The system unit

 The computer system unit is the enclosure for all the other main interior
components of a computer. The primary function of the computer system unit is to
hold all the other components together, Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or
underneath (below) your desk. System unit components include the processor,
memory module, cards, ports, and connectors. Many of the system unit’s
components reside on a circuit board called the motherboard.. Inside this box are
many electronic components that process information. The most important of these
components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor , random
access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses
while the computer is on. Almost every other part of your computer connects to the
system unit using cables. The cables plug into specific ports, typically on the back
of the system unit. A hardware which connected to the system unit (that is not a
part of the system unit) is sometimes called a peripheral device or device.
Motherboard – The motherboard is the main circuit board of a microcomputer. It
is also known as the mainboard or system board.
CPU – The CPU is the central electronic chip that determines the processing
power of the computer.
Memory – Memory is the part of the computer that temporarily or permanently
stores applications, documents, and stem operating
Register A register is temporary storage are built into cpu.
Ram A ram is temporary storage area That contains currently executed programs
Cache
Rom
Harddisk
System clock
Pci
Bus – A bus is an electronic line that allows 1s and 0s to move from one place to
another.
Expansion Slots – Expansions slots appear on the motherboard. They are sockets
into which adapters are connected.
Ports and Connectors – A port is a connector located on the motherboard or on a
separate adapter.
Power Supply – A power supply changes normal household electricity into
electricity that a computer can use.

Motherboard
The motherboard or mainboard, is placed vertically, which is quite common.. The
motherboard also contains the central processing unit (CPU), although it can be
difficult to see. A large fan is often placed on top of the CPU to avoid overheating.
The motherboard also contains the main memory of the computer. The
motherboard contains many different types of chips, or small pieces of
semiconducting material, on which one or more integrated circuits (IC) are
etched.  Other system elements are connected to motherboard, and the whole
system is managed and controlled by it. Processors, memory, buses, system clock,
expansion slots, ports provide means of communication between processors and
memory and controls the flow of information through all components

Process
or
A processor, or "microprocessor," is a small chip that resides in computers and
other electronic devices. Its basic job is to receive input and provide the
appropriate output. The central processor of a computer is also known as the CPU,
or "central processing unit." This processor handles all the basic system
instructions, such as processing mouse and keyboard input and
running applications. The processor tells your computer what to do and when to do
it, The most important component of a computer is the central processing unit, or
CPU, also called the processor. The processor acts as the computer's brain, running
programs and sending and receiving signals to attached devices , A processor
performs arithmetical, logical, input/output (I/O) and other basic instructions to
keep the computer running
CPU AND ITS FUNCTIONS

The CPU has two main components, the arithmetic logic unit and the control
unit.

Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out
any actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among
other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results
from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by
making repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching, and merging of data
There are two primary manufacturers of computer microprocessors. Intel and
Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) lead the market in terms of speed and quality

The Four Primary Functions of the CPU

Machine cycle or fetch decode cycle or instruction cycle
The CPU processes instructions it receives in the process of decoding data. In
processing this data, the CPU performs four basic steps:
1. Fetch The first step the CPU carries out is to fetch some data and instructions
(program) from main memory then store them in its own internal temporary
memory areas. These memory areas are called 'registers'.
2. Decode The next step is for the CPU to make sense of the instruction it has just
fetche and decodes it. This process is called 'decode'.The CPU is designed to
understand a specific set of commands. These are called the 'instruction set' of
the CPU In which cpu define the operands and operstors in instruction

3. Execute This is the part of the cycle when data processing actually takes
place. The ALU operation is carried out upon the data (executed) . The
result of this processing is stored in yet another register(accumulater
register)

Once the execute stage processing complete, the CPU sets itself up to begin
another cycle once more.

