EPRI Power System Dynamics Tutorial

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12422963
EPRI Power Systems Dynamics
Tutorial

1016042

Final Report, July 2009

EPRI Project Manager

Guorui Zhang

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 • USA
800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • [email protected] • www.epri.com

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DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN
ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH
INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE
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(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)

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PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT.

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Operations Training Solutions

NOTE
For further information about EPRI, call the EPRI Customer Assistance Center at 800.313.3774 or
e-mail [email protected].

Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, and TOGETHER…SHAPING THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICITY
are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.

Copyright © 2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

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CITATIONS

This report was prepared by

Operations Training Solutions

2983 Bellmead Way
Longmont, Colorado 80503

Principal Investigator
M. Terbrueggen

This report describes research sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI).

The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:

EPRI Power Systems Dynamics Tutorial. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2009. 1016042.

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12422963
REPORT SUMMARY

Operation of today’s increasingly complex power systems requires comprehensive training of

system operators and operations engineers. By increasing their awareness and understanding of
dynamic phenomena, the EPRI Power System Dynamics Tutorial can improve an operator’s
ability to take effective action—either preventive or corrective. This latest version of the tutorial
represents an update of key topics to reflect industry restructuring under the vision of the Federal
Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) as well as current Reliability Standards issued by the
North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC). In addition, a new section briefly
describes the basic concepts of the Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS) and Wide Area
Control System (WACS).

Background
EPRI developed the first version of the power system dynamics tutorial in 1989, with the aim of
enhancing training of power system operators and operation engineers. Addressing industry
concerns, the tutorial was designed as an easily understandable supplement to utility-specific
training materials. Earlier versions of this tutorial were well received, with thousands of copies in
use by system operators throughout the world. A number of important industry-wide changes led
to revision of the 2002 version of the power system dynamics tutorial. These changes included:
• The appointment of NERC as the Electric Reliability Organization for North America.
NERC has moved from a voluntary compliance organization to an organization with
government authority to enforce the Reliability Standards. Many changes were made to this
tutorial to reflect NERC’s expanding role.
• Training requirements for system operators have been substantially increased. The technical
material in this tutorial has been expanded to reflect the changing needs of system operators.
• The Eastern Interconnection outage of August 14, 2003, initiated many changes to how the
North American power system is operated. This revised tutorial addresses many of these
changes.

Objective
• To address the current needs of North American power system operators and operations
engineers through a comprehensively updated tutorial on power system dynamics

Approach
In revising the tutorial, the author has incorporated material from the presentations of numerous
power system dynamics seminars, coupled with industry knowledge and experiences. Unique
design features were employed to enhance the effectiveness of the tutorial, both as a training tool
and as a reference source. This revised edition updates terminology to be consistent with current

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versions of the NERC Reliability Standards. In addition, many new illustrations have been
added, and all other illustrations have been updated.

Results
This edition of the tutorial includes a tutorial overview and an introductory review of power
system fundamentals, followed by chapters on active and reactive power flow, frequency and
voltage control, voltage and angle stability, and power system oscillations. The tutorial includes
chapters on harmonics, resonance, subsynchronous resonance, ferroresonance, and solar
magnetic disturbances. An entire chapter is devoted to the construction and operation of high
voltage direct current (HVDC) systems and phase shifting transformers. This edition has been
expanded to explain the causes of power system shutdowns, with emphasis on the theory of
power system restoration and the methods used in such restoration. Topics of great interest in
this area include voltage and frequency control, equipment and protective relay issues, and
synchronizing issues that may be encountered during power system restoration. Also discussed
are possible strategies to employ during system restoration along with lessons learned from
actual restoration events occurring in North American power systems. A new section has been
added to briefly introduce the basic concepts of the Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS)
and Wide Area Control System (WACS). Like its predecessors, this edition uses a direct style,
relying on physical analogies, intuitive reasoning, and actual case histories rather than on
complex engineering terminology and numerous mathematical equations. This tutorial
supersedes EPRI reports EL-6360-L and TR-107726-R1.

EPRI Perspective
Thousands of readers in the power system community have benefited from earlier editions of this
tutorial as a training tool and reference source on power system operation and engineering. This
tutorial—which has become well known in the industry over the past 20 years—provides a
comprehensive overview of the knowledge that operators need in understanding power system
dynamics. EPRI’s goal with this tutorial is to ensure that system operators acquire the necessary
knowledge to exercise critical judgment in emergency situations that fall outside the scope of
step-by-step utility procedures. EPRI believes that the use of this tutorial promotes operator
proficiency, while supporting economic and reliable power system operation.

Keywords
High voltage direct current (HVDC)
Power system control
Power system dynamics
Power system engineering
Wide Area Control System (WACS)
Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS)

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ABSTRACT

Significant industry restructuring under the vision of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
(FERC) is leading to the formation of large regional transmission organizations, which have
dramatically increased the geographical areas over which a system operator has responsibility.
Consequently, blackouts in one power system can potentially impact a huge portion of North
America at one time—making cost-effective training more and more critical to system reliability.
The EPRI Power System Dynamics Tutorial represents a complete update of key topics to reflect
this restructuring as well as current Reliability Standards issued by the North American Electric
Reliability Council (NERC). This revised edition includes a power system dynamics tutorial
overview and an introductory review of power system fundamentals, followed by chapters on
active and reactive power flow, frequency and voltage control, voltage and angle stability, and
power system oscillations. The tutorial includes chapters on harmonics, resonance,
subsynchronous resonance, ferroresonance, and solar magnetic disturbances. An entire chapter is
devoted to the construction and operation of high voltage direct current (HVDC) systems and
phase shifting transformers. A new section has been added to briefly introduce the basic concepts
of the Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS) and Wide Area Control System (WACS).
Finally, and most important, this edition has been expanded to explain the causes of power
system shutdowns, with emphasis on the theory of power system restoration, methods used in
such restoration, and lessons learned from actual restoration events occurring in North American
power systems. Use of the tutorial promotes operator proficiency, while supporting economic
and reliable power system operation.

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12422963
CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: TUTORIAL INTRODUCTION.............................................................................1-1

1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................1-1
1.2 Fundamentals Review .................................................................................................1-1
1.3 Active and Reactive Power ..........................................................................................1-2
1.4 Frequency Control .......................................................................................................1-3
1.5 Voltage Control ............................................................................................................1-4
1.6 Voltage Stability ...........................................................................................................1-5
1.7 Angle Stability ..............................................................................................................1-6
1.8 Power Oscillations .......................................................................................................1-8
1.9 Additional Topics .........................................................................................................1-9
1.10 Equipment .................................................................................................................1-10
1.11 Power System Restoration ........................................................................................1-11

CHAPTER 2: FUNDAMENTALS REVIEW ..............................................................................2-1

2.1 Introduction to Fundamentals Review..........................................................................2-1
2.2 Mathematics Review....................................................................................................2-1
2.2.1 Right Triangles ....................................................................................................2-1
2.2.2 Trigonometric Functions......................................................................................2-3
2.2.3 Use of Ratios.......................................................................................................2-6
2.2.4 Per-Unit Values ...................................................................................................2-6
2.3 DC Electricity Review...................................................................................................2-8
2.3.1 Current ................................................................................................................2-8
2.3.2 Resistance ........................................................................................................2-10
2.3.3 Voltage ..............................................................................................................2-12
2.3.4 Electrical Circuits...............................................................................................2-13
2.3.5 Ohm’s Law ........................................................................................................2-15
2.3.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws ................................................................................................2-16
2.3.7 Power & Energy ................................................................................................2-18

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 2.4 AC Electricity Review.................................................................................................2-20
2.4.1 Alternating Current Systems .............................................................................2-20
2.4.2 Vectors and Phasors.........................................................................................2-22
2.4.3 Magnetism & Magnetic Fields ...........................................................................2-26
2.4.4 AC Impedance ..................................................................................................2-28
2.4.5 AC Power ..........................................................................................................2-35
2.5 Protective Relaying Review .......................................................................................2-41
2.5.1 Introduction to Power System Relaying ............................................................2-41
2.5.2 Purpose and Function of Protective Relays ......................................................2-42
2.5.3 Power System Faults ........................................................................................2-42
2.5.4 Instrument Transformers...................................................................................2-45
2.5.5 Relay Construction & Operation........................................................................2-46
2.5.6 Types of Relays ................................................................................................2-54
2.5.7 Synchronizing and Synchronizing Equipment...................................................2-64
2.6 Power System Equipment Review.............................................................................2-70
2.6.1 Introduction to Equipment Review ....................................................................2-70
2.6.2 Generators ........................................................................................................2-70
2.6.3 Power Transformers..........................................................................................2-95
2.6.4 Transmission Lines .........................................................................................2-100
2.6.5 AC Circuit Breakers & Switches......................................................................2-104
2.6.6 Thyrister Systems ...........................................................................................2-107
2.7 Power System Operations .......................................................................................2-108
2.7.1 The Interconnections.......................................................................................2-108
2.7.2 The Role of NERC ..........................................................................................2-110
2.8 Fundamentals Review Questions ............................................................................2-111
2.9 Fundamentals Review References ..........................................................................2-113

CHAPTER 3: ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER....................................................................3-1

3.1 Introduction to Active and Reactive Power ..................................................................3-1
3.2 Review of Active and Reactive Power .........................................................................3-1
3.2.1 Active, Reactive and Complex Power .................................................................3-1
3.2.2 Phase Angle, Power Angle, and Torque Angle...................................................3-2
3.3 Equations for Power Transfer ....................................................................................3-10
3.3.1 Development of Power Transfer Equations ......................................................3-10
3.3.2 Use of the Active Power Transfer Equation ......................................................3-13

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 3.3.3 Use of the Reactive Power Transfer Equation ..................................................3-16
3.4 Graphical Tools for Power Transfer ...........................................................................3-18
3.4.1 Power-Angle Curve ...........................................................................................3-19
3.4.2 The Power-Circle Diagram................................................................................3-21
3.5 Power Transfer Limits ................................................................................................3-28
3.5.1 Thermal Limits...................................................................................................3-28
3.5.2 Angle Stability Limits .........................................................................................3-29
3.5.3 Voltage Limits....................................................................................................3-30
3.5.4 Determining Power Transfer Limits...................................................................3-30
3.5.5 Total and Available Transfer Capability ............................................................3-31
3.6 Distribution Factors ....................................................................................................3-32
3.6.1 Determining Distribution Factors.......................................................................3-32
3.6.2 Using Distribution Factors .................................................................................3-33
3.7 Summary of Active and Reactive Power .......................................................................3-34
3.7.1 Active, Reactive and Complex Power ...............................................................3-34
3.7.2 Phase Angle, Power Angle, and Torque Angle.................................................3-34
3.7.3 Development of Power Transfer Equations ......................................................3-34
3.7.4 Use of Active Power Transfer Equation ............................................................3-35
3.7.5 Use of Reactive Power Transfer Equation ........................................................3-35
3.7.6 Power-Angle Curve ...........................................................................................3-36
3.7.8 The Power-Circle Diagram................................................................................3-36
3.7.9 Thermal Limits...................................................................................................3-36
3.7.10 Angle Stability Limits ........................................................................................3-36
3.7.11 Voltage Limits ...................................................................................................3-36
3.7.12 Determining Power Transfer Limits..................................................................3-37
3.7.13 Total and Available Transfer Capability............................................................3-37
3.7.14 Determining Distribution Factors ......................................................................3-37
3.7.15 Using Distribution Factors ................................................................................3-37
3.8 Active and Reactive Power Questions ..........................................................................3-38
3.9 Active and Reactive Power Flow References ...............................................................3-40

CHAPTER 4: FREQUENCY CONTROL ..................................................................................4-1

4.1 Introduction to Frequency Control................................................................................4-1
4.1.1 The Changing Load.............................................................................................4-1
4.1.2 Need for Frequency Control Systems .................................................................4-1

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 4.1.3 Definition of a Control System.............................................................................4-2
4.1.4 The Energy Balance Concept .............................................................................4-2
4.1.5 Normal and Abnormal Frequency Deviations .....................................................4-4
4.1.6 The Load/Frequency Relationship ......................................................................4-7
4.1.7 Power System Inertia ..........................................................................................4-8
4.2 Governor System Components and Operation..........................................................4-10
4.2.1 Introduction to Governors..................................................................................4-10
4.2.2 Centrifugal Ballhead Governor..........................................................................4-11
4.2.3 Modern Electronic Governors ...........................................................................4-13
4.2.4 Governor Droop Curves ....................................................................................4-14
4.2.5 Governor Control in an Islanded Power System ...............................................4-19
4.2.6 Governor Control in an Interconnected System ................................................4-25
4.2.7 Frequency Traces .............................................................................................4-27
4.2.8 Generator Response and Droop Settings .........................................................4-28
4.2.9 System Frequency Response Characteristic ....................................................4-31
4.2.10 Response to a Loss of Generation ...................................................................4-35
4.2.11 Limitations to Governor Response ...................................................................4-36
4.3 Automatic Generation Control (AGC) ........................................................................4-40
4.3.1 Introduction to Automatic Generation Control ...................................................4-40
4.3.2 Balancing Authorities ........................................................................................4-41
4.3.3 Types of Interchange ........................................................................................4-44
4.3.4 Function of an AGC System..............................................................................4-49
4.3.5 Components of an AGC System .......................................................................4-50
4.3.6 Modes of AGC Control ......................................................................................4-51
4.3.7 Tie-Line Bias Control.........................................................................................4-53
4.3.8 Balancing Authority Implementation of AGC.....................................................4-58
4.4 Reserve Policies ........................................................................................................4-59
4.4.1 Operating Reserves ..........................................................................................4-59
4.4.2 Spinning and Non-Spinning Reserves ..............................................................4-60
4.4.3 Responsive Reserves .......................................................................................4-61
4.4.4 NERC Reserve Definitions................................................................................4-63
4.5 Time Error Control .....................................................................................................4-63
4.5.1 Definition of Time Error .....................................................................................4-63
4.5.2 Monitoring Time Error .......................................................................................4-64

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 4.5.3 Correcting Time Error........................................................................................4-65
4.6 NERC Control Performance Standards .....................................................................4-66
4.6.1 NERC’s Old Control Performance Criteria ........................................................4-67
4.6.2 NERC Performance Standards .........................................................................4-70
4.7 Impact of Frequency Deviations ................................................................................4-74
4.7.1 Effects on Steam Turbine Blades......................................................................4-74
4.7.2 Effects on Hydro and Combustion Turbines .....................................................4-75
4.7.3 Effects on Other Power System Equipment......................................................4-75
4.7.4 Effects on Active Power Flows..........................................................................4-76
4.8 Underfrequency Protection ........................................................................................4-76
4.8.1 Power System Islands.......................................................................................4-77
4.8.2 Underfrequency Load Shedding (UFLS)...........................................................4-78
4.8.3 Underfrequency Generator Protection ..............................................................4-81
4.9 Nature of a Frequency Deviation ...............................................................................4-82
4.9.1 Analysis of a Frequency Deviation....................................................................4-82
4.9.2 Actual Expanded Frequency Plots ....................................................................4-84
4.9.3 Effect of Time and Distance ..............................................................................4-86
4.9.4 Frequency Relation to Power Angle..................................................................4-87
4.9.5 Speed of the Traveling Frequency Wave..........................................................4-89
4.10 Staged Response to a Generation Loss ...................................................................4-91
4.10.1 The Electromagnetic Energy Stage..................................................................4-91
4.10.2 The Inertial Stage .............................................................................................4-92
4.10.3 The Governor Response Stage........................................................................4-92
4.10.4 The AGC Stage ................................................................................................4-92
4.10.5 The Economic Dispatch Stage .........................................................................4-92
4.10.6 Illustration of a Staged Response.....................................................................4-93
4.11 Role of the System Operator.....................................................................................4-96
4.11.1 Frequency Control Duties.................................................................................4-97
4.11.2 Islanded Systems and Frequency Control........................................................4-97
4.11.3 A Simple Example ............................................................................................4-98
4.12 Summary of Frequency Control ..............................................................................4-100
4.12.1 The Changing Load........................................................................................4-100
4.12.2 Need for Frequency Control Systems ............................................................4-100
4.12.3 Definition of a Control System ........................................................................4-100

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 4.12.4 The Energy Balance Concept ........................................................................4-100
4.12.5 Normal and Abnormal Frequency Deviations.................................................4-100
4.12.6 The Load/Frequency Relationship .................................................................4-100
4.12.7 Power System Inertia .....................................................................................4-100
4.12.8 Introduction to Governors ...............................................................................4-100
4.12.9 Centrifugal Ballhead Governor .......................................................................4-101
4.12.10 Modern Electronic Governors.........................................................................4-101
4.12.11 Governor Droop Curves .................................................................................4-101
4.12.12 Governor Control in an Islanded Power System ...........................................4-101
4.12.13 Governor Control in an Interconnected System ............................................4-101
4.12.14 Frequency Traces .........................................................................................4-101
4.12.15 Generator Response and Droop Settings .....................................................4-102
4.12.16 System Frequency Response Characteristic ................................................4-102
4.12.17 Response to a Loss of Generation................................................................4-102
4.12.18 Limitations to Governor Response ................................................................4-102
4.12.19 Introduction to Automatic Generation Control ...............................................4-102
4.12.20 Balancing Authorities.....................................................................................4-103
4.12.21 Types of Interchange.....................................................................................4-103
4.12.22 Function of an AGC System..........................................................................4-103
4.12.23 Components of an AGC System ...................................................................4-103
4.12.24 Modes of AGC Control ..................................................................................4-104
4.12.25 Tie-Line Bias Control.....................................................................................4-104
4.12.26 Balancing Authority Implementation of AGC .................................................4-104
4.12.27 Operating Reserves ......................................................................................4-104
4.12.28 Spinning and Non-Spinning Reserves ..........................................................4-104
4.12.29 Responsive Reserves ...................................................................................4-105
4.12.30 NERC Reserve Definitions ............................................................................4-105
4.12.31 Definition of Time Error .................................................................................4-105
4.12.32 Monitoring Time Error....................................................................................4-105
4.12.33 Correcting Time Error....................................................................................4-105
4.12.34 NERC’s Old Control Performance Criteria ....................................................4-105
4.12.35 NERC Performance Standards .....................................................................4-105
4.12.36 Effects on Steam Turbine Blades..................................................................4-106
4.12.37 Effects on Hydro and Combustion Turbines..................................................4-106

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 4.12.38 Effects on Other Power System Equipment ..................................................4-106
4.12.39 Effects on Active Power Flows ......................................................................4-106
4.12.40 Power System Islands ...................................................................................4-106
4.12.41 Underfrequency Load Shedding (UFLS) .......................................................4-107
4.12.42 Underfrequency Generator Protection...........................................................4-107
4.12.43 Analysis of a Frequency Deviation ................................................................4-107
4.12.44 Actual Expanded Frequency Plots ................................................................4-107
4.12.45 Effect of Time and Distance ..........................................................................4-107
4.12.46 Frequency Relation to Power Angle ..............................................................4-108
4.12.47 Speed of the Traveling Frequency Wave ......................................................4-108
4.12.48 The Electromagnetic Energy Stage...............................................................4-108
4.12.49 The Inertial Stage ..........................................................................................4-108
4.12.50 The Governor Response Stage.....................................................................4-108
4.12.51 The AGC Stage .............................................................................................4-108
4.12.52 Illustration of a Staged Response..................................................................4-108
4.12.53 Frequency Control Duties..............................................................................4-108
4.12.54 Islanded Systems and Frequency Control.....................................................4-109
4.12.55 A Simple Example .........................................................................................4-109
4.13 Frequency Control Questions..................................................................................4-110
4.14 Frequency Control References ...............................................................................4-114

CHAPTER 5: VOLTAGE CONTROL .......................................................................................5-1

5.1 Introduction to Voltage Control ....................................................................................5-1
5.1.1 Review of Active, Reactive and Complex Power................................................5-1
5.1.2 Reactive Power & Voltage Levels ......................................................................5-3
5.1.3 Flow of Reactive Power......................................................................................5-4
5.2 Causes of Low Voltage ................................................................................................5-5
5.2.1 Reactive Power and Low Voltage .......................................................................5-5
5.2.2 Heavy Power Transfers.......................................................................................5-6
5.2.3 Transmission Line Outages ..............................................................................5-12
5.2.4 Reactive Equipment Outages ...........................................................................5-14
5.2.5 Failure to Get Ahead of the Voltage..................................................................5-14
5.2.6 Motor Stalling ....................................................................................................5-15
5.3 Causes of High Voltage .............................................................................................5-15
5.3.1 Overvoltage Time Frames.................................................................................5-16

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 5.3.2 Long Term Overvoltages...................................................................................5-16
5.3.3 Short Term Overvoltages ..................................................................................5-21
5.3.4 Transient Overvoltages .....................................................................................5-24
5.4 Effects of Low Voltages .............................................................................................5-26
5.4.1 Effect of Low Voltage on System Equipment ....................................................5-27
5.4.2 Effect of Low Voltage on Load Magnitude ........................................................5-27
5.4.3 Effect of Low Voltage on Angle Stability ...........................................................5-33
5.4.4 Effect of Low Voltage on Customer Equipment ................................................5-34
5.4.5 Effect of Low Voltage on Power Losses............................................................5-34
5.5 Effects of High Voltages.............................................................................................5-35
5.5.1 General Effects of High Voltages ......................................................................5-35
5.5.2 Effect of High Voltage on Power Transformers.................................................5-36
5.5.3 Effect of High Voltage on Load Magnitude........................................................5-38
5.5.4 Effect of High Voltage on Angle Stability...........................................................5-38
5.5.5 Effect of High Voltage on Customer Equipment................................................5-38
5.5.6 Effect of High Voltage on Power Losses...........................................................5-39
5.6 Use of Voltage Control Equipment.............................................................................5-40
5.6.1 Use of Capacitors and Reactors .......................................................................5-40
5.6.2 Use of Transformers .........................................................................................5-44
5.6.3 Use of Generators.............................................................................................5-51
5.6.4 Use of Static Var Compensators (SVC) ............................................................5-57
5.6.5 Line Switching for Voltage Control ....................................................................5-61
5.7 Role of the System Operator .....................................................................................5-61
5.7.1 Monitoring Voltage ............................................................................................5-61
5.7.2 Actions to Raise Voltage ...................................................................................5-62
5.7.3 Actions to Lower Voltage ..................................................................................5-62
5.7.4 Reactive Reserves ............................................................................................5-63
5.8 Summary of Voltage Control......................................................................................5-65
5.8.1 Review of Active, Reactive and Complex Power ..............................................5-65
5.8.2 Reactive Power and Low Voltages ...................................................................5-65
5.8.3 Heavy Power Transfers.....................................................................................5-65
5.8.4 Transmission Line Outages ..............................................................................5-65
5.8.5 Reactive Equipment Outages ...........................................................................5-65
5.8.6 Failure to Get Ahead of the Voltage..................................................................5-66

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 5.8.7 Motor Stalling ....................................................................................................5-66
5.8.8 Reactive Power and High Voltages...................................................................5-66
5.8.9 Long Term Overvoltages...................................................................................5-66
5.8.10 Short Term Overvoltages .................................................................................5-66
5.8.11 Transient Overvoltages ....................................................................................5-66
5.8.12 Effect of Low Voltage on System Equipment ...................................................5-67
5.8.13 Effect of Low Voltage on Load Magnitude........................................................5-67
5.8.14 Effect of Low Voltage on Angle Stability...........................................................5-67
5.8.15 Effect of Low Voltage on Customer Equipment................................................5-67
5.8.16 Effect of Low Voltage on Power Losses ...........................................................5-67
5.8.17 General Effects of High Voltages .....................................................................5-67
5.8.18 Effect of High Voltage on Power Transformers ................................................5-67
5.8.19 Effect of High Voltage on Load Magnitude .......................................................5-67
5.8.20 Effect of High Voltage on Angle Stability ..........................................................5-68
5.8.21 Effect of High Voltage On Customer Equipment ..............................................5-68
5.8.22 Effect of High Voltage on Power Losses ..........................................................5-68
5.8.23 Use of Capacitors and Reactors.......................................................................5-68
5.8.24 Use of Transformers.........................................................................................5-68
5.8.25 Use of Generators ............................................................................................5-68
5.8.26 Use of Static Var Compensators (SVC) ...........................................................5-69
5.8.27 Line Switching for Voltage Control ...................................................................5-69
5.8.28 Monitoring Voltage ...........................................................................................5-69
5.8.29 Actions to Raise Voltage ..................................................................................5-69
5.8.30 Actions to Lower Voltage..................................................................................5-70
5.8.31 Maintaining Reactive Reserves ........................................................................5-70
5.9 Voltage Control Questions .........................................................................................5-71
5.10 Voltage Control References ......................................................................................5-73

CHAPTER 6: VOLTAGE STABILITY ......................................................................................6-1

6.1 Voltage Stability ...........................................................................................................6-1
6.1.1 Introduction to Voltage Collapse & Voltage Instability.........................................6-1
6.2 Definitions ....................................................................................................................6-1
6.2.1 Voltage Stability & Instability Definitions .............................................................6-1
6.2.2 Voltage Collapse Definition .................................................................................6-2
6.2.3 Voltage Stability Versus Angle Stability ..............................................................6-2

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 6.3 Types of Voltage Instability ..........................................................................................6-3
6.3.1 Long-Term Voltage Instability .............................................................................6-4
6.3.2 Classical Voltage Instability.................................................................................6-4
6.3.3 Short-Term or Transient Voltage Instability.........................................................6-4
6.4 Long-Term Voltage Instability ......................................................................................6-5
6.4.1 Introduction to Long-Term Voltage Instability......................................................6-5
6.4.2 Radial Power Systems ........................................................................................6-5
6.4.3 Use of the P-V Curve ..........................................................................................6-6
6.4.4 Conditions for Long Term Voltage Instability ....................................................6-10
6.4.5 Long Term Voltage Instability Process..............................................................6-11
6.4.6 Role of Tap Changing Equipment .....................................................................6-12
6.4.7 Tap Changing and Load Magnitude..................................................................6-14
6.4.8 Example of Long Term Voltage Instability.........................................................6-15
6.5 Classical Voltage Instability .......................................................................................6-16
6.5.1 Introduction to Classical Voltage Instability.......................................................6-16
6.5.2 Loss of Load Diversity.......................................................................................6-17
6.5.3 Simulation of Classical Voltage Instability.........................................................6-17
6.5.4 Response of Generation ...................................................................................6-19
6.5.5 Phases of Classical Voltage Instability..............................................................6-21
6.5.6 Introduction to the V-Q Curve ...........................................................................6-21
6.5.7 Usage of the V-Q Curve....................................................................................6-22
6.5.8 Combining P-V & V-Q Curves...........................................................................6-23
6.5.9 Example of Classical Voltage Instability............................................................6-25
6.6 Short-Term or Transient Voltage Instability ...............................................................6-28
6.6.1 Introduction to Short-Term or Transient Voltage Instability...............................6-28
6.6.2 Voltage Instability & Induction Motor Stalling ....................................................6-28
6.6.3 Example of Transient Voltage Instability ...........................................................6-30
6.6.4 Voltage Collapse & Loss of Synchronism .........................................................6-33
6.7 Preventing Voltage Instability.....................................................................................6-34
6.7.1 Dynamic Reactive Reserves .............................................................................6-34
6.7.2 Voltage Control Zones ......................................................................................6-35
6.7.3 Load Shedding ..................................................................................................6-35
6.8 Role of the System Operator .....................................................................................6-36
6.8.1 Detecting Voltage Instability..............................................................................6-37

