ONE-WAY SLAB:

Ly
 >2.0
Lx
 These Slabs deflects in shorter direction alone in cylindrical form.
 Main reinforcement is provided along the shorter span.

TWO-WAY SLAB:

Ly
 ≤2.0 , Floor loads are transferred in two directions and hence, called as two-way slabs
Lx
 Contribution of longer span∈carrying loads will be significant .
 These Slabs deflects in both shorter and longer directions.
 Main reinforcement is provided along both the shorter and longer spans.
 Solid slabs supported by beams, Flat plates, Flat slabs and waffle slabs are two-way slab
systems.
 In the analysis of two-way slabs it is convenient to assume the slab to be made up of
beam strips spanning orthogonal to each other in the two directions.
 Each of the beam strips shares and transfers the applied loads to the supports, thus
exhibiting bending in both directions.
 To resist these bending moments, the slab should be reinforced in both the directions in
two layers.
 These reinforcement should be so designed so that, they take a proportionate share of the
applied load.
 The outer strips are bent up as well as twisted. This twisting results in torsional stresses
and torsional moments at the corners, resulting in lifting up of the corners.
 Thus, the total load is carried not only by the bending moments in the two directions but
also by the torsional moments.
 When the load is increased hair line cracks appear from the point of maximum deflection
and thereby causing reduced stiffness at the cracked regions of the slab than the
uncracked regions. The slab may not remain isotropic in every direction. In spite of this
violation in the assumptions of elastic analysis, the elastic theory predicts the moments
which is acceptable.
 With further increase in loads, yielding of reinforcements takes place at mid span. The
bending moments gets redistributed to the non yielding portions that still remain elastic.
 Further increase in loads causes the inelastic redistribution to continue until a large area
of steel at the central portion of the slab yields and mechanism is formed and the slab
fails.
 Elastic analysis does not accurately predict the behaviour beyond service loads and
significant redistribution of moments takes place after the first yielding.
  The load corresponding to this stage of behaviour can be estimated using
Yield Line Theory.

YIELD LINE ANALYSIS FOR SLABS

This method is based upon the Elastic theory. (The classical Elastic theory is primarily a theory
for isotropic, linearly elastic materials subjected to small deformations. All governing equations
in this theory are linear partial differential equations, which mean that the principle of
superposition may be applied).
The yield line theory is an ultimate load method of analysis of slab, i.e. the BM at the verge of
collapse is used as the basis for design. At collapse loads, an under reinforced slab begins to
crack with the reinforcement yielding at points of high moment. The crack lines or the yield
lines propagate with the increase in deflection until the slab is broken in to a number of
segments.
The reinforcements for slabs can be calculated by strength methods that account for the actual
inelastic behaviour of members at factored loads. (With good detailing, structures can be
designed for force levels significantly lower than would be required for elastic response).
Limit analysis not only eliminates the inconsistency of combining elastic analysis with inelastic
design but also accounts for the reserve strength available in most of the RC structures.
Limit analysis also permits with certain limits arbitrary readjustments of moments found by
elastic analysis to arrive at the design moments.
Clause 24.4 of Is: 456 permits the use of any acceptable theory in determining the bending
moments including Johansen’s yield line theory or by using coefficients given in Annex-D.
Yield Lines:
 When the load is increased on a reinforced concrete
slab
(for instance a simply supported square slab), the
region of higher moment will yield first and hairline
cracks occur at the bottom at mid-span as the
flexural tensile capacity of the slab is exceeded.
Further, increase in load will increase the crack
width and yielding of reinforcements takes place
(plastic hinges will be formed at the maximum
stressed locations).(on overloading large inelastic
rotations takes place at these plastic hinges).
With increasing loads, the cracks tend to drift
towards the boundaries of the slab and the tensile
reinforcement passing through the cracks also yield.
Plastic hinges along the lines of the yielded
reinforcement are called the yield lines.
The yield lines divide the slab into a series of
triangular slab elements in case of square slabs or a
combination of trapezoidal and triangular elements
in case of rectangular slabs.
Final failure will take place by the rotation of the
slab elements about the axes of rotation (which
usually are the support edges)
For the complete yield line pattern to develop the
slab must be under reinforced.
Thus the yield line phenomenon involves:
 A slab under increasing loads where cracking and reinforcement yielding occur in
the most highly stressed zone (i.e. around maximum moment)
 The highly stressed zone normally acts as a plastic hinge where the subsequent
loads are distributed to other region of the slab
 Cracks develop forming patterns of yield lines until a mechanism is formed,
 Collapse is then indicated by increasing deflection under constant load