4. Store The CPU must give feedback after executing an instruction and the
output data is written to the memory.

Multicore technology

Multi-core is usually the term used to describe two or more CPUs working

together on the same chip. Also called multicore technology, it is a type
of architecture where a single physical processor contains the core
logic of two or more processors. These processors are packaged into a
single integrated circuit (IC). These single integrated circuits are called a die.
Multi-core can also refer to multiple dies packaged together. Multi-core
enables the system to perform more tasks with a greater overall system
 performance.  Multi-core technology can be used in desktops, mobile PCs,
servers and workstation

Since then, processors have been created with. two cores ("dual
core"), four cores ("quad core"), six cores ("hexa core"), eight cores ("octo
core"), and so on

Memory

Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information

temporarily, like Registers. RAM (random access memory) ,Cache or permanently
like harD disk ,ROM (read-only memory). Memory devices utilize integrated
circuits and are used by operating systems, software, and hardware.

2 Types of memory

1.primary memory
2.secondary memory

 Primary memory includes ROM and RAM, and is located close to the CPU
on the computer motherboard, enabling the CPU to read data from primary
memory very quickly indeed. It is used to store data that the CPU needs
imminently so that it does not have to wait for it to be delivered.

 Secondary memory by contrast, is usually physically located within a

separate storage device, such as a hard disk drive or solid state drive (SSD),
which is connected to the computer system either directly or over a network.
The cost per gigabyte of secondary memory is much lower, but the read and
write speeds are significantly slower.

Volatile vs. non-volatile memory

Memory can be either volatile and non-volatile memory. Volatile memory is
memory that loses its contents when the computer or hardware device loses power.
Computer RAM,registers or cache is an example of volatile memory. It is why if
your computer freezes or reboots when working on a program, you lose anything
that hasn't

been saved. Non-volatile memory, sometimes abbreviated as NVRAM. Hard disk

or SSD and rom is memory that keeps its contents even if the power is lost.

The following diagram show memory hierarchy

Register

The Registers are very fast computer memory built into a processors and processor
perform all its executions in these registers to execute programs and operations
efficiently When referring to a CPU, The registers  refer to how much information
a processor can process at once. Instructions flow at a rate that's as large as the
register size, which is either 16, 32, or 64bits .

 processor register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any data (such as
bit sequence or individual characters). The computer needs processor registers for
manipulating data and a register for holding a memory address.
Register is a collection of cell and these cells are use to store A particular Bit
Types of register
Memory Address Registers (MAR): (size is 12bits)
It holds the address of the location to be accessed from memory
Memory Data Registers (MDR): (size is 16 bits)
It contains data to be written into or to be read out from the addressed
Program counter (size is 12 bits)
It contains the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched. PC points to
the address of the next instruction to be fetched from the main memory when the
previous instruction has been successfully completed.
Instruction Register (IR) (size is 16 bits)
The IR holds the instruction which is just about to be executed. The instruction
from PC is fetched and stored in IR. As soon as the instruction in placed in IR, the
CPU starts executing the instruction and the PC points to the next instruction to be
executed.
Accumulator Register(size is 16 bits)

This Register is is built in ALU used for arithematic and logical operations and
storing the Results those are produced by the System. When the CPU will
generate Some Results after the Processing then all the Results will be Stored into
the AC Register.
Input register (INPR) & output register (OUTR)
Size is 8 bits
INPR and OUTR (Input and Output Registers, 8 bits) are used to communicate
with the input and output devices. (The Basic Computer has one input device and
one output device)
Ram
Also called main memory, primary memory , internal memory ,non volatile
memory
RAM is basically a hardware component for the data storage but for a temporary
time. Basically the programs that are needed to be executed, or the programs that
are currently executed or the process are about to execute are loaded in the RAM in
order to perform the faster execution of the process.
The most important thing is that the RAM is the Volatile memory located on the
motherboard. It means that it holds or stores the data till the power is supplied to
the RAM, once the power is been cut off the data on the ram gets erased
Ram is directly accessible by processor and is read write memory processor can
read and write anywhere from ram so that is Why is called random access
memory because its access is random.processors fetches an instruction from ram
performs its execution on instructions and stores the result back in ram
When any program starts it execution, before execution the computer or the
processor first sends the address of the program to the RAM. Then the Operating
System loads the program from the Secondary Memory to the Primary Memory.
After that the address is sent back to the processor again and after that the
execution process of the program starts.
Reading data from the RAM is much faster than reading data from the hard drive.
The more RAM your computer has, the more data can be loaded from the hard
drive into the RAM, whenever you run a program (e.g. operating system,
applications) or open a file (e.g. videos, images, music, documents), it is loaded
temporarily from the hard drive into your RAM. Once loaded into RAM, you will
be able to access it smoothly with minimal delays

