LESSON 2:

THE PROCESS AND ELEMENTS OF

COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION AS PROCESS
In a survey conducted by the Katz Business School at the University of Pittsburg,
organizations rated communication skills as the most important factor used in selecting
their management staff. The study found that oral and written communication skills were
important in predicting job success, as was the ability to communicate well with others in
the workplace (Mtd Training, 2010).
This result makes sense after all since communication is innate to us. Therefore for us to be
able to communicate well is important. If we are not able to communicate well, the
messages we send get lost in translation (Mtd Training, 2010). Similarly, Bernales, Balon
and Biligan (2018) stated that when the flow of information is blocked for some reason or
the parties cannot make themselves understood, then communication fails.

Communication is the art and process of creating and

sharing ideas. Effective communication depends on the
richness of those ideas.

So how do we communicate effectively?

We must consider a deeper understanding of the process and elements of communication.
Communication process may be simple to complex depending on the situation. To
understand the process there is a need to know the elements or components of the process.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

 Speaking and listening are vital elements of communication. Therefore, in any
communication situation, you are both speaker and listener. (Villamarzo, 2003)
 Eugene White (1960) mentions eight stages in the cycle of communication.
These are:
o Thinking o Receiving o
Symbolizing o Decoding o
Expressing o Reacting, and o
Transmitting o Monitoring

 Roman Jacobson mentions the following as components of communication:

 o Addressor (speaker) o Addressee
(listener o Context (situation) o Contact o
Code, and o Message

 Gronbeck defines model as ―a picture or a representation of a thing or process that

identifies the key parts or elements and indicates how each element affects the
operations of all of the elements.
 Communication Model, therefore, is a sketch that shows the basic elements of the
communication process, and how each element affects the other elements in the
entire communication process as a system

COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION
1. SPEAKER/ SENDER
o A person who sends the message o A sender makes use of symbols (words
or graphs or visual aids) to convey the message and produce required
response.
o Sender maybe an individual or a group or an organization o The views,
background, approach, skills, competencies and knowledge of the sender
have great impact on the message.
o The communication process begins with the sender, who is also called the
communicator or source. The sender has some kind of information – a
command, request, or idea – that he or she wants to share with others. In
order for the message to be received, the sender must first encode the
message in a form that can be understood and then transmit it.

2. MESSAGE
o Is the key idea that the sender wants to communicate o It is a sign that
elicits the response of the recipient.
o Communication process begin with decoding about the message to be
conveyed.
o It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is clear.
o Message is what you communicate verbally or non –verbally o The
message or content is the information that the sender wants to relay to the
receiver. It is relayed between the parties. Put all three together and you
have the communication process at its most basic.
o It also refers to the thoughts, ideas, or information that you convey to your
listeners.
 Verbal delivery of messages includes:
• Elements of voice (rate, volume, pitch, and quality)
 • Articulation, and
• Pronunciation
 Verbal message consists of three variables:
• Content (is everything you say about something:
referential or relational) Ref- all relevant to your topic; Rel
– a suggestion of any relationship to your listeners
• Structure ( the pattern of organization you follow  Style
(how you express your ideas)

3. CHANNEL OR MEDIUM
o Is the means used to exchange or transmit the message o The channel or
medium is the language you use.
o The means through which the sender must choose an appropriate medium
for transmitting the message else the message might not be conveyed.
o It is also called channel, the medium is the means by which a message is
transmitted. Text messages, for example, are transmitted through the
medium of cell phones.

4. RECEIVER OR LISTENER
o a person for whom the message is intended, aimed or targeted o The
degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon
various factors such as: knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the
message, and the reliance of the encoder on the decoder.
o The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the
interpreter. In order to comprehend the information from the sender, the
receiver must first be able to receive the sender‘s information and then
decode or interpret it.

5. FEEDBACK
o Is the main component of the communication process as it permits the
sender to analyze the efficacy of the message?
o It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by
the decoder.
o Feedback maybe verbal or non-verbal.
o The communication process reaches its final point when the message has
been successfully transmitted, received, and understood.
o The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, indicating comprehension.
Feedback may be direct, such as written or verbal response, or it may take
the form of an act or deed in response. o The communication process is not
always simple or smooth, of course. Two other elements may affect how
the message is transmitted, received, and interpreted.
6. NOISE o This can be any sort of interference that affects the message being sent,
received, or understood. It can be as literal as static over a phone line or esoteric as
misinterpreting a local custom.