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 6.8.2 Responding to Voltage Instability......................................................................6-37
6.8.3 Relationship of the Types of Voltage Instability ................................................6-39
6.9 Summary of Voltage Stability.....................................................................................6-41
6.9.1 Introduction to Voltage Collapse & Voltage Stability .........................................6-41
6.9.2 Voltage Stability & Instability Definitions ...........................................................6-41
6.9.3 Voltage Collapse Definition ...............................................................................6-41
6.9.4 Voltage Stability Versus Angle Stability ............................................................6-41
6.9.5 Long-Term Voltage Instability ...........................................................................6-41
6.9.6 Classical Voltage Instability...............................................................................6-41
6.9.7 Short-term or Transient Voltage Instability........................................................6-41
6.9.8 Introduction to Long-Term Voltage Instability....................................................6-41
6.9.9 Radial Power Systems ......................................................................................6-42
6.9.10 Use of the P-V Curve .......................................................................................6-42
6.9.11 Conditions for a Long-Term Voltage Instability.................................................6-42
6.9.12 Long-Term Voltage Instability Process.............................................................6-42
6.9.13 Role of Tap Changing Equipment ....................................................................6-42
6.9.14 Tap Changing and Load Magnitude .................................................................6-42
6.9.15 Example of Long-Term Voltage Instability........................................................6-43
6.9.16 Introduction to Classical Voltage Instability ......................................................6-43
6.9.17 Loss of Load Diversity ......................................................................................6-43
6.9.18 Simulation of Classical Voltage Instability ........................................................6-43
6.9.19 Response of Generation ..................................................................................6-43
6.9.20 Phases of Classical Voltage Instability .............................................................6-43
6.9.21 Introduction to the V-Q Curve...........................................................................6-43
6.9.22 Usage of the V-Q Curve ...................................................................................6-43
6.9.23 Combining P-V & V-Q Curves ..........................................................................6-43
6.9.24 Example of a Classical Voltage Collapse .........................................................6-44
6.9.25 Introduction to Short-Term or Transient Voltage Instability ..............................6-44
6.9.26 Voltage Stability & Induction Motor Stalling......................................................6-44
6.9.27 Example of Transient Voltage Collapse ...........................................................6-44
6.9.28 Voltage Collapse & Loss of Synchronism.........................................................6-44
6.9.29 Dynamic Reactive Reserves ............................................................................6-44
6.9.30 Voltage Control Zones......................................................................................6-44
6.9.31 Load Shedding .................................................................................................6-44

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 6.9.32 Detecting Voltage Instability .............................................................................6-45
6.9.33 Responding to Voltage Instability .....................................................................6-45
6.9.34 Relationship of the Types of Voltage Instability................................................6-45
6.10 Voltage Stability Questions .......................................................................................6-46
6.11 Voltage Stability References .....................................................................................6-48

CHAPTER 7: ANGLE STABILITY ...........................................................................................7-1

7.1 Introduction to Angle Stability ......................................................................................7-1
7.1.1 Angle & Voltage Stability.....................................................................................7-1
7.2 Definition of Angle Stability ..........................................................................................7-1
7.2.1 Changing Torque & Power Angles......................................................................7-2
7.2.2 Out-of-Step/Loss of Synchronism .......................................................................7-2
7.2.3 Angle Stability & Generator Speed .....................................................................7-4
7.2.4 Out-of-Step From a Voltage Perspective ............................................................7-5
7.2.5 Relative Nature of Angle Stability........................................................................7-6
7.2.6 Rotor Dynamics...................................................................................................7-7
7.3 Active Power & the Power-Angle Curve ......................................................................7-9
7.3.1 Review of Active Power Transfer Equation.........................................................7-9
7.3.2 Review of Power-Angle Curves ........................................................................7-10
7.3.3 Maximum Angle ................................................................................................7-12
7.4 Types of Angle Stability .............................................................................................7-12
7.4.1 Angle Stability Classifications ...........................................................................7-12
7.4.2 Introduction to Angle Stability Classifications....................................................7-13
7.5 Steady State Stability/Instability.................................................................................7-16
7.5.1 Process of Steady State Instability....................................................................7-16
7.5.2 Example of Steady State Instability...................................................................7-18
7.6 Transient Stability/Instability ......................................................................................7-20
7.6.1 Process of Transient Stability............................................................................7-20
7.6.2 Process of Transient Instability .........................................................................7-24
7.6.3 Transient Stability Following a Fault .................................................................7-26
7.6.4 Further Observations with Power-Angle Curves ...............................................7-29
7.7 Oscillatory Stability/Instability.....................................................................................7-31
7.7.1 Process of Oscillatory Stability..........................................................................7-32
7.7.2 Process of Oscillatory Instability .......................................................................7-35
7.8 Out-of-Step Protection ...............................................................................................7-37

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 7.8.1 Purpose of Out-of-Step Protection ....................................................................7-37
7.8.2 Review of Three-Zone Stepped Distance Protection ........................................7-37
7.8.3 Out-of-Step Protection ......................................................................................7-39
7.9 Angle Instability Example...........................................................................................7-41
7.10 Introduction to the Swing Equation............................................................................7-47
7.10.1 Equation for Accelerating Torque .....................................................................7-47
7.10.2 Equation for Accelerating Power ......................................................................7-49
7.10.3 The Swing Equation .........................................................................................7-50
7.11 Synchrophasor Measurements .................................................................................7-51
7.11.1 Concept of a Synchrophasor ............................................................................7-51
7.11.2 The Global Positioning System ........................................................................7-51
7.11.3 Phasor Measurement Units ..............................................................................7-52
7.11.4 The Usage of Synchrophasors .........................................................................7-53
7.12 Role of the System Operator.....................................................................................7-56
7.12.1 Enforce System Operating Guidelines .............................................................7-56
7.12.2 Additional Actions to Maintain Angle Stability...................................................7-56
7.13 Summary of Angle Stability .......................................................................................7-58
7.13.1 Angle & Voltage Stability ..................................................................................7-58
7.13.2 Changing Torque & Power Angles ...................................................................7-58
7.13.3 Out-of-Step/Loss of Synchronism ....................................................................7-58
7.13.4 Angle Stability & Generator Speed...................................................................7-58
7.13.5 Out-of-Step From a Voltage Perspective..........................................................7-58
7.13.6 Relative Nature of Angle Stability .....................................................................7-58
7.13.7 Rotor Dynamics ................................................................................................7-59
7.13.8 Review of Active Power Transfer Equation ......................................................7-59
7.13.9 Review of Power-Angle Curves........................................................................7-59
7.13.10 Maximum Angle Spread ...................................................................................7-59
7.13.11 Angle Stability Classifications...........................................................................7-59
7.13.12 Introduction to Angle Stability Classifications ...................................................7-59
7.13.13 Process of Steady State Stability .....................................................................7-60
7.13.14 Example of Steady State Instability ..................................................................7-60
7.13.15 Process of Transient Stability ...........................................................................7-60
7.13.16 Process of Transient Instability.........................................................................7-60
7.13.17 Transient Stability Following a Fault.................................................................7-60

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 7.13.18 Further Observations with Power-Angle Curves ..............................................7-60
7.13.19 Process of Oscillatory Stability .........................................................................7-60
7.13.20 Process of Oscillatory Instability.......................................................................7-61
7.13.21 Purpose of Out-of-Step Protection ...................................................................7-61
7.13.22 Review of Three-Zone Stepped Distance Protection .......................................7-61
7.13.23 Out-of-Step Protection......................................................................................7-61
7.13.24 Angle Instability Example .................................................................................7-61
7.13.25 Equation for Accelerating Torque .....................................................................7-61
7.13.26 Equation for Accelerating Power ......................................................................7-62
7.13.27 The Swing Equation .........................................................................................7-62
7.13.28 Concept of a Synchrophasor ............................................................................7-62
7.13.29 The Global Positioning System ........................................................................7-62
7.13.30 Phasor Measurement Units ..............................................................................7-62
7.13.31 The Usage of Synchrophasors .........................................................................7-62
7.13.32 Enforce System Operating Guidelines .............................................................7-62
7.13.33 Additional Actions to Maintain Angle Stability...................................................7-63
7.14 Angle Stability Questions ..........................................................................................7-64
7.15 Angle Stability References ........................................................................................7-66

CHAPTER 8: POWER OSCILLATIONS ..................................................................................8-1

8.1 Introduction to Power Oscillations................................................................................8-1
8.1.1 Definition of Oscillations......................................................................................8-2
8.1.2 Triggering Events ................................................................................................8-2
8.1.3 Mechanical Analogy for Oscillations ...................................................................8-3
8.1.4 Typical Oscillation Frequencies ..........................................................................8-4
8.1.5 Oscillation Envelopes..........................................................................................8-5
8.1.6 Oscillation Damping ............................................................................................8-6
8.1.7 Oscillation Classifications....................................................................................8-7
8.2 Power Oscillations on a Sample System ...................................................................8-10
8.2.1 Changes to Power, Speed, and Angle ..............................................................8-10
8.2.2 Feedback Loop for Power, Speed, and Angle ..................................................8-11
8.2.3 Comparison of Power, Speed, and Angle .........................................................8-12
8.2.4 Summary of the Power Oscillation Process ......................................................8-14
8.3 Natural Frequency of Oscillation................................................................................8-15
8.3.1 Natural Frequency Analogy...............................................................................8-15

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 8.3.2 Factors that Impact the Natural Frequency.......................................................8-16
8.3.3 Oscillation Frequency Effect on Damping .........................................................8-17
8.3.4 Modes of Oscillation..........................................................................................8-18
8.4 Oscillations & Excitation Systems..............................................................................8-22
8.4.1 Operation of an Excitation System....................................................................8-22
8.4.2 Modern Excitation Systems...............................................................................8-23
8.4.3 Benefits of Fast, Powerful Excitation.................................................................8-24
8.4.4 Excitation Systems and Oscillatory Stability .....................................................8-24
8.4.5 Power System Stabilizers (PSS).......................................................................8-25
8.5 Additional Causes of Oscillations...............................................................................8-26
8.5.1 Cyclic Loads......................................................................................................8-27
8.5.2 Governor Control System..................................................................................8-27
8.5.3 HVDC Systems .................................................................................................8-28
8.5.4 Generator Pole Slipping ....................................................................................8-29
8.6 Role of the System Operator .....................................................................................8-31
8.6.1 Detecting Oscillations........................................................................................8-31
8.6.2 Responding to Oscillations................................................................................8-32
8.7 Summary of Power Oscillations .................................................................................8-33
8.7.1 Definition of Oscillations....................................................................................8-33
8.7.2 Triggering Events ..............................................................................................8-33
8.7.3 Mechanical Analogy for Oscillations .................................................................8-33
8.7.4 Typical Oscillation Frequencies ........................................................................8-33
8.7.5 Oscillation Envelopes........................................................................................8-33
8.7.6 Oscillation Damping ..........................................................................................8-33
8.7.7 Oscillation Classifications..................................................................................8-33
8.7.8 Changes to Power, Speed, and Angle ..............................................................8-34
8.7.9 Feedback Loop for Power, Speed, and Angle ..................................................8-34
8.7.10 Comparison of Power, Speed, and Angle ........................................................8-34
8.7.11 Summary of the Power Oscillation Process .....................................................8-34
8.7.12 Natural Frequency Analogy ..............................................................................8-34
8.7.13 Factors that Impact the Natural Frequency ......................................................8-34
8.7.14 Oscillation Frequency Effect on Damping ........................................................8-35
8.7.15 Modes of Oscillation .........................................................................................8-35
8.7.16 Operation of an Excitation System ...................................................................8-35

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 8.7.17 Modern Excitation Systems ..............................................................................8-35
8.7.18 Benefits of Fast, Powerful Excitation ................................................................8-35
8.7.19 Excitation Systems and Oscillatory Stability.....................................................8-35
8.7.20 Power System Stabilizers.................................................................................8-36
8.7.21 Cyclic Loads .....................................................................................................8-36
8.7.22 Governor Control Systems ...............................................................................8-36
8.7.23 HVDC Systems ................................................................................................8-36
8.7.24 Generator Pole Slipping ...................................................................................8-36
8.7.25 Detecting Oscillations .......................................................................................8-36
8.7.26 Responding to Oscillations ...............................................................................8-36
8.8 Power Oscillations Questions ....................................................................................8-37
8.9 Power Oscillations References ..................................................................................8-39

CHAPTER 9: ADDITIONAL TOPICS.......................................................................................9-1

9.1 Additional Topics .........................................................................................................9-1
9.1.1 Introduction to Additional Topics .........................................................................9-1
9.2 Harmonics....................................................................................................................9-1
9.2.1 Introduction to Harmonics ...................................................................................9-1
9.2.2 Description of Harmonics ....................................................................................9-1
9.2.3 Harmonic Content ...............................................................................................9-5
9.2.4 Sources of Harmonics.........................................................................................9-5
9.2.5 Flow of Harmonic Current ...................................................................................9-8
9.2.6 Effects of Harmonics ...........................................................................................9-9
9.2.7 Control of Harmonics ........................................................................................9-11
9.3 Resonance.................................................................................................................9-14
9.3.1 Introduction to Resonance ................................................................................9-14
9.3.2 Series Resonance.............................................................................................9-15
9.3.3 Parallel Resonance ...........................................................................................9-19
9.4 Subsynchronous Resonance .....................................................................................9-22
9.4.1 Introduction to Subsynchronous Resonance ....................................................9-22
9.4.2 SSR and Series Capacitors ..............................................................................9-22
9.4.3 Resonance Frequency ......................................................................................9-23
9.4.4 Definition of Subsynchronous Resonance ........................................................9-23
9.4.5 Components of System Current........................................................................9-24
9.4.6 Generator Modes of Oscillation.........................................................................9-25

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 9.4.7 Forms of SSR....................................................................................................9-26
9.4.8 When is SSR a Concern? .................................................................................9-29
9.4.9 SSR Example....................................................................................................9-30
9.4.10 Preventing SSR .............................................................................................9-32
9.5 Ferroresonance .........................................................................................................9-32
9.5.1 Introduction to Ferroresonance .........................................................................9-32
9.5.2 Definition of Ferroresonance.............................................................................9-33
9.5.3 Distribution Ferroresonance..............................................................................9-34
9.5.4 Ferroresonance in a Transmission Substation..................................................9-39
9.6 Geomagnetic Disturbances .......................................................................................9-44
9.6.1 Introduction to Geomagnetic Disturbances .......................................................9-44
9.6.2 Sunspots ...........................................................................................................9-46
9.6.3 The Solar Wind .................................................................................................9-47
9.6.4 ESPs & GICs.....................................................................................................9-48
9.6.5 Factors that Influence the Impact of GMDs.......................................................9-50
9.6.6 GIC Entry to the Power System ........................................................................9-53
9.6.7 Impact of GMDs ................................................................................................9-57
9.6.8 Controlling the Impact of GMDs ........................................................................9-63
9.6.9 Hydro Quebec GMD Incident ............................................................................9-66
9.6.10 Role of the System Operator ............................................................................9-69
9.7 Summary of Additional Topics ...................................................................................9-71
9.7.1 Introduction to Additional Topics .......................................................................9-71
9.7.2 Introduction to Harmonics .................................................................................9-71
9.7.3 Description of Harmonics ..................................................................................9-71
9.7.4 Harmonic Content .............................................................................................9-71
9.7.5 Sources of Harmonics.......................................................................................9-71
9.7.6 Flow of Harmonic Current .................................................................................9-71
9.7.7 Effects of Harmonics .........................................................................................9-71
9.7.8 Control of Harmonics ........................................................................................9-72
9.7.9 Introduction to Resonance ................................................................................9-72
9.7.10 Series Resonance ............................................................................................9-72
9.7.11 Parallel Resonance ..........................................................................................9-72
9.7.12 Introduction to Subsynchronous Resonance....................................................9-72
9.7.13 SSR and Series Capacitors..............................................................................9-72

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 9.7.14 Resonance Frequency .....................................................................................9-72
9.7.15 Definition of Subsynchronous Resonance........................................................9-73
9.7.16 Components of System Current .......................................................................9-73
9.7.17 Generator Modes of Oscillation ........................................................................9-73
9.7.18 Forms of SSR ...................................................................................................9-73
9.7.19 When Is SSR a Concern? ................................................................................9-73
9.7.20 SSR Example ...................................................................................................9-73
9.7.21 Preventing SSR ................................................................................................9-74
9.7.22 Introduction to Ferroresonance ........................................................................9-74
9.7.23 Definition of Ferroresonance ............................................................................9-74
9.7.24 Distribution Ferroresonance .............................................................................9-74
9.7.25 Ferroresonance in a Transmission Substation .................................................9-74
9.7.26 Introduction to Geomagnetic Disturbances ......................................................9-74
9.7.27 Sunspots ..........................................................................................................9-74
9.7.28 The Solar Wind.................................................................................................9-74
9.7.29 ESPs & GICs ....................................................................................................9-74
9.7.30 Factors that Influence the Impact of GMDs ......................................................9-75
9.7.31 GIC Entry to the Power System........................................................................9-75
9.7.32 Impact of GMDs ...............................................................................................9-75
9.7.33 Controlling the Impact of GMDs .......................................................................9-75
9.7.34 Hydro Quebec GMD Incident ...........................................................................9-75
9.7.35 Role of the System Operator ............................................................................9-75
9.8 Additional Topics Questions ......................................................................................9-76
9.9 Additional Topics References ....................................................................................9-78

CHAPTER 10: EQUIPMENT ..................................................................................................10-1

10.1 HVDC Construction and Operation ...........................................................................10-1
10.1.1 Introduction to HVDC .......................................................................................10-1
10.1.2 Types of HVDC Systems..................................................................................10-4
10.1.3 Components of an HVDC System ....................................................................10-5
10.1.4 Operation of an HVDC System.......................................................................10-22
10.2 PST Construction and Operation ............................................................................10-32
10.2.1 Introduction to PSTs .......................................................................................10-32
10.2.2 Construction of PSTs .....................................................................................10-34
10.2.3 Operations of PSTs ........................................................................................10-36

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 10.3 Summary of Equipment...........................................................................................10-40
10.3.1 Introduction to HVDC Systems.......................................................................10-40
10.3.2 Types of HVDC Systems................................................................................10-40
10.3.3 Components of an HVDC System ..................................................................10-40
10.3.4 Operation of an HVDC System.......................................................................10-40
10.3.5 Introduction to PSTs .......................................................................................10-41
10.3.6 Construction of PSTs .....................................................................................10-41
10.3.7 Operation of PSTs ..........................................................................................10-41
10.4 Equipment Questions ..............................................................................................10-42
10.5 Equipment References............................................................................................10-44

CHAPTER 11: POWER SYSTEM RESTORATION ...............................................................11-1

11.1 Introduction to Power System Restoration ................................................................11-1
11.1.1 Definition of a Restoration Condition ................................................................11-1
11.1.2 Causes of System Shutdowns .........................................................................11-2
11.1.3 Overview of Key Technical Restoration Issues ................................................11-9
11.1.4 Restoration Planning ......................................................................................11-12
11.2 Voltage Control and System Restoration ................................................................11-20
11.2.1 Voltage Control as a Local Issue....................................................................11-20
11.2.2 Review of Voltage Related Restoration Theory..............................................11-21
11.2.3 Voltage Control in Restoration Conditions......................................................11-25
11.2.4 Operation of the System at Reduced Voltage ................................................11-29
11.2.5 Voltage Based Automatic Load Shedding ......................................................11-30
11.3 Frequency Control and System Restoration ...........................................................11-30
11.3.1 Frequency Control as an Interconnection Issue .............................................11-30
11.3.2 Maintaining Frequency during Restoration Conditions...................................11-32
11.3.3 Usage of Governors to Control Frequency.....................................................11-35
11.3.4 AGC and System Restoration ........................................................................11-39
11.3.5 Connecting Islands .........................................................................................11-41
11.3.6 Cold Load Pick-Up Concerns .........................................................................11-41
11.3.7 Maintaining Operating Reserves during Restoration Conditions....................11-45
11.3.8 Load Curtailment ............................................................................................11-47
11.4 Equipment Issues Related to System Restoration ..................................................11-50
11.4.1 Substation Stored Energy ..............................................................................11-50
11.4.2 Pipe-Type Cable Systems ..............................................................................11-52

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 11.4.3 Lightning Arresters .........................................................................................11-54
11.4.4 Transformers ..................................................................................................11-55
11.4.5 Circuit Breakers and Restoration Conditions..................................................11-59
11.4.6 Telecommunication Systems and SCADA .....................................................11-61
11.4.7 Generators and Power System Restoration ...................................................11-62
11.4.8 Usage of Emergency Generators ...................................................................11-69
11.5 Protective Relay Issues Related to System Restoration .........................................11-71
11.5.1 Restoration Conditions and Protective Relaying ............................................11-71
11.5.2 System-Wide Protective Relay Issues............................................................11-73
11.5.3 Transmission Line Protection .........................................................................11-79
11.5.4 Generator Relays ...........................................................................................11-83
11.6 Synchronizing and System Restoration ..................................................................11-87
11.6.1 Review of Synchronizing Theory ....................................................................11-87
11.6.2 Synchronizing Equipment...............................................................................11-88
11.6.3 Synchronizing Examples ................................................................................11-90
11.6.4 Guidelines for Synchronizing Islanded Systems ............................................11-91
11.7 Lessons Learned From Actual System Restorations ..............................................11-93
11.7.1 Problems with Backup Power Sources...........................................................11-93
11.7.2 Problems with Black-Start Capable Generators .............................................11-93
11.7.3 Problems with Circuit Breakers ......................................................................11-93
11.7.4 Problems with Telecommunications ...............................................................11-93
11.7.5 Problems with Computers ..............................................................................11-93
11.7.6 Problems with DC Control Circuitry and Interlock Schemes ..........................11-94
11.7.7 Problems with the Frequency Control Process ..............................................11-94
11.7.8 Problems with the EMS Man-Machine Interface (MMI) ..................................11-94
11.7.9 Problems with Protective Relays ....................................................................11-94
11.7.10 Problems with Special Protection Systems (SPS)..........................................11-95
11.7.11 Problems with Transmission System Design .................................................11-95
11.7.12 Problems Encountered During System Operations........................................11-95
11.7.13 Problems with System Operator Training.......................................................11-95
11.7.14 Problems with the Voltage Control Process ...................................................11-95
11.8 Summary of Power System Restoration .................................................................11-96
11.8.1 Definition of a Restoration Condition ..............................................................11-96
11.8.2 Causes of System Shutdowns .......................................................................11-96

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 11.8.3 Overview of Key Technical Restoration Issues ..............................................11-96
11.8.4 Restoration Planning ......................................................................................11-97
11.8.5 Voltage Control as a Local Issue....................................................................11-97
11.8.6 Review of Voltage Related Restoration Theory..............................................11-97
11.8.7 Voltage Control in Restoration Conditions......................................................11-97
11.8.8 Operation of the System at Reduced Voltage ................................................11-98
11.8.9 Voltage Based Automatic Load Shedding ......................................................11-98
11.8.10 Frequency Control as an Interconnection Issue .............................................11-98
11.8.11 Maintaining Frequency During Restoration Conditions ..................................11-98
11.8.12 Usage of Governors to Control Frequency.....................................................11-98
11.8.13 AGC and System Restoration ........................................................................11-99
11.8.14 Connecting Islands .........................................................................................11-99
11.8.15 Cold Load Pick-Up Concerns .........................................................................11-99
11.8.16 Maintaining Operating Reserves During Restoration Conditions ...................11-99
11.8.17 Load Curtailment ............................................................................................11-99
11.8.18 Substation Stored Energy ............................................................................11-100
11.8.19 Pipe-Type Cable Systems ............................................................................11-100
11.8.20 Lightning Arresters .......................................................................................11-100
11.8.21 Transformers ................................................................................................11-100
11.8.22 Circuit Breakers and Restoration Conditions................................................11-100
11.8.23 Telecommunication Systems and SCADA ...................................................11-100
11.8.24 Generators and Power System Restoration .................................................11-101
11.8.25 Usage of Emergency Generators .................................................................11-101
11.8.26 Restoration Conditions and Protective Relaying ..........................................11-101
11.8.27 System-Wide Protective Relay Issues..........................................................11-101
11.8.28 Transmission Line Protection .......................................................................11-102
11.8.29 Generator Relays .........................................................................................11-102
11.8.30 Review of Synchronizing Theory ..................................................................11-102
11.8.31 Synchronizing Equipment.............................................................................11-103
11.8.32 Synchronizing Examples ..............................................................................11-103
11.8.33 Guidelines for Synchronizing Islanded Systems ..........................................11-103
11.8.34 Lessons Learned from Actual System Restorations.....................................11-103
11.9 Power System Restoration Questions...................................................................11-104
11.10 Power System Restoration References ................................................................11-107

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APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY..................................................................................................... A-1

APPENDIX B: ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYM EXPANSION......................................... B-1

APPENDIX C: REVIEW QUESTIONS ANSWER KEY ........................................................... C-1

Chapter 2: Fundamentals Review ....................................................................................... C-1
Chapter 3: Active and Reactive Power................................................................................ C-4
Chapter 4: Frequency Control ............................................................................................. C-6
Chapter 5: Voltage Control.................................................................................................. C-9
Chapter 6: Voltage Stability............................................................................................... C-11
Chapter 7: Angle Stability.................................................................................................. C-13
Chapter 8: Power Oscillations ........................................................................................... C-15
Chapter 9: Additional Topics ............................................................................................. C-17
Chapter 10: Equipment ..................................................................................................... C-19
Chapter 11: Power System Restoration ............................................................................ C-22

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1. Right Triangles .....................................................................................................2-2

Figure 2-2. Illustration of a Sine Wave....................................................................................2-3
Figure 2-3. Right Triangle and the Sine Function ...................................................................2-4
Figure 2-4. Illustration of a Cosine Wave................................................................................2-4
Figure 2-5. Solving a Right Triangle .......................................................................................2-5
Figure 2-6. Example of the Usage of the Per-Unit System .....................................................2-7
Figure 2-7. Current Flow .........................................................................................................2-9
Figure 2-8. Waterflow Analogy..............................................................................................2-10
Figure 2-9. Resistance of a Conductor .................................................................................2-11
Figure 2-10. Resistances in Series & Parallel.........................................................................2-12
Figure 2-11. Simple Electrical Circuit......................................................................................2-14
Figure 2-12. Ohm’s Law..........................................................................................................2-15
Figure 2-13. Use of Ohm’s Law ..............................................................................................2-16
Figure 2-14. Resistors in Series & Parallel .............................................................................2-17
Figure 2-15. Integrated Demand.............................................................................................2-19
Figure 2-16. A Cycle of Current ..............................................................................................2-21
Figure 2-17. Vector Relationship of Cosine and Sine Functions ............................................2-22
Figure 2-18. Phasor Diagram..................................................................................................2-23
Figure 2-19. Phase Angle Between Voltage & Current...........................................................2-24
Figure 2-20. Inductive and Capacitive Phase Angle Examples ..............................................2-25
Figure 2-21. 3Φ Phasor Diagram ............................................................................................2-25
Figure 2-22. Examples of Magnetic Fields..............................................................................2-27
Figure 2-23. Magnetic Field in an Iron-Core ...........................................................................2-27
Figure 2-24. Illustration of Electromagnetic Induction.............................................................2-29
Figure 2-25. Capacitor Characteristics ...................................................................................2-30
Figure 2-26. Inductor Characteristics......................................................................................2-32
Figure 2-27. The Impedance Triangle.....................................................................................2-33
Figure 2-28. Phase Angles in AC Circuits...............................................................................2-34
Figure 2-29. Reactive Power Inclined Plane Analogy .............................................................2-37
Figure 2-30. The Power Triangle ............................................................................................2-38
Figure 2-31. Using the Power Triangle ...................................................................................2-39

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Figure 2-32. Line-to-Line & Line-to-Ground Voltages .............................................................2-40
Figure 2-33. Power System Current Flow Path ......................................................................2-43
Figure 2-34. Line-to-Ground Faults.........................................................................................2-43
Figure 2-35. Line-to-Line Faults..............................................................................................2-44
Figure 2-36. CT Symbols & Photograph and ..........................................................................2-45
Figure 2-37. PT Symbol & Photograph ...................................................................................2-45
Figure 2-38. Magnetic Attraction Relay Element ....................................................................2-46
Figure 2-39. Induction Disc Relay Element.............................................................................2-47
Figure 2-40. Electromechanical, Solid State & Microprocessor Relays ..................................2-48
Figure 2-41. EM Relay Target.................................................................................................2-49
Figure 2-42. Common IEEE Device Numbers ........................................................................2-51
Figure 2-43. Single-Line Diagram Using IEEE Device Numbers ............................................2-52
Figure 2-44. Zones of Protection Diagram ..............................................................................2-53
Figure 2-45. Voltage Relays on a Single-Line Diagram ..........................................................2-55
Figure 2-46. Overcurrent Relay⎯Time Characteristic Curves ...............................................2-56
Figure 2-47. Normal (No Trip) Conditions for a Differential Relay ..........................................2-57
Figure 2-48. Fault Conditions (Relay Trips) for a Differential Relay........................................2-57
Figure 2-49. One-Line with Bus Differential ............................................................................2-58
Figure 2-50. Single-line Diagram with Differentials .................................................................2-59
Figure 2-51. MHO Characteristic on an R-X Diagram ............................................................2-61
Figure 2-52. Distance Relay Scheme .....................................................................................2-62
Figure 2-53. Simple Transmission Line Pilot Protection Scheme ...........................................2-63
Figure 2-54. Voltage Phase Angle Difference.........................................................................2-66
Figure 2-55. Synchronizing Two Islands.................................................................................2-67
Figure 2-56. Establishing the Second Transmission Tie.........................................................2-67
Figure 2-57. Synchroscope in a Synch Panel.........................................................................2-68
Figure 2-58. Synchronizing System for a Substation Breaker ................................................2-70
Figure 2-59. Rotating Armature With Stationary Field Winding ..............................................2-71
Figure 2-60. Armature Rotation & Voltage Production............................................................2-72
Figure 2-61. Single Phase AC Power Generator ....................................................................2-73
Figure 2-62. Three Phase AC Power Generator.....................................................................2-74
Figure 2-63. 3Φ Power Generator Photograph .......................................................................2-75
Figure 2-64. Two-Pole Rotor Winding Configuration ..............................................................2-77
Figure 2-65. Four-Pole Rotor Winding Configuration..............................................................2-78
Figure 2-66. Torque Wrench Analogy of a Torque Angle .......................................................2-80
Figure 2-67. Torque Angle & Voltage .....................................................................................2-82
Figure 2-68. Pelton Wheel Turbine .........................................................................................2-83
Figure 2-69. Francis Turbine...................................................................................................2-84