Block diagram of ram

Types of ram
DRAM
DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM. A type of physical memory used in most
personal computers.
The term dynamic indicates that the memory must be constantly refreshed
(reenergized) or it will lose its contents. RAM is sometimes referred to as DRAM
(pronounced dee-ram) to distinguish it from static RAM (SRAM). Static RAM is
faster and less volatile than dynamic RAM, but it requires more power and is more
expensive.
SRAM
SRAM stands for Static RAM. Short for static random access memory, and
pronounced ess-ram. SRAM is a type of memory that is faster and more reliable
than the more common DRAM (dynamic RAM). The term static is derived from
the fact that it doesn't need to be refreshed like .Sram is mainly used for cache
memory And processor registers
Cache memory
Cache  is a small and very fast temporary storage memory. It is designed to speed
up the transfer of data and instructions. It is located inside or close to the CPU
chip. It is faster than RAM and the data/instructions that are most recently or most
frequently used by CPU are stored in cache.
The data and instructions are retrieved from RAM when CPU uses them for the
first time. A copy of that data or instructions is stored in cache. The next time the
CPU needs that data or instructions, it first looks in cache. If the required data is
found there, it is retrieved from cache memory instead of main memory. It speeds
up the working of CPU.

CachePerformanc:
When the processor needs to read or write a location in main memory, it first
checks for a corresponding entry in the cache.

 If the processor finds that the memory location is in the cache, a cache
hit has occurred and data is read from cache

 If the processor does not find the memory location in the cache, a cache

miss has occurred. For a cache miss, the cache allocates a new entry and
copies in data from main memory, then the request is fulfilled from the
contents of the cache.

Levels of cache
Level 1 (L1) Cache
It is also called primary or internal cache. It is built directly into the processor chip.
It has small capacity from 8 Km to 128 Kb.
Level 2 (L2) Cache
It is slower than L1 cache. Its storage capacity is more, i-e. From 64 Kb to 16 MB.
The current processors contain advanced transfer cache on processor chip that is a
type of L2 cache. The common size of this cache is from 512 kb to 8 Mb.
Level 3 (L3) Cache
This cache is separate from processor chip on the motherboard. It exists on the
computer that uses L2 advanced transfer cache. It is slower than L1 and L2 cache.
The personal computer often has up to 8 MB of L3 cache.
Rom
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read
but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is
stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such
instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to
as bootstrap. When u switched on your system it goes in boot up process. Rom is
used to store system level programs. The most common example is system
bios(basic input output system) .  it first determines whether all of the necessary
attachments are in place and operational. . it performs major input/output tasks and
holds programs or software instructions boot up, reading and writing to peripheral
devices, basic data management and the software for basic processes for certain
utilities ,such as loading the operating system (OS) into the random access memory
(RAM) or running hardware diagnostics . BIOS is also used to identify and
configure the hardware in a computer such as the hard drive, floppy drive, optical
drive, CPU, memory, and related equipment. It also includes a test referred to as
a POST (Power-On Self-Test) that helps verify the computer meets requirements to
boot up properly. If the computer does not pass the POST, you hear a combination
of beeps indicating what is malfunctioning in the computer.
. With the POST completed, the BIOS then attempts to load the operating system
through a program known as a bootstrap loader, which is designed to locate any
available operating systems; if a legitimate OS is found, it is loaded into memory.
BIOS drivers are also loaded at this point. These are programs designed to give
the computer basic control over hardware devices such as mice, keyboards,
network hardware and storage devices.
The 4 functions of BIOS

These are each carried out by BIOS' four main functions:

 1. Power-on self-test (POST). This tests the hardware of the computer
before loading the OS.
2. Bootstrap loader. This locates the OS.
3. Software/drivers. This locates the software and drivers that interface
with the OS once running.
4. Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) setup. This is a
configuration program that enable users to alter hardware and system
settings. CMOS is the name of BIOS' non-volatile memory.

