3.24)

for the intercooler, for unit mass flow rate

hi  Q̇I , h1

or for mass flow rate, ṁ

ṁcp Ti  Q̇I ṁcp T1
therefore,
Q̇I ṁcp Ti  T1 

i.e., Heat rejected in the intercooler ṁcp T1 (3.25)

for the HP stage, for unit mass flow rate,

h1  QH  WH h2

or for mass flow rate, ṁ

ṁcp T1  QH  ẆH ṁcp T2

therefore,

Q̇H rẆH  dotmcp Ti  T1 x

i.e. Heat rejected in HP stage, Q̇H ẆH  dotmcp Ti  T1  (3.26)

With complete intercooling, as assumed in Figure 3.12, and the compressor designed for
minimum work, then,

88
 n
ẆL ẆH ṁR T2  T1 
n1

Example 3.8
Using the data of Example 3.6 determine the rate of heat loss to the cylinder jacket cooling
water and the rate of heat loss to the inter-cooler circulating water.

Solution:
From Example 3.6 we have

15.5
ẆL ẆH kW
2

and, T2 T1 371 K
Then, from equation (3.24)
Q̇L ẆL  ṁcp T2  T1 

therefore,

15.5 4.5  1.005

Q̇L  371  288
2 60

7.75  6.26 1.49 kW

From equation (3.26)

Q̇H ẆH  ṁcp T2  T1 
and ẆH ẆL and T2 Ti
therefore,
Q̇H Q̇L 1.49 kW

i.e., Heat loss from the cylinder in each stage = 1.49 kW

From equation (3.25)

4.5  1.005
Q̇I ṁcp T2  T1   371  288 6.26 kW
60

i.e. Heat to intercooler circulating water 6.26kW

The quantities ẆH and ẆH , as defined by Figure 3.19, are the rates of work done on the
air. The actual power inputs exceed this by the amounts necessary to overcome frictional
resistance to the moving parts of the machine. It can be assumed that about 50% of the
friction power goes to increasing the energy transferred to the cooling water, in addition
to the heat transferred to the cooling water from the air in the cylinder.

89
3.5 Steady-flow analysis
In section an expression was obtained (equation (3.25)) for the indicated power required
to take a mass flow rate of gas, m, in state 1 and deliver it at a higher pressure in state 2.
This was done by analysing the internal processes of the machine. Another approach is to
consider the compression process as one of steady flow, as shown in Figure 3.21, with the
change of state from 1 to 2 being achieved by a non-flow process of polytropic compression,
as indicated in the property diagram of Figure ??.

Figure 3.20: Steady flow through

a reciprocating compressor

Figure 3.21: Compression pro-

cess on a p-v diagram.

The steady-flow energy equation for the system shown in Figure 3.21, neglecting changes
in potential and kinetic energy and for unit mass flow rate, is
h1  Q + W h2
therefore,
Q+W h2  h1
or for an elemental process
dQ + dW = dh (i)

Assuming that no heat is transferred on induction or delivery the heat transferred, to or

from the system, takes place during the polytropic non-flow compression process. The
non-flow equation for a reversible process states

dQ = du + p dv (ii)
Combining (I) and (ii) gives dh = du + p d v + d W
and, by definition, h = u + pv, hence dh = du + p dv + v dp, therefore, substituting
du + pdv + vdp = du + p dv + dW
therefore,
dW = vdp

Then,
E
2
W v dp = area 12ba1 in Figure ??,
1

90
 1©n
E
2
1©n dp C n
i.e., W=C since v if pv C
1 p1©n p1©n

n n1©n
2
1©n
C  p 
n1 1

n n1©n 1©n
2
 p p v
n1 1

n 2
 pv
n1 1

n
p2 v2  p1 v1 
n1

n
i.e. Work input, W p2 v2  p1 v1 
n1

and as p1 v1 = RT1 and p2 v2 = RT2 then,

n
W R T2  T1 
n1

Rotary Machines Because of the continuous rotary action, the rotary positive displacement
machine is smaller for a given flow than its reciprocating counterpart. The machines in this
category are generally uncooled and as the compression is carried out at a high rate the
conditions are approximately adiabatic. Examples of this type are: (i) the Roots blower;
(ii) vane type.