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Figure 2-70. Wicket Gate Operation .......................................................................................2-85
Figure 2-71. Components of a Wind Turbine..........................................................................2-86
Figure 2-72. Photograph of Wind Turbine Generators............................................................2-89
Figure 2-73. Steam Turbine Stages........................................................................................2-90
Figure 2-74. Steam Turbine Components...............................................................................2-91
Figure 2-75. Basic Combustion Turbine .................................................................................2-93
Figure 2-76. Model of Basic Governor Control System ..........................................................2-94
Figure 2-77. Block Diagram of a Generator Excitation System ..............................................2-95
Figure 2-78. Basic Transformer ..............................................................................................2-96
Figure 2-79. Transformer Turns Ratio ....................................................................................2-97
Figure 2-80. Autotransformer Evolution From a Two-Winding Transformer ...........................2-98
Figure 2-81. Photograph of an Autotransformer .....................................................................2-98
Figure 2-82. 3Φ Transformer Connections .............................................................................2-99
Figure 2-83. Transmission Line Structures ...........................................................................2-101
Figure 2-84. ACSR Conductor ..............................................................................................2-102
Figure 2-85. Typical Transfer Limits .....................................................................................2-103
Figure 2-86. Natural Capacitance of a Transmission Line ....................................................2-104
Figure 2-87. Transmission Line Impedance Model...............................................................2-104
Figure 2-88. Circuit Breaker Opening Process .....................................................................2-105
Figure 2-89. Photograph of Circuit Breaker ..........................................................................2-106
Figure 2-90. Thyrister Symbol & Operation ..........................................................................2-107
Figure 2-91. The Four Major Interconnections of North America..........................................2-109
Figure 3-1. Voltage Phase Angle ............................................................................................3-2
Figure 3-2. Concept of a Voltage to Current Phase Angle (q) ................................................3-4
Figure 3-3. Measurement of the Power Angle (d) ...................................................................3-5
Figure 3-4. Determining Approximate Power Angle from Phase Angles ................................3-6
Figure 3-5. Illustration of Phase & Power Angles ...................................................................3-6
Figure 3-6. Illustration of Actual Power Angle Data ................................................................3-7
Figure 3-7. Synchroscopes & Power Angles ..........................................................................3-8
Figure 3-8. Generator Torque Angle Illustration .....................................................................3-9
Figure 3-9. Transmission Line PI Model ...............................................................................3-10
Figure 3-10. Use of the Active Power Transfer Equation........................................................3-13
Figure 3-11. Use of a Phase Shifting Transformer .................................................................3-16
Figure 3-12. The Power-Angle Curve .....................................................................................3-20
Figure 3-13. Sending End Power-Circle Diagram ...................................................................3-22
Figure 3-14. Sending & Receiving End Circle Diagrams ........................................................3-23
Figure 3-15. System for Illustrating the Use of a Power-Circle Diagram.................................3-24
Figure 3-16. Power-Circle Diagram with a δ of 0° ...................................................................3-25

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Figure 3-17. Power-Circle Diagram with a δ of 40° .................................................................3-26
Figure 3-18. Power-Circle Diagram with a δ of 86° .................................................................3-27
Figure 3-19. Power-Circle Diagram with a δ of 120° ...............................................................3-28
Figure 3-20. Evaluating Power Transfer Limits .......................................................................3-31
Figure 3-21. Illustration of the TTC Concept...........................................................................3-31
Figure 3-22. Determining Distribution Factors ........................................................................3-33
Figure 4-1. Summer Load Curve ............................................................................................4-1
Figure 4-2. Simple Frequency Control System .......................................................................4-2
Figure 4-3. Load/Resources Balance Analogy .......................................................................4-3
Figure 4-4. Accumulating Time Error ......................................................................................4-4
Figure 4-5. Normal Frequency Deviations ..............................................................................4-5
Figure 4-6. Abnormal Frequency Deviations ..........................................................................4-6
Figure 4-7. Frequency Deviations Summary ..........................................................................4-6
Figure 4-8. Relationship Between Load Magnitude & Frequency...........................................4-8
Figure 4-9. Inertia of a Steam Generator Rotor ......................................................................4-9
Figure 4-10. Simple System to Illustrate Governor Control ....................................................4-11
Figure 4-11. Basic Centrifugal Ballhead Governor .................................................................4-12
Figure 4-12. Electro-Hydraulic Governor Block Diagram ........................................................4-13
Figure 4-13. Isochronous Governor Characteristic Curve ......................................................4-15
Figure 4-14. Governor Characteristic Curve with 5% Droop...................................................4-17
Figure 4-15. Droop in a Centrifugal Ballhead Governor..........................................................4-18
Figure 4-16. 300 MW Unit with 5% Droop – Frequency Rise .................................................4-19
Figure 4-17. Changing the Set-Point to 140 MW @ 60 HZ.....................................................4-20
Figure 4-18. 300 MW Unit with 5% Droop – Frequency Drop.................................................4-22
Figure 4-19. Changing the Set-Point to 160 MW @ 60 HZ.....................................................4-23
Figure 4-20. Load/Frequency Relationship & Droop Curves ..................................................4-24
Figure 4-21. Interconnected System Governor Response......................................................4-26
Figure 4-22. Frequency Trace ................................................................................................4-27
Figure 4-23. Comparison of Large & Small Frequency Deviations .........................................4-28
Figure 4-24. Load Sharing – Same Unit Ratings – Same Droop ............................................4-29
Figure 4-25. Load Sharing – Same Unit Ratings – Different Droop ........................................4-30
Figure 4-26. Load Sharing – Same Unit Ratings – One in Isochronous .................................4-31
Figure 4-27. Eastern Interconnection......................................................................................4-33
Figure 4-28. Western Interconnection.....................................................................................4-34
Figure 4-29. ERCOT Interconnection .....................................................................................4-35
Figure 4-30. Definition of a Balancing Authority......................................................................4-42
Figure 4-31. Balancing Authority Interchange.........................................................................4-45
Figure 4-32. Inadvertent Interchange......................................................................................4-46

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Figure 4-33. Primary / Unintentional Versus Secondary / Intentional Inadvertent ..................4-48
Figure 4-34. Components of an AGC System ........................................................................4-50
Figure 4-35. Summary of Modes of AGC Control ...................................................................4-53
Figure 4-36. Tie-Line Bias Control ACE Calculation ...............................................................4-55
Figure 4-37. ACE for an External Generation Loss ................................................................4-56
Figure 4-38. ACE for an Internal Generation Loss..................................................................4-57
Figure 4-39. A Simple Implementation of a Balancing Authority AGC System .......................4-58
Figure 4-40. Operating Reserve Types...................................................................................4-60
Figure 4-41. Operating Reserve Sources ...............................................................................4-61
Figure 4-42. Responsive Reserves.........................................................................................4-62
Figure 4-43. NERC Reliability Coordinators ...........................................................................4-64
Figure 4-44. Interconnection Time Monitors ...........................................................................4-65
Figure 4-45. Initiating Time Error Corrections .........................................................................4-65
Figure 4-46. Conformance with A1 & A2 Criteria....................................................................4-68
Figure 4-47. Violation of A1 & A2 Criteria ...............................................................................4-68
Figure 4-48. Concept of a MW-HZ ..........................................................................................4-72
Figure 4-49. Steam Turbine Off-Frequency Limits..................................................................4-75
Figure 4-50. Formation of an Island........................................................................................4-77
Figure 4-51. Western Interconnection UFLS ..........................................................................4-78
Figure 4-52. UF Load Shedding & Governor Response .........................................................4-79
Figure 4-53. Western Interconnection Automatic Load Restoration .......................................4-81
Figure 4-54. Plot of a Simulated Frequency Disturbance .......................................................4-82
Figure 4-55. Western Interconnection Disturbance Frequency Plot .......................................4-85
Figure 4-56. Eastern Interconnection Disturbance Frequency Plot ........................................4-86
Figure 4-57. Illustration of Frequency Undershoots ................................................................4-88
Figure 4-58. Distance and Frequency Undershoots ...............................................................4-89
Figure 4-59. Speed of the Traveling Frequency Wave ...........................................................4-90
Figure 4-60. Stages of a Generator Response .......................................................................4-91
Figure 4-61. Stage #1 – The Electromagnetic Energy Stage .................................................4-93
Figure 4-62. Stage #2 – The Inertial Stage.............................................................................4-94
Figure 4-63. Stage #3 – Governor Response Stage...............................................................4-95
Figure 4-64. Stage #4 – The AGC Stage................................................................................4-96
Figure 4-65. Data Available to a Generation Control System Operator ..................................4-97
Figure 4-66. Frequency Incident on PJM System ...................................................................4-99
Figure 5-1. Active, Reactive and Complex Power ..................................................................5-1
Figure 5-2. Reactive Power Storage.......................................................................................5-3
Figure 5-3. Use of a Shunt Capacitor .....................................................................................5-4
Figure 5-4. Direction of Reactive Power Flow.........................................................................5-5
Figure 5-5. Radial Power System ...........................................................................................5-6

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Figure 5-6. MW & Mvar Losses ..............................................................................................5-7
Figure 5-7. MW Required Versus Mvar Transferred ...............................................................5-8
Figure 5-8. Illustration of Surge Impedance Loading ............................................................5-10
Figure 5-9. Concept of Unscheduled flow.............................................................................5-11
Figure 5-10. Introduction to the P-V Curve .............................................................................5-12
Figure 5-11. Reactive Power & Line Outages – Normal System ............................................5-13
Figure 5-12. Reactive Power & Line Outages – Line Outage .................................................5-13
Figure 5-13. 138 kV Shunt Capacitor Bank Output.................................................................5-15
Figure 5-14. High Voltage Types ............................................................................................5-16
Figure 5-15. Charging Current Flowing into an Open-Ended Line..........................................5-18
Figure 5-16. Voltage Profile Due to Ferranti Effect .................................................................5-18
Figure 5-17. Calculating the Ferranti Effect Voltage Rise .......................................................5-19
Figure 5-18. Ferranti Voltage Rise for Different Length Lines ................................................5-20
Figure 5-19. Source End Voltage Rise ...................................................................................5-21
Figure 5-20. Self-Excitation of a Generator ............................................................................5-22
Figure 5-21. Harmonic Overvoltages ......................................................................................5-23
Figure 5-22. Energizing a Line-Transformer Combination ......................................................5-24
Figure 5-23. Capacitive Switching ..........................................................................................5-26
Figure 5-24. Effect of Voltage on Load Magnitude .................................................................5-28
Figure 5-25. Effect of Voltage on Load Magnitude .................................................................5-29
Figure 5-26. EPRI Load Magnitude Equations .......................................................................5-30
Figure 5-27. Central Air Conditioner Type Load .....................................................................5-32
Figure 5-28. Resistive Space Heater Type Load ....................................................................5-32
Figure 5-29. Voltage and Frequency Decay ...........................................................................5-33
Figure 5-30. Transformer Saturation Curve ............................................................................5-37
Figure 5-31. Transformer Over-Excitation ..............................................................................5-38
Figure 5-32. Information Technology Industry Equipment Voltage Limits...............................5-39
Figure 5-33. Shunt and Series Capacitors..............................................................................5-41
Figure 5-34. Series Compensation .........................................................................................5-42
Figure 5-35. Shunt and Series Reactors.................................................................................5-44
Figure 5-36. Illustration of a Tap Changer ..............................................................................5-45
Figure 5-37. Under Load Tap Changing Mechanism..............................................................5-47
Figure 5-38. A ULTC Control Scheme ....................................................................................5-48
Figure 5-39. Tap Change and Reactive Power.......................................................................5-49
Figure 5-40. Circulating Reactive Power ................................................................................5-51
Figure 5-41. Block Diagram of a Generator Excitation System ..............................................5-52
Figure 5-42. Generator Reactive Capability Curve .................................................................5-54
Figure 5-43. Actual Steam Unit Reactive Capability Curve ....................................................5-55
Figure 5-44. Actual Hydro Unit Reactive Capability Curve .....................................................5-56

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Figure 5-45. Reactive Production Limitations .........................................................................5-57
Figure 5-46. Static Var Compensator (SVC) One-Line ...........................................................5-58
Figure 5-47. Static Var Compensator (SVC) Photograph .......................................................5-59
Figure 5-48. Static Var System (SVS) ....................................................................................5-60
Figure 5-49. Types and Sources of Reactive Reserve ...........................................................5-64
Figure 6-1. Definition of Voltage Stability................................................................................6-2
Figure 6-2. Definition of Voltage Collapse ..............................................................................6-2
Figure 6-3. Voltage Stability Versus Angle Stability................................................................6-3
Figure 6-4. Voltage Instability Types & Time Frames .............................................................6-5
Figure 6-5. Simple Radial Power System ...............................................................................6-6
Figure 6-6. A Sample P-V Curve ............................................................................................6-7
Figure 6-7. P-V Curve Illustration of Voltage Instability ..........................................................6-7
Figure 6-8. Shunt Capacitor Effect on P-V Curves .................................................................6-9
Figure 6-9. Sample Systm to Demonstrate Usage of P-V Curves ........................................6-10
Figure 6-10. P-V Curves for System of Figure 6-9..................................................................6-10
Figure 6-11. Radial Power System for Long Term Voltage Collapse .....................................6-11
Figure 6-12. Tap Changers and Load Overshoot ...................................................................6-13
Figure 6-13. Tokyo Electric’s Shin-Fuji 500 kV Substation Voltage ........................................6-16
Figure 6-14. Conditions at Receiving Bus Prior to Adding 10 MW Load.................................6-18
Figure 6-15. High and Low-Side Voltages After 10 MW Load is Added .................................6-18
Figure 6-16. Adjusting the Generator Operating Point............................................................6-20
Figure 6-17. Temporary Mvar Boost .......................................................................................6-20
Figure 6-18. The V-Q Curve ...................................................................................................6-22
Figure 6-19. Disturbance Report V-Q Curve...........................................................................6-23
Figure 6-20. P-V & V-Q Analysis ............................................................................................6-24
Figure 6-21. Additional View of P-V & V-Q Curves .................................................................6-24
Figure 6-22. One-Line Diagram for July 2, 1996 Disturbance.................................................6-26
Figure 6-23. Boise 230 kV Voltage Collapse ..........................................................................6-27
Figure 6-24. Fan Load Torque/Speed Curve ..........................................................................6-29
Figure 6-25. Air-Conditioner Compressor Load Torque/Speed Curve....................................6-30
Figure 6-26. TVA and MLG&W Power Systems .....................................................................6-31
Figure 6-27. Post Disturbance System Conditions .................................................................6-33
Figure 6-28. Voltage Collapse Due to a Loss of Synchronism ...............................................6-34
Figure 6-29. Voltage Control Zones........................................................................................6-35
Figure 6-30. Time Frames for Voltage Instability ....................................................................6-40
Figure 7-1. Stability: Voltage and Angle..................................................................................7-1
Figure 7-2. Out-of-Step Generator Closing.............................................................................7-3
Figure 7-3. Out-of-Step from a Voltage Perspective...............................................................7-6
Figure 7-4. Relative Nature of Angle Instability.......................................................................7-7

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Figure 7-5. Rotor Torques.......................................................................................................7-8
Figure 7-6. The Power-Angle Curve .....................................................................................7-10
Figure 7-7. Accelerating and Decelerating on a Power-Angle Curve....................................7-11
Figure 7-8. Maximum Possible Angle ...................................................................................7-12
Figure 7-9. Types of Stability/Instability ................................................................................7-14
Figure 7-10. Steady State Instability .......................................................................................7-16
Figure 7-11. Power-Circle Diagram & Steady State Instability................................................7-18
Figure 7-12. Manual Excitation and Steady State Instability...................................................7-19
Figure 7-13. Power System for Transient Stability & Instability ..............................................7-20
Figure 7-14. Power-Angle Curves for 1,000 MW Generator Loading .....................................7-21
Figure 7-15. Strip Chart Equivalent of Figure 7-11 .................................................................7-24
Figure 7-16. Power Angle Curve for Transient Instability .......................................................7-25
Figure 7-17. Transient Stability and a Fault ............................................................................7-27
Figure 7-18. Extended Power-Angle Curve ............................................................................7-28
Figure 7-19. Fast Valving in Steam Units ...............................................................................7-30
Figure 7-20. The BPA Braking Resistor..................................................................................7-31
Figure 7-21. Power System for Oscillatory Stability ................................................................7-32
Figure 7-22. Power-Angle Curve for Oscillatory Stability ........................................................7-33
Figure 7-23. Illustrating Oscillations on a Power-Angle Curve................................................7-34
Figure 7-24. MW Plot Illustration of Oscillatory Stability .........................................................7-35
Figure 7-25. Power-Angle Curve for Oscillatory Instability......................................................7-36
Figure 7-26. MW Plot Illustration of Oscillatory Instability .......................................................7-37
Figure 7-27. R-X Diagram for Three Zone Impedance Protection ..........................................7-38
Figure 7-28. Out-of-Step Relay Characteristic........................................................................7-40
Figure 7-29. Sammis-Star 345 kV Transmission Line R-X Diagram.......................................7-41
Figure 7-30. Twin Cities Area Map .........................................................................................7-43
Figure 7-31. Island Formations ...............................................................................................7-45
Figure 7-32. Island Frequencies .............................................................................................7-46
Figure 7-33. Out-of-Step Voltage Oscillations ........................................................................7-47
Figure 7-34. Concept of a Synchrophasor ..............................................................................7-51
Figure 7-35. The GPS Constellation .......................................................................................7-52
Figure 7-36. North American PMU Locations .........................................................................7-53
Figure 7-37. The WAMS Concept...........................................................................................7-54
Figure 8-1. Rubber Band – Weight Analogy ...........................................................................8-1
Figure 8-2. Rubber Band – Weight Analogy ...........................................................................8-3
Figure 8-3. Three-Phase Power Flow on a Strip-Chart...........................................................8-5
Figure 8-4. Current Oscillation Envelope ................................................................................8-6
Figure 8-5. Normal (Positively) Damped Power Oscillations ..................................................8-8
Figure 8-6. Sustained (Undamped) Power Oscillations ..........................................................8-9

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Figure 8-7. Negatively Damped Power Oscillations..............................................................8-10
Figure 8-8. Loss of a Line to Start an Oscillation ..................................................................8-10
Figure 8-9. Feedback Loop for Power, Speed & Angle ........................................................8-12
Figure 8-10. Plots of Power Output, Angle Spread & Rotor Speed ........................................8-14
Figure 8-11. Steps in a Generator Oscillation.........................................................................8-15
Figure 8-12. High & Low Frequency Oscillations ....................................................................8-18
Figure 8-13. Inter-Area Mode of Oscillation ............................................................................8-19
Figure 8-14. Intra-Area Mode of Oscillation ............................................................................8-20
Figure 8-15. Local Mode of Oscillation ...................................................................................8-20
Figure 8-16. Intra-Plant Mode of Oscillation ...........................................................................8-21
Figure 8-17. Comparison of Local and Inter-Area Mode Oscillations .....................................8-22
Figure 8-18. Generator Excitation System Block Diagram .....................................................8-23
Figure 8-19. Exciter Output Effect on Oscillations ..................................................................8-25
Figure 8-20. Power Oscillations With and Without PSS In-Service ........................................8-26
Figure 8-21. Oscillations Due to Disabling Transient Droop ...................................................8-28
Figure 8-22. Oscillations Caused by Misoperating HVDC Controls ........................................8-29
Figure 8-23. Generator Increasing Angle................................................................................8-30
Figure 8-24. Out-of-Step Conditions .......................................................................................8-31
Figure 9-1. The Ideal 60 HZ Wave..........................................................................................9-2
Figure 9-2. Voltage Wave with Harmonic Content..................................................................9-3
Figure 9-3. Summation of Fundamental with Harmonic..........................................................9-4
TH TH TH TH TH TH RD TH
Figure 9-4. Sum of Fundamental, 5 , 7 , 11 , 13 , 17 , 19 , 23 , & 25 ..........................9-4
Figure 9-5. Static Var Compensator (SVC) One-Line Diagram ..............................................9-7
Figure 9-6. PC Current Waveform ..........................................................................................9-8
Figure 9-7. Flow of Harmonic Current.....................................................................................9-9
Figure 9-8. Autotransformer with Delta Tertiary ....................................................................9-12
Figure 9-9. Simple Harmonic Filter .......................................................................................9-13
Figure 9-10. Sample Tuning of a Filter ...................................................................................9-13
Figure 9-11. Series Resonance ..............................................................................................9-15
Figure 9-12. Series Resonance by Varying Frequency ..........................................................9-16
Figure 9-13. Series Capacitors Usage and Photo ..................................................................9-18
Figure 9-14. Voltages During Series Resonance....................................................................9-19
Figure 9-15. Parallel Resonance ............................................................................................9-20
Figure 9-16. HVDC Converter Simplified One-Line ................................................................9-21
Figure 9-17. 50% Series Compensation .................................................................................9-22
Figure 9-18. Turbine/Generator Shaft Modes .........................................................................9-25
Figure 9-19. SSR Scenario I – Torsional Interaction ..............................................................9-27
Figure 9-20. SSR Scenario II – Transient Torques .................................................................9-28
Figure 9-21. SSR Scenario III – Induction Generator Effect ...................................................9-29

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Figure 9-22. Mojave SSR Case Study ....................................................................................9-31
Figure 9-23. Distribution System Ferroresonance ..................................................................9-34
Figure 9-24. Series Resonance Circuit ...................................................................................9-35
Figure 9-25. One-Line for Distribution Ferroresonance ..........................................................9-36
Figure 9-26. Electrical Circuit With Phase “C” Closed ............................................................9-37
Figure 9-27. Electrical Circuit With Phases “B” & “C” Closed .................................................9-38
Figure 9-28. Methods of Preventing Distribution Ferroresonance ..........................................9-39
Figure 9-29. One-Line for Transmission System Ferroresonance ..........................................9-40
Figure 9-30. One-Line for Transmission System Ferroresonance ..........................................9-41
Figure 9-31. Equivalent One-Line of Figure 9-29....................................................................9-42
Figure 9-32. Ferroresonance Voltage Waveform....................................................................9-43
Figure 9-33. Resistor in a Delta Connected Secondary..........................................................9-44
Figure 9-34. Photograph of the Northern Lights .....................................................................9-45
Figure 9-35. Monthly Sunspot Count 1900 – Present.............................................................9-46
Figure 9-36. Solar Wind and Earth Currents...........................................................................9-47
Figure 9-37. Creation of Earth Surface Potentials ..................................................................9-49
Figure 9-38. Geomagnetic Induced Currents..........................................................................9-50
Figure 9-39. Igneous Rock Locations in North America .........................................................9-52
Figure 9-40. Flow of GIC.........................................................................................................9-54
Figure 9-41. GIC Entry to Power System................................................................................9-55
Figure 9-42. Summary of GIC Creation and Entry to Power System......................................9-56
Figure 9-43. Transformer Saturation Curve ............................................................................9-58
Figure 9-44. Excitation Current During Normal & Saturated Operations ................................9-59
Figure 9-45. Transformer Susceptibility to GIC Induced Saturation........................................9-60
Figure 9-46. Use of Neutral Blocking Capacitors ....................................................................9-63
Figure 9-47. Connection Diagram for Neutral Blocking Capacitor ..........................................9-64
Figure 9-48. Summary of K & A Indices..................................................................................9-66
Figure 9-49. Hydro Quebec GMD Incident .............................................................................9-68
Figure 10-1. Advantages of HVDC Systems...........................................................................10-2
Figure 10-2. Disadvantages of HVDC Systems ......................................................................10-3
Figure 10-3. Types of HVDC Systems ....................................................................................10-4
Figure 10-4. Components of an HVDC System .......................................................................10-6
Figure 10-5. Photograph of an HVDC Tower...........................................................................10-6
Figure 10-6. Mercury Arc Valve (MAV) ...................................................................................10-7
Figure 10-7. Photograph of a Mercury Arc Valve....................................................................10-9
Figure 10-8. Thyrister Symbol.................................................................................................10-9
Figure 10-9. Photograph of a Thyrister .................................................................................10-10
Figure 10-10.Single-Phase Converter ...................................................................................10-11

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Figure 10-11. Waveforms for 1Φ Converter..........................................................................10-12
Figure 10-12. Three-Phase One-Way Converter ..................................................................10-12
Figure 10-13. Waveforms for 3Φ One-Way Converter..........................................................10-13
Figure 10-14. Three-Phase Two-Way Converter ..................................................................10-14
Figure 10-15. Waveforms for 3Φ Two-Way Converter..........................................................10-16
Figure 10-16. Twelve-Pulse Converter .................................................................................10-17
Figure 10-17. Comparison of 6 & 12 Pulse Converter Voltages ...........................................10-17
Figure 10-18. Benefits of Multi-Pulse Operation ...................................................................10-18
Figure 10-19. A Bipolar HVDC System.................................................................................10-19
Figure 10-20. Harmonic Content of HVDC Converters .........................................................10-20
Figure 10-21. Six-Pulse Converter Operation Without Gate Control ....................................10-23
Figure 10-22. Two-Pulse Operation Without Gate Control ...................................................10-24
Figure 10-23. Two-Pulse Converter Operation with Gate Control ........................................10-25
Figure 10-24. Six-Pulse Converter Ignition Delay Angles of 0° - 90°....................................10-26
Figure 10-25. Six-Pulse Converter Ignition Delay Angles of 90° - 180°................................10-27
Figure 10-26. Phase Displacement in an HVDC Converter ..................................................10-30
Figure 10-27. HVDC MW Flow Control .................................................................................10-32
Figure 10-28. Use of a PST ..................................................................................................10-33
Figure 10-29. Varying Construction of a PST .......................................................................10-34
Figure 10-30. Phase Angles in a PST...................................................................................10-35
Figure 10-31. Phasor Diagram for Regulating Transformers ................................................10-36
Figure 10-32. PST Operation – Part A..................................................................................10-37
Figure 10-33. PST Operation – Part B..................................................................................10-38
Figure 10-34. PST Operation – Part C..................................................................................10-39
Figure 11-1. Three Types of Restoration Condition..............................................................11-2
Figure 11-2. Concept of Angle Instability Using a Phasor Diagram ......................................11-3
Figure 11-3. Michigan and Ontario Out-of-Step Condition....................................................11-4
Figure 11-4. Voltage Stability MW & Mvar Margins ..............................................................11-6
Figure 11-5. Ice Accumulation on Transmission Conductor .................................................11-7
Figure 11-6. Summary of GMD Cause and Impact...............................................................11-8
Figure 11-7. Phases of the Restoration Process ................................................................11-15
Figure 11-8. Substation and Individual Feeder Restoration Priority....................................11-19
Figure 11-9. Ferranti Effect Open-End Percent Voltage Rise .............................................11-21
Figure 11-10. Diagram of a Generator’s Excitation Control System .....................................11-23
Figure 11-11. Reactive Capability Curve ..............................................................................11-24
Figure 11-12. ULTC Usage in Normal and Restoration Conditions ......................................11-28
Figure 11-13. Plot of a Frequency Disturbance ....................................................................11-31
Figure 11-14. Steam Turbine Frequency Operating Limits ...................................................11-33

