RESPIRATORY SYSTEM NOSE
only externally visible part
ORGANS o nostrils (nares) – route through which
Nose air enters the nose
Pharynx o nasal cavity – inferior of the nose
Larynx o nasal septum – divides nasal cavity
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs (alveoli) “. . . any area open to the outside of the body is
lined with mucous membrane (mucosa) . . .”
olfactory receptors – located in the mucosa
(superior surface)
rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory
mucosa
o moistens
o traps incoming foreign particle
o enzymes destroy bacteria chemically
conchae – projections from lateral walls
o increase surface area
o increase air turbulence within nasal
cavity
FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY o increased trapping of inhaled particles
Gas exchange palate – separates nasal cavity from oral
o between blood and external cavity
environment o hard palate – anterior, supported by
o occur only in the alveoli of the lungs bone
Upper Respiratory Tract o soft palate – posterior, unsupported
o passageways from nose to larynx paranasal sinuses
Lower RT o cavities within frontal, sphenoid,
o passageways from trachea to alveoli ethmoid, and maxillary bones
o purify, humidify, and warm incoming air surrounding nasal cavity
o sinuses
lighten skull
act as resonance chambers for
speech
produce mucus
PHARYNX
commonly called throat
muscular passageway from nasal cavity to
larynx
o continuous with posterior nasal
aperture
three regions
1. nasopharynx – superior region behind
nasal cavity
2. oropharynx – middle region behind o during swallowing, it rises and forms a
mouth lid over the opening of larynx
3. laryngopharynx – inferior region vocal folds (true vocal cords)
attached to larynx o vibrate with expelled air
oro & laryngopharynx – serve as common o allow us to speak
passageway for air and food glottis includes vocal cords and opening
o epiglottis routes food into esophagus between vocal cords
(posterior tube) TRACHEA
pharyngotympanic tubes open into commonly called windpipe
nasopharynx 4-inch-long tube that connects to larynx
o drain middle ear walls – reinforced with C-shaped rings of
hyaline cartilage (keep the trachea patent)
lined with ciliated mucosa
o cilia beat continuously in opposite
direction of incoming air
o expel mucus loaded with dust and other
debris away from lungs
tonsils – clusters of lymphatic tissue (play a
role in protecting body from infection)
o pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) – single
tonsil, located in the nasopharynx
o palatine tonsils (2) – located in
oropharynx, end of the soft palate
o lingual tonsils (2) – found at the base of MAIN BRONCHI
the tongue formed by division of the trachea
LARYNX each bronchus enters the lung at the hilum
commonly called voice box (medial depression)
functions right bronchus – wider, shorter, and
o routes air and food into proper channels straighter than left
o plays a role in speech bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller
located inferior to pharynx branches
made of 8 rigid hyaline cartilages LUNGS
o largest – thyroid cartilage (Adam’s occupy entire thoracic cavity except for
apple) central mediastinum
epiglottis apex (superior) of each lung is near the
o spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage clavicle
o protects superior opening of larynx base rests on the diaphragm
o routes food to posteriorly situated each lung – divided into lobes by fissures
esophagus and routes air toward o left – 2 lobes
trachea o right – 3 lobes
terminal bronchioles lead into respiratory
zone structures and terminate in alveoli
serosa covers outer surface of lungs
o pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers lung
surface respiratory zone includes:
o parietal pleura lines walls of thoracic o respiratory bronchioles
cavity o alveolar ducts
pleural fluid fills the area between layers o alveolar sacs
o allows lungs to glide over the thorax
o alveoli (air sacs – only site of gas
o decreases friction during breathing
exchange)
pleural space (between layers) – more of a conducting zone structures include all other
potential space passageways
alveoli
o simple squamous epithelial cells largely
compose the walls
o alveolar pores connect neighboring air
sacs
bronchial tree pulmonary capillaries cover external
o main bronchi subdivide into smaller and surfaces of alveoli
smaller branches respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier)
o bronchial tree – network of branching o on one side of the membrane is air, and
passageways on the other side is blood flowing past
all but the smallest passageways o formed by alveolar and capillary walls
have reinforcing cartilage in the gas crosses the respiratory membrane by
walls diffusion
conduits to and from the respiratory o oxygen enters the blood
zone o carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
bronchioles – smallest conducting alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
passageways o add protection by picking up bacteria,
RESPIRATORY ZONE STRUCTURES AND THE carbon particles, and other debris
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE surfactant (lipid molecule)
o coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces
o secreted by cuboidal surfactant-
secreting cells
2 phases of pulmonary ventilation
o inspiration – inhalation
flow of air into lungs
diaphragm and external intercostal
muscles contract
intrapulmonary volume increases
gas pressure decreases
air flows into the lungs until
intrapulmonary pressure equals
atmospheric pressure
RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY
functions of RS
o supply the body with O2
o dispose of CO2
respiration includes four distinct events
(discussed next)
o pulmonary ventilation
o external respiration
o respiratory gas transport
o internal respiration
4 events of respiration
1. pulmonary ventilation – moving air into
and out of the lungs (breathing)
2. external respiration – gas exchange
between pulmonary blood and alveoli