3.5.1 Roots blower

The two-lobe type is shown in Figure 3.22, but three- and four-lobe versions are in use for
higher pressure ratios. One of the rotors is connected to the drive and the second rotor
is gear driven from the first. In this way the rotors rotate in phase and the profile of the
lobes is of cycloidal or in volute form giving correct mating of the lobes to seal the delivery
side from the inlet side. This sealing continues until delivery commences. There must be
some clearance between the lobes and between the casing and the lobes to reduce wear;
this clearance forms a leakage path which has an increasingly adverse effect on efficiency
as the pressure ratio increases.
As each side of each lobe faces its side of the casing a volume of gas V, at pressure p1 , is
displaced towards the delivery side at constant pressure. A further rotation of the rotor
opens this volume to the receiver, and the gas flows back from the receiver, since this gas is
at a higher pressure. The gas induced is compressed irreversibly by that from the receiver
to the pressure p1 , and then delivery begins. This process is carried out four times per
revolution of the driving shaft.

91
 Figure 3.22: Roots blower with a
two-lobe rotor.

The p-V diagram for this machine is shown in

Figure 3.23, in which the pressure rise from p1 to
p2 is shown as an irreversible process at constant
volume.

Work done per cycle p2  p1V

therefore,

Work done per revolution 4 p2  p1V

(3.27)
If V̇ is the volume dealt with per unit time at
p1 and T1 , then,
Figure 3.23: Pressure-volume diagram
Power input p2for a Roots
 p1 V̇s blower (3.28)

The ideal compression process from p1 to p2 is a reversible adiabatic (i.e. isentropic)

process. The work done per minute ideally is thus given by equation (3.7) with n = y,

γ p γ 1©γ
i.e., Power input p1 V̇s v p2  1|
γ1 1

Then a comparison may be made on the basis of a Roots efficiency,

work done isentropically

i.e., Roots efficiency
actual work done

γ 1©γ
rγ © γ  lxp1 V̇s r p2 ©p1   1x
or, Roots efficiency
V̇s p2  p1 
γ 1©γ
γ rr  1x

γ  1 r  1

92
 p γ cp
where, r = pressure ratio, p2 . From the equation, , then,
1 γ1 R

cp r γ 1©γ  1
Roots efficiency w } (3.29)
R r  1

For a Roots air blower values of pressure ratio, r, of 1.2, 1.6, and 2 give values for the
Roots efficiency of 0.945, 0.84, and 0.765 respectively. These values show that the efficiency
decreases as the pressure ratio increases.
The actual compression process is not quite as simple as that described. When the dis-
placement volume V is opened to the delivery space a pressure wave enters which increases
with the opening and moves at the velocity of sound. This wave is reflected from the ap-
proaching lobe to the delivery space. The pressure oscillations set up unsteady conditions
in the delivery space which vary considerably from one design to another. The actual
torque and loading on the rotors are higher than is suggested by the p-V diagram, and
fluctuate with high frequency. This fluctuation is transmitted to the drive and creates
difficulties due to vibrations. This machine has a number of imperfections, but is well
suited to such tasks as the scavenging and supercharging of IC engines.
3
Roots blowers are built for capacities of from 0.14 to 1400 m /min, and pressure ratios
of the order of 2 to 1 for a single-stage machine and 3 to 1 for a two-stage machine.
Other designs have been produced to improve on the Roots blower, one of these being
the Bicera compressor, designed by the British Internal Combustion Engineering Research
Association (BICERA).

3.5.2 Vane type

The simple vane type is shown in Figure 3.24 and consists of a rotor mounted eccentrically
in the body, and supported by ball- and roller-bearings in the end covers of the body. The
rotor is slotted to take the blades which are of a non-metallic material, usually fibre or
carbon. As each blade moves past the inlet passage, compression begins due to decreasing
volume between the rotor and casing. Delivery begins with the arrival of each blade at the
delivery passage.

Figure 3.24: Vane-type positive

displacement compressor.