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Figure 11-15. 300 MW Unit with 5% Droop Responding to Frequency Drop........................11-36
Figure 11-16. Isochronous Governor Response to Frequency Drop ....................................11-38
Figure 11-17. Tie-Line Frequency Bias Control ACE Calculation .........................................11-40
Figure 11-18. Illustration of Cold-Load Pick-Up ....................................................................11-44
Figure 11-19. UFLS Illustration .............................................................................................11-49
Figure 11-20. Pipe-Type Cable Design.................................................................................11-53
Figure 11-21. Pipe-Type Cable Photograph .........................................................................11-53
Figure 11-22. Transformer In-Rush Current .........................................................................11-56
Figure 11-23. Energizing Back-to-Back Transformers ..........................................................11-57
Figure 11-24. Transformer Over-Excitation ..........................................................................11-58
Figure 11-25. DC Control Schematic for a CB......................................................................11-60
Figure 11-26. Steam Turbine Abnormal Frequency Limits ...................................................11-66
Figure 11-27. Reduced Fault Current Levels........................................................................11-73
Figure 11-28. Operation of a UFLS Scheme ........................................................................11-74
Figure 11-29. CB Closing DC Control Logic Circuitry ...........................................................11-77
Figure 11-30. Use of a Fault Detector in a Distance Scheme...............................................11-80
Figure 11-31. Imbalanced Phase Conductors and Transposition .........................................11-84
Figure 11-32. Large Standing Power Angle..........................................................................11-87
Figure 11-33. A Synch Panel ................................................................................................11-89
Figure 11-34. Synchronizing Two Islanded Systems ............................................................11-90
Figure 11-35. Establishing the Second Transmission Link ...................................................11-91

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TUTORIAL INTRODUCTION

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TUTORIAL INTRODUCTION

SECTION OVERVIEWS
1.1 Introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.2 Fundamentals Review
Chapter 2 Introduction
1.3 Active and Reactive Power
Chapter 3 Introduction
1.4 Frequency Control
Chapter 4 Introduction
1.5 Voltage Control
Chapter 5 Introduction
1.6 Voltage Stability
Chapter 6 Introduction
1.7 Angle Stability
Chapter 7 Introduction
1.8 Power Oscillations
Chapter 8 Introduction
1.9 Additional Topics
Chapter 9 Introduction
1.10 Equipment
Chapter 10 Introduction
1.11 Power System Restoration
Chapter 11 Introduction

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 1-1

1.2 Fundamentals Review....................................................................... 1-1
1.2.1 Introduction to Fundamentals Review ....................................... 1-1
1.2.2 Mathematics Review ................................................................. 1-1
1.2.3 DC Electricity Review ................................................................ 1-1
1.2.4 AC Electricity Review ................................................................ 1-1
1.2.5 Protective Relaying Review....................................................... 1-1
1.2.6 Power System Equipment Review ............................................ 1-1
1.2.7 Power System Operations......................................................... 1-1
1.3 Active and Reactive Power ............................................................... 1-2
1.3.1 Introduction to Active and Reactive Power................................ 1-2
1.3.2 Review of Active and Reactive Power....................................... 1-2
1.3.3 Equations for Power Transfer.................................................... 1-2
1.3.4 Graphical Tools for Power Transfer........................................... 1-2
1.3.5 Power Transfer Limits................................................................ 1-2
1.3.6 Distribution Factors ................................................................... 1-2
1.4 Frequency Control............................................................................. 1-3
1.4.1 Introduction to Frequency Control ............................................. 1-3
1.4.2 Governor System Components and Operation ......................... 1-3
1.4.3 Automatic Generation Control (AGC) ........................................ 1-3
1.4.4 Operating Reserve Requirements ............................................. 1-3
1.4.5 Time Error Control ..................................................................... 1-3
1.4.6 NERC Control Performance Standards..................................... 1-3
1.4.7 Impact of Frequency Deviations ................................................ 1-3
1.4.8 Underfrequency Protection........................................................ 1-3
1.4.9 Nature of a Frequency Deviation............................................... 1-3
1.4.10 Staged Response to a Generation Loss.................................... 1-3
1.4.11 Role of the System Operator ..................................................... 1-3
1.5 Voltage Control.................................................................................. 1-4
1.5.1 Introduction................................................................................ 1-4
1.5.2 Causes of Low Voltage ............................................................. 1-4

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1.5.3 Causes of High Voltage .............................................................1-4

1.5.4 Effects of Low Voltage ...............................................................1-4
1.5.5 Effects of High Voltage ..............................................................1-4
1.5.6 Use of Voltage Control Equipment.............................................1-4
1.5.7 Role of the System Operator .....................................................1-4
1.6 Voltage Stability .................................................................................1-5
1.6.1 Voltage Stability .........................................................................1-5
1.6.2 Definitions ..................................................................................1-5
1.6.3 Types of Voltage Instability ........................................................1-5
1.6.4 Long Term Voltage Instability ....................................................1-5
1.6.5 Classical Voltage Instability .......................................................1-5
1.6.6 Transient Voltage Instability.......................................................1-5
1.6.7 Preventing Voltage Instability.....................................................1-5
1.6.8 Role of the System Operator .....................................................1-5
1.7 Angle Stability ....................................................................................1-6
1.7.1 Introduction to Angle Stability ....................................................1-6
1.7.2 Definition of Angle Stability ........................................................1-6
1.7.3 Active Power Transfer and the Power Angle Curve...................1-6
1.7.4 Types of Angle Stability .............................................................1-6
1.7.5 Steady State Stability/Instability.................................................1-6
1.7.6 Transient Stability/Instability ......................................................1-6
1.7.7 Oscillatory Stability/Instability.....................................................1-6
1.7.8 Out-of-Step Protection ...............................................................1-6
1.7.9 Angle Instability Example...........................................................1-6
1.7.10 Introduction to the Swing Equation ............................................1-6
1.7.11 WAMS and WACS .....................................................................1-6
1.7.12 Role of the System Operator .....................................................1-7
1.8 Power Oscillations .............................................................................1-8
1.8.1 Introduction to Power Oscillations..............................................1-8
1 8.2 Power Oscillations on a Sample System ...................................1-8
1.8.3 Natural Frequency of Oscillation................................................1-8
1.8.4 Oscillations and Excitation Systems ..........................................1-8
1.8.5 Additional Causes of Oscillations...............................................1-8
1.8.6 Role of the System Operator .....................................................1-8

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1.9 Additional Topics ............................................................................... 1-9

1.9.1 Additional Topics ....................................................................... 1-9
1.9.2 Harmonics ................................................................................. 1-9
1.9.3 Resonance ................................................................................ 1-9
1.9.4 Subsynchronous Resonance..................................................... 1-9
1.9.5 Ferroresonance ......................................................................... 1-9
1.9.6 Geomagnetic Disturbances ....................................................... 1-9
1.10 Equipment ....................................................................................... 1-10
1.10.1 HVDC Construction and Operation ......................................... 1-10
1.10.2 Phase Shifting Transformers ................................................... 1-10
1.11 Power System Restoration.............................................................. 1-11
1.11.1 Introduction to Power System Restoration .............................. 1-11
1.11.2 Voltage Control and System Restoration ................................ 1-11
1.11.3 Frequency Control and System Restoration............................ 1-11
1.11.4 Equipment Issues Related to System Restoration .................. 1-11
1.11.5 Protective Relay Issues Related to System Restoration ......... 1-11
1.11.6 Synchronizing and System Restoration................................... 1-11
1.11.7 Lessons Learned from Actual System Restorations................ 1-11

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 Tutorial Introduction

1.1 Introduction
This chapter summarizes the contents of the remaining 10 chapters in this tutorial.
1.2 Fundamentals Review
Chapter 2 provides a review of the basic concepts a reader must understand to
gain the maximum benefit from the remainder of the Tutorial. Chapter 2
addresses the following topics:
1.2.1 Introduction to Fundamentals Review
A brief review of Chapter 2 content.
1.2.2 Mathematics Review
Review of basic math concepts of use to a system operator.
1.2.3 DC Electricity Review
Review of DC electrical theory. Topics addressed include current, voltage,
resistance, electrical circuits, Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s laws, power and energy.
1.2.4 AC Electricity Review
Review of AC electrical theory. Topics addressed include the advantages of AC
over DC, frequency, vector and phasor diagrams, magnetism and magnetic fields,
AC impedance, phase angle, and AC power.
1.2.5 Protective Relaying Review
Review of basic concepts of power system protection.
1.2.6 Power System Equipment Review
Review of the function of key types of power system equipment such as
transformers, circuit breakers, etc.
1.2.7 Power System Operations
A brief review of the fundamentals of interconnected power system operations.

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1.3 Active and Reactive Power

Chapter 3 describes the concepts of active, reactive, and complex power. The
chapter also derives simple equations that show the dependence of power flow on
parameters such as voltage, angle, and impedance. Chapter 3 addresses the
following topics:
1.3.1 Introduction to Active and Reactive Power
A brief review of Chapter 3 content.
1.3.2 Review of Active and Reactive Power
A review of active, reactive and complex power, and phase, power and torque
angles.
1.3.3 Equations for Power Transfer
Equations are developed for active and reactive power transfer.
1.3.4 Graphical Tools for Power Transfer
Graphical techniques are developed to analyze power flow including the usage of
the power-angle curve to help determine angle stability and the usage of a power-
circle diagram to illustrate active and reactive power flow.
1.3.5 Power Transfer Limits
Active power transfers are constrained by thermal, angle stability, and voltage
limits.
1.3.6 Distribution Factors
Distribution factors are calculated to estimate how MW flow will distribute in the
power system.

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1.4 Frequency Control

Chapter 4 describes the cause, effect, and control of frequency deviations.
Chapter 4 addresses the following topics:
1.4.1 Introduction to Frequency Control
The load/frequency effect and system inertia help control frequency deviations
caused by a generation-to-load mismatch.
1.4.2 Governor System Components and Operation
Generating unit governors adjust the MW output of units in the power
system in response to frequency deviations.
1.4.3 Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
AGC calculates an area control error (ACE) signal which is used to adjust
the output of regulating units and restore frequency to 60 HZ.
1.4.4 Operating Reserve Requirements
Operating reserve requirements ensure sufficient MW capability to control
normal frequency deviations and survive large disturbances.
1.4.5 Time Error Control
Accumulated time error is corrected by changes to the scheduled
frequency.
1.4.6 NERC Control Performance Standards
NERC has developed performance standards that apply during normal and
disturbance conditions.
1.4.7 Impact of Frequency Deviations
Substantial frequency deviations for prolonged periods can be damaging
to power system equipment and performance.
1.4.8 Underfrequency Protection
Underfrequency protection includes underfrequency load shedding and
underfrequency generator tripping.
1.4.9 Nature of a Frequency Deviation
A frequency deviation includes an undershoot, which varies according to
location, and a stabilization point, which is the same everywhere.
1.4.10 Staged Response to a Generation Loss
A four-stage process describes the response of the system to a generation
loss.
1.4.11 Role of the System Operator
An experienced power system operator uses system frequency and other
data to effectively diagnose power system problems.

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1.5 Voltage Control

Chapter 5 describes the cause, effect, and control of voltage deviations. Chapter 5
addresses the following topics:
1.5.1 Introduction
Voltage Control is closely related to the availability of reactive power.
1.5.2 Causes of Low Voltage
Heavy power transfers are a major cause of low voltage due to the Mvar
usage.
1.5.3 Causes of High Voltage
Lightly loaded transmission lines are a major cause of high voltage.
1.5.4 Effects of Low Voltage
Low voltages can impact power system equipment and operations in
numerous ways.
1.5.5 Effects of High Voltage
High voltages can lead to the breakdown of equipment insulation, cause
transformer saturation, and adversely affect customer equipment.
1.5.6 Use of Voltage Control Equipment
Capacitors, reactors, ULTCs, and SVCs supplement the system generators
as means of controlling system voltage.
1.5.7 Role of the System Operator
The system operator is responsible for maintaining reactive reserves and
controlling voltage deviations.

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1.6 Voltage Stability

Chapter 6 explains the concepts of voltage stability and voltage instability.
Voltage instability and voltage collapse are possible results of a shortage of
reactive power. Chapter 6 addresses the following topics:
1.6.1 Voltage Stability
Introduction to an extreme type of voltage deviation that could result in a
voltage collapse.
1.6.2 Definitions
Definitions of voltage collapse and voltage stability are presented.
1.6.3 Types of Voltage Instability
Long term voltage instability, classical voltage instability and transient
voltage instability.
1.6.4 Long Term Voltage Instability
Description of a long term voltage instability.
1.6.5 Classical Voltage Instability
Description of a classical voltage instability.
1.6.6 Transient Voltage Instability
Description of a transient voltage instability.
1.6.7 Preventing Voltage Instability
Techniques to prevent voltage instability.
1.6.8 Role of the System Operator
A system operator may be able to recognize the conditions during which a
voltage instability can occur and take appropriate actions.

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1.7 Angle Stability

Chapter 7 describes and provides simple examples of three types of power system
angle stability including steady state, transient and oscillatory stability. Chapter 7
addresses the following topics:
1.7.1 Introduction to Angle Stability
Angle stability is related to the phase angle separation between power
system buses.
1.7.2 Definition of Angle Stability
In an angle stable system the torque and power angles are controllable. In
an angle unstable power system angles and power flows are out of control.
1.7.3 Active Power Transfer and the Power Angle Curve
The power angle curve is used to determine the angle at which the
mechanical input to the power system is equal to the electrical power
transferred out of the generator.
1.7.4 Types of Angle Stability
Angle instability can occur in steady state, transient, or dynamic
environments.
1.7.5 Steady State Stability/Instability
Steady state angle instability develops gradually over time without any
sudden disturbance.
1.7.6 Transient Stability/Instability
Transient instability arises rapidly, in the first few seconds after a
disturbance.
1.7.7 Oscillatory Stability/Instability
Oscillatory angle instability is characterized by power and voltage
oscillations.
1.7.8 Out-of-Step Protection
Out-of-step protection is provided by protective relays that measure the
apparent impedance and the time it takes for the impedance to change.
1.7.9 Angle Instability Example
An example of angle instability is presented that occurred in the summer
of 1998 in a midwest power system.
1.7.10 Introduction to the Swing Equation
A brief introduction to the mathematical equation that describes the
motion of a generator’s rotor.
1.7.11 WAMS and WACS
An introduction to the Wide Area Management System (WAMS) and the
Wide Area Stability and Voltage Control System (WACS).

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1.7.12 Role of the System Operator

The system operator can avoid angle stability problems by adhering to their
system’s operating guidelines.

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1.8 Power Oscillations

Chapter 8 describes the cause, effect, and control of power oscillations. Chapter 8
addresses the following topics:
1.8.1 Introduction to Power Oscillations
Low frequency power oscillations may be triggered by many events in the
power system. Most oscillations are damped by the system, but undamped
oscillations can lead to a system collapse.
1 8.2 Power Oscillations on a Sample System
Oscillations develop as a result of rotor acceleration and/or deceleration
following a change in the MW output of a generator.
1.8.3 Natural Frequency of Oscillation
Low frequency inter-area oscillations are less damped than higher
frequency local area oscillations and are more likely to cause power
system problems.
1.8.4 Oscillations and Excitation Systems
PSS or power system stabilizers are used to correct the harmful effects of
fast excitation systems and help reduce system oscillations.
1.8.5 Additional Causes of Oscillations
Large cyclic loads, incorrect governor droop settings, HVDC systems and
generator pole slipping may lead to power oscillations.
1.8.6 Role of the System Operator
To prevent oscillations, the system operator should hold power transfers
within established limits and maintain strong system voltages and
adequate reactive reserve margins.

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1.9 Additional Topics

Chapter 9 introduces harmonics, resonance, and solar magnetic disturbances
(SMDs). Chapter 9 addresses the following topics:
1.9.1 Additional Topics
Introduction to the varied topics addressed in Chapter 9.
1.9.2 Harmonics
Harmonics are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
1.9.3 Resonance
When electrical circuits resonate, high currents and voltages can develop.
1.9.4 Subsynchronous Resonance
Subsynchronous resonance arises due to an interaction between the power
system and the natural oscillations of a turbine/generator.
1.9.5 Ferroresonance
Ferroresonance is a resonance condition due to a tuning between a
circuit’s capacitance and iron-core inductance.
1.9.6 Geomagnetic Disturbances
Geomagnetic disturbances can lead to geomagnetic induced currents
(GICs) that enter the power system through ground connections.

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1.10 Equipment
Chapter 10 describes the construction and operation of high voltage direct current
(HVDC) systems and phase shifting transformers (PSTs). Chapter 10 addresses
the following topics:

1.10.1 HVDC Construction and Operation

High voltage direct current (HVDC) systems are used throughout the
world.
1.10.2 Phase Shifting Transformers
Phase shifting transformers (PSTs) are used to control the flow of MW in
a transmission path.

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1.11 Power System Restoration

Chapter 11 explains the causes of power system shutdowns and describes how
power systems are restored. Chapter 11 addresses the following topics:
1.11.1 Introduction to Power System Restoration
An introduction to the theory of power system restoration and the methods
used to restore a power system.
1.11.2 Voltage Control and System Restoration
An explanation of voltage control theory and practice during power
system restoration.
1.11.3 Frequency Control and System Restoration
An explanation of frequency control theory and practice during power
system restoration.
1.11.4 Equipment Issues Related to System Restoration
A description of the unique equipment issues that may be encountered
during power system restoration conditions.
1.11.5 Protective Relay Issues Related to System Restoration
A description of the unique protective relay issues that may be
encountered during power system restoration conditions.
1.11.6 Synchronizing and System Restoration
An explanation of the synchronizing issues that may be encountered
during power system restoration conditions.
1.11.7 Lessons Learned from Actual System Restorations
A summary of the lessons learned from actual restoration events that have
occurred in North American power systems.

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FUNDAMENTALS REVIEW

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FUNDAMENTALS REVIEW

SECTION OVERVIEWS
2.1 Introduction to Fundamentals Review
This chapter serves as a review of the basic concepts the reader must understand
to gain the maximum benefit from the remainder of this text.
2.2 Mathematics Review
Review of basic math concepts of use to a system operator.
2.3 DC Electricity Review
Review of DC electrical theory. Topics addressed include current, voltage,
resistance, electrical circuits, Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s laws, power and energy.
2.4 AC Electricity Review
Review of AC electrical theory. Topics addressed include the advantages of AC
over DC, frequency, vector and phasor diagrams, magnetism and magnetic fields,
AC impedance, phase angle, and AC power.
2.5 Protective Relaying Review
Review of basic concepts of power system protection.
2.6 Power System Equipment Review
Review of the function of key types of power system equipment such as
transformers, circuit breakers, etc.
2.7 Power System Operations
A brief review of the fundamentals of interconnected power system operations.

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 Fundamentals Review

TABLE OF CONTENTS

2.1 Introduction to Fundamentals Review ............................................... 2-1

2.2 Mathematics Review ......................................................................... 2-1
2.2.1 Right Triangles .......................................................................... 2-1
2.2.2 Trigonometric Functions ............................................................ 2-3
2.2.3 Use of Ratios ............................................................................. 2-6
2.2.4 Per-Unit Values ......................................................................... 2-6
2.3 DC Electricity Review ........................................................................ 2-8
2.3.1 Current ...................................................................................... 2-8
2.3.2 Resistance............................................................................... 2-10
2.3.3 Voltage .................................................................................... 2-12
2.3.4 Electrical Circuits ..................................................................... 2-13
2.3.5 Ohm’s Law .............................................................................. 2-15
2.3.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws ...................................................................... 2-16
2.3.7 Power & Energy ...................................................................... 2-18
2.4 AC Electricity Review ...................................................................... 2-20
2.4.1 Alternating Current Systems.................................................... 2-20
2.4.2 Vectors and Phasors ............................................................... 2-22
2.4.3 Magnetism & Magnetic Fields ................................................. 2-26
2.4.4 AC Impedance......................................................................... 2-28
2.4.5 AC Power ................................................................................ 2-35
2.5 Protective Relaying Review............................................................. 2-41
2.5.1 Introduction to Power System Relaying................................... 2-41
2.5.2 Purpose and Function of Protective Relays ............................ 2-42
2.5.3 Power System Faults .............................................................. 2-42
2.5.4 Instrument Transformers ......................................................... 2-45
2.5.5 Relay Construction & Operation .............................................. 2-46
2.5.6 Types of Relays....................................................................... 2-54
2.5.7 Synchronizing and Synchronizing Equipment ......................... 2-64
2.6 Power System Equipment Review .................................................. 2-70
2.6.1 Introduction to Equipment Review........................................... 2-70
2.6.2 Generators .............................................................................. 2-70

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2.6.3 Power Transformers ................................................................2-95

2.6.4 Transmission Lines ................................................................2-100
2.6.5 AC Circuit Breakers & Switches.............................................2-104
2.6.6 Thyrister Systems ..................................................................2-107
2.7 Power System Operations .............................................................2-108
2.7.1 The Interconnections .............................................................2-108
2.7.2 The Role of NERC .................................................................2-110
2.8 Fundamentals Review Questions ..................................................2-111
2.9 Fundamentals Review References................................................2-113

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1. Right Triangles ............................................................................ 2-2

Figure 2-2. Illustration of a Sine Wave........................................................... 2-3
Figure 2-3. Right Triangle and the Sine Function .......................................... 2-4
Figure 2-4. Illustration of a Cosine Wave....................................................... 2-4
Figure 2-5. Solving a Right Triangle .............................................................. 2-5
Figure 2-6. Example of the Usage of the Per-Unit System ............................ 2-7
Figure 2-7. Current Flow ................................................................................ 2-9
Figure 2-8. Waterflow Analogy..................................................................... 2-10
Figure 2-9. Resistance of a Conductor ........................................................ 2-11
Figure 2-10. Resistances in Series & Parallel................................................ 2-12
Figure 2-11. Simple Electrical Circuit............................................................. 2-14
Figure 2-12. Ohm’s Law................................................................................. 2-15
Figure 2-13. Use of Ohm’s Law ..................................................................... 2-16
Figure 2-14. Resistors in Series & Parallel .................................................... 2-17
Figure 2-15. Integrated Demand.................................................................... 2-19
Figure 2-16. A Cycle of Current ..................................................................... 2-21
Figure 2-17. Vector Relationship of Cosine and Sine Functions ................... 2-22
Figure 2-18. Phasor Diagram......................................................................... 2-23
Figure 2-19. Phase Angle Between Voltage & Current.................................. 2-24
Figure 2-20. Inductive and Capacitive Phase Angle Examples ..................... 2-25
Figure 2-21. 3Φ Phasor Diagram ................................................................... 2-25
Figure 2-22. Examples of Magnetic Fields..................................................... 2-27
Figure 2-23. Magnetic Field in an Iron-Core .................................................. 2-27
Figure 2-24. Illustration of Electromagnetic Induction .................................... 2-29
Figure 2-25. Capacitor Characteristics .......................................................... 2-30
Figure 2-26. Inductor Characteristics............................................................. 2-32
Figure 2-27. The Impedance Triangle............................................................ 2-33
Figure 2-28. Phase Angles in AC Circuits...................................................... 2-34
Figure 2-29. Reactive Power Inclined Plane Analogy .................................... 2-37
Figure 2-30. The Power Triangle ................................................................... 2-38
Figure 2-31. Using the Power Triangle .......................................................... 2-39
Figure 2-32. Line-to-Line & Line-to-Ground Voltages .................................... 2-40
Figure 2-33. Power System Current Flow Path ............................................. 2-43
Figure 2-34. Line-to-Ground Faults................................................................ 2-43
Figure 2-35. Line-to-Line Faults..................................................................... 2-44
Figure 2-36. CT Symbols & Photograph and ................................................. 2-45

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Figure 2-37. PT Symbol & Photograph...........................................................2-45

Figure 2-38. Magnetic Attraction Relay Element ............................................2-46
Figure 2-39. Induction Disc Relay Element ....................................................2-47
Figure 2-40. Electromechanical, Solid State & Microprocessor Relays .........2-48
Figure 2-41. EM Relay Target ........................................................................2-49
Figure 2-42. Common IEEE Device Numbers................................................2-51
Figure 2-43. Single-Line Diagram Using IEEE Device Numbers....................2-52
Figure 2-44. Zones of Protection Diagram .....................................................2-53
Figure 2-45. Voltage Relays on a Single-Line Diagram .................................2-55
Figure 2-46. Overcurrent Relay⎯Time Characteristic Curves .......................2-56
Figure 2-47. Normal (No Trip) Conditions for a Differential Relay..................2-57
Figure 2-48. Fault Conditions (Relay Trips) for a Differential Relay ...............2-57
Figure 2-49. One-Line with Bus Differential....................................................2-58
Figure 2-50. Single-line Diagram with Differentials ........................................2-59
Figure 2-51. MHO Characteristic on an R-X Diagram ....................................2-61
Figure 2-52. Distance Relay Scheme.............................................................2-62
Figure 2-53. Simple Transmission Line Pilot Protection Scheme...................2-63
Figure 2-54. Voltage Phase Angle Difference ................................................2-66
Figure 2-55. Synchronizing Two Islands ........................................................2-67
Figure 2-56. Establishing the Second Transmission Tie ................................2-67
Figure 2-57. Synchroscope in a Synch Panel ................................................2-68
Figure 2-58. Synchronizing System for a Substation Breaker........................2-70
Figure 2-59. Rotating Armature With Stationary Field Winding......................2-71
Figure 2-60. Armature Rotation & Voltage Production ...................................2-72
Figure 2-61. Single Phase AC Power Generator............................................2-73
Figure 2-62. Three Phase AC Power Generator ............................................2-74
Figure 2-63. 3Φ Power Generator Photograph ..............................................2-75
Figure 2-64. Two-Pole Rotor Winding Configuration......................................2-77
Figure 2-65. Four-Pole Rotor Winding Configuration .....................................2-78
Figure 2-66. Torque Wrench Analogy of a Torque Angle...............................2-80
Figure 2-67. Torque Angle & Voltage .............................................................2-82
Figure 2-68. Pelton Wheel Turbine.................................................................2-83
Figure 2-69. Francis Turbine ..........................................................................2-84
Figure 2-70. Wicket Gate Operation...............................................................2-85
Figure 2-71. Components of a Wind Turbine .................................................2-86
Figure 2-72. Photograph of Wind Turbine Generators ...................................2-89
Figure 2-73. Steam Turbine Stages ...............................................................2-90
Figure 2-74. Steam Turbine Components ......................................................2-91

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Figure 2-75. Basic Combustion Turbine ........................................................ 2-93

Figure 2-76. Model of Basic Governor Control System ................................. 2-94
Figure 2-77. Block Diagram of a Generator Excitation System ..................... 2-95
Figure 2-78. Basic Transformer ..................................................................... 2-96
Figure 2-79. Transformer Turns Ratio ........................................................... 2-97
Figure 2-80. Autotransformer Evolution From a Two-Winding Transformer .. 2-98
Figure 2-81. Photograph of an Autotransformer ............................................ 2-98
Figure 2-82. 3Φ Transformer Connections .................................................... 2-99
Figure 2-83. Transmission Line Structures .................................................. 2-101
Figure 2-84. ACSR Conductor ..................................................................... 2-102
Figure 2-85. Typical Transfer Limits ............................................................ 2-103
Figure 2-86. Natural Capacitance of a Transmission Line ........................... 2-104
Figure 2-87. Transmission Line Impedance Model...................................... 2-104
Figure 2-88. Circuit Breaker Opening Process ............................................ 2-105
Figure 2-89. Photograph of Circuit Breaker ................................................. 2-106
Figure 2-90. Thyrister Symbol & Operation ................................................. 2-107
Figure 2-91. The Four Major Interconnections of North America................. 2-109

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2.1 Introduction to Fundamentals Review

This chapter serves as a review of the basic concepts a system operator must
understand to gain the maximum benefit from the remainder of this text. The
chapter is divided into six sections. The sections and a brief description of each
are:
Î Mathematics Review⎯A review of math concepts useful to a system
operator. Topics addressed include solving right triangles, basic
trigonometry and the per-unit system.
Î DC Electricity⎯A review of DC electrical theory. Topics addressed
include current, voltage, resistance, electrical circuits, Ohm’s law,
Kirchhoff’s laws, power, and energy.
Î AC Electricity⎯A review of AC electrical theory. Topics addressed
include frequency, the use of vector and phasor diagrams, AC
impedance, phase angle, AC power and magnetism.
Î Protective Relaying⎯A review of the methods and equipment used for
power system protection. Topics addressed include instrument
transformers, voltage relays, current relays, impedance relays,
differential relays, and synchronizing equipment.
Î Power System Equipment Review⎯A review of key equipment used in
the power system. Topics addressed include AC machines, transmission
lines, transformers, circuit breakers and thyrister based equipment.
Î The Interconnections and NERC⎯This section describes how the North
American power system is divided into Interconnections, and reviews the
role of NERC and the Regional Reliability Entities.
2.2 Mathematics Review
This section reviews basic math concepts of use to a system operator. Topics
addressed include right triangles, basic trigonometry and the per-unit system.