7. SITUATION or CONTEXT
o It refers to the time and place in which communication occurs o This is the
setting and situation in which communication takes place. Like noise,
context can have an impact of the successful exchange of information. It
may have a physical, social, or cultural aspect to it

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

 The goal of communication is to convey information—and the understanding of
that information—from one person or group to another person or group. This
communication process is divided into three basic components: A sender transmits
a message through a channel to the receiver. (Figure shows a more elaborate
model.) The sender first develops an idea, which is composed into a message and
then transmitted to the other party, who interprets the message and receives
meaning. Information theorists have added somewhat more complicated language.
Developing a message is known as encoding. Interpreting the message is referred
to as decoding.

 The other important feature is the feedback cycle. When two people interact,
communication is rarely one way only. When a person receives a message, she
responds to it by giving a reply. The feedback cycle is the same as the sender
receiver feedback noted in Figure 1. Otherwise, the sender can't know whether the
other parties properly interpreted the message or how they reacted to it. Feedback is
especially significant in management because a supervisor has to know how
 subordinates respond to directives and plans. The manager also needs to know how
work is progressing and how employees feel about the general work situation.

 The critical factor in measuring the effectiveness of communication is common

understanding. Understanding exists when all parties involved have a mutual
agreement as to not only the information, but also the meaning of
the information. Effective communication, therefore, occurs when the intended
message of the sender and the interpreted message of the receiver are one and the
same. Although this should be the goal in any communication, it is not always
achieved.

 The most efficient communication occurs at a minimum cost in terms of resources

expended. Time, in particular, is an important resource in the communication
process. For example, it would be virtually impossible for an instructor to take the
time to communicate individually with each student in a class about every specific
topic covered. Even if it were possible, it would be costly. This is why managers
often leave voice mail messages and interact by e mail rather than visit their
subordinates personally.
 However, efficient time saving communications are not always effective. A low
cost approach such as an e mail note to a distribution list may save time, but it does
not always result in everyone getting the same meaning from the message. Without
opportunities to ask questions and clarify the message, erroneous interpretations are
possible. In addition to a poor choice of communication method, other barriers to
effective communication include noise and other physical distractions, language
problems, and failure to recognize nonverbal signals.

 Sometimes communication is effective, but not efficient. A work team leader

visiting each team member individually to explain a new change in procedures may
guarantee that everyone truly understands the change, but this method may be very
costly on the leader's time. A team meeting would be more efficient. In these and
other ways, potential tradeoffs between effectiveness and efficiency occur. (―The
Communication Process,‖ n.d.)

The Communication Process

There are many communication models that can be used to visually describe different
communication situations. Here are some models that will allows us to get a deeper
understanding of the communication as process.
I. ARISTOTLE’S COMMUNICATION MODEL (1)

Figure 2. Aristotle’s Model of Communication (1)

Aristotle proposed the model before 300 B.C. He found the importance of the audience role
in communication chain. This model is more focused on public speaking than interpersonal
communication.

Aristotle‘s Model of Communication is formed with five (5) basic elements, namely:
1. Speaker, 2. Speech, 3. Occasion, 4. Audience, and 5. Effect.

Aristotle advises speakers to build speech for different audience on different time
(occasion) and for different effect.

II. ARISTOTLE’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION (2)

Aristotle defined communication (called RHETORIC in his time) as ―the faculty of
observing, in any given case, the available means of persuasion.‖ The model shows the
process which the speaker must follow to communicate his idea or message to his intended
listener. This process involves four steps:
1) A Speaker discovers some logical, emotional and ethical proofs;
2) He arranges these materials strategically; 3) He clothes the
ideas in clear, compelling words; and 4) He delivers the
resulting speech appropriately.

IMPORTANT SKILLS OF A SPEAKER

The Aristotelian model seems to emphasize four important ―faculties‖ or skills of a
speaker, which he must use (observe) as a means of persuading his listeners (audience) to
act according to his please or intentions.
These skills are as follows:
1) Logical reasoning skills coupled with the ability to present ethical and
emotional proofs of ideas he advances or proposes;
2) Skills in organizing or positioning his speech materials strategically (or
simply put, the proper ordering or sequencing of materials in order to help
the listener follow the speaker‘s thoughts to an effective close or ending);
3) Skills in presenting his ideas/ messages in clear and compelling words; and
 4) Skills in delivering his resultant speech in appropriate oratorical style (e.g.
correct pronunciation, volume of voice, rate of speed, gestures or body
language, timing, etc.).