O2 – loaded into blood
CO2 – unloaded from the blood
3. respiratory gas transport – transport of
O2 and CO2 via blood stream
4. internal respiration – gas exchange
between blood and tissue cells in
systemic capillaries
MECHANICS OF BREATHING
Pulmonary ventilation o expiration – exhalation
o mechanical processes – depends on air leaving lungs
volume changes in thoracic cavity largely a passive process that
o volume changes lead to pressure depends on natural lung elasticity
changes – lead to flow of gases to intrapulmonary volume decreases
equalize pressure gas pressure increases
gases passively flow out to equalize
the pressure
forced expiration can occur mostly o amount of air that can be taken in
by contraction of internal intercostal forcibly over the TV
muscles to depress the rib cage o usually around 3100 mL
Intrapleural pressure Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
o pressure within the pleural space – o amount of air that can be forcibly
always negative exhaled after a tidal expiration
o major factor preventing lung collapse o approximately 1200 mL
o if intrapleural pressure = atmospheric Residual volume
pressure, the lungs recoil and collapse o air remaining in lung after expiration
o cannot be voluntarily exhaled
o allows gas exchange to go on
continuously, even between breaths,
and helps keep alveoli open (inflated)
o about 1200 mL
Vital capacity
o total amount of exchangeable air
o VC = TV + IRV + ERV
o 4,800 mL in men; 3,100 mL in women
Dead space volume
o air that remains in conducting zone and
never reaches alveoli
o about 150 mL
Functional volume
o air that actually reaches the respiratory
zone
o usually about 350 mL
Respiratory capacities are measured with a
spirometer
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
factors affecting respiratory capacity
o size
o sex
o age
o physical condition
Tidal Volume (TV)
o normal quiet breathing
o 500 mL of air – moved in/out of lungs
with each breath
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
NONRESPIRATORY AIR MOVEMENTS
can be caused by reflexes or voluntary
actions
examples
o cough and sneeze – clears lungs of
debris
o crying – emotionally induced
mechanism
o laughing – similar to crying
o hiccup – sudden inspirations
o yawn – very deep inspiration
RESPIRATORY SOUNDS
sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
2 recognizable sounds can be heard with a
stethoscope:
o bronchial sounds – produced by air
rushing through large passageways
(trachea and bronchi)
o vesicular breathing sounds – soft sounds
of air filling alveoli
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION, GAS TRANSPORT, EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
AND INTERNAL RESPIRATION O2 – loaded into blood
gas exchanges occur as a result of diffusion
o diffuses from the oxygen-rich air of the
o external respiration is an exchange of
gases occurring between the alveoli and alveoli to the oxygen-poor blood of the
pulmonary blood (pulmonary gas pulmonary capillaries
exchange) CO2 – unloaded out of the blood
o internal respiration – exchange of gases o diffuses from the blood of the
occurring between the blood and tissue pulmonary capillaries to the alveoli
cells (systemic capillary gas exchange)
movement of the gas is toward the area of
lower concentration
o activity of respiratory muscles –
transmitted to and from brain by
phrenic and intercostal nerves
o neural centers that control rate and
depth – located in the medulla and pons
medulla – sets basic rhythm of
GAS TRANSPORT IN BLOOD breathing and contains ventral
O2 transport in blood respiratory group (VRG –
o most O2 travels attached to hemoglobin pacemaker; self-exciting inspiratory
center)
and forms oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
pons – smooths out respiratory rate
o small dissolved amount – carried in
CONTROL OF RESPIRATION
plasma
Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) – 12 to 15
CO2 transport in blood
respirations per minute
o most CO2 – transported in plasma as
Hyperpnea – increases respiratory rate
bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
(often due to extra oxygen needs)
o small amount – carried inside RBCs on
Hbg, but at different binding sites from
those of oxygen
“. . . blood pH should remain between 7.35 and
7.45; buffers, such as HCO3-, minimize changes in
pH to maintain homeostasis . . .”
for CO2 to diffuse out of blood into alveoli, it
must be released from its bicarbonate form
o HCO3- enter RBC
o combine with H+
o for carbonic acid (H2CO3)
o H2CO3 splits to form H2O + CO2 non-neural factors influencing respiratory
o CO2 diffuses from blood into alveoli rate and depth
INTERNAL RESPIRATION o physical – increased BT, exercise,
exchange of gases between blood and talking, coughing
tissue cells o volition (conscious control)
opposite reaction from what occurs in the o emotional factors (fear, anger,
lungs excitement)
o loading – CO2 diffuses out of tissue cells o chemical factors – CO2 levels
to blood body’s need to rid itself of CO2 –
o unloading – O2 diffuses from blood into most important stimulus for
tissue breathing
CONTROL OF RESPIRATION increased levels of CO2 (thus, a
neural regulation – setting the basic rhythm decreased or acidic pH) in blood
increase the rate and depth of
breathing
changes in CO2 act directly on the
medulla oblongata
o chemical factors – O2 levels
changes in O2 concentration in blood
– detected by chemoreceptors in the
aorta and common carotid artery
information is sent to the medulla
O2 – stimulus for those whose
systems have become accustomed
to high levels of CO2 as a result of
disease
o chemical factors – hyperventilation
rising levels of CO2 in blood
(acidosis) result in faster, deeper
breathing
exhale more CO2 to elevate blood pH
may result in apnea and dizziness
and lead to alkalosis
o chemical factors – hypoventilation
results when blood becomes alkaline
(alkalosis)
extremely slow or shallow breathing
allows CO2 to accumulate in blood