2.2.1 Right Triangles

“θ” is the Greek
In order to understand the basic concepts of AC power, a system operator must letter “theta”.
be familiar with the relationships between the angles and sides of a right triangle. Throughout this
text, Greek letters
A right triangle is a triangle in which one of the three angles is a right angle (90°). are used to refer to
Figure 2-1 illustrates two right triangles. Note that the two triangle sides, which angles.
form the right angle, are designated as the adjacent side and the opposite side with
respect to the angle θ. The remaining side of a right triangle is called the
hypotenuse. Figure 2-1 illustrates how the designation of the adjacent and
opposite sides is related to the angles designated as θ (theta) and α (alpha).

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Figure 2-1. Right Triangles

Given the lengths of two of the sides of a right triangle, the third side’s length is
determined by using the Pythagorean theorem. The Pythagorean theorem states
that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the
remaining two sides. For example, given a right triangle whose hypotenuse is
five, and one of the other side lengths is four, the Pythagorean theorem is used to
determine the length of the remaining side.

Hypotenuse 2 = Opposite 2 + Adjacent 2

52 = 4 2 +Adjacent 2
25=16 + Adjacent 2
25-16 = Adjacent 2
25-16 = Adjacent
Adjacent= 9 = 3

As noted in the example above, given a right triangle and the lengths of two of the
three sides, solving for the third side is a simple process. Now that the three side
lengths are known, the next step in solving the right triangle is to determine the
two unknown angles (α & θ) of the triangle. The fact that the three angles of any
triangle always sum to 180°, and that one of the angles of a right triangle is 90°,
simplifies this process. Once one of the unknown angles is determined, the
remaining angle can be found by subtracting the known angle from 90°. To find
the first unknown angle a few basic trigonometric functions must be applied.

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2.2.2 Trigonometric Functions

Sine
The sine of either of
The sine function is a periodic function. A periodic function continually repeats the unknown angles
itself. Figure 2-2 illustrates one cycle or repetition of the sine function. Note that of a right triangle is
the value of the sine function ranges between maximum and minimum values of the ratio of the
opposite side to the
+1 and –1. The sine function value is zero at 0°, 180° and 360°. (360° is the hypotenuse.
same as 0° for the next cycle of the sine function.) In order to solve right
triangles, it is only necessary to know the value of the sine function between
0° and 90°.

Figure 2-2. Illustration of a Sine Wave

A sine function value can also be determined by accurately drawing a right
triangle. For example, assume a system operator wants to determine the sine
of 30° and further assume a calculator is not available. A simple method is to
accurately draw a right triangle with one of the angles (θ) equal to 30°, as
illustrated in Figure 2-3. Then, the sine of 30° is determined by measuring the
lengths of the two sides, and taking the ratio of the side opposite the 30° angle to
the hypotenuse. The sine of 30° is determined to be 0.5 in this manner.

Cosine
Figure 2-4 illustrates one cycle of the cosine wave. It is important to note that The cosine of either
the cosine function is identical to the sine function except that the cosine leads of the unknown
angles of a right
the sine function by 90°. When the cosine function “leads” by 90°, it means that triangle is the ratio
the cosine function will reach a certain value 90° before the sine function reaches of the adjacent side
the same value. For example, the value of the cosine function at 0° is one to the hypotenuse.
whereas the sine function does not reach one until 90°.

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Figure 2-3. Right Triangle and the Sine Function

Figure 2-4. Illustration of a Cosine Wave

Solving Right Triangles

Given an understanding of the Pythagorean theorem and basic trigonometric
functions, one can often determine all the sides and angles of a right triangle. In
many power system applications of trigonometry, the length of the hypotenuse
and either one angle or one other side length is known.
Figure 2-5 and the example box below the figure demonstrate various solutions of
Taking the arcsine
(also referred to as
a right triangle. To find the angle θ, using the trig functions, you could use the
the sin-1) of a inverse (or arc) function on a calculator. For instance, in the Figure 2-5 example,
number “X” will the sine of θ equals 3/5 or 0.6. This is the same as saying that θ equals the inverse
yield the angle sine (or the arcsine) of 0.6. By taking the inverse sine of 0.6 on a calculator, you
whose sine is “X”.
should find that θ equals 36.9°. The only remaining angle to determine is α. This
angle can be found using trigonometry relationships similar to those used to find

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θ. However, by remembering that the sum of the angles in a triangle always

equals 180°, you can quickly determine that α=53.1° (180°-90°-36.9°=53.1°).

Figure 2-5. Solving a Right Triangle

Example 1:
Given: Side h =5 and Side a =4
Find Side o, Angle θ, and Angle α

Solution:
To Find Side o, Apply the Pythagorean Theorem:
Side h 2 = Side a 2 +Side o2
25=16 +Side o2
25-16=Side o2
Side o2 =9
Side o = 9 =3
To Find θ, Use Either of the Trig Functions. That is:
Sin θ=Side o/Side h =3/5=0.6→ Therefore Using the Arcsine θ=36.9o
Cos θ=Side a/Side h=4/5=0.8 → Therefore Using the Arccosine θ=36.9o
The Angle α is all That is Left:
180o -90o -36.9o =α =53.1o

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2.2.3 Use of Ratios

The ability to use ratios can be very helpful to a system operator in estimating
power system performance. A ratio is simply a relationship between two numbers
expressed as a fraction or a percentage. Usually ratios are used when the
relationship of two pairs of values is the same, and one of two similarly related
values is known.
The magnitude of a
frequency deviation A system operator can use ratios to estimate power system performance. For
following a example, assume a system operator knows by experience that the loss of a 1000
generation loss is MW unit typically results in a 0.1 HZ dip in system frequency. The system
described in detail operator desires an estimate of the frequency dip due to the loss of an 800 MW
in Chapter 4. unit. This estimate can be done using a ratio. The thought process is as follows:
1000 MW is to 0.1 HZ as 800 MW is to ? HZ. In equation format the ratio is:

1000 MW 800 MW
=
0.1HZ ? HZ
800 MW x 0.1HZ = 1000 MW x ? HZ
800 MW x 0.1HZ
?= = 0.08 HZ
1000 MW

When using ratios, it is important to remember that ratios only provide exact
answers in linear systems. A “linear” system means that the relationship between
two variables in the system is the same regardless of the magnitude of the two
variables. Referring back to our previous example with the frequency, as long as
the frequency drops in proportion to the MW loss, regardless of the size of MW
loss, ratios can be used. Few power system dynamic events, including the
frequency, are truly linear. However, this method at least provides an
approximate means to estimate the power system’s performance based
on past events.

2.2.4 Per-Unit Values

Very often, quantities on the power system are specified as a percent or per-unit
of their base or nominal value. For example, suppose the voltage at a 345 kV bus
is measured as 349 kV. If the nominal or base bus voltage is 345 kV, then the
measured voltage is 101.2% (349/345) percent of nominal, or 1.012 per-unit.
Using per-unit values makes it very easy to judge where a system value is with
respect to its base value. Per-unit values also make it easy to compare values
between parts of the system with different base voltage values.

Per-Unit Voltages
Figure 2-6 illustrates the use of the per-unit system in a simple power system.
The base voltages are 20 kV for the generator, 345 kV for the transmission and
138 kV for the sub-transmission. The actual and per-unit voltages are illustrated
in the figure.

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The per-unit system allows a system operator to view a power system and rapidly
obtain a feel for the voltage profile. For example, Figure 2-6 per-unit data
illustrates that the voltage of the lowest magnitude 345 kV bus is 3.2% lower than
any other 345 kV bus.

Figure 2-6. Example of the Usage of the Per-Unit System

Per-Unit Impedances
The concept of impedance is explained and illustrated in the next two sections of
this text. Impedance is stated in ohms and is a measure of an element’s ability to
impede or restrict the flow of current. The greater an element’s impedance, the
less current that will flow through the element. Our purpose in bringing up the
concept of impedance at this point is with respect to per-unit quantities.
The impedance of an element (such as a transformer) is often stated as a per-unit
or a per-cent value. For example, a large power transformer may have an
impedance of 5%. Stating the impedance in a percentage form is a variation of
the per-unit system. To convert from a % impedance value to a per-unit value
simply divide the % value by 100. Therefore, a transformer with a 5% impedance
has a 0.05 p.u. (5/100) impedance.
To convert from a p.u. impedance value to the actual impedance stated in ohms,
multiply the p.u. value by the base impedance. The base impedance is dependent
on the voltage level the equipment operates at and the rating (in MVA) of the
equipment. The base impedance is equal to the voltage squared divided by the
MVA. For example, assume a 345 to 138 kV transformer has a 5% or .05 p.u.
impedance. Further, assume the transformer is rated at 100 MVA. To calculate
the transformer’s impedance in ohms first determine the base impedance and then
multiply by the per-unit impedance as illustrated in the following example box.

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Note in this example, that you would calculate the base impedance and the actual
ohms differently depending on which voltage level you wished to state the
impedance.
345/138 kV Transformer
Impedance Equals 5% = 0.05p.u.
The Greek letter Ω Rating = 100 MVA
(Omega) is used to kV 2 3452
represent the ohms of 345 kV Base Ohms = = = 1190.3Ω
impedance. MVA 100
1382
138kV BaseOhms = = 190.4Ω
100
Actual Ohms on a 345 kV Base = .05 × 1190.3 = 59.5 Ω
Actual Ohms on a138 kV Base = .05 × 190.4 = 9.5 Ω

2.3 DC Electricity Review

This section reviews DC electricity concepts. Topics addressed include current,
voltage, resistance, electrical circuits, Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s laws, power and
Protons have a energy.
positive electrical
charge while The fundamental concept of an electrical charge is used to describe many
electrons have a electrical phenomena. Electrical charge can be either positive or negative.
negative electrical Electrical effects are associated with the separation of charge, and with charge in
charge. motion. The separation of charge creates an electrical force referred to as voltage.
The flow of charge is referred to as a current.

2.3.1 Current

The 6.24x1018
Definition of Current
represents a very Electrical current is the rate of flow of electrical charge through a conductor.
large number equal
to 6.24 times a 1
Figure 2-7 illustrates how the electrical charge in a conductor is carried by the
with 18 trailing electrons that form the conductor. Current is measured as the amount of charge
zeros. 6.24x1018 is passing through a cross section of a conductor over time. Specifically, current is
simply a shorthand measured in amperes (amps). One ampere of current is equivalent to 6.24x1018
way of writing this (6.24 billion-billion) electrons passing through a cross section of the conductor
large number.
per second.

Current Flow
Electrons in a conductor (like water in a river) require a force to cause a current
flow to occur. The force that causes water to flow in a river is gravity. The
source of the river is higher than the mouth, and therefore the water flows
downhill driven by gravity. The force that causes charge to flow in a conductor
is the voltage. Voltage is the separation of charge between two points on a
conductor. This separation of charge is represented in Figure 2-7 as a battery
connected in series with a conducting path. Electrons have a negative charge and

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are drawn towards the positive terminal of the battery. Figure 2-7 illustrates a
negative charge flowing from the negative terminal of the battery to the positive
terminal of the battery.
Electrons carry a
negative charge and
are attracted
towards the positive
terminal of the
battery. As the
negative charge
moves, a positively
charged “hole” is
left. The holes can
be viewed as
moving towards the
negative terminal.
Conventional
current flow is
typically thought of
as a movement of
holes from the
positive to the
negative terminal.

Figure 2-7. Current Flow

Note in Figure 2-7 that the “conventional” current is illustrated flowing in the
opposite direction of the negative electron charge flow. Several centuries ago
when electrical power was in its infancy, the initial assumption was that current
flowed from positive to negative. These early experimenters were wrong, as
electrical current is actually the movement of the negative charge. However, the
concept of positive to negative stuck and the convention in the electric power
industry is to designate the current flow as being from the positive to the negative
terminal of the voltage source.
The electrical current described so far is referred to as direct current (DC) because
it flows in one direction. Later we will examine a current that constantly
oscillates. This type of current is called alternating current (AC).

Path of Least Resistance

Electrical current flow always seeks the path of least resistance. The flow of
current is analogous to the flow of water. Assume you have a piping arrangement
as illustrated in Figure 2-8. A pipe with a 3 ft2 cross section is feeding two pipes
with cross sections of 1 ft2 and 2 ft2 respectively. More water will flow into the
2 ft2 pipe than the 1 ft2 pipe because there is less resistance to the flow in the

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bigger pipe. The water from the 3 ft2 pipe will flow into the other two pipes in
inverse proportion to the amount of resistance offered by each pipe. Specifically,
2/3 of the water will flow into the 2 ft2 pipe, and 1/3 of the water will flow into
the 1 ft2 pipe.
Electrical current likewise flows proportionally through the conducting paths that
offer the least resistance. When current in a circuit encounters multiple paths, the
current divides and flows along those paths in inverse proportion to the paths’
resistance.

Figure 2-8. Waterflow Analogy

2.3.2 Resistance
Resistance is a measure of the opposition of an electrical circuit to the flow of
current. Every component of the power system has a resistance associated with it.
The resistance of a component is measured in ohms. The Greek letter omega (Ω)
is the symbol used for ohms.
The resistance of a given component is a function of:
Î The resistivity of the material from which the component is made.
(Electrical components are often called conductors.)
Î The length of the component
Î The cross sectional area of the component

Definition of Resistance
Referring to Figure 2-9, resistance is defined as:

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ρ× L “ρ” is the Greek

R= letter “rho”
A
pronounced “row”.
Where:
R = Resistance inOhms(½)
ρ = Resistivityof the Material
L = Length of the Material
A =Cross-SectionalArea of the Material

Figure 2-9. Resistance of a Conductor

All materials possess a trait known as resistivity. Materials with lower
resistivities are better conductors of electricity. Sample resistivities are:
Î Aluminum 0.00000002709 Ω-m (Ohm-meters)
Why is aluminum
Î Copper 0.00000001712 Ω-m used in transmission
Since copper has a lower resistivity than aluminum, it is a better conductor than lines if copper is a
better conductor?
aluminum. The answer is that
The resistance of a material is also temperature and frequency dependent. aluminum is much
lighter than copper,
However, for normal power system operations, the frequency is relatively which reduces the
constant (60 HZ) and the change in resistance due to a temperature change is construction cost of
small. a transmission line.

Resistance in Series Circuits

Adding resistors in
Resistances connected in series produce a total resistance equal to the sum of the series increases
individual resistances. Figure 2-10(a) illustrates a series resistance circuit. total resistance
whereas adding
resistors in parallel
reduces the total
resistance.

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Resistance in Parallel Circuits

When resistances are connected in parallel, the inverse of the total resistance is
equal to the sum of the inverse of each individual resistance as illustrated in
Figure 2-10(b).

Figure 2-10. Resistances in Series & Parallel

2.3.3 Voltage
The force that causes charge to flow (current) in a conductor is the voltage. The
separation of charge between two points in a conductor gives rise to a potential
difference or a voltage. Electric charge flows down this potential “gradient”, just
as water flows down the physical gradient of a hill or a slanting pipe.

Voltage Source

Generators are a A voltage source is a device that is capable of producing or creating a voltage
very common difference across its terminals. The voltage produced by a generator is called an
voltage source. electromotive force (or EMF) and for this reason is often represented by the letter
“E”. Sources of voltage, such as a generator, are typically also used to convert
non-electrical energy (coal, water, gas, etc.) to electrical energy.

Measured Voltage
The measured voltage is the voltage detected by a voltmeter connected to a point
in the power system. A measured voltage is usually taken between phases in high
voltage systems. A measured voltage can also be taken from phase to ground. A
measured voltage is typically represented with the letter “V”. Any subscript on

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the measured voltage indicates where the voltage is referenced. For example, VA-
G is the measured voltage from phase “A” to ground. The voltage VA-B is the
measured voltage between phases “A” and “B”.

Voltage Drop
Recall that voltage is the separation of charge that results in a potential for current
flow. Current is the movement of that charge through a conductor. The voltage
drop is the amount of potential lost by the charge as it passes through circuit
elements such as resistors. The voltage drop across a resistor is equal to the
product of the current through the resistor in amperes and the resistance of the
resistor in ohms. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law. Ohm’s law will be
described later in this section in greater detail.

2.3.4 Electrical Circuits

Any complete connection between a voltage source and a load is an electrical
circuit. When a light bulb is switched on, an electrical circuit is created between
the voltage source and the light bulb. By turning the ignition key in a car, an
electrical circuit is created from the car’s battery to the car’s starter. Electrical
energy can only be utilized if a circuit is created to allow the electrical energy to
flow from the source to the load.

Elements of a Circuit
An electrical circuit is composed of a voltage source, a load, and a supply and
return path connecting the source to the load. An example of an electrical circuit
is the flashlight circuit of Figure 2-11. The voltage source is the two batteries and
the load is the light bulb. The supply path is the direct contact between the
batteries and the light bulb. The return path is the metal case from the bulb to a
spring that the batteries rest on. When the flashlight switch is closed, the circuit is
complete and the bulb glows. Each of the ingredients of an electrical circuit is
described below:

The Source
A voltage source is any device that can serve as a source of voltage. Sources of
voltage typically convert non-electrical energy to electrical energy. Batteries are
a typical source of DC voltage, (batteries convert chemical energy to electric
energy) whereas generators are typical AC voltage sources.

The Load
Any device that consumes electrical energy is called a load. Lights, motors,
heaters and air conditioners are all examples of electrical loads.

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The Supply and Return Paths

There must be a physical conducting path to carry electricity from the source to
the load and then back to the source. A complete electrical circuit, both supply
and return paths, must exist for current flow to occur.
Remember that the driving force behind current is the voltage. For example, for
current to flow through a light bulb there must be a voltage difference across the
bulb. If we simply connect a wire from the positive terminal of a battery to one
side of the bulb, the bulb will not illuminate, as there cannot be any current flow.
However, if a return path for the current is provided by connecting the opposite
side of the bulb to the negative terminal of the battery, the electrical circuit is
completed, current will flow and the bulb will light. Referring back to Figure 2-
11, note that the flashlight switch simply opens and closes the return path of the
circuit, thus turning the light off and on.

Figure 2-11. Simple Electrical Circuit

The return path for an electrical circuit need only be an electrically common point
joining the load and the source. Earth is often the return path in power systems.
Electric generators are normally grounded to the earth. Customer load is
normally grounded to the earth. A utility need only supply the path from the
source to the load and the earth can serve as the return path.

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2.3.5 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law states that the amount of current flowing through a circuit element is
directly proportional to the voltage across the element, and inversely proportional
to the resistance of the element. Stated as an equation, Ohm’s law is:

V E
I= or I=
R R
Where:
I = Current (Amps)
V = Measured Voltage (Volts)
E = Electromotive Force (Volts)
R = Resistance (Ohms)

Ohm’s law may also be stated as: E = I × R, V = I × R, R = E/I, or R =V/I. As

long as two of the variables in Ohm’s law are known, the third variable can be
calculated. Figure 2-12 illustrates a simple way to remember the Ohm’s law
relationships. Simply draw a circle with “V” (or “E”) in the top half, and “I” and
“R” in the bottom half. Now, cover the quantity that you wish to calculate and the
relationship between the other two quantities is shown. For example, if you know
voltage and resistance and you need to find current, simply cover the “I”, and you
are left with “V” over “R” as shown in Figure 2-12. Now that you have a way of
remembering Ohm’s law, we will use the law in DC circuits.

Figure 2-12. Ohm’s Law

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Use of Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law is often used to determine the current flow in a circuit when the
voltage and resistance are known. For example, Figure 2-13 contains a simplified
circuit for the flashlight example of Figure 2-11. Essentially, the circuit is
composed of two 1.5 volt batteries (3 volts total) connected across the light bulb.
The circuit resistance includes the light bulb (0.6 Ω), the metal case (0.05 Ω), and
the spring (0.1 Ω), which total to 0.75 Ω. The current in the circuit can be found
easily using Ohm’s law as follows:

V 3 Volts
I= = = 4 Amps
R .75 ½

Figure 2-13. Use of Ohm’s Law

With simple circuits like this example, Ohm’s Law alone is sufficient for
determining the voltages and currents. However, circuits that are more complex
require additional tools such as Kirchhoff’s Laws.

2.3.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Two useful tools or laws for solving electrical circuits are named after Gustav
Kirchhoff who in 1848 first stated the laws. The first law is known as Kirchhoff’s
Current Law and is stated as:

The Sum of All the Currents Flowing Into and Out of Any One
Point In an Electrical Circuit Equals Zero.
The second law is known as Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law and is stated as:

The Sum of All the Voltage Rises and Voltage Drops Around Any
Closed Path In an Electrical Circuit Equals Zero.

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Use of Kirchhoff’s Laws

Figure 2-14 is used to demonstrate the application of Kirchhoff’s Laws. The
circuit consists of a 12 V battery supplying two resistors in parallel. The
objective is to determine the current flowing in each branch of the circuit. The
total current IT flows from the battery. I1 is the current that flows through R1 and
I2 is the current that flows through R2.

Figure 2-14. Resistors in Series & Parallel

Using the principles introduced in Section 2.3.2, we can combine the two parallel
resistors into one equivalent resistor as follows:

1 1 1 1 1 3
= + = + =
R EQ R 1 R 2 12 6 12

R EQ = 4½

The simplified circuit is given in Figure 2-14(b). Ohm’s Law can now be used to
find IT.

V 12 V
IT = = = 3A
R EQ 4½

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Using Kirchhoff’s second law, which states that the sum of the voltages around
any closed path in a circuit equals zero, we can find the current flowing through
resistors R1 and R2. Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to Figure 2-14(a), the
voltage drop across resistor R1 must equal 12 V. Therefore, the current I1 through
resistor R1 equals:

V 12 V
I1 = = = 1A
R1 12 ½

Restated, this law says that the sum of the currents going into a point on a circuit
must equal the sum of the currents going out of that same point. In our example,
this law applied to point “A” yields:

I T = I1 + I 2
3A = 1A + I 2
∴ I 2 = 2A

All the currents in this resistive circuit have now been calculated by applying
Kirchhoff’s and Ohm’s laws.

2.3.7 Power & Energy

Energy can be thought of as the capability to do work, whereas power is the rate
at which energy is expended in doing work. A car with a full tank of gas has a
certain amount of stored energy available. The rate at which the car’s engine can
convert the energy in the gas to motion of the car is the power of the engine.
Similarly, a charged battery has stored energy available and the power delivered
by the battery is the rate at which the energy is expended to do work.

Power Definitions
Power is the rate at which energy is expended to do work. DC power is defined
as voltage times current and is measured in watts.

PowerDC = VDC × I DC

Instantaneous Demand
The instantaneous demand of a power system is equal to the amount of power
delivered to the system at one point in time. The instantaneous demand is equal
to the voltage times the current and is measured in watts. The instantaneous
demand is constantly changing in a power system.

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System Load
The system load is equal to the average power delivered over a period of time.
On a power system, the system load is usually stated as the average megawatt (a
megawatt is one million watts) delivered over a particular hour.

Energy Definitions
Energy is defined as the power used over a period of time and is measured in
watt-hours. For example, a 100 watt light bulb which is on for 10 hours uses
1,000 (10 × 100) watt-hours of energy.

Energy= Power × Time

Integrated Demand
Energy is more accurately defined as the integrated demand over time. The
integral of demand is equal to the area between the demand curve and the time
axis as illustrated in Figure 2-15. For a load with constant demand, such as the
light bulb mentioned earlier, the integrated demand is equal to the demand times
the period of time that the load is in service. However, if we look at the demand
of a typical household load, we would see an instantaneous demand that is
constantly changing, as lights and appliances are switched in and out-of-service.
The energy consumed by the house is the sum of all the products of instantaneous
demand and time for each time period.

Figure 2-15. Integrated Demand

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Use of the “Giga”, “Mega”, and “kilo” Symbols

In the field of power systems, the units of watts and volts are very small. To
measure power system values with these units would be equivalent to posting
road signs with the number of feet to the next city. The prefixes “Giga”, “Mega”,
and “kilo” are used to represent large quantities of watts or volts. Each prefix can
be used as a multiplier as follows:
Î kilo is a multiplier of 1,000 or 103
Î Mega is a multiplier of 1,000,000 or 106
Î Giga is a multiplier of 1,000,000,000 or 109
For example, given a power plant which has a power output of one billion watts,
we could call it a:
Î 1,000,000,000 watt (W) plant
Î 1,000,000 kilowatt (kW) plant
Î 1,000 Megawatt (MW) plant
Î 1 Gigawatt (GW) plant
Power plant capabilities are commonly stated in MW. Transmission line voltages
are commonly stated in thousands of volts or kilovolts (kV). Instead of referring
to the 138,000 or the 345,000 volt system, it is more common to refer to the 138
kV or 345 kV system.
2.4 AC Electricity Review
This section reviews AC electrical theory. Topics addressed include the
advantages of AC over DC, frequency, phasor diagrams, magnetism and magnetic
fields, AC impedance including capacitance and inductance, phase angle, and AC
power.

2.4.1 Alternating Current Systems

Power in North America is largely generated and delivered via alternating current
(AC) systems. The magnitude of alternating current is constantly changing and
reversing polarity at regular intervals. Figure 2-16 contains a plot of an
alternating current wave as it varies with time. Note the AC current follows the
shape of a sine wave. Alternating current could follow any waveform (i.e.,
triangular, square, etc.) but the alternating current used in power systems is
intentionally sinusoidal (shaped like a sine wave). Recall that the sine function is
periodic which means that it constantly repeats itself. For each cycle, the sine
wave passes through zero twice and has one positive and one negative peak.

AC or DC?
Why use seemingly complicated AC over relatively simple DC? There are
several reasons but the most important is that the AC voltage level can be easily
adjusted using transformers. With AC one can generate at a medium voltage

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level, transmit at a high voltage level, and then transform down to a much lower
voltage for customer use. As will be explained shortly, the principle of
electromagnetic induction, by which AC transformers operate, does not apply to
direct current.
There are isolated
Frequency pockets of 25 HZ &
50 HZ frequency
Power system frequency is the number of sine wave cycles that the alternating power systems in
current completes each second. In North America, the power system frequency North America but,
is 60 cycles per second. One cycle per second is equal to one hertz (HZ). by far, the majority
Therefore, we say that the power system frequency is 60 HZ. The majority operates at 60 HZ.
of the countries in the world utilize a 50 HZ frequency.

Figure 2-16. A Cycle of Current

Use of Degrees, Cycles & Time

One full sine wave cycle is divided into 360° as illustrated in Figure 2-16. If the
frequency of the current in Figure 2-16 is 60 HZ, then Figure 2-16 contains:
Î 1 cycle, or
Î 360°, or
Î 1/60th of a second
All three statements represent the same time span; in other words, one can refer to
power system time frames in terms of degrees, cycles or time.

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2.4.2 Vectors and Phasors

A vector is a quantity that contains both magnitude and direction information.
For example, assume you are told to walk 1 mile directly north than one mile
directly east. Both of these quantities are vectors as you are given information on
both the magnitude (how far to walk) and the direction (north, east, etc.).
The sine and cosine functions can be stated as vectors if we assume they are both
oscillating at the same frequency. Recall that the cosine function leads the sine
function by 90°. Figure 2-17 illustrates plots of both the sine and cosine
functions. Note how the cosine function crosses zero 90° ahead of the sine
function. To state the graphical information in Figure 2-17 in a vector format we
would say that the sine function has a magnitude of 1 at an angle of 0° or 1R0o
and the cosine function has a magnitude of 1 at an angle of –90 or 1-90˚. These
vector descriptions of the sine and cosine functions simply mean that the cosine
and sine have the same magnitude but the cosine waveform leads the sine
waveform by 90°.