Figure 3. Aristotle’s Model of Communication (2)

Although not specifically indicated in the model above, it is clear that the communication
process has these elements: (1) a Speaker, (2) an Idea or Message, and (3) an Audience or
Listener (s). It can also be safely assumed that there is a channel chosen – the means to
carry the idea or message across to the listener; and the channel chosen is the human voice
– the public speech instrument.
 The Aristotelian model is SPEAKER-CENTERED. But, of course, during his time, the
emphasis was the training of speakers – public speakers called orators, skillful in the art of
reasoning and persuasion.

III. SHANNON’S MODEL

This model argues that communication can be broken down into 6 key concepts:
sender, encoder, channel, noise, decoder, and receiver. A later version of the theory by
Warren Weaver added a 7th concept (‗feedback‘) which changed the model from a linear
to cyclical model (Drew, 2020).

Figure 4. Shannon’s Model of Communication

It is known as the ―mother of all models‖ because of its wide popularity. The model is
also known as ‗information theory‘ or the ‗Shannon theory‘ because Shannon was the
main person who developed the theory.
The model‘s primary value is in explaining how messages are lost and distorted in the
process of communication (Drew, 2020).

IV. SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL

Drew, C. (2020) explains that the Shannon-Weaver model follows the concept of
communication in a linear fashion from sender to receiver with the following steps:
 Figure 5. Shannon- Weaver Model of Communication

1. Sender (Information Source)

The model starts with the sender. They are the person (or object, or thing) who has
the information to begin with (the ‗information source‘). The sender starts the process by
choosing a message to send, someone to send the message to, and a channel through which
to send the message.

A sender can send a message in multiple different ways: it may be orally (through
spoken word), in writing, through body language, music, etc.

Example: An example of a sender might be the person reading a newscast on the nightly
news. They will choose what to say and how to say it before the newscast begins.

2. Encoder (Transmitter)
The encoder is the machine (or person) that converts the idea into signals that can be sent
from the sender to the receiver. The Shannon model was designed originally to explain
communication through means such as telephone and computers which encode our words
using codes like binary digits or radio waves.

However, the encoder can also be a person that turns an idea into spoken words, written words,
or sign language to communicate an idea to someone.

Examples: The encoder might be a telephone, which converts our voice into binary 1s and
0s to be sent down the telephone lines (the channel). Another encode might be a radio
station, which converts voice into waves to be sent via radio to someone.
3. Channel
The channel of communication is the infrastructure that gets information from the sender
and transmitter through to the decoder and receiver. We sometimes also call this the
‗medium‘.

Examples: A person sending an email is using the world wide web (internet) as a medium.
A person talking on a landline phone is using cables and electrical wires as their channel.

If we‘re face-to-face, perhaps we don‘t have a channel, except the sound waves from our voice
that carry the sound from the sender‘s mouth to the receiver‘s ear.

4. Noise
Noise interrupts a message while it‘s on the way from the sender to the receiver. It‘s named
after the idea that ‗noise‘ could interrupt our understanding of a message. There are two
types of noise: internal and external.

Internal noise happens when a sender makes a mistake encoding a message or a receiver
makes a mistake decoding the message. Here‘s the two points where it can happen:

At the point of encoding (for example, when you misspell a word in a text message); At the
point of decoding (for example, when someone misinterprets a sentence when reading an
email)

External noise happens when something external (not in the control of sender or receiver)
impedes the message. So, external noise happens:

At the point of transmission through the channel (for example, when we‘re having a
conversation by a busy highway and the receiver is having trouble hearing over the sound
of cars)
One of the key goals for people who use this theory is to identify the causes of noise and try
to minimize them to improve the quality of the message.

Examples: Examples of external noise may include the crackling of a poorly tuned radio, a
lost letter in the post, an interruption in a television broadcast, or a failed internet
connection.

Examples of internal noise may include someone having a headache so they can‘t
concentrate, someone speaking with a heavy accent, or when the sender mumbles when
speaking.