TYPES OF ROM

 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user
buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program.
Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable
 EPROM (Erasable & Programmable Read-Only Memory):-
The data written over EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for
a duration of up to 40 minutes. So the user can erase the data and can
reprogrammed it but erasing again and again makes the chip useless. To reprogram
it, erase all the previous data.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable & Programmable Read-Only
Memory):-
The EEPROM is programmed & erased electrically. EEPROM can be selectively
erased & programmed EEPROM can be erased one byte at a time, rather than
erasing the entire chip. Hence the process of re-programming is flexible & slow.

Buss and its types

Inside computers, there are many components like processor memory like
ram,cache harddisk and i/o modules In order for these components to
communicate with each other, they make use of wires that are known as a
‘bus’.busses are electrical wires embedded in a motherboard A bus is a common
pathway through which information flows from one computer component to
another. This pathway is used for communication purpose and it is established
between two or more computer components. All types of buses found in a
computer transfer data between the computer peripherals connected to it.

Buses are classified depending on how many bits they can move at the same time,
which means that we have 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit or even 64-bit buses.

Three types of bus are used.

 Address bus - carries memory addresses from the processor to other

components such as primary storage and input/output devices. The address
bus is unidirectional.
 Databus - carries the data between the processor and other components.
The data bus is bidirectional.
 Control bus - carries control signals from the processor to other
components. The control bus also carries the clock's pulses and holds the
control and timing signals needed to coordinate all of the computer’s
activities to make sure everything is flowing smoothly from place to
place. The control bus is unidirectional
Expansion slot
Alternatively known as a bus slot or expansion port, an expansion slot is a
connection or port inside a computer on the motherboard or riser card. It
provides an installation point for a hardware expansion card to be connected. For
example, if you wanted to install a new video card in the computer, you'd purchase
a video expansion card and install that card into the compatible expansion slot.

Below are some expansion slots

AGP - Video card.
 AMR - Modem, sound card.
 CNR - Modem, network card, sound card.
 EISA - SCSI, network card, video card.
 ISA - Network card, sound card, video card.
 PCI - Network card, SCSI, sound card, video card.
 PCI Express - Video card, modem, sound card, network card.
 VESA - Video card.

Virtual Memory

Virtual Memory is a storage scheme that provides user an illusion of having a very
big main memory. This is done by treating a part of secondary memory as the main
memory.In this scheme, User can load the bigger size processes than the available
main memory by having the illusion that the memory is available to load the
process.
Instead of loading one big process in the main memory, the Operating System
loads the different parts of more than one process in the main memory.

By doing this, the degree of multiprogramming will be increased and therefore, the
CPU utilization will also be increased.

Modem (modulator and demodulator)

Modems are used for communications and delays with networking purpose.
A modem is a hardware device that allows a computer to send and receive
data .modem do the process of signaling. Modem modulates analog signals into
digital signals and demodulates the digital signals into analog signals. A signal is
any kind of physical quantity that conveys information. .Analog describes any
fluctuating, evolving, or continually changing process.
System clock?
In general, the clock refers to a microchip that regulates the timing and speed of all
computer functions. The shortest time any computer is capable of performing is
one clock, or one vibration of the clock chip. The speed of a computer processor is
measured in clock speed, for example, 1 MHz is one million cycles, or vibrations,
a second. 2 GHz is two billion cycles, or vibrations, a second. A clock "tick" is the
smallest unit of time in which processing happens, and is sometimes called a cycle;
When the "system clock" is referred to generically, it normally refers to the speed
of the memory bus running on the motherboard (and not usually that of the
processor).

1. Another name for the internal clock or real-time clock (RTC).

2 . A system clock or system timer is a continuous pulse that helps the computer
clock keep the correct time.