Characteristics of Yield Lines:

Following are the characteristic features of the yield lines, which would help in selecting the
likely yield-line patterns and to ascertain the axes of rotation of the slabs. (Kennedy and
Goodchild-2003).
  Yield lines are generally straight and end at a slab boundary or the intersection of
other yield lines.
 Axes of rotation generally lie along lines of support.
 Axes of rotation pass over column supports.
 For a mechanism to develop, the yield line may pass through the intersection of
the axes of rotation of adjacent segments.
 Yield lines form under concentrated loads, radiating outwards from the point of
application.

Representation of Yield Lines and Supports:

Free Edge Line Load , kN/m

Simple Support Point Load, kN
Fixed or Continuous Support Axis of Rotation
Column Support Plastic Hinge
Positive (sagging) Yield Line
(m) kN-m/m (Tension@bottom)
Negative (hogging) Yield Line
(m’ ) kN-m/m(Tension @ top)

Typical Yield Line Patterns:

Negative yield lines appear near the supports in case of slabs with fixed or continuous supports
Positive yield lines form along the lines of intersection of the rotation segments of the slab.
In a square slab, there are axes of rotation over all four simple supports.
For a simply supported rectangular two-way slab, the diagonal yield lines pass through the
 corner, while the central yield line is parallel to the longer side

Upper and Lower Bound Theorem:

Plastic analysis methods such as the yield line theory derived from the general theory of
structural plasticity, which states that the ultimate collapse load of a structure lies between
two limits, an upper bound and a lower bound of the true collapse load.
The lower bound and upper bound theorem, when applied to slabs, can be stated as follows:

Lower Bound Theorem: If, for a given external load, it is possible to find a distribution
of moments that satisfies equilibrium requirements, with the moment not exceeding the
yield moment at any location, and if the boundary conditions are satisfied, then the given
load is a lower bound of the true carrying capacity.

Upper Bound Theorem: If, for a small increment of displacement, the internal work done
by the slab, assuming that the moment at every plastic hinge is equal to the yield moment
and that boundary conditions are satisfied, is equal to the external work done by the given
load for that same small increment of displacement, then that load is an upper bound of true
carrying capacity.

 If the lower bound conditions are satisfied, the slab can certainly carry the given
load, although a higher load may be carried if internal distributions of moment occur.

 If the upper bound conditions are satisfied, a load greater than the given load will
certainly cause failure, although a lower load may produce collapse if the selected
failure mechanism is incorrect in any sense.

 Accordingly the yield line method of analysis for slabs is an upper bound method,
and consequently the failure load calculated for a slab with known flexural resistance
may be higher than the true value.

Skewed Yield Lines:

Isotropically reinforced slabs are those slabs in which the main reinforcement is placed in two
perpendicular directions. In spite, of their effective depth being different, such slabs are said
to be Isotropically reinforced.

Ortotropically reinforced slabs are those slabs which will have different moment carrying
capacities in the two orthogonal directions and accordingly will have different reinforcements.

When the yield line perpendicular to the direction of the reinforcements, the yield line
ultimate moment m can be calculated using the equation provided in Annex G of IS: 456 for

under reinforced flexural member; m=M u=0.87 f y Ast d 1− [

f y A st
f ck b d
. ]
In orthotropically reinforced slabs, skewed yield lines will be formed at an angle α w.r.t the
reinforcement direction.

In yield line analysis it is necessary to calculate the resisting moment m, per unit length, along
such skewed yield lines and thus contribution to resistance from each of the two sets of
reinforcements needs to be calculated.