Figure 2-17. Vector Relationship of Cosine and Sine Functions

The difference
between a phasor
and a vector is that The concept of a phasor is necessary when you are relating sine and cosine
a phasor oscillates functions that do not oscillate at the same frequency. A phasor is a vector that
or rotates while a oscillates at a specific frequency. To specify a vector you state the magnitude and
vector is stationary. direction. To specify a phasor, you must state the magnitude, direction, and
frequency.
This text will assume that the frequency is 60 HZ unless stated otherwise.
Therefore, the text will normally not differentiate between vectors and phasors
and will generally use the term phasor to represent both phasors and vectors.

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To summarize, phasors are vectors that rotate. If a 60 HZ frequency is assumed

than vectors and phasors are stated in the following form:

345R5o 138R10o

115R20o 12.5R − 30o

Where the first number is the magnitude and the second number is the phase
angle. For example, the first number in the above list has a magnitude of 345 and
an angle of +5°.

Construction of Phasor Diagrams

A phasor can be plotted on a diagram with two axes, one called the real axis and
one called the imaginary axis. A phasor is represented on the plot as an arrow
whose length represents magnitude, and whose angle with respect to the real axis
represents the phase angle. Figure 2-18 contains three phasors:

8R0o, 4R45o, 4R270o

A positive phase angle is measured in a counter-clockwise direction with the
phasor aligned with the real axis having a zero degree phase angle.

The “j” symbol in

this figure means
the imaginary axis
is at a 90° angle to
the real axis.

Figure 2-18. Phasor Diagram

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Illustration of Phase Angle

The term phase A phase angle can be conveniently illustrated on a phasor diagram. A phase angle
angle is normally is the angle between any two phasors. The phase angle may be between two
used to refer to an voltages, two currents, or between a voltage and a current. Figure 2-19 is a
angle between a simple phasor diagram. The phase angle for this circuit is the angle (θ) between
voltage and a
current. However,
the voltage and current. For this example, the current phasor “lags” the voltage
a phase angle can phasor.
be between two
voltages or two
currents. If the
angle is between
two voltages or two
currents, this text
will clearly state the
point.

Figure 2-19. Phase Angle Between Voltage & Current

Figure 2-20 contains four simple electrical circuits. One circuit contains only an
inductor and the other only a capacitor. Two of the circuits are combinations of
resistors with capacitors or inductors. Shown below each circuit is the phasor
diagram for that circuits voltage and current. (Capacitor and inductor impact on
the phase angle is explained in the following sections.)
The diagrams in Figure 2-20 illustrate the relationship between the circuit’s
voltage and current. The angle θ is the phase angle for each circuit. The four
circuits have different phase angles because the circuits are composed of different
elements. Note that the inductive circuits⎯Figure 2-20(a) and 2-20(b)⎯have
positive phase angles and the capacitive circuits Figure 2-20(c) and 2-20(d) have
negative phase angles. It is a convention in the power industry that the angle for
an inductive circuit is defined as positive and capacitive as negative.

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Inductive circuits
have positive or
lagging phase
angles and
capacitive circuits
have negative or
leading phase
angles.

Figure 2-20. Inductive and Capacitive Phase Angle Examples

Phasor Diagram Illustration of 3Φ Systems

In a 3Φ system, each of the phase voltages is intentionally 120° out of phase with
the other two voltages. For example, if “A” phase is chosen as the reference
phase, with an angle of 0°, “C” phase has an angle of 120°, and “B” phase has an
angle of 240° or -120°. Figure 2-21 illustrates this concept using a phasor
diagram. Note how the three phasors are actually rotating in a counter-clockwise
direction.

Φ is the symbol
commonly used
to mean phase.
For example 3Φ
means 3-phase.

Figure 2-21. 3Φ Phasor Diagram

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2.4.3 Magnetism & Magnetic Fields

Electricity and magnetism are closely related subjects. An understanding of
magnetic fields is necessary before AC impedance can be described. This section
examines the cause and effects of magnetism and magnetic fields.

Sources of Magnetism
Magnetism is a property of matter associated with moving charges. The moving
charges may be within the atomic structure of the materials as in magnetized
pieces of iron or steel. These type materials are called permanent magnets.
Magnetism also arises any time there are moving charges associated with an
electric current. For example, an electric current flowing through a straight
conductor or a coil produces a magnetic field. The magnetic field is generally
much stronger for a coil because of the number of turns of wire in which the
current flows. If the coil is wound around a core made of magnetic material,
an electromagnet is created.

Magnetic Fields
A field can be thought of as a force distributed over an area. For example, gravity
is a field. The earth’s gravitational field can be thought of as lines of force that
extend outward from the earth’s center, and weaken with distance. Any object
within the earth’s gravitational field experiences the force of gravity pulling it
toward the earth. Similarly, magnetic fields can be viewed as lines of magnetic
force. Any other magnet placed within a magnetic field will experience a
magnetic force.
Permanent
magnets retain The geometry of magnetic fields varies depending on the source of the field as
their magnetic illustrated in Figure 2-22. Permanent magnets have two poles designated north
field strength. and south. The lines of magnetic force run by convention from the north pole to
Electromagnets
require a current
the south pole. The Earth is a permanent magnet with a magnetic field that can be
source to sustain detected with a compass.
their magnetic
fields.
The magnetic field due to a current in a straight conductor is concentric about the
conductor as illustrated in the right side of Figure 2-22. The intensity of the
magnetic field, due to the current, decreases as the distance from the conductor
increases. The magnetic field due to a coil is similar to that of a permanent bar
magnet. This type of magnetic field is illustrated in the left of Figure 2-22.
Magnetic fields can be confined within magnetic materials such as the iron in a
transformer’s core. In other words, if a magnetic field is set up in an iron
structure, the lines of magnetic force tend to be confined to that structure.
Figure 2-23 contains a simplified transformer core. The core is a rectangular iron
doughnut. If a wire is wrapped around the core and current is passed through it as
shown, a magnetic field is created in the core as illustrated. Because iron is a
better magnetic material than air, most of the magnetic field remains in the core.

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Figure 2-22. Examples of Magnetic Fields

Figure 2-23. Magnetic Field in an Iron-Core

Electromagnetic Induction
If there is relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor or if there A voltage is
generated in a
is a change in the magnetic field linking a conductor for some other reason, an conductor if there is
electromotive force⎯or voltage⎯is generated. This voltage causes current to relative movement
flow if an electrical circuit is formed. This concept is called electromagnetic between the
induction. Electromagnetic induction is a very important principle as it is the conductor and a
magnetic field.
basis upon which many types of power system equipment (transformers,
generators, etc.) operate. Figure 2-24 illustrates the concept of electromagnetic
induction.

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The relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic field may be due to
physical motion of the magnetic field or the conductor or both. The relative
motion may also be due to changes in the magnitude or direction of the magnetic
field. In other words, if a conductor is placed in a fluctuating magnetic field, a
voltage is induced in the conductor.
The magnitude of the induced voltage is dependent on the alignment between the
magnetic field and the conductor. For example, if a conductor is passed through
the densest part of the magnetic field, a large voltage will be produced. However,
if the conductor is passed through the weakest part of the magnetic field a smaller
voltage will be produced.

Magnetic Fields and AC Power Systems

AC current flow
results in an
When DC current flows through a conductor a constant magnetic field is created.
induced voltage or When AC current flows through a conductor, a variable or alternating magnetic
a “back emf”. This field is created. The variable magnetic field alternately builds and collapses
back emf both as the AC voltage wave builds and collapses in its normal cycle. This constantly
retards and changing magnetic field results in an induced voltage in the conductor. This
restricts the
magnitude of the
induced voltage is referred to as a “back emf”. The voltage due to the back emf
current flow. opposes the original voltage that caused the current to flow. The result is to delay
the current flowing in the conductor.
This delay or lag in the current due to a back emf is one of the reasons why
current and voltage are generally out-of-phase in an AC system. The effect is
larger with coils, such as those in a transformer, because of the strong magnetic
fields associated with coils. In the next section, this concept is used to explain the
inductive component of the impedance of an AC circuit.

2.4.4 AC Impedance
Impedance is the AC version of resistance. Actually, resistance is one component
of AC impedance. AC Impedance is made up of two components: resistance and
reactance. Resistance in a power system consists of the resistance of the
conductors and the circuit elements as described earlier in the review of DC
electricity. Reactance arises from the presence of capacitive and inductive effects
in an AC power system. There are two types of reactance, capacitive reactance
and inductive reactance.

Capacitors
A dielectric is an
insulator or a A capacitor is a simple and very common electrical device. All that is needed to
material in which create a capacitor are two pieces of conducting material and a dielectric between
an electrical field the conductors. A capacitor is a circuit element that stores energy in the form of
can be maintained an electrical charge. A capacitor’s stored energy creates an electric field.
with minimum loss
of power.

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Figure 2-24. Illustration of Electromagnetic Induction

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The concept of an electric field is similar to a magnetic field. An electric field

surrounds any electrically charged object. For example, to visualize the electric
field surrounding an energized conductor think of concentric circles (electric field
lines) that surround the conductor. The voltage level of the electric field shrinks
as the distance from the conductor increases. The measure of how much energy a
capacitor can store in its electric field is known as its capacitance. Figure 2-25
illustrates a capacitor and its electric field. Note in Figure 2-25 that a capacitor’s
ability to store energy in its electric field increases with the:
Î Increased area of the conducting plates
Î The reduced separation between the conducting plates
Î The strength of the dielectric between the conducting plates

Figure 2-25. Capacitor Characteristics

Current Flow and Capacitors

Capacitors store energy in their electric fields. As there is an insulator (such as
air) between the capacitor’s plates, how can current flow through the capacitor?
The answer is that current does not actually flow through the capacitor’s
dielectric. However, current does flow in the electrical circuit that contains the
capacitor.

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When an AC voltage is applied to a capacitor, a current flows from the voltage A simple way to view
source and an electrical charge builds up on one plate of the capacitor. There a capacitor in an AC
is no current through the dielectric itself as the dielectric is an insulator. As circuit is to view it as
the AC voltage magnitude increases, charging current flows from the voltage a battery whose
source towards the capacitor’s plate. When the applied AC voltage is polarity varies with
the system frequency.
decreasing, current flows away from the capacitor towards the voltage source.
With an alternating voltage applied, the capacitor alternately charges and
discharges, provided an alternating current flow in the electrical circuit.

Capacitive Reactance
Capacitive reactance (XC) is a measure of how a capacitor affects the flow of AC
current. When a capacitor is placed in an AC circuit, the capacitor builds up a
charge and opposes any further change in the voltage. A capacitor’s natural
opposition to a voltage change is accounted for by calculating the capacitive
reactance of the capacitor. Capacitive reactance is measured in ohms. To
determine the capacitive reactance, it is necessary to know the value of
capacitance (C) in Farads and the frequency (f) of the circuit in Hertz. The
formula for determining the capacitive reactance is:
The term “π”
(Greek letter PI)
1
XC = refers to a constant.
2πfC PI is the ratio of the
circumference to the
Note that the capacitive reactance varies inversely with the frequency. This point diameter of a circle.
is emphasized in later Chapters of this text. Capacitive reactance is a vector as it PI is approximately
equal to 3.14.
does not rotate but does have both a magnitude and a phase angle. The phase
angle for capacitive reactance is -90°.

Inductors
Note that many
An inductor is also a simple and common device. An inductor is a coiled power system
conductor. Inductors are circuit elements that store energy in their magnetic components, such as
transmission lines,
fields. Inductance is a measure of how much energy an inductor can store. are naturally
Figure 2-26 illustrates an inductor and its magnetic field. Note from Figure 2-26 inductive.
that an inductor’s ability to store energy in its magnetic field increases with:
Î The number of turns of the coil
Î The size of the cross-sectional area of the magnetic core
Î The tighter spacing between the coil turns
Î The strength of the magnetic core

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Inductive Reactance
Inductive reactance (XL) is a measure of how an inductor affects the flow of
current. Inductive reactance is measured in ohms. When AC current flows in a
conductor a “back emf” is produced which causes the current to lag the voltage
and restricts the magnitude of the current flow. This effect is represented with the
inductive reactance. To determine the inductive reactance one must know the
value of inductance (L) in Henries and the frequency (f) of the circuit in Hertz.
The formula for determining the inductive reactance is:

X L =2πfL

Figure 2-26. Inductor Characteristics

The fact that both
inductive and Note that the inductive reactance varies directly with the frequency. Inductive
capacitive reactance is a vector as it does not rotate but has both a magnitude and a phase
reactance vary
with the angle. The phase angle for inductive reactance is +90°.
frequency leads
to some Impedance
interesting
phenomena that The impedance of a circuit is the vector sum of the resistances and reactances of
is examined in the circuit. Impedance restricts current flow in AC circuits. Impedance (Z) is
Chapter 9. measured in ohms and defined as follows:

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Z= R + jX T
Where:
Z = Impedance
R = Resistance
X T = X L + XC
X T = Total Reactance
X L = Inductive Reactance
X C = Capacitive Reactance

Keep in mind that XL and XC are 180° out of phase. XL can be considered a
positive reactance while XC can be considered a negative reactance. If you had a
circuit whose inductive reactance was 10 Ω and whose capacitive reactance was 5
Ω, then the total reactance would be 5 Ω (10-5) inductive.

The Impedance Triangle

The impedance triangle illustrates the relationship between AC resistance,
reactance, and impedance. Figure 2-27 contains two impedance triangles. The
first triangle (2-27a) represents an inductive impedance since the reactance (XL) is
positive. The second triangle (2-27b) has a negative capacitive reactance (XC).
You calculate the overall impedance (Z) by applying the Pythagorean theorem as
explained earlier in this Chapter.

You can calculate

impedance,
resistance and
reactance values
using the impedance
triangle in the same
manner as power
values are
calculated using the
power triangle. (See
Section 2.4.5.)

Figure 2-27. The Impedance Triangle

Phase Angle
The phase angle (θ) of a circuit is defined as the angular separation between two
phasors. Figure 2-28 illustrates portions of the voltage and current sine waves for
a circuit. The spacing between the zero crossings of the two waveforms illustrates

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the phase angle (θ) of the circuit. The phase angle of a circuit is directly related
to the impedance of the circuit. If the impedance of the circuit is purely resistive,
then the voltage and current are in phase, and the phase angle will be zero.
However, the impedance of AC power system circuits is rarely purely resistive.

Leading Phase Angle

A circuit is said to have a leading phase angle when the current wave leads the
voltage wave. Figure 2-28(a) illustrates a leading phase angle. The current
waveform is to the left or leads the voltage waveform. Circuits with
predominantly capacitive impedance have a leading phase angle. The electric
field energy storage in a capacitive circuit causes the current to lead the voltage.

Lagging Phase Angle

A circuit is said to have a lagging phase angle when the current wave lags behind
the voltage wave. Figure 2-28(b) illustrates a lagging phase angle. The current
waveform is to the right, or behind the voltage waveform. Circuits with
predominantly inductive impedance have a lagging phase angle. The magnetic
field energy storage in an inductive circuit causes the current to lag the voltage.

Figure 2-28. Phase Angles in AC Circuits

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ELI the ICE Man

A convenient way to remember that in an inductive circuit current lags and in a
capacitive circuit current leads, is the expression:

ELI the ICE Man

The ELI portion helps you remember the I (current) lags E (voltage) in an
inductive (L) circuit while the ICE portion reminds you that I leads E in a
capacitive (C) circuit.

2.4.5 AC Power
The power that flows in a power system is composed of active and reactive
power. Both power components are necessary to serve customer loads. Without
active power our lights would be dark. On the other hand, all the active power in
the world will not turn the shaft of an electric motor without sufficient reactive
power.

Active Power
Active power is often referred to as real power to distinguish it from reactive
power. Active power is the useful or working energy supplied by a power source.
Note that although the term real power is often used, this may be misleading since
reactive power is also very real. The term active power is preferred and is used in
this text.
Active power is used to perform work such as lighting a room or heating a
building or turning a motor shaft. The unit of active power is the watt (W) but the
more common unit is the megawatt (MW) - equal to one million watts. The
symbol for active power is the letter “P”. The energy a customer consumes and
pays for is expressed as power (for example, kW) used per hour (for example,
kilowatt-hours or kWh).
A generator does
A turbine/generator converts energy from one form to another. For example, not consume
a generator may convert the potential energy of water to electrical energy, or the significant fuel to
chemical energy of coal to electrical energy. When a turbine/generator’s MW produce reactive
power but there still
output is increased, more fuel (water, coal, etc.) must be added to produce more may be a cost
MW. A significant fuel addition is generally not required to produce more associated with the
reactive power. When more reactive power is required, the generator’s reactive power.
excitation system is adjusted or additional capacitors are added to the power Chapter 5 will
system. examine this point.

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Reactive Power
Reactive power supports the magnetic and electric fields necessary to operate
power system equipment. Reactive power is never consumed by the power
system. Reactive power is stored in the electrical and magnetic fields that exist in
the system. An exchange (at twice system frequency) of reactive power is
continually in progress between those devices that produce reactive power
and those that store reactive power in their electric and magnetic fields.
When electrical equipment is energized via AC voltage, an electric field is
created. When AC current flows through a conductor a magnetic field is created.
These electric and magnetic fields continually build and collapse with the
changing magnitudes of the AC voltage and current. When the electric and
magnetic fields are building, the fields store reactive power. When these fields
are collapsing, the reactive power is returned to the system. No actual energy is
expended (except losses). Reactive power flow is simply a continual exchange of
power and energy.
A look at the inside of a motor⎯even a small one⎯reveals a gap between the
The “Q” symbol for rotating component of the motor and the stationary component of the motor. This
reactive power gap is necessary to allow the rotor to turn and perform some type of work. But
derives from the how do the watts of power used to run the motor get across this gap to be used to
word “quadrature”. turn the rotor? The answer is that the component of AC power called reactive
Quadrature means a
power creates a magnetic field in this air-gap and serves as a type of bridge to
90° phase difference
exists between active allow active power to turn the motor’s rotor.
(P) and reactive (Q)
Reactive power is measured in var. Var stands for volt ampere reactive. The
power.
abbreviation kVar is used for 1,000 var and Mvar for 1,000,000 var. The symbol
for reactive power is the letter “Q”.
A large percentage of electrical loads could not run without var. For example,
all AC-powered rotating equipment, such as refrigerators, washers, dryers, and
Another commonly
heard analogy is industrial motors use var. Transformers could not operate (step-up or step-down
that reactive power voltages) without var.
is the “foam on the
beer” while active Reactive Power Analogy
power is the beer.
The analogy is that Reactive power is often described in terms of an analogy. A useful analogy is to
the foam takes up assume you are part of a 3-person crew who must push a large ball across an
room in the glass of inclined plane from point #1 to point #2. Figure 2-29(a) illustrates this analogy.
beer but it is not
real beer. In the To move the ball from point #1 to #2, the 3-person crew must both push the ball
same manner, in the proper direction but also prevent the ball from rolling down the incline.
reactive power
takes up room in In Figure 2-29b, the active power or MW is the power required to move the ball
the transmission from point #1 to point #2. Two of the 3-person crew performs this task. The
system but does no reactive power or Mvar is the power required to keep the ball rolling in the right
useful work. direction. The Mvar is needed to keep the ball from rolling down the incline.
One of the 3-person crew performs this task.

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Figure 2-29. Reactive Power Inclined Plane Analogy

In our analogy the Mvar does not help move the ball in the right direction
but it is required if you want to move the ball to point #2. Of the 3-person crew,
one is not available for MW work as they are committed to the Mvar function.
Figure 2-29(c) illustrates how the two types of power are 90° out-of-phase with
one another. The Mvar power is applied at a 90° angle to the MW power.

Complex Power
Together, active power and reactive power equals the total or complex power.
Utilities use generators to produce both active and reactive power. Utilities use
the transmission and distribution system to distribute the power to the customer
loads. Complex power is the combination of active and reactive power. Complex
power is the total power the transmission system is carrying. This total flow (the
product of voltage and current) has units of volts-amperes (VA). Electric utilities
commonly use the abbreviation kVA for 1,000 VA and MVA for 1,000,000 VA.
The symbol for complex power is the letter “S”.
Active power and reactive power are quantities that have both magnitude and
direction so they must be treated as vectors when they are added together. The
vector addition of MW and Mvar is described in the next section.

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The Power Triangle

Complex power is the combination of active and reactive power. Since active
power and reactive power are 90° apart in phase, they must be added as vectors
using the power triangle. Figure 2-30 illustrates the power triangle, where two of
the sides are active and reactive power, and the hypotenuse represents complex
power. Because this is a right triangle, the two components are summed using the
Pythagorean theorem as described earlier in this Chapter.

MVA 2 = MW 2 +Mvar 2

Figure 2-30. The Power Triangle

The phase angle between the MW and MVA is the same as the phase angle
between the current and voltage described earlier. The angle is the same because
the phase angle between the voltage and the current is what creates the Mvar
component of complex power in the first place. If the voltage and current were in
phase, there would be no Mvar and all the complex power would be MW.

Power Factor
The cosine of the phase angle between the MVA and MW in the power triangle is
called the power factor. The power factor is also equal to the ratio of active
power and complex power on the system.

Active Power
Power Factor = P.F. =
Complex Power

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If a load has a unity power factor, the load is purely resistive and requires no
reactive power. If the power factor were zero, the load would be purely reactive
and would not require any MW. Suppose that the load on a power system is 100
MVA with an active power component of 85 MW. The power factor is then 85
MW/100 MW = 0.85. or 85%.
The power factor of a load is a simple way of determining how many MW and
Mvar are needed to serve the load. If the power factor and MVA of the load are
known, the Mvar and MW components can be calculated. For example, in Figure
2-31 the MVA is 100, θ is 25.8°, and the power factor is 0.9 (cos 25.8°). The
MW is easily calculated as 100 x 0.9 = 90 MW and the power triangle used to
calculate that Mvar is 43.6.

Figure 2-31. Using the Power Triangle

Three-Phase (3Φ) Power

The Greek letter Φ
Our description of power flow to this point is for 1Φ systems. In 1Φ systems (Phi) is used to
represent a phase.
active power flow is the product of the voltage, current and power factor. As Single phase is then
one would expect, the power flowing in a balanced 3Φ circuit is simply three 1Φ while three-
times that of a 1Φ circuit. However, when dealing with a 3Φ system, you have phase is 3Φ.
to be careful about which voltage you use.
In a 1Φ system, the only voltage that can be specified is the voltage from the line
(phase) to ground. In a 3Φ system there are two ways of specifying the voltage.
First, there is the voltage from each phase conductor to ground, called the phase
voltage or line-to-ground voltage. Second, there is the voltage between any two
of the three phase conductors. This voltage is called the line voltage or line-to-
line voltage.
Line-to-line voltages are usually given when talking about power system circuits.
For example, to measure the voltage on a 345 kV line, one would have to connect
a voltmeter between two of the phases. The voltage from one of the phases to
ground would measure 199 kV (345÷ 3 ).

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A balanced 3Φ Figure 2-32 illustrates the relationships between the phase voltage and the line
circuit means that
voltage in a balanced 3Φ circuit. The figure illustrates that the magnitude of the
all three phase
voltages and line voltage is equal to the magnitude of the phase voltage times the square root of
currents are equal three ( 3 ).
in magnitude.

Figure 2-32. Line-to-Line & Line-to-Ground Voltages

The active power in a 3Φ circuit is three times the product of the line-to-ground
voltage, the current, and the power factor. Since the voltage is usually given as
the line-to-line voltage, the 3Φ active power becomes the product of three times
the line-to-line voltage, the current, and the power factor all divided by the 3 .
The following equations summarize:

P3Φ = 3× VL-G × I × p.f.

VL-L
VL-G =
3
VL-L
P3Φ = 3× × I × p.f.
3
P3Φ = 3 × VL-L × I × p.f.
Where:
VL-L =Line-to-Line Voltage
VL-G =Line-to-Ground Voltage

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The reactive power in a 3Φ circuit is calculated in the same manner. Recall that
the power factor is equal to the cosine θ. The active power is therefore equal to:

P3Φ = 3 × VL-L × I × cosθ

The formula for 3Φ reactive power is similar:

Q3Φ = 3 × VL-L × I × sin θ

2.5 Protective Relaying Review

2.5.1 Introduction to Power System Relaying

Power systems are susceptible to a large number of undesired events including:
Î Lightning strikes
Î Aircraft and motor vehicle encroachment
Î Animal encroachment
Î Ice and wind storms
Î Switching errors
Î Power Surges
If any of these events occur, the power system can be damaged and customer
service disrupted.
It is the job of power system protective equipment to detect the onset of undesired
events and take appropriate action. Appropriate action often includes the tripping
of circuit breakers. Circuit breaker tripping isolates the troubled portion of the
power system from the remainder of the system and minimizes damage.
Relays can be broken down into a few major classifications:
Î Monitoring relays, such as high temperature or gas-in-oil relays, which
monitor power system quantities and initiate an alarm if those quantities
are outside of set limits.
Î Auxiliary relays, such as timers, tripping, reclosing, or lockout relays,
whose job is to supplement the actions of other relays.
Î Programming relays, such as automatic synchronizers and generator
auto-start relays, which go through a sequence of programmed steps to
complete an operation.
Î Regulating relays, such as a voltage regulator, which take some action to
keep a power system quantity within a desirable range.
Protective relays
Î Protective relays, such as overcurrent, overvoltage or distance relays, are the primary
which protect the power system from damage. focus of this section.

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2.5.2 Purpose and Function of Protective Relays

The purpose of protective relays is to minimize damage and isolate problems.
System reliability should not be affected outside the immediate problem area. An
important point to remember is that protective relays do not prevent trouble.
Relays respond to trouble and minimize further damage. Relays cannot keep
animals out of the buswork or lightning from striking a transmission line tower.
Relays work quickly, usually in a few cycles, to isolate the source of trouble and
avoid further damage.
In the application of relays to the power system, it is desirable to have the relay
operate as quickly as possible, so speed is one determining factor in relay
selection. Of course, cost also plays a part in the selection. A related factor is
complexity⎯complex relay systems are difficult to work with and are costly to
purchase. In judging relay performance: selectivity, sensitivity, and reliability all
play a large role.

Selectivity
Selectivity is the ability of the relay to isolate the smallest area of the power
system in order to ensure that no further damage is done. The goal is to not
disrupt more of the power system than is necessary.

Sensitivity
It is vital that relays be able to detect all faults that jeopardize the power system.
Relays must be set sensitive enough to accomplish this goal. However, if set too
sensitively, a relay may initiate tripping for events which are not a threat to the
system.

Reliability
Reliability takes into account most of the principles just described. A reliable
protective relay system should operate when called upon with sensitivity and
selectivity, yet is secure against tripping when not necessary.

2.5.3 Power System Faults

In normal 3Φ system operation, electrical power is generated at the power plant
and eventually supplied to the load. Current flows through the transmission and
distribution system on one or more of the phase conductors. The current path is
then closed via a ground path to the source (the generator) to form a complete
The term “short- circuit. This current path is illustrated in Figure 2-33.
circuit” means that
an unusually low When a path for current is established that is not desired (a short-circuit) it is
impedance current known as a fault on the power system. The closer the fault is to generators, which
path has been
formed. Typically, a are the source of voltage on the power system, the greater the magnitude of the
short circuit fault current. The fault current is larger because there is less impedance between
involves bypassing the fault and the voltage source (the generator). Fault current values in the tens of
the load impedance. thousands of amps are common on the high voltage transmission system.

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Figure 2-33. Power System Current Flow Path

Line-to-Ground Fault
The most common type of fault on the power system is a line-to-ground (L-G)
fault. One way of incurring a L-G fault is illustrated in Figure 2-32. The
overwhelming majority of L-G faults are caused by lightning either striking or
inducing a large voltage on the line conductors.

A line-to-ground
fault is also called a
phase-to-ground
fault.

Figure 2-34. Line-to-Ground Faults

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L-G fault current magnitudes can range from barely noticeable up to values equal
to 3Φ faults. Equipment can be damaged due to the high current magnitudes.
L-G faults also create an imbalance in the power system. Balanced power
systems have equal currents and voltages on all three phases. During L-G faults,
the imbalance may damage rotating equipment such as motors and generators.

Line-to-Line Fault
Line-to-line (L-L) faults are the next most common fault on the power system.
L-L faults can be caused by something as simple as wind blowing two phase
conductors together as in Figure 2-35. L-L faults also cause an imbalance in the
3Φ system. The imbalance impact on generators is the most severe with this fault
type.

A line-to-line fault is
also called a phase-to-
phase fault.

Figure 2-35. Line-to-Line Faults

Fault currents are typically high for L-L faults. In addition, ground may or may
not be involved. If ground is involved, the fault is called a double-line-to-ground
fault.