5. Decoder
Decoding is the exact opposite of encoding. Shannon and Weaver made this model in
reference to communication that happens through devices like telephones. So, in this
model, there usually needs to be a device that decodes a message from binary digits or
waves back into a format that can be understood by the receiver.
 If we‘re talking about direct communication between people without the use of technology,
there may still be a need for decoding. For example, you might need to decode a secret
message, turn written words into something that makes sense in your mind by reading them
out loud, or you may need to interpret (decode) the meaning behind a picture that was sent
to you.

Examples: Decoders can include computers that turn binary packets of 1s and 0s into pixels
on a screen that make words, a telephone that turns signals such as digits or waves back
into sounds, and cell phones that also turn bits of data into readable (and listenable)
messages.

6. Receiver (Destination)
The receiver is the end-point of Shannon and Weaver‘s original linear framework. This is
the step where the person finally gets the message, or what‘s left of it after accounting for
noise.

Examples: Examples of a receiver might be: the person on the other end of a telephone, the
person reading an email you sent them, an automated payments system online that has
received credit card details for payment, etc.

7. Feedback
The ‗feedback‘ step was not originally proposed by Shannon and Weaver in 1948. Norbert
Weiner came up with the feedback step in response to criticism of the linear nature of the
approach. (‗Linear‘ means that the messages are only going one way).

Feedback occurs when the receiver of the message responds to the sender in order to close
the communication loop. They might respond to let the sender know they got the message
or to show the sender:

Whether they got the message clearly without noise

How well they understand the message
Nonetheless, the ‗feedback‘ elements seems like a post-hoc add-on to the model, and is the
subject of a lot of criticism (see later in this article on ‗disadvantages of the model‘ for
details).

Examples: Feedback does not occur in all situations. Sometimes, like when watching TV,
we don‘t tend to let the people talking on the TV know what we‘re thinking … we simply
watch the show.

Some times when feedback will occur include:

During a chat between friends
When you write a reply email
Through your facial expressions and body language during a conversation Etc.
 V. BERLOS’ SMCR MODEL
Berlo‘s model follows the SMCR model. This model is not specific to any particular
communication.

Berlo‘s model includes a number of factors under each of the elements:

Source: The source is situated where the message originates.

Communication skills – It is the skill of the individual to communicate. For example, the ability
to read, write, speak, listen etc.

Attitudes – This includes attitudes towards the audience, subject and towards oneself. For
example, for the student, the attitude is to learn more and for teachers, it is to help teach.

Knowledge– Communicating also means that the person needs to be knowledgeable about the
subject or topic. For e.g. a teacher needs to know about the subject in detail that he or she
teaches so that they can communicate properly such that the students understand here.

Note: It refers, not to the general knowledge, but to the knowledge of the
subject that the person is communicating and their familiarity with it.

Social system – The social system includes the various aspects of society like values,
beliefs, culture, religion and a general understanding of society. It is where the
communication takes place.

For example, classrooms differ from country to country just like people‘s behaviours and
how they communicate, etc.

Note: We can communicate only to the extent that the social system allows.
When we communicate, we take the social system into account.

Culture: Culture of a particular society also comes under the social system.

According to this model, people can communicate only if the above requirements are met in the
proper or adequate proportion.

Encoder: The sender of the message, from where the message originates, is referred to as
the encoder. So the source encodes the message here.

Message

Content – The body of a message, from the beginning to the end, comprises its content. For
example, whatever the class teacher teaches in the class, from beginning to end, is the
content of the message.
 Elements – It includes various things like language, gestures, body language, etc. They
constitute all the elements of a particular message. Any content is accompanied by some
elements.

Treatment – It refers to the packing of the message and the way in which the message is
conveyed or the way in which it is passed on or delivered.

Note: When there i s too much treatment, communication will not go

smoothly.

Structure– The structure of the message refers to how it is arranged; the way people
structure the message into various parts.

Note: Message is the same, but if the structure is not properly arranged
then the receiver will not understand the message.

Code– The code of the message refers to the means through which it is sent and in what
form. It could be, for example, language, body language, gestures, music, etc. Even culture
is a code. Through this, people give and receive messages and communication takes place.

Note: Only when the code is clear, the message will be clear.
The wrong usage may lead to misinterpretation.

Channel– It refers to the five sense organs. The following are the five senses:
• Hearing
• Seeing
• Touching
• Smelling
• Tasting
Communication occurs through one or more of these channels.
 Hearing: The use of ears to receive the message. For example, orally transmitted messages,
interpersonal communication etc.