For an orthotropically reinforced slab;

Let the yield line make an angle α w.r.t the reinforcement in x- direction and let the
reinforcements spacing be v and moment of resistance m y per unit length about the y-axis.
Similarly the reinforcement along the y – direction, shall have a spacing of u and moment of
resistance mx per unit length about the x-axis.
The resisting moment per bar, for the bars in y – direction about the x-axis = mx u
The component of the resisting moment (m x u) about the α -axis = mx u cos ( α )
u
Spacing b/w the bars along the α -axis =
cos ( α )
Therefore, the resisting moment per unit length along the α -axis for the bars in y – direction
m u cos ( α )
mαy = x =mx cos 2 ( α ) or mαy =∑ m x cos 2 ( α )( for more than one type of mesh)
u/cos ( α )

Similarly, the moment of resistance per unit length along the α -axis, for the bars in x – direction;
 m y v sin ( α )
mαx = =m y sin 2 ( α ) or mαx =∑ m y sin 2 ( α ) ( for more than one type of mesh)
v /sin ( α )

Thus the resisting moment per unit length along the α -axis, for the combined set of
reinforcements is; mα =m x cos 2 ( α ) +m y sin 2 ( α ).

From the above equation, it can be observed that, if mx = m y = m then,

mα =m cos2 ( α )+ msin2 ( α )= m ( cos2 ( α )+ sin2 ( α ) )= m

It can be concluded that, in an isotropically reinforced slab, the yield moment is the same in all
directions, regardless of the orientation of the yield line.

Ultimate Load on Slabs:

There are two methods to determine the Ultimate load capacity of the slabs; 1. Equilibrium
method, and 2. Virtual Work method.

 Both methods give an upper bound to the collapse load on the slab.
 All possible yield line patterns should be investigated to get the lowest value of theW u .
 Rightly assumed yield line pattern gives the same upper and lower bound solutions.
 Actual failure loads are greater than the loads obtained from yield line analysis.
 Hence, upper bound values from yield line analysis can be safely used.

VIRTUAL WORK METHOD

Based on principle that work done by external forces in undergoing a small virtual
displacements is equal to the internal virtual work done in rotations along yield lines, the
ultimate load which the slab can sustain is determined.
In other words, the work during small motion of collapse mechanism is equal to the work
absorbed by the plastic hinges formed along the yield lines.
The segment of the slab within the yield lines is assumed to go through rigid body
displacement with the collapse load acting on the structure.
The slab is given a virtual displacement and the corresponding rotations at various yield lines
are calculated. By equating the external and internal work, the relation between the applied
load and the resisting moments of the slab can be obtained.
External Work:
The external work done by the loads ( W E ) is calculated as ; ( W E ) =∑ (W ∂). Where, W is the load
and ∂ is the virtual displacement.
Complicated slab elements can be subdivided into triangles and rectangles and the total external
work is calculated by summation of the work done by the loads on the individual slab elements
of the failure mechanism.

The external work may be positive or negative, depending on the direction of the displacement of
the point of application of the force resultant.

Internal Work done:

The internal work done ( W I ) during the assigned virtual displacement is found by summing
the product of yield line moment m per unit length of the yield line and the plastic rotation θ at
the respective yield lines
If the resisting moment m is constant along the yield line of length L , then the Internal work;
W I =∑ Mθ=∑ ( mLθ ) .

( If there is a variation in the resisting moment due to varying size and spacing of the bars, then
the yield line is divided into n segments having constant moments and then ,
W I =(m1 l 1 +m2 l 2 +.. mn l n) θ).

For the entire slab, the total internal work done is the sum of the contributions from all the yield
lines.

In all cases, the internal work contributed is positive irrespective of the sign of m as the rotation
is in the same direction as the moment.