Automatic
Three-Phase Faults
reclosing is an Faults where all three phases are involved are the least likely to occur. However,
automatic attempt
to reenergize a 3Φ faults are usually the most severe as far as levels of fault current are
transmission line concerned. One way of producing a 3Φ fault would be energization of a
(following a short transmission line with a 3Φ ground switch still closed. Since 3Φ faults are the
time delay) after a least likely to occur and are usually of a permanent nature (a structure down or a
transmission line
trip. ground switch closed) automatic reclosing is normally not initiated on the
transmission system for this type of fault.

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2.5.4 Instrument Transformers

Instrument transformers reduce power system currents and voltages to lower
values. These lower values, called secondary values, are then input to protective
relays, meters, and other devices. The power system voltage and current
magnitudes must be reduced as they are simply too large to measure directly in a
safe and economical manner. Instrument transformers may be classified into two
basic groups: those that are designed to transform high currents, and those that are
designed to transform high voltages.

Current Transformers
Instrument transformers designed for transforming current magnitudes are called
current transformers (CTs). CTs produce a small secondary current flow (a few
amps) that is proportional to a larger primary current flow in the power system.
The schematic symbols for CTs are given in Figure 2-34. Two symbols are
illustrated. A bushing CT is located in the bushings of electrical equipment. The
standard CT is a stand-alone device. Also contained in Figure 2-36 is a
photograph of a stand alone CT.

Figure 2-36. CT Symbols & Photograph and

Figure 2-37. PT Symbol & Photograph

Potential Transformers
Instrument transformers designed for the purpose of transforming voltage are
called potential transformers (PTs). Potential transformers are also commonly
referred to as voltage transformers (VTs). PTs produce a small secondary voltage
(perhaps 120 volt) that is proportional to the higher primary voltage in the power
system. The schematic symbol for a potential transformer is given in Figure 2-37.

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There is also a picture of 3 PT’s which would be used to form is also a picture of
3 PT’s which would be used to form a 3Φ PT.
A variation on the PT concept is the capacitively coupled voltage transformer or
CCVT. A CCVT is a combination of a PT and a capacitive voltage divider
circuit. CCVTs are often used in place of PTs in applications where high
accuracy is not required.

2.5.5 Relay Construction & Operation

Relays have been applied in the power system for more than 100 years. The types
of relays used have changed over the years. Originally, electro-mechanical relays
were applied, then solid state, then microprocessor based. It is essential for
transmission system operators to be familiar with the different types of relays and
the “targets” (trip indications) or “flags” which the relays provide. The targets
vary depending on the type of fault, type of relay, and the relay manufacturer.

Electromechanical Relays
Electromechanical (EM) relays were the original type of relays responsible for
protection of the power system. EM relays use electrical inputs (voltage or
current) to control some form of mechanical operation based on magnetic
attraction or induction. Magnetic attraction relay types are either plunger
operated or hinged armature operated as illustrated in Figure 2-38. In a magnetic
attraction relay, the greater the current through the wires, the stronger the
magnetic attraction until a set of electrical contacts close.

Figure 2-38. Magnetic Attraction Relay Element

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Induction relay types are typically rotating discs as illustrated in Figure 2-39. Watt-hour meters
Induction relays often produce circular motion. The greater the coil current, operate on the same
the larger the force on the rotating disc. Until eventually a set of contacts principal as
close initiating an action. induction relays.

Figure 2-39. Induction Disc Relay Element

An electromechanical (EM) relay is composed of one or more elements similar to
the two just illustrated. The actual construction of the relay depends on its
function. A typical EM relay is illustrated in Figure 2-40. EM relays have
performed well for decades of usage, but most utilities are no longer purchasing
EM relays in favor of solid state and/or microprocessor-based relays.
Figure 2-40 follows on the next page.

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These relays are

mounted in metal
relay cabinets. The
cabinets are located
in substations and
in power plants.

Figure 2-40. Electromechanical, Solid State & Microprocessor

Relays

Solid State Relays

Solid-state relays employ electronic components and integrated circuits to detect
system conditions and initiate proper actions. Solid-state relays do not use the
moving parts associated with electromechanical relays. Modern solid-state relays
are generally thought of as maintenance-free and not as susceptible to shock
(for example, from an earthquake or being bumped).
Solid-state relays generally cost less than electromechanical relays and are
typically packaged with numerous relay functions inside one relay case. For
example, one solid-state relay may replace three or four electromechanical relays.
This multi-use feature greatly simplifies the space and wiring demands of solid-
state relays. Any electromechanical relay function (and then some) can be
duplicated using solid-state relays. Figure 2-40 illustrates one type of a solid-state
relay.

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Microprocessor-Based Relays
A recent advance in relay technology led to microprocessor based relays.
Microprocessor relays use the same technology as personnel computers to bring
even more functions to relaying. Microprocessor relays can store large Fault detectors
amounts of fault data, perform self-checks, monitor line conditions, and utilize either
carry out the tasks of dozens of individual relays. information on the
fault current
A very important feature (from an operations perspective) is that microprocessor magnitude or the
relays often have internal fault detectors. A fault detector, combined with time delays from
telecommunications capabilities, allows system operators to determine the type voltage and current
pulses to determine
and location of a fault. Fault locations can be determined almost instantly, which
a fault location.
speeds the power system recovery process. Current trends are towards the
purchase of microprocessor-based relays. Figure 2-40 illustrates one type of
microprocessor based relay.

Figure 2-41. EM Relay Target

Relay Targeting
A critical factor for system operators doing system restoration following a fault is
interpreting the information provided by the various relays. This information is
provided by relay targets or flags. Relay targets are brief descriptions of what
caused a relay to operate.
Electromechanical relays have targets that drop down when activated. Figure 2-
41 illustrates a typical electromechanical relay target in the reset and tripped state.
When the relay trips a “T” symbol (for a timed operation) is visible. Once the
cause of the relay operation is identified, a button on the relay is pushed to reset
the target. The target for the electro-mechanical relay is visible through the front
glass cover of the relay.

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Solid-state relays typically use light emitting diodes (LEDs) as targets.

Depending on the reason for the relay operation, different LEDs will light. For
example, the solid-state relay in Figure 2-40 is an overcurrent relay. Note that
various target LEDs will light depending on which phases are involved in the
fault. LEDs will also light depending on how quickly the current rises from its
normal value to its trip value (time or instantaneous).
Microprocessor based relays may use LEDs or character displays as targets. The
microprocessor relay in Figure 2-40 uses a display panel for target information.
Microprocessor relays are remotely poled to via telecommunication systems to
gather a wide variety of data concerning an operation.

IEEE Protective Relay Numbering System

A single-line
diagram is a In order to standardize and simplify descriptions of protective relays, the IEEE
drawing that (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) administers a protective device
shows one phase of numbering system. This numbering system is used on power system single-line
the power system. diagrams, control schematics, etc. Figure 2-42 contains a list and brief
Important description of the device numbers most likely to be encountered by system
equipment is
illustrated on the operators.
diagram.

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IEEE Device Relay Function

Number
21 Distance Relay Requires a combination of high current
and low voltage to operate. The various
zones of the distance scheme (Z1, Z2, etc.)
assist with determining the location of the
fault.
25 Synchronizing Relay Checks voltage magnitude, phase angle,
and frequency to verify synchronism
across a circuit breaker before allowing a
close.
27 Undervoltage Relay Operates when voltage falls below a set
value.
49 Thermal Relay Operates when the temperature (usually a
winding) exceeds set limits.
50 Instantaneous Operates with no time delay when current
Overcurrent rises above a set level.
51 Time Overcurrent Operates on a time-delayed basis
depending on the amount of current above
a set level.
52 Circuit Breaker Circuit Breaker
59 Overvoltage Relay Operates when voltage exceeds a set limit.
63 Pressure Relay Operates on low or high pressure of a
liquid or gas (oil or SF6) or on a rate-of-
change of pressure (sudden pressure).
67 Directional Operates if current is above a set value and
Overcurrent flowing in the designated direction.
78 Out-of-Step Detects loss of synchronism.
79 Reclosing Relay Initiates an automatic closing of a circuit
breaker following a trip condition.
81 Frequency Relay Operates if frequency goes above or below
a set limit.
86 Lockout Relay An auxiliary relay that can perform many
functions (including tripping of breakers)
and prevents closing of circuit breakers
until it is reset either by hand or
electrically.
87 Differential Relay Senses a difference in currents entering
and leaving power system equipment.
94 Tripping Relay Auxiliary relay which is activated by a
protective relay and which initiates
tripping of appropriate breakers.
Figure 2-42. Common IEEE Device Numbers

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Use of the IEEE Device Numbering System

Figure 2-43 illustrates how device numbers are used in a single-line diagram to
identify the location and function of protective relays. Note that device numbers
often include a letter, such as in “87T”. In this case, the “T” means that this is a
transformer differential, as opposed to a “B” which indicates a bus differential.
Other commonly used letters are “G” for generator or ground, “M” for motor, and
“N” for neutral.

Figure 2-43. Single-Line Diagram Using IEEE Device Numbers

Zones of Protection
It is critical for the proper operation of a power system that protective relaying
covers all areas of the system. To ensure complete coverage, the power system is
divided into zones of protection. Zones are formed around system equipment
such as generators, buses, transformers, transmission and distribution lines, and
motors. What defines a zone is the limit of the relays sensing ability, which are
usually the current transformer (CT) locations.
Figure 2-44 illustrates how a simple power system is broken down into different
zones of protection. Note how the zones overlap at the circuit breakers. In this
manner, no area of the system is left unprotected. Many areas of the power
system are actually in multiple zones of protection as zone overlap often takes
place. When two zones overlap, backup protection is supplied.

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Figure 2-44. Zones of Protection Diagram

Primary and Backup Relaying

It would be ideal if all relays correctly identified and tripped for all faults on the
system. This is not the case. Relays can be improperly set, sensing inputs can be
mistakenly disconnected, and trip outputs can be improperly wired. Relays can
fail to operate due to internal hardware problems. Circuit breakers can fail. It is
important to have a backup protective system in case of primary protective system
failure.
One way of accomplishing the backup function is to have multiple relays
protecting the same equipment. This is especially important on high voltage
(230, 345, 500 kV, etc.) transmission lines. For example, 345 kV lines may have
two sets of relays performing the same protective function, with one set being the
primary relaying and the other set backing up the first set. The primary and
backup relays may be identical but are usually from different manufacturers to
guard against multiple failures from the same cause.
In the example just described, the second set of relays would be called primary Breaker failure
backup because they are located on the same line as the primary relays. If the relays are designed
backup relays are not on the same line but in the same substation, it is known as to operate if a
breaker fails to open
local backup. An example of local backup would be breaker failure relays. when requested.
Another means of applying backup relaying is through remote backup. Remote
backup means that relays at another substation initiate tripping (usually after a Zone #1, #2, & #3
time delay) if the relays responsible fail to operate. Zone #2 and Zone #3 distance relays are
distance relays act as remote backup relays since they can sense faults on described later in
this section.
transmission lines past the next substation.

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2.5.6 Types of Relays

Voltage Relays
Voltage relays include undervoltage and overvoltage relays. In an
electromechanical voltage relay, as voltage magnitude changes magnetic forces
cause relay contact movement. If an overvoltage relay is desired, the relay
contacts are designed to close on increasing voltage. If an undervoltage relay is
desired, the relay contacts close on decreasing voltage.
The value at
which a relay Voltage relays can be designed to operate with no intentional time delay
begins to operate (instantaneous) or with intentional time delay. Once the voltage hits the pickup
is referred to as value, an instantaneous voltage relay begins to operate. In a time delay voltage
the “pickup” relay, the higher the voltage over (or under) a pickup value the faster the relay
value for the
relay. operates.
Voltage relays can also be implemented using solid-state (electronic)
construction. In a solid-state relay, input AC voltages are first converted to a low
magnitude DC voltage. The DC voltages are then compared to a DC voltage
representing the pickup value. In a microprocessor-based relay, input voltages are
converted to digital quantities and decisions made from the digital data.

Application of Voltage Relays

Overvoltage relays are frequently used to protect generators and generator
transformers from prolonged exposure to high voltages. Overvoltage relays are
also used to detect faults within shunt capacitor banks.
Undervoltage relays are often utilized to protect large motors. Motors will
automatically draw more current as the motor voltage drops. This current
increase can cause overheating and eventual motor failure, hence the application
of undervoltage relays. A single-line diagram illustrating the use of voltage relays
is provided in Figure 2-45. Undervoltage (27) and overvoltage (59) relays are
shown connected (via a PT) to a substation bus. The overvoltage relay operates if
the voltage rises too high while the undervoltage relay operates if the voltage falls
too low.
Another common usage for undervoltage relays is to detect if equipment, such as
a high voltage transmission line, is energized. For example, a voltage relay may
be used to ensure a transmission line is dead prior to allowing a circuit breaker
closing.
An additional usage of undervoltage relays is to combat the phenomena of voltage
collapse. In a voltage collapse, an entire power system can be blacked out due to
a deficiency of reactive (Mvar) power. One way to avoid a voltage collapse is to
have undervoltage relays perform load shedding (tripping of customer load) in
order to reduce system stress.

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Figure 2-45. Voltage Relays on a Single-Line Diagram

Overcurrent Relays
Overcurrent relays operate if current rises above a pickup value. Overcurrent
relay construction is almost the same as that of the voltage relays described
earlier. The one difference is the input quantity is current rather than voltage.
For the typical overcurrent relay, the amount of time it takes to operate versus the
input current level is known as an “inverse” time characteristic. The inverse term
means that the higher the level of current, the less time it takes the relay to
operate.
Some possible time characteristic curves for overcurrent relays are illustrated in
Figure 2-46. The protection design engineer would choose the correct relay based
on how fast they want the relay to operate for a given amount of input current.
Overcurrent relays are divided into two general categories: non-directional and
directional.

Non-Directional Overcurrent Relays

Non-directional overcurrent relays do not care which direction the fault current is
flowing. Non-directional relays merely sense if the pickup level of current is
exceeded and operate when the current is sufficient.
When restoring a power
Directional Overcurrent Relays system, be sure that the
Directional overcurrent relays have additional elements included to polarizing sources for
protective relays are
determine the direction of current flow through protected equipment. To energized. See Chapter
accomplish directional sensing, the relay checks the relationship between 11 for more information.
input current and a “polarizing” quantity. The polarizing quantity is simply

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a reference from which the relay can determine current flow direction. The
polarizing quantity can be a voltage or a current. If voltage is used, the relay is
voltage polarized. If current is used, the relay is current polarized.

Figure 2-46. Overcurrent Relay⎯Time Characteristic Curves

Application of Overcurrent Relays

Since high current levels are strongly associated with damage to equipment,
overcurrent relays are applied extensively within the power system.
Non-directional overcurrent relays are normally applied where fault current only
flows in one direction. For example, a distribution line may leave a substation to
serve a load area and go nowhere else. This type of line (called a radial line) is a
candidate for non-directional overcurrent relay protection.
Non-directional relays can be instantaneous or time delay or a combination of the
two. The relays are normally designed to protect all three phases and the ground
conductor. Non-directional overcurrent relays are often used to protect equipment
such as motors and generators. Non-directional overcurrent relays are also used
to perform a local backup function. The relays are set to trip equipment such as
substation buses and transformers if primary protection fails to operate.
Directional overcurrent relays are used to protect transmission lines between
substations⎯where power can flow in either direction. Direction overcurrent
relays are more selective than non-directional relays. Directional relays are used
to confine a relay’s operation to one particular line section. The relay only trips
for faults in the line for which it responsible for. Directional overcurrent relays
are often used for ground fault detection. Distance relays (described shortly) are
better suited for phase fault detection.

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Differential Relays
The operating principle of differential relays is that the current flowing into the
protected equipment (or protection zone) must equal the current flowing out. If
what flows in does not match what flows out, a fault is assumed present and the
relay operates. Current transformers surround the protected area and form the
boundary of the zone of protection. The sum of all the CT currents is input to the
differential relay. If power system currents are flowing normally, no current
flows through the relay as illustrated in Figure 2-47.
Differential relays are
simply an application
of Kirchhoff’s Current
Law. Note how the
CT currents circulate
through the relay
wiring but never enter
the 87 relay itself. As
long as the IIN
magnitude is close to
the IOUT magnitude,
the 87 relay does not
activate.

Figure 2-47. Normal (No Trip) Conditions for a Differential Relay

If a fault is present within the zone of protection of the differential relay, the
current flowing into the zone does not match what is flowing out of the zone.
The difference between the input and output currents forces current through the
differential relay. The relay operates as illustrated in Figure 2-48.

With a fault in the

location shown, the
two CT currents I1
and I2 sum together
and flow through
the 87 relay,
causing the relay to
operate and open
the two circuit
breakers.

Figure 2-48. Fault Conditions (Relay Trips) for a Differential Relay

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Application of Differential Relays

Differential relays are normally utilized to protect important equipment such as
substation buses, transformers, and generators. Differential relays are
occasionally applied to short transmission lines⎯especially if the line is short and
fiber optic communications channels are available for telecommunications
between the ends of the line.

Bus Differential
When performing A substation bus is usually protected by a differential relay. The application of a
switching, be sure
switching actions do
differential relay to a bus is demonstrated in Figure 2-49. The important point is
not trigger a to measure all current flows into and out of the bus. If the current that flows into
differential relay the bus does not flow out of the bus, a fault is assumed and the 87B relay
operation. operates. Problems can arise if the bus configuration is changed through
switching. Bus differential relays often have an associated control switch that
will change the current paths from the CT’s to reflect a different bus
configuration.
Figure 2-49 follows on the next page.

Figure 2-49. One-Line with Bus Differential

Transformer Differential
Differential relaying is applied to most transformers. With transformers,
however, a “percentage” differential relay is often used. A percentage differential
relay requires that the relay tripping current be a certain percentage (possibly
25%) of the transformer’s load current. This helps avoid transformer tripping for
external faults, but still allows the relay to detect and operate for internal faults.
Figure 2-50 illustrates the application of a transformer differential relay. The 87T
is the IEEE device number for a transformer differential.

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When protecting
a transformer
with a differential
relay, the
protection
designer must
account for the
natural current
difference on the
high and low
sides of the
transformer. This
is accomplished
by properly
choosing the CT
ratios of CT22 and
CT345.
Figure 2-50. Single-line Diagram with Differentials
A problem for transformer differential protection is the high levels of current flow
when the transformer is first energized. This “in-rush” current lasts a very short
time (a few cycles) but can be several times the full load current rating of the
transformer. The in-rush current flows into the transformer to magnetize the core
and does not flow out the other side. In-rush current could cause the differential
relay to operate unless counter measures are taken. Fortunately, transformer Harmonics are
differential relays are available that can tell the difference between load current described in
and in-rush current. These types of differential relays are equipped with a Chapter 9.
“harmonic restraint” feature. Harmonic restraint enables the differential relay to
identify and avoid tripping due to in-rush current.

Generator Differential
Differential relays used in the protection of a generator’s stator windings are
similar to a transformer differential. Generator differentials typically operate
based on a “variable percentage” characteristic. Recall, a percentage differential
relay operates if the relay operating current reaches a specified percentage of the
load current. A variable percentage relay operates on the same principle but the
percentage required for relay operation varies with the load level. A generator
differential at low generator loading would require less of a percentage of load
current to trip than at high loading. Figure 2-50 also illustrates the application of
a generator differential (87G).

Voltage Differential Relays

In addition to the current operated differential relays just described, there are
differential relays that operate based on a difference in voltage. Voltage
differential relays are not as common as current differentials and are used mainly
for detection of blown fuses in shunt capacitor banks.

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Distance Relays
Impedance is
measured in ohms Distance relays have both current and voltage inputs. A distance relay divides its
and is a measure of voltage input by its current input (V/I) to calculate the system’s “Z” or effective
electrical distance. impedance. The effective impedance is the impedance of the power system from
The terms the distance relay’s perspective.
impedance and
distance are often If a fault occurs close to a distance relay’s location, current increases and voltage
used decreases, and the relay’s effective impedance shrinks. If a fault occurs far away
interchangeably to
refer to relays that
from a relay’s location, the relay’s impedance does not change significantly.
measure impedance. Assume that a distance relay is installed to protect a transmission line. The
impedance of the protected line is known and input to the relay as part of the
relay’s initial installation procedures. If a fault occurs on the protected line, the
impedance measured by the relay is suddenly less than the known line impedance.
The relay then operates and trips the line.
A distance relay is set to operate based on a certain percentage of the protected
line’s impedance. This is known as the distance relay’s “reach”. For example,
assume a line section has an impedance of 100 Ω. A distance relay may be set to
trip for any impedance detected that is less than 90 Ω. If a fault occurs anywhere
within the first 90% of the line’s length, the relay operates. The reach of this
relay is then 90Ω or 90% of the lines’ natural impedance (100Ω) or length.
Distance relay reaches are stated in terms of zones of protection. For example,
zone #1 reach is usually set between 80 to 90% of the lines length. The reach of
zone #1 is less than 100% to ensure that the relay does not “overreach” or trip for
faults in an adjacent line section.

Types of Distance Relays

A MHO relay
actually measures Distance relays can be implemented using either electromechanical or solid state
the inverse of elements, but the operating principles are the same. The basic types of distance
impedance. MHO is relays are reactance, impedance, and MHO. All three types measure system
ohm spelled impedance, but do so in different ways. The most common distance relay is a
backwards to MHO relay. An operating characteristic for a MHO type distance relay is
represent the
inverse of illustrated in Figure 2-51.
impedance.

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This impedance
plot is called an
R-X diagram.

Figure 2-51. MHO Characteristic on an R-X Diagram

A distance relay’s operating characteristic, illustrated in Figure 2-51, is a plot of
the impedance settings for the relay. In other words, the operating characteristic
is a plot of the relay reach. Recall that if the distance relay’s measured effective
impedance is lower than the distance relay’s reach, the relay operates. The reach
of the MHO relay illustrated in Figure 2-51 is defined by the circular
characteristic. If the relay calculates an effective impedance that is inside the
circle, the relay operates. If the effective impedance is outside the circle, the relay
does not operate.

Typical Distance Relay Protection Scheme

Distance relays are most often used to protect transmission lines. Distance relay
schemes are typically implemented using three zones of protection. Each zone is
formed by a separate distance relay element. Zone #1 typically covers 80 to 90%
of the protected line and is set to trip instantaneously. If a fault occurs within a
zone #1 reach, it is rapidly (within a few cycles) cleared. Zone #1 provides the
protected line section’s primary protection.
Zone #2 covers approximately 120% of the protected line’s impedance. Zone Remember, these
#2 actually looks beyond the end of the protected line into the next line section. are general
guidelines for
Zone #2 tripping is done only after a short (perhaps 1/3 second) time delay. A distance relay
zone #2 time delay is used to allow the zone #1 relay of that particular line settings. Actual
section the first chance to trip. Each zone #2 relay is providing backup settings for reach
protection to zone #1. and time delay vary
with the utility.

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Zone #3 reach is usually 150% (or more) of the protected line’s impedance. Zone
#3 may reach the entire length of the next line section (200%). Zone #3 is also a
time-delayed trip. A typical zone #3 time delay may be 1 second. Zone #3 is
providing time-delayed backup to both zone #2 and zone #1. It should be
apparent to the reader that distance protection schemes are designed to be very
reliable.
Figure 2-52 contains a single-line diagram of a simple distance relay scheme
incorporating three zones of protection. Note that the zones are only shown for
substation “A” of the line. There will be a duplicate set of distance relays at
substation “B” looking back towards substation “A”. If a fault were to occur at
the fault “X” location in Figure 2-52, all three zones of substation “A” would
detect the fault. Zones #2 and #3 are time-delayed backups and would not cause
any circuit breaker tripping unless zone #1 failed to clear the fault. For the line’s
protection to completely fail, all three zones of protection would have to fail to
operate at both substations, “A” and “B”. This is highly unlikely.

Figure 2-52. Distance Relay Scheme

Application of Distance Relays

Distance relays are typically applied to detect line-to-line and 3Φ transmission
line faults. Ground faults are typically detected using overcurrent relays. There
are distance relays designed for ground fault detection and their use is becoming
more common.
Distance relays are almost universally applied for protection of high voltage
transmission lines. Distance relays are also applied at lower voltages, but are less
common. Distance relays are often incorporated into protection schemes that
include communications between a transmission line’s terminals. These
protection schemes are called “pilot” relaying and are briefly described in the next
section.

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Pilot Relaying
Faults on the high voltage transmission system often involve tens of thousands of
amps. It is imperative to “clear” the fault (trip the circuit breakers) in as short a
time as possible. Assume a protection scheme relies on zone #2 to trip for faults
beyond zone #1 but before the end of the line. Such a fault location is illustrated
as fault “Y” in Figure 2-52. Since substation “A” zone #2 trips only after a time
delay, the fault is allowed to exist for the duration of the zone #2 time delay. This
could result in a severe system disturbance or equipment damage.
Pilot relaying is widely used to achieve rapid tripping of all terminals of a
transmission line for any fault location on the protected line.

Pilot Relaying Theory of Operation

If a fault is somehow determined to be within a protected line section and not
outside it, distance relays at both ends of a line section could rapidly trip their
respective circuit breakers. Figure 2-53 contains an illustration of a simple pilot
relaying scheme. Note the distance relays (#21) at each substation. Each distance
relay’s zone of protection reaches past the substation at the far end of the line. If
a fault were to occur anywhere within the protected line section, both distance
relays would detect the fault. If a fault were to occur outside of the protected line
section, one of the distance relays would not detect the fault.
If both distance relays detect the fault, the fault is assumed within the protected
line section. To verify that both relays see the fault a communications channel is
provided between the line’s two substations. Once each relay sees the fault it
triggers a transmission of this information (sends permission) to the other line
terminal.

Figure 2-53. Simple Transmission Line Pilot Protection Scheme

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You may have

heard the term For tripping to occur, a substation’s relays must see the fault in the forward
“pilot-wire” direction and receive “permission” from the other end of the transmission line.
relay. Pilot-wire This detection of the fault and receipt of permission proceeds very rapidly. Pilot
relays are an schemes may detect and trip a line’s circuit breakers in 3 cycles. The faster the
older form of pilot
better, as transmission level faults are high current and capable of causing great
protection that
use a hard-wire harm to the power system.
path for
Various methods are utilized for communications between a protected line’s
communications.
substations. Telephone lines, pilot wires, power-line carrier, satellite, microwave,
and fiber-optic are a few options. The most widely used medium is microwave.
Fiber-optics has the most capability, but is also the most expensive to implement.
There are many different pilot relaying schemes used within power systems.
Some common pilot scheme names include:
Î Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
Î Directional Comparison Unblocking (DCU)
Î Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (PUTT)
Î Permissive Underreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)
Î Direct Underreaching Transfer Trip (DUTT)
All types of pilot relaying schemes have two things in common:
1. A means to detect if a fault is inside or outside the protected line
2. A means to communicate that information to both line terminals
Pilot schemes are sometimes worthless if the telecommunications equipment for
the scheme is out-of-service. Be very careful with disabling telecommunications
schemes, you may be compromising critical power system protection.

2.5.7 Synchronizing and Synchronizing Equipment

Theory of Synchronizing
When closing a circuit breaker between two energized parts of the power system,
it is crucial to match voltages on both sides of the circuit breaker before closing.
If this matching or “synchronizing” process is not done correctly, a power system
disturbance results and equipment (including generators) can be damaged. In
order to synchronize properly, three different aspects of the voltage across the
circuit breaker must be closely monitored.
Note that as used The three aspects of the voltage are called the synchronizing variables and are:
here the term
“phase angle” is 1. The voltages magnitude difference
the phase 2. The frequency difference of the voltages
difference
between two 3. The phase angle between the voltages
voltage
waveforms.

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Voltage Magnitude Synchronizing Variable

If the voltage magnitudes are not closely matched, a sudden rise in Mvar flow
appears across the circuit breaker as it is closed. For example, if a 345 kV circuit
breaker were closed with a 20 kV difference in voltage across the open circuit
breaker, a large Mvar flow would suddenly occur upon closing. This sudden
change to Mvar flow could lead to sudden changes in area voltages and possibly
lead to protective relay operation. The allowable voltage magnitude differences
across the open circuit breaker are system specific. However, for general
guidance, a difference of a few percent is unlikely to cause any serious problem.