Seeing: Visual channels, for example, Watching television so the message is conveyed through
the scene/film.

Touching: The sense of touch can be used as a channel to communicate. For example, we touch,
buy food, hugging our loved ones,etc.

Smelling: Smell also can be a channel to communicate. For example, perfumes, food, fragrances
etc. Charred smell communicates something is burning. People can deduct which food is being
cooked by its smell etc.

Tasting : The tongue is a muscular organ used in the act of eat and taste food . For example,
while a food is being shared, the communication can happen regarding its taste.

Note: Despite not mentioning a medium, we need to assume

that as communication is taking place, channels can be any of
the 5 senses or combination.

Decoder: The person who receives the message and decodes it is referred to a decoder.

Receiver: The receiver needs to think all the contents and elements of the source, so as to
communicate/responds to sender effectively.;

Berlo’s model believes that for effective communication to take place, the source and
the receiver need to be on the same level. Only then communication will happen or
take place properly. Hence, the source and the receiver should be similar.

For example, if the communication skill of the source is good, then the receiver should have
equally good listening skills.

It cannot be said that the receiver does not receive the whole message because even though
he may receive it, but may not be able to interpret its meaning. For effective
communication, the source and the receiver need to be on the same level.

Note: Self-image differs from person to person. For communication, the person should
consider the receiver, speak accordingly and give them what they need.

Criticism of Berlo’s SMCR model of communication:

1. There is a lack of feedback. The effects are practically unknown.

2. It does not mention the barriers to communication.
3. There is no room for noise.
4. It is a rather complex model.
 5. It is a linear model of communication.
6. It requires people to be on the same level for effective communication to
happen. However, that rarely happens in everyday life.
7. The main drawback of the model is that it omits the usage of sixth sense as a
channel of communication, which is an asset to human beings (thinking,
understanding, analyzing etc.)

(Source: BERLO’S SMCR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION. (2019, September 24). Retrieved June 5, 2020, from
https://www.communicationtheory.org/berlos-smcr-model-of-communication/ )

Figure 6. Berlo’s Model of Communication

VI. SCHRAMM’S MODEL, 1954

 Figure 6. Schramm’s model of communication

Janse (2019) in his article explains that the Schramm Communication Model is a cyclical
communication model containing all basic principles of communication. The Schramm
Communication Model offers a classic approach to and explanation of communication. It
can be used to determine how communication between two people works when they‘re
exchanging information, ideas, or attitudes.

The cyclical communication model is based on the theory and belief that communication is
a two-way street. This means there‘s at least a sender and a recipient. The model contains
at least one other element as well; the message itself. Usually communication takes places
along the traditional path with a wasteful recipient and sender. The recipient and sender can
also be one and the same. This is called intra-personal communication. The former is called
interpersonal communication. Where several other models and theories about
communication are linear in nature, the Schramm Communication Model is circular. This
means at least two parties are required to send and receive a message. Both the sender and
the recipient have to encode and decode the message to interpret the message correctly.

Wilbur Schramm published the circular communication model in 1954, several years after
Lasswell‘s communication model was published. Schramm wrote and spoke about the
communication model—based on the model by Charles Egerton Osgood— in his book
‗The Process and Effects of Mass Communication‘. He later made some changes,
including introducing the field of experience, or commonality. This refers to what is
mutually understood between the recipient and the sender. A physics professor can teach
mathematical principles to a class of psychology students, but it won‘t be easy as the
students don‘t share a field of experience that would have made it easier to understand the
message.

Three Elements
According to the Schramm Communication Model, communication is circular and the
sender and recipient of the message can be the same person. A message is encrypted and
passed on to the same person or to a different person. It is up to the recipient to decrypt the
message, interpret it, and then encode it again before sending the message to a new
recipient (circular). There is no fourth element, such as the in Berlo‘s SMCR
communication model.

Source (Encoder)
The source of the message is the sender; the party who sent the message. The source has to
be clear when sending the message and has to be able to show why it is important that the
recipient reads it. This is why the sender of a message has to make sure that the information
he is providing is useful, relevant, and accurate.