93
This type of compression differs from that of the Roots blower in that some or all of
the compression is obtained before the trapped volume is opened to delivery. Further
compression can be obtained by the back-flow of air from the receiver which occurs in an
irreversible manner.
The p-V diagram is shown in Figure 3.25. Vs is the induced volume at pressure p1 and
temperature T1 . Compression occurs to the pressure pi , the ideal form for an uncooled
machine being isentropic. At this pressure the displaced gas is opened to the receiver and
gas flowing back from the receiver raises the pressure irreversibly to p2 . The work input is
given by the sum of the areas A and B, referring to Figure 3.25. Comparing the areas of
Figures 3.23 and 3.25 it can be seen that for a given airflow and given pressure ratio the
vane type requires less work input than the Roots blower.
Figure 3.25: Pressure-volume di-
agram for a vane-type compres-
sor.

A rotary sliding vane two-stage machine is shown in Figure 3.26; in this type the vanes are
in contact with the cylinder walls.
Figure 3.26: Rotary sliding vane
two-stage positive displacement
compressor.

Example 3.8
Compare the work inputs required for a Roots blower and a vane-type compressor hav-
3
ing the same induced volume of 0.03 m /rev, the inlet pressure being 1.013 bar and the
pressure ratio 1.5 to 1. For the vane type assume that internal compression takes place
through half the pressure range.

94
Solution:

p1 1.013 bar

p1 1.013  1.5 1.520 bar

For the Roots blower, referring to Figure 3.23;

Work done per revolution p2  p1 Vs

3
10  0.03
1.520  1.013 
10

1.52 kJ/rev

For the vane type,

1.5  1.013  1.013
p1 1266 bar
2
Referring to Figure 3.25
Work required = (area A + area B) Now using equation (3.7) with n = y

γ p γ 1©γ
i.e., area A p1 Vs v p2  1|
γ1 1

1.266 0.4©1.4
5
1.4 1.013  10  0.03
 w
 1} kJ/rev.
0.4 103 1.013

0.70 kJ/rev.
area B p2  pi Vb

p2 1©γ

where Vb , is given by equation V p1 ,

p 1©γ 1.013 1©1.4

i.e., Vb  p2 0.03  

1 1.266

3
0.0256 m

2
i.e., area B 1.520  1.266  10  0.0256 kJ/rev
0.65 kJ/rev

therefore,
Work required 0.70  0.65 1.35 kJ/rev
(compared with the work required for the Roots machine of 1.52 kJ/rev).

95
 3
Rotary sliding vane compressors are used with free air deliveries of up to 150 m /min and
pressure ratios up to 8.5 to 1. For special applications and boosting, pressure ratios of
the order of 20 to 1 have been obtained from this type. The larger machines are usually
water-cooled.
Lubrication is important with vane-type machines and is accomplished by injecting oil to
the vane tips in contact with the casing. Some machines, having carbon vanes, require no
lubrication. Another version is designed to reduce the friction between vane and casing.
This employs a floating drum which rotates between the rotor and casing, and does not
allow the vanes to make contact with the casing. The only movement of the blades relative
to the floating drum is along the slots (Figure 3.26).
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
Question ONE
A single-cylinder, single-acting air compressor of 200 mm bore by 250 mm stroke is con-
structed so that its clearance can be altered by moving the cylinder head, the stroke being
unaffected.
(a) Using the data below, calculate:
(i) the free air delivery;
(ii) the power required from the drive motor.
3
Data Clearance volume set at 700 cm ; rotational speed, 300 rev/min; delivery pres-
`
sure, 5 bar; suction pressure and temperature, 1 bar and 32 C; free air conditions,
`
1.013 bar and 15 C; index of compression and re-expansion, 1.25; mechanical effi-
ciency, 80%.
(b) The minimum value to which the clearance volume be reduced when the delivery
pressure is 4.2 bar, assuming that the same driving power is available and that the
suction conditions, speed, value of index, and mechanical efficiency, remain unaltered.
3
[Answers: 1.68 m /min; 7.1 kW; 458 cm 3 ]
Question TWO
A four-stage compressor works between limits of 1 bar and 112 bar. The index of compres-
sion in each stage is 1.28, the temperature at the start of compression in each stage is 32
`
C, and the intermediate pressures are so chosen that the work is divided equally among
the stages. Neglecting clearance, calculate:
(a) the temperature at delivery from each stage;
`
(b) the volume of free air delivered per kilowatt-hour at 1.013 bar and 15 C;
(c) the isothermal efficiency.
` 3
[Answers: 122 C; 6.23 m /kW h; 87.6%]
Tutorial
(3.1) Air is to be compressed in a single-stage reciprocating compressor from 1.013 bar
`
and 15 C to 7 bar. Calculate the indicated power required for a free air delivery of
3
0.3 m /min, when the compression process is as follows:

96
 (a) isentropic;
(b) reversible isothermal;
(c) polytropic, with n = 1.25.
Establish, the delivery temperature in each case. [Answers: 1.31 kW; 0.98 kW; 1.20
` ` `
kW; 227.3 C; 15 C; 150.9 C]
(3.2) The compressor of Problem 12.1 is to run at 1000 rev/min. If the compressor is
single-acting and has a stroke/bore ratio of 1.2/1, calculate the bore size required.
[Answer: 68.3 mm]
(3.3) A single-stage, single-acting air compressor running at 1000 rev/min delivers air at
25 bar. For this purpose the induction and free air conditions can be taken as 1.013
` 3
bar and 15 C, and the FAD as 0.25 m /min. The clearance volume is 3% of the
swept volume and the stroke/bore ratio is 1.2/1. Calculate:
(a) the bore and stroke;
(b) the volumetric efficiency;
(c) the indicated power;
(d) the isothermal efficiency.
Take the index of compression and re-expansion as 1.3. [Answers:73.2 mm; 87.8 mm;
67.7%; 2 kW; 67.7%]
`
(3.4) The compressor of Problem 3.3 has actual induction conditions of 1 bar and 40 C,
and the delivery pressure is 25 bar. Taking the bore and stroke as calculated in
`
Problem 12.3, calculate the FAD referred to 1.013 bar and 15 C and the indicated
power required. Calculate also the volumetric efficiency and compare it with that of
3
Problem 12.3. [Answers: 0.226 m /min; 1.98 kW; 61.2%; 67.7%]
(3.5) A single-acting compressor is required to deliver air at 70 bar from an induction
3
pressure of 1bar, at the rate of 2.4 m /min measured at free air conditions of 1.013
`
bar and 15 C. The compression is carried out in two stages with an ideal intermediate
pressure and complete inter-cooling. The clearance volume is 3% of the swept volume
in each cylinder and the compressor speed is 750 rev/min. The index of compression
and re-expansion is 1.25 for both cylinders and the temperature at the end of the
`
induction stroke in each cylinder is 32 C. The mechanical efficiency of the compressor
is 85%. Calculate:
(i) the indicated power required;
(ii) the saving in power over single-stage compression between the same pressures;
(iii) the swept volume of each cylinder;
(iv) the required power output of the drive motor.
3 3
[Answers: 22.74 kW; 5.98 kW; 0.00396 mm , 0.000474 mm ; 26.75 kW]
(3.6) For the compressor of Problem 12.5 calculate the heat rejected per minute to the
jacket cooling water of each stage, and the heat rejected per minute to the intercooler.
Assume that 50% of the friction power in each stage is transferred to the jacket
cooling water.
[Answers: 264 kJ/min; 478 kJ/min]