Frequency Synchronizing Variable

You can
If the frequencies on either side of an open circuit breaker are not matched prior synchronize two
to closing, a sudden change in MW flow appears across the circuit breaker as it is systems at a
closed. The sudden MW flow change is in response to the initial frequency frequency other
difference as the system seeks to establish a common frequency once the circuit than 60. The
important variable
breaker is closed. The allowable frequency difference is again system specific. is the frequency
However, a general guideline is to difference.
have the frequencies within 0.05 HZ of each other prior to closing.

Phase Angle Synchronizing Variable

The third synchronizing variable⎯and the most important of the three⎯is the
voltage phase angle difference. If the phase difference between the voltages on
either side of the open circuit breaker is not reduced to a small value, a large MW
flow increase suddenly occurs once the circuit breaker is closed.
The concept of a voltage phase angle difference is illustrated in Figure 2-54. The Greek letter δ
The voltage phase angle difference (δ) is the difference between the zero (delta) is used in
this text to
crossings of the voltages on either side of the open circuit breaker. Ideally, the symbolize the
voltage phase angle should be as close to zero degrees as possible before closing voltage phase
the circuit breaker. As illustrated in Figure 2-54, the voltage phase angle is angle difference.
approximately 80°. This angle is normally too large for safe circuit breaker
closing.

Synchronizing Examples
The importance of synchronizing cannot be overstated. All system operators
should understand the theory and practice of synchronizing. If two power
systems are synchronized via an open circuit breaker, and the synchronizing
process is not done correctly, generators and customer equipment could be
severely damaged. Two scenarios for synchronizing are presented to describe the
synchronizing process. In addition, Chapters 3 and 11 will further examine this
important topic.

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Figure 2-54. Voltage Phase Angle Difference

Scenario #1: Synchronizing Two Islands

Note that
synchronizing The first scenario assumes that two islands are about to be connected together
equipment is using an open circuit breaker as illustrated in Figure 2-55. The two islands, since
required to they are independent electrical systems, have different frequencies so all three of
synchronize these
two islands. the synchronizing variables must be monitored to ensure they are within
Various types of acceptable limits prior to closing the open circuit breaker.
synchronizing
equipment are The system operators for the two islands likely have to adjust generator MW
described in the output levels (or adjust island load magnitudes) in one or both islands to achieve
next section. the desired adjustment in frequencies and phase angles. Voltage control
equipment (reactors, capacitors, etc.) may also be used as necessary to change
voltage magnitudes to within acceptable levels.

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Figure 2-55. Synchronizing Two Islands

Scenario #2: Establishing the Second Tie While a

Once the first transmission line is closed, interconnecting the two islands, synchroscope is not
required for Scenario
the frequency is the same in the two areas. Therefore, one of the three #2, some form of
synchronizing variables (the frequency) is no longer a factor. However, as synch-check relay
illustrated in Figure 2-56, the other two synchronizing variables must still be (for voltage phase
monitored. Generation and/or voltage control equipment may have to be angle monitoring) is
utilized to ensure the voltage phase angle and voltage magnitude differences are required along with
voltage magnitude
within acceptable limits prior to closing the second circuit breaker. This metering.
process may or may not be easier than closing the first transmission line
(Scenario #1) as frequency is no longer a factor.

If one side of an
Figure 2-56. Establishing the Second Transmission Tie
open circuit breaker
is at 61 Hertz and
Synchronizing Equipment the other side at 60
HZ, the
Synchroscope synchroscope
needle will rotate at
A synchroscope is a simple piece of equipment that is used to monitor the three one revolution
synchronizing variables. A basic synchroscope (illustrated in Figure 2-57) inputs (360 degrees) per
voltage waveforms from the two sides of the open circuit breaker. If the voltage second.

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waveforms are at the same frequency, the synchroscope does not rotate. If the
voltage waveforms are at a different frequency, the synchroscope rotates in
proportion to the frequency difference. The synchroscope’s needle always points
to the voltage phase angle difference at that moment in time.
A synchroscope is often a manual device in that an operator must be watching
the “scope” to ensure they close the circuit breaker at the correct time. The
synchroscope is normally mounted above eye level on a “synch panel”. The
synch panel also contains two voltmeters so that the voltage magnitudes can be
simultaneously compared.
The synchroscope in Figure 2-57 reflects a slight voltage magnitude mismatch,
and a stationary needle with a phase angle of approximately 35°. The fact that the
synchroscope needle is not rotating indicates frequency is the same on either side
of the circuit breaker. Figure 2-57 also contains a photograph of a synchroscope.

Figure 2-57. Synchroscope in a Synch Panel

Synchro-Check Relays
In some power
systems, the A synchro-check or synch-check relay electrically determines if the difference in
operator can voltage magnitude, frequency and phase angle falls within allowable limits. The
monitor the three allowable limits vary with the location on the power system. Typically, the
synchronizing
further away from generation and load, the more phase angle difference is
variables via their
SCADA system. tolerated. Synch-check relays typically do not provide indication of the voltage
magnitude, frequency or phase angle. A synch-check relay decides internally
whether its conditions for closing are satisfied. The synch-check relay either
allows or prevents closing depending on its settings. A typical synch-check relay
may allow closing if the phase angle across the circuit breaker is less than 30°.

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Application of Synchronizing Equipment

At power plants, synchroscopes are routinely installed to permit manual Some power systems
closing of a circuit breaker. In addition, synch-check relays can be used to utilize automatic
“supervise” the closing of the circuit breaker and prevent a distracted or synchronizers in their
inexperienced operator from initiating a bad close. transmission systems.
The system operator
Modern power plants typically utilize automatic synchronizers. Automatic activates the
synchronizers send pulses to a generator’s exciter and governor control automatic
systems to change the voltage and frequency of the unit. The synchronizer synchronizer when
desired and as long as
automatically closes the circuit breaker when the three synchronizing the three
variables are within allowable limits. synchronizing
variables fall within
Major substations in the transmission system have traditionally had allowable limits; the
synchroscopes installed. However, few substations are now manned due to automatic
cost constraints and the availability of powerful SCADA systems. Because of synchronizer allows
this development, newer substations may or may not have a synch panel, circuit breaker
depending on the transmission company procedures. Since most circuit closing.
breaker operations are done remotely, transmission companies often rely on
synch-check relays to supervise the closing of circuit breakers.
Figure 2-58 illustrates a possible synchronizing system for substation circuit
breakers. Note the use of a synch scope and a synch-check relay. Electrical
contacts can be opened or closed to rearrange the synchronizing system as
desired.

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Figure 2-58. Synchronizing System for a Substation Breaker

2.6 Power System Equipment Review

2.6.1 Introduction to Equipment Review

Electrical power is generated at generating stations. The power is then
transmitted via high voltage transmission lines to substations near load areas.
Lower voltage distribution lines then distribute the power to customer sites.
Throughout the generation, transmission, and distribution path, the voltage level
of the power is transformed several times.
This section will briefly review the operation of key equipment used in electrical
power systems. Among the equipment described are generators, transmission
lines, transformers, circuit breakers and thyrister systems.
An alternator
is a rotating
2.6.2 Generators
machine that
produces AC Basic Theory of AC Machines
voltage and
current. The Electric generators have field and armature windings. Mechanical energy is
armature is the converted to electrical energy through the relative motion of these two windings.
winding in The principle of AC generation is now described using an alternator that
which the AC incorporates a rotating armature winding and a stationary field winding. With this
voltage is
induced.
basic understanding, the next step is to describe the common utility practice of

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using a rotating field winding and a stationary armature winding to create AC

power.
Figure 2-59 illustrates an elementary 1Φ AC machine. This machine consists
of a conductor (armature) rotating through a magnetic field. The magnetic field
path is between the north and south magnetic poles of a permanent magnet.
Remember that a magnetic field is composed of lines of magnetic flux flowing
between the north and south poles. When the armature coil is placed in a
magnetic field, magnetic flux lines cut through the armature coil. A voltage is
induced in the armature coil as the amount of magnetic flux cutting through the
coil changes. The amount of voltage induced in the armature coil is directly
proportional to the rate at which the flux passing through the coil changes.

Figure 2-59. Rotating Armature With Stationary Field Winding

As illustrated in Figure 2-60, the armature is physically shaped and it rotates in

such a manner that in the horizontal position⎯Figure 2-60(a)⎯the armature is
not cutting through any lines of the magnetic flux. Since the flux linkages are not
changing, no voltage is being generated at this position. As the armature rotates
counterclockwise, more and more lines of the magnetic flux are cutting through
the armature. A peak voltage is reached when the armature is in the vertical
position⎯Figure 2-60(b).

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Figure 2-60. Armature Rotation & Voltage Production

As the armature continues to rotate past the vertical position, the voltage
decreases, reaching zero when the conductor again reaches the horizontal
position⎯Figure 2-60(c). When the conductor has finished one complete rotation
(360°), an entire AC voltage sine wave has been generated as illustrated in
Figure 2-60(e). In order to transfer load current from the rotating armature to a
non-rotating load, the armature coil terminates in slip-rings (see Figure 2-59).
Conducting brushes are used to deliver load current from the slip-rings to the
load. These brushes ride on the smooth surface of the slip-rings.

Utility Scale Power Generators

The elementary AC generator in Figure 2-59 is not practical for large amounts of
power generation. The AC load currents on big power generators are too large to
use slip-rings. To eliminate slip-rings in the output AC current path, a power
generator uses a rotating magnetic field produced about the rotor and a stationary

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armature coil built into the stator. This is the opposite to the configuration of the
simple machine in Figure 2-59.
The generator’s magnetic field is produced by running a DC current (called an The generator’s
exciter is the
excitation current) through the field windings that are embedded in the rotor. source of the DC
This DC current turns the rotor into an electromagnet. The strength of the excitation
generator’s magnetic field can be changed by adjusting the amount of DC current.
current flowing through the field winding.
The rotor is connected to a prime mover, such as a steam or water turbine. The
prime mover provides the mechanical input power to turn the generator’s rotor.
As the rotor turns, a rotating magnetic field is created about the rotor. This field
induces an AC voltage in the armature coil that is embedded in the stator.
Figure 2-61 illustrates the process used to produce electricity in a typical power
generator. The rotating field coil induces an AC voltage in the stationary
armature coil. The excitation current is provided to the rotating field winding
via a brush and slip-ring assembly.

Figure 2-61. Single Phase AC Power Generator

Large power generators are 3Φ generators, not 1Φ as illustrated in Figures 2-59
and 2-60. Three-phase generators have three sets of stator (armature) windings,
one for each phase. Each one of the stator winding sets produces a sine wave of
voltage. Each phase voltage has a 120° phase angle separation from the other two
phase voltages. The conceptual design of a 3Φ generator and its output voltages
are illustrated in Figure 2-62. Figure 2-63 contains a photograph of a typical 3Φ
power generator. The generator in Figure 2-63 utilizes a coal fired steam turbine
prime mover.

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The shape,
frequency, and
magnitude of the
voltage produced by
the generator are
dependent on the
generator design
and operation.

Figure 2-62. Three Phase AC Power Generator

The term “AC There are two general types of AC machine: synchronous and asynchronous.
machine” can mean The terms synchronous and asynchronous refer to the relationship between the
either an AC
generator or an AC
machine rotor’s speed of rotation and the power system speed. Power system
motor. speed (or synchronous speed) is the speed of rotation of the AC electrical system
to which the generator attaches.

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Figure 2-63. 3Φ Power Generator Photograph

Magnetic Fields in a 3Φ System

Each of the phase conductors in a 3Φ system creates its own magnetic field A magnetic field that
rotates at
as the individual phase currents flow. If you added together the magnetic synchronous speed
fields of the individual phases, the result is a rotating magnetic field. The (typically 60 HZ) is
resultant field rotates at the system frequency or at synchronous speed. Note naturally created in a
that three-phase power systems must have rotating magnetic fields to operate. 3Φ system.
Generators use rotating magnetic fields to generate AC power, and motors use
rotating magnetic fields to drive their loads.
When a generator is synchronized to the power system what is actually
synchronized is the rotating magnetic field of the generator with the rotating
magnetic field that already exists in the 3Φ system.

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An AC machine can be designed to rotate in-step or in synchronism with the

power system’s rotating field. This type of AC machine is called a synchronous
machine. Most utility power generators and most large motors are synchronous
machines. An AC machine’s rotor can also be designed to rotate slower or faster
than synchronous speed. This type of machine is called an asynchronous
machine. Most small AC motors are asynchronous machines. Induction
machines are the most common type of asynchronous machines. In this text the
term induction machine is used to refer to an asynchronous machine.

Induction Machines
An induction machine operates on the same principal as a transformer (electro-
magnetic induction). Consider the operation of a 3Φ induction motor. The
currents absorbed from the power system via the 3Φ conductors of the induction
motor, create a rotating magnetic field about the stator of the induction motor.
This rotating magnetic field cuts through the induction motor’s rotor conductors,
inducing a voltage in these conductors. Currents then flow in the rotor conductors
creating a rotor magnetic field. The stator magnetic field drags the rotor magnetic
field along with it resulting in motor action.
If the rotor of an induction machine rotates faster than synchronous speed, the
machine is an induction generator. (Note that for this to occur there must be a
prime mover⎯steam turbine, etc.⎯to turn the rotor of the induction machine.) If
the rotor spins slower than synchronous speed, the machine is an induction motor.
The difference between synchronous speed and the speed of the rotor is called the
slip of the induction machine.
An induction In an induction machine, the excitation needed to produce the magnetic field
machine (motor or about the rotor is supplied by the power system to which the machine is
generator) is connected. An induction machine draws in reactive power from the external
always a lagging
load.
power system to magnetize its rotor. Without Mvar from the power system, the
induction machine could not operate. Because induction machines cannot supply
With some Mvar to the system, they are rarely used for large-scale power generation.
modern, large Typically, induction generators have outputs less than one MW. A common
scale, induction usage for induction generators is either as small hydroelectric units or as small
generators (such wind turbines. The reason for using induction instead of synchronous generators
as used in newer
is often cost. Induction generators are considerably cheaper to build due to their
model wind
turbines) relatively simple design.
electronic means
are used to
This text focuses on synchronous generators instead of induction generators.
produce the When this text refers to a generator, a synchronous generator is implied unless
required reactive noted otherwise.
power. Therefore,
larger size (many Synchronous Machines
MW) induction
generators have Synchronous machines are the most common type of generator used for large-
become a reality. scale power production. Synchronous machines can be used to produce both
active and reactive power. This is in contrast to induction machines, which

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cannot produce reactive power, only active power. Sizes of synchronous

generators range from a few kW to thousands of MW.
In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to the field windings of the
rotor. This DC current produces a magnetic field about the rotor. As the rotor
turns, the magnetic field rotates and induces a voltage in the stator. The voltage
induced in the stator causes current to flow out of the stator to the load connected
to the generator. The magnitude of the voltage induced in the stator is determined
by the strength of the DC current applied to the rotor field winding.
A synchronous generator is characterized by the fact that during steady state
conditions the rotor rotates at synchronous speed. Synchronous speed is
determined by the frequency of the power system to which the generator is
connected and by the number of rotor poles in the generator’s rotor.
The number of rotor poles refers to the number of magnetic poles that exist in the
rotor of the machine. Different machines utilize different numbers of rotor poles.
There will always be an even number of poles as the negative and positive poles
must match one another. Figures 2-64 and 2-65 illustrate two possible rotor
designs. One design (Figure 2-64) has two poles while the other has four poles.

The two ends of

the stator winding
labeled “A and A’
together form the
phase “A”
winding.

Figure 2-64. Two-Pole Rotor Winding Configuration

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Note that with a

four-pole rotor, you
must have two
complete sets of
stator windings for
each set of rotor
pole-pairs.

Figure 2-65. Four-Pole Rotor Winding Configuration

Speed of a Synchronous Machine Rotor

The following formula is used to determine synchronous speed:

F
RPM=120 ×
P
Where:
Î RPM (revolutions per minute) is the speed of the generator rotor
Î F is the frequency of the power system
Î P is the number of magnetic poles in the generator rotor
As can be seen from the formula, as the number of rotor poles increases, the speed
at which the generator rotates decreases. For example, assuming a 60 HZ power
system, a two-pole synchronous generator’s rotor speed is as follows:

60
RPM=120 × =3600
2

For a four-pole synchronous generator, the rotor’s speed of rotation is:

60
RPM=120 × =1800
4

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Generators for steam turbines typically use two or four pole rotors. Most 60 HZ steam
Hydroelectric units rotate at considerably slower speeds and have a much turbine generators
larger number of poles. For example, the speed of a 40 pole hydroelectric spin at 3600 RPM but
generator is: a typical nuclear unit
spins at 1800 RPM.
60
RPM=120 × =180
40

The Torque Angle

The torque angle is an important factor in determining the active power The torque angle is
output of a synchronous generator or the active power consumption of a actually measured
synchronous motor. The torque angle of a synchronous machine is defined as between the rotor and
the angular separation between the rotor and stator’s rotating magnetic fields. the air-gap of the
machine. We are
The rotating magnetic field of the stator is primarily due to the 3Φ system to using stator instead of
which the generator is attached while the rotating magnetic field of the air-gap to simplify our
generator is controlled by the generator operators. description.

Torque Wrench Analogy

To introduce the concept of a torque angle, start with a mechanical analogy.
Visualize a torque wrench connected to a shaft to turn a drum. At a preset amount
of torque, the wrench gives way. The wrench can bend as much as 90° before it
gives way. The more torque applied, the more the wrench twists until at 90° the
torque wrench fails. This analogy is illustrated in Figure 2-66(a).
In Figure 2-66(a), a torque wrench is attached to the drum via a shaft through Our analogy assumes
the center of the drum. A mark is made on the drum indicating the position the drum has no mass.
of the wrench when the system is at rest. If the wrench is turned slowly to
rotate the drum at a constant speed, with no load on the drum, the wrench remains
aligned with the mark on the drum.
If a braking load is applied to the drum, it takes more torque on the wrench to
keep the drum rotating at the same speed. This torque causes the wrench to bend.
The angle between the wrench and the mark on the drum is the torque angle of
this system. The maximum amount of load that can be driven by this system is
whatever loading causes the torque angle to reach 90°. At this loading point, the
torque wrench fails.
In this analogy:
Î The force applied to the wrench is equivalent to a prime mover such as a
steam, water or wind turbine.
Î The wrench is equivalent to the magnetic field about the rotor of a
synchronous generator.
Î The drum is equivalent to the magnetic field about the stator of the
synchronous generator.

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Figure 2-66. Torque Wrench Analogy of a Torque Angle

In this mechanical analogy, the torque angle is the angle between the axis of the
torque wrench handle and the axis of the drum. The axis of the drum is defined as
the relative position of the wrench handle on the rotating drum when no brake
force was applied. Electrically, the torque angle is the angle between the axis of
the rotating magnetic field of the rotor and the axis of the rotating magnetic field
of the generator’s stator as illustrated in Figure 2-66(b).
To help visualize the magnetic forces inside a generator, examine the magnetic
forces in a compass. A compass needle is nothing more than a floating magnet
that pivots at its center. Due to the laws of physics, magnetic fields always try to
align. That is, when two magnetic fields are not aligned, a force exists between
the two that is acting to realign them. For example, if a compass needle is turned
and then released, a magnetic force acts to realign the needle’s magnetic field axis
with that of the Earth’s magnetic field.
In the case of a synchronous generator, the magnetic field of the stator is rotating
at synchronous speed. Assume that the rotor is also turning at synchronous speed.
If the rotor field magnetic axis is perfectly aligned with that of the stator field, no
force is exerted by either field on the other. This corresponds to a torque angle of
zero and zero active power (MW) output from the generator.

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Now increase the mechanical power input (steam, water, wind, etc.) to the
turbine. The rotor speed briefly picks up above synchronous speed and then
returns to synchronous speed. The angle between the rotor’s magnetic field axis
and the stator’s magnetic field axis (torque angle) increases during the rotor’s
brief acceleration period. A force now exists trying to realign these two magnetic
fields. Since this force is a twisting force about the rotor shaft, it is referred to as
a torque.
If turbine power remained constant, the positive torque angle created by the brief
rotor acceleration would remain constant. The magnetic forces that result from
the existing torque angle result in a current flow in the stator windings. Active
power flows out of the generator.
If turbine power is steadily reduced, the torque angle returns to zero. If turbine
power was reduced even more, the torque angle eventually becomes negative. A
generator with a negative torque angle is actually a motor. The concept of
adjusting a torque angle from a positive to a negative value is a commonly used
operating strategy at large steam power plants. Turbine power is gradually
reduced until the plant’s anti-motoring protection detects the condition and
initiates an orderly plant trip. An equation for active
power flow will be
The torque created between the two magnetic fields of a generator is developed in Chapter
proportional to the sine of the torque angle. This is very important as it 3. This equation will
means that the maximum torque between the stator and rotor fields occurs illustrate the
when the torque angle equals approximately 90°. This is the maximum dependence of active
(theoretical) active power output point of a generator. power flow on the sine
of the torque angle.
Positive Torque Angle for a Generator
When a generator is producing active power, its torque angle is typically less than
20°. If the torque angle is steady, the mechanical force applied by the prime
mover is equal to the opposing electrical force applied by the power system to
which the generator is attached. To change a generator’s torque angle, the
generator must slightly accelerate or decelerate with respect to the power system
to which it is attached.

Negative Torque Angle for a Motor Note that a synchronous

motor rotates in the
In a synchronous motor, the rotor field lags behind the stator field. A same direction as a
motor has a negative torque angle. Another way to think of it is that a synchronous generator.
What makes one a
generator applies torque (positive) to the system, whereas a motor draws
generator and the other
torque (negative) from the system. a motor is the sign of the
torque angle.
Torque Angle and Voltage
The excitation current that is applied to a rotor can be viewed in terms of voltage.
As the excitation current is varied, an internal generator voltage (the air-gap
voltage) changes. This voltage, EG, varies with the excitation current magnitude.
Higher excitation current leads to a stronger generator voltage.

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The phase relationship between two rotating magnetic fields can be visualized
in terms of the induced voltages of the two magnetic fields. For example,
Figure 2-67(a) illustrates a generator synchronized to the power system. The
rotating magnetic field of the rotor is in alignment with the rotating magnetic field
of the stator. The voltage waveforms at the bottom of Figure 2-67(a) illustrate
how the magnetic field alignment looks in terms of voltage. EG is the generator’s
internal voltage and VS is the stator voltage. EG and VS are in-phase with one
another. There is no torque angle and no active power output from this generator.
Figure 2-67(b) illustrates a 45° torque angle. The rotor magnetic field leads the
stator’s magnetic field by 45°. Below this graphic is the voltage equivalent. Note
how the torque angle is visible as a difference in-phase between the two voltage
waveforms. The Greek letter “δ” (delta) is commonly used to represent a
synchronous machine’s torque angle.

The Greek letter

“δ” (delta) is used
to represent a
generator’s torque
angle.

Figure 2-67. Torque Angle & Voltage

Generator Turbines

Water Turbines
The prime mover used in hydroelectric power houses is the hydraulic turbine.
Hydraulic turbines are classified into two main divisions: impulse turbines and
reaction turbines.

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The impulse turbine, commonly known as a Pelton Wheel, is a series of buckets

that are mounted on the rim of a large wheel. Nozzles control high velocity water
jets that strike each of the buckets in-turn and cause the wheel to rotate. The axle
of the wheel is connected to the shaft of the electric generator. The rotation of the
wheel creates a rotation of the hydroelectric generator’s rotor and a voltage is
produced from generator action. Figure 2-68 illustrates a Pelton Wheel turbine.

The Pelton Wheel

is used when high
(>150 feet) heads
are available.
Head is the
difference
between the
incoming and
outgoing water
storage
elevations.
Normally high
head turbines use
less water flow
then low head
turbines.

Figure 2-68. Pelton Wheel Turbine

The reaction turbine is based on a different principle. Reaction turbines are
divided into two different types: the Francis turbine and the propeller turbine.
The Francis turbine consists of a series of blades mounted on a turning element,
or runner. In a Francis turbine, water is routed to the turbine through a series of
fixed guide vanes and strikes all of the blades simultaneously. A casing (called a
scroll case) surrounds the Francis turbine and keeps the turbine emerged in water.
Figure 2-69 illustrates a Francis turbine.

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The Francis
turbine is used
for medium
(≈ 30 to 1000
feet) head
applications.

Figure 2-69. Francis Turbine

The propeller turbine can have either fixed or movable blades. The propeller
design of the turbine allows it to operate at higher speeds than the Francis
turbines. Propeller turbines with movable blades are called Kaplan turbines.
Propeller turbines are used for low (<120 feet) head applications.
The speed control of a hydraulic turbine generator is a function of water flow.
As the load on the generator is increased, the turbine speed decreases. To
compensate, and maintain the relatively constant speed that is necessary for
system frequency control, more water is passed through the turbine.
The speed of a Pelton Wheel turbine is controlled using a nozzle-type control
valve. The amount of water is controlled by opening, shutting, or changing the
direction of needle valves in the nozzles.
The speed of Francis and propeller turbines is controlled using wicket gates.
Wicket gates are located around the inlet flow of the turbine. The gates operate as
a unit and provide a smooth flow of water to the turbine. Figure 2-70 illustrates
wicket gate operation.
The needle valves and wicket gates are managed by the governor control system.
The governor system adjusts the control valves and wicket gates to assist with
maintaining a constant system speed.
A major advantage of a hydroelectric power plant is that there are normally no
turbine thermal restraints that limit how fast the generator can be loaded. A
hydroelectric power plant may be able to supply full electrical power output from
The penstock is the a stopped condition in just a few minutes or possibly even in seconds. Different
water intake types of hydro plants can respond with additional MW at different rates. A high
structure for the head turbine with a long penstock may be severely limited in its MW response
hydro turbine. rate due to water hammer (pressure transients) impacts on the penstock.

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Figure 2-70. Wicket Gate Operation

Wind Turbines
The concept of wind power has been around for thousands of years. Early wind
machines were used to mill grain or pump water for agriculture. In modern times,
wind turbines are often used to convert the energy of the wind into the mechanical
power of rotating blades. The rotating blades are then used to drive the rotor of a
generator and produce a voltage.
Wind turbine installations are suitable for areas with average wind speeds of
approximately 13 mph. Fortunately, large portions of North America are suitable
for wind turbine installations.
Utility-scale wind turbines range in size from 50 kW to as large as 5 to 6 MW.
Many wind turbines are often grouped together to form wind farms. Wind farms
then provide bulk power to the electrical grid. A wind farm typically has enough
turbines to produce 100 MW or more.
The components of a typical wind turbine are illustrated in Figure 2-71 and
described in the text that follows the figure.

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Figure 2-71. Components of a Wind Turbine

Anemometer and the Wind Vane

The anemometer measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the
wind turbine’s controller. The wind vane measures the wind direction and
transmits data to the controller. The controller uses the data to direct the yaw
drive.

Blades
The rotor blades capture the wind’s energy and transfer the energy to the low
speed shaft. The design of the blades is based on many of the same principles of
an aircraft wing. The size of the blade varies but a large wind turbine can have
blades over 100 feet in length. Most wind turbines have either two or three
blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes the blades to lift and rotate.

Brake
A disc brake is used to stop the spinning rotor in emergencies.

Controller
The controller is a computer system that monitors current operating conditions.
The controller starts a typical turbine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per
hour (mph) and shuts off the turbine at about 60 mph. A typical wind turbine

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cannot operate at wind speeds above about 60 mph because their generators
would overheat. The controller also provides directions to the yaw drive.

Gear Box
Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the
rotational speed from about 30 to 60 RPM to about 1200 to 1500 RPM. Most
wind turbine generators spin at 1200 to 1500 rpm. The gear box is a costly (and
heavy) part of the wind turbine and new wind turbine designs are experimenting
with generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and do not require gear
boxes.

Generator
Older wind turbine generators are typically induction machines but newer designs
often utilize synchronous machines. Utility scale generators are typically 600 kW
to 3 MW. Generators produce heat so a cooling system is required. Most wind
turbines use a large fan for air cooling but a few manufacturers use water cooled
generators. Water cooled generators may be built more compactly but they
require a radiator in the nacelle to remove the heat from the liquid cooling system.

High-Speed Shaft
The high-speed shaft drives the rotor of the generator.

Low-Speed Shaft
The wind turbine rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 RPM. The gear
box speeds up the rotation and interconnects the low and high speed shafts.

Nacelle
The rotor attaches to the nacelle. The nacelle is connected to the top of the tower
and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator, cooling system,
controller, and brake. A cover protects the components inside the nacelle. On a
large wind turbine, the nacelle is large enough for a technician to stand inside
while working. The technician may enter the nacelle through the tower.