In order to ensure that the recipient can properly read the message, it has to be encoded.
This means it is necessary for the recipient to know the sender. The success of the attempt
at communication will depend on the ability to bring across the information in a simple but
clear way. The way in which the message is encoded is influenced by cultural aspects,
perceptions, knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and skills.

Recipient (Decoder)
The recipient of a message is the person or group to whom the message has been sent.
Whether the recipient is able to decode the message depends on a number of factors. For
instance, how much does the individual know about the topic of the message, but also how
open are they for a message and do they trust the source. The interpretations of the recipient
are influenced by cultural aspects, perceptions, knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and skills
as well.

Decoding a message is a psychological process. After the message has been received, the
stimulus is immediately sent to the brain for interpretation. This is where the message is
given meaning, if at all. This processing phase is also called decoding. Communication is
successful when the recipient correctly interprets the message from the source.

Message
In the studies of rhetoric and communication, a message is defined as information. This
information is communicated through words or other characters and symbols. A message,
either verbal or non-verbal, is the content of the communication process and plays an
important role in the Schramm Communication Model.

A message may contain verbal content, such as speech, sign language, emails, WhatsApp
messages, or phone calls. A message can also consist of non-verbal content, such as
behavior, gestures, body language, eye contact, physical contact, timing, and even artifacts.
Feedback and Organizations
Although it‘s not clearly indicated in the Schramm Communication Model, recipients play
an important role throughout the communication process. They are not only supposed to
absorb the message, but they also receive the message and respond to it. The reply from the
recipient to the sender‘s message is called feedback. Feedback can be both verbal and non-
verbal. Sometimes it‘s a verbal response, sometimes it‘s just a sigh or a nod. Feedback is
often expressed in writing, an email for instance.

Feedback is therefore a way to measure how the audience has received the message. This
enables the sender to improve the effectiveness of the way messages are composed and
sent. If the audience doesn‘t understand the message, the source of the message can refine
it based on the feedback.

It‘s essential for effective communication in an open communication environment to offer

the opportunity to provide feedback. A manager in a business environment should therefore
create an atmosphere that stimulates feedback. Questions such as ‗Do you get it?‘ and
‗What do you think?‘ should be asked a lot more regularly. Moreover, organizations can
gather feedback from employees in countless ways; surveys, open-door policy, newsletters,
memos, and meetings.

Universal Law of Communication

One of the first people who came up with a communication theory was Aristotle. A number
of thinkers followed in his footsteps, including Lasswell, Berlo, and Shannon & Weaver.
There is one universal law of communication that applies to all these theories, and it was
written by S.F. Scudder in 1980. Scudder wrote that all living beings on planet earth have
the ability to communicate. Communication takes place through different means, such as
physical changes, language, breathing, movements, sounds, or by changing color.

In this law of communication, Scudder emphasized that communication was an essential

survival tool for creatures, as well as enabling them to share information about their
presence and conditions. According to the universal law of communication, communication
is used to express biological needs as well as feelings, thoughts, and other kinds of
information that are necessary to bring across the condition of a living creature.

As in the Schramm Communication Model encoding and decoding also happens in the
universal law of communication. In this law the recipient does the decoding. The universal
law of communication also states that the communication process can be interrupted in a
number of ways. The reason for this is barriers. Barriers can alter the meaning of a message
and lead to the recipient interpreting it incorrectly.
VII. TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
Transactional model of communication is the exchange of messages between sender and
receiver where each take turns to send or receive messages.
 Here, both sender and receiver are known as communicators and their role reverses each
time in the communication process as both processes of sending and receiving occurs at the
same time.

The communicators can be humans or machines but humans are taken as communicators in
this article to analyze general communication between humans. The model is mostly used
for interpersonal communication and is also called circular model of communication.

Transactional model is the process of continuous change and transformation where every
component is changing such as the people, their environments and the medium used. Due
to this, it assumes the communicators to be independent and act any way they want.

Since both sender and receiver are necessary to keep the communication alive in
transactional model, the communicators are also interdependent to each other. For example,
transactional communication is not possible if the receiver is not listening to sender.

The transactional model is the most general model of communication. Everyday talk
and interactions are also a form of transactional model communication. It is more efficient
for communicators with similar environment and individual aspects. For instance,
communication between people who know each other is more efficient as they share same
social system.
 In transactional model, efficiency and reliability of communicated message also
depends on the medium used. For example, the same message might not be perceived by a
person the same way when it is send through a phone and when it is provided face to face.
It is because of possible loss of message on a phone call or absence of gestures.