Illustration;

Continuous One Way Slab:

The slab is reinforced at left and right supports, and
in span in such a way that the capacities of the
respective sections arem 1, m3 and m2 respectively.
Letδ be the plastic deflection at x from left hand
support. ( trail location of the positive yield line is
assumed to be at x). Ly
External Work;
1 1 1
W E= wu x L y δ + w u ( L−x ) L y δ = wu δ × L ..1
2 2 2
(per m strip i.e., L y =1)
Internal Work;
m1 xθ1 m3 mLu3x=L θL-x
δw 2 m2
W I =∑ m L y θ=( m1 +m3 ) θ 1+ ( m 2+ m3 ) θ2 ..2
(per m strip i.e., L y =1)
From small deflection theory ;
δ δ
tan(θ¿¿ 1)=θ1= ¿ and tan(θ¿¿ 2)=θ2= ¿
x L−x
…3
Therefore,
δ δ
W I =( m1 +m3 ) + ( m2+ m3 ) …4
x L−x For a simply supported one way slab;
By principle of virtual work; W E=¿ W I m 1=¿ m2=0 and m3=m
1 δ δ The yield line occurs at mid span, i.e.,
w u δ × L= ( m1 +m3 ) + ( m2 +m3 )
2 x L−x L
at x=
Simplifying 2

[ ]
1 1 L
w u=2 ( m1 +m3 ) + ( m2 +m3 ) …5 Substituting the value of x= in eq. 5
xL L ( L−x ) 2

δ wu 8m
We get, w u=
To obtain the minimum collapse load =0 L2
δx
Which gives, Or
2
wu L
−( m1−m3 ) xL ( L−x )−[ L ( m 1+ m2 ) −x ( m 1−m3 ) ] ( L2−2 xL ) m=
8
= 0.
Or

x=
( m1+ m2
m3 −m1 ) [ √ m −m1
L −1+ 1+ 3
m1 +m2 ( )]
Isotropically Reinforced Simply Supported Square Slab:

The simply supported square slab carries an UDL of w u per m2 and is isotropically reinforced.
L
a b

L
e

d c
L θ
√2
L δ
√2
θ
 =√
δ 2
tan(θ ¿=θ=
L/ √ 2 L

For a virtual displacement of δ =1 at point e, the external work done can be expressed as the area
1
load w u multiplied the displaced volume.( volume of the pyramid = area ×displacement)
3

1
Thus, external work W E= ∑ W δ=¿ wu × × L ¿
2
…1
3

Since, the slab is isotropically reinforced; the ultimate moment along the yield line is also m, and
as the slab is a square, the internal work done by yield lines ac and bd are same.

[
Thus, internal work done W I = ∑ Mθ=∑ mLθ=2 m× ( √2 L ) ×2 ( √L2 )]= 8 m ….2

Equating External work (eq. 1) to Internal work (eq.2) gives the ultimate moment per unit length
of the yield line as;
2
wu L
m=
24

Isotropically Reinforced Square Slab Fixed at all Edges :

A square slab with fixed supports all over, carries an UDL of w u per m2 and is Isotropically
reinforced

Since, the slab is Isotropically reinforced; the ultimate moment along the yield line is also m, and
as the slab is a square, the internal work done by yield lines ac and bd are same.

As the edges are fixed, negative yield lines will form along the edges
L
a b

L
2
L δ
e
L
2θ
δ 2
d c L θ tan(θ ¿=θ= =
L/2 L
√2
L δ
√2
 =√
δ 2
tan(θ ¿=θ=
L/ √ 2 L

For a virtual displacement of δ =1 at point e, the external work done can be expressed as the area
1
load w u multiplied the displaced volume.( volume of the pyramid = area ×displacement)
3

1
Thus, external work W E= ∑ W δ=¿ wu × × L ¿
2
…
3
1

Internal work done along the positive yield lines ac and bd is;

[
W I +ve = ∑ Mθ=∑ mLθ=2 m× ( √2 L ) ×2 ( √L2 )]= 8 m ….2

Internal work done along the negative yield lines ab, bc, cd and da is;

W I−ve = ∑ Mθ=∑ mLθ=4 mL× [ ( )] 2

L
=8 m …3

Total Internal work done ; W I =16 m

(In all cases, the internal work contributed is positive irrespective of the sign of m as the rotation
is in the same direction as the moment.)

Equating eq.(1) & eq.(3) we get;

2
w L
m= u
48