97
 (3.7) A single-acting, single-cylinder air compressor running at 300 rev/min is driven by
an electric motor. Using the data given below, and assuming that the bore is equal
to the stroke, calculate:
(a) the free air delivery;
(b) the volumetric efficiency;
(c) the bore and stroke.
`
Data Air inlet conditions, 1.013 bar and 15 C; delivery pressure, 8 bar; clearance
volume, 7% of swept volume; index of compression and re-expansion, 1.3; mechanical
efficiency of the drive between motor and compressor, 87%; motor power output, 23
kW. [Answers: 4.47 m 3/min; 72.7%; 297 mm]
(3.8) A two-stage air compressor consists of three cylinders having the same bore and
3
stroke. The delivery pressure is 7 bar and the FAD is 4.2 m /min. Air is drawn in at
` `
1.013 bar, 15 C and an inter-cooler cools the air to 38 C. The index of compression
is 1.3 for all three cylinders. Neglecting clearance calculate:
(a) the intermediate pressure;
(b) the power required to drive the compressor;
(c) the isothermal efficiency.
[Answers: 2.19 bar; 16.2 kW; 84.5%]
(3.9) A single-cylinder, single-acting reciprocating air compressor supplies a water-cooled
receiver from which the air is drawn off for process work. Taking the polytropic index
of compression and re-expansion as 1.3, and using the data below, calculate:
(a) the pressure in the receiver;
(b) the rate of heat rejection from the receiver;
(c) the volumetric efficiency of the compressor;
(d) the required power input to the compressor.
Data Cylinder bore, 200 mm; stroke, 250 mm; rotational speed, 440 rev/min; clear-
ance volume, 5% of swept volume; ambient pressure and temperature in compressor
`
house, 1.01 bar and 10 C; average pressure and temperature during the induction
`
stroke, 1 bar and 20 C; volume flow rate of air drawn off for process work, 0.6
3 `
m /min at 17 C. Note: Use a trial-and-error method for part (a). [Answers: 5 bar;
8.14 kW; 83.9%; 9.85 kW]
`
(3.10) Air at 1.013 bar and 15 C is to be compressed at the rate of 5.6 m 3/min to 1.75
bar. Two machines are considered: (a)
(a) the Roots blower; and
(b) a sliding vane rotary compressor. Compare the powers required, assuming for
the vane type that internal compression takes place through 75% of the pressure
rise before delivery takes place, and that the compressor is an ideal un-cooled
machine.
[Answers: 6.88 kW; 5.71 kW]

98
(3.11) Air is compressed in a two-stage vane-type compressor from 1.013 bar to 8.75 bar.
Using the data below, and assuming equal pressure ratios in each stage, that com-
pression is complete in each stage, that the machine operates in an ideal manner,
and is un-cooled apart from the intercooler, calculate: (i)
(a) the power required;
(b) the volume flow rate measured at the delivery pressure. Free air delivery, 42
3 `
m /min at 1.013 bar and 15 C; inter-cooling between stages is 75% complete.
3
[Answers:187 kW; 7.21 m /min]
(3.12) The following particulars refer to a single-acting air motor: cylinder diameter 380
mm; stroke 610 mm; speed 200 rev/min; supply pressure and temperature 6.2 bar
`
and 150 C; back pressure 1.03 bar; index of expansion and compression 1.35; cut-
off ratio 0.46; clearance volume 20% of swept volume; mechanical efficiency 95%.
Assuming that the temperature and pressure of the air in the clearance space at the
`
beginning of admission are 6.2 bar and 150 C, calculate:
(a) the air consumption;
(b) the air temperature after blow-down;
(c) the fraction of stroke travelled by the piston before recompression begins;
(d) the shaft power developed.
`
[Answers: 0.54 kg/s; -14.3 C; 0.463; 72.9 kW]
LABORATORY EXERCISE
1) Investigate the variation of air flow rate with compressor ratio (without inter-cooling)
OR
2) In a multi-stage (or any other available) air compressor, test for
ˆ Actual free Air delivery (FAD) of the the compressor,
ˆ Isothermal power required,
ˆ Volumetric efficiency, and
ˆ Specific power requirement.

References
2.1: EASTOP T. D. and McCONKEY A. 1993 Applied Thermodynamics For Engineering
th
Technologists, 5 edn. Pearson.
2.2: WINTERBONE D. E. and Turan A.2015 Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers,
nd
2 edn. Elsevier. 2.3: BS 1571 Testing of Positive Displacement Compressors and Ex-
hausters Part I ( 1987), Part II ( 1984).
2.4: ROGERS G F C and MAYHEW Y R 1987 Thermodynamic and Transport Properties
th
of Fluids 4 edn. Basil Blackwell.

99