Factors Affecting Transactional Model

There are many factors directly or indirectly affecting the communication process in
transaction model. These can be environmental noise or communication barriers.
Environmental Noises can be Physical noise, physiological noise or psychological noise.

Transactional model relates communication to social reality of an individual or a group

of people in social, cultural and relational contexts. Their responses cannot be predicted
because they all have different backgrounds and mental conditions. Communication pattern
depends on various factors such as physical, cultural, environmental, social, psychological,
emotional, etc.

Cultural systems, social systems and relational situations are the most overpowering
elements of the communication in transactional model, while physical and psychological
context has considerable effect on the communication, enhancing or undermining it.

Social Context
Social context in communication refers to the norms, values, laws and other restrictions
of a society to communicate within a specific limit. It also includes rules that bind people‘s
ability to communicate. Society shapes the way a person communicates. Some of the
examples are: greeting people when meeting, thanking, apologizing, etc.

People can also learn communication from trial and error method, and its consequences
ranges from social exclusion to embarrassment. This model also adds that it‘s not just
social reality that help people in the communication process but communication also shapes
self and social reality in return. Communication is not only for exchanging messages but
also to create and establish relationship helping people in the formation of a community.

Cultural Context
Cultural context is the lifestyle and identity of a person. Caste, class, race, ethnicity,
gender, etc are the contexts which promotes communication. If two people are from the same
cultural group, they will have better communication with each other.

Cultural identities are made by communication. It changes the communication pattern

of a person. Marginalization of cultural groups oppress their communication with the other
parts of the society. People become unsure of themselves when they communicate with
intercultural groups. Some people also take it as unacceptable.

People have a closed mindset about the other groups of people they communicate with
displaying the trait of Ethnocentrism. Experiences, attitudes, moods, cultural beliefs, social
 up-bringing, mindset, their sense of reality and many other factors affect the responses and
the message exchange.

Relational Context
Relational context of communication relates to relationship history and manners.

A person talks with an old friend differently than a stranger. Manners take the role of
communication when it is with strangers. Manners come from pre-established norms and
values, and are more scripted making interaction difficult. Type of relationship and the
roles of people create differences in the way people communicate. Communication always
occurs on the common systems of both the parties.

Criticisms of Transactional Model

• Without verbal response, the sender can not be sure that the receiver got the
message as intended. Feedback is an important component in the
communication process, especially in interpersonal communication as it gives
a space to clarify misunderstandings.

• The transactional model gives the opportunity for a lot of noise because the
communication is simultaneous. For example, when many people are talking at
the same time in a meeting, the objective of the meeting will not be fulfilled.

Differences Between Transactional and Other Communication Models

TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OTHER MODELS
Used for interpersonal communication Used for Intrapersonal, interpersonal, group or
mass communications.
Senders and Receivers are known as Senders and receivers are different people
Communicators, they interchange their roles

Includes the role of Role of context and environment are not

context and environment mentioned in other models

Includes noise and communication Not necessarily have the concept of noise
barriers as factors
Talks about non-verbal communication Ignores non-verbal communication
Simultaneous feedback Feedback comes later in interaction model and
is not included in linear model

(SOURCE: businesstopia. (2018, February 15). Transactional Model of Communication. Retrieved June 5, 2020, from
https://www.businesstopia.net/communication/transactional-model-
communication#:%7E:text=Transactional%20model%20of%20communication%20is,to%20send%20or%20receive%20messages.&text=
The%20model%20is%20mostly%20used,called%20circular%20model%20of%20communication.)
 KEY TAKEAWAYS
1. Communication as process involves key components for it to be successful.
These key components are: (a) Speaker/ Sender; (b) Message; (c) Channel/
Medium; (d) Listener/ Receiver; (e) Feedback; (f) Noise, and; (g) Context/
Situation
2. Communication Models show how different situations vary the kind of
communication that we use. Among these models is Aristotle‘s linear model that
explains the type of communication that happens in public speaking. Some also
explains the role of feedback, and noise or barriers to communication and more.
3. Additional reference for communication barriers: Watch this Youtube video about
communication barriers: Communication Coach Alex Lyon.
(2018, January 15). Communication Barriers [Video file]. In YouTube. Retrieved
from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jsl468Hwr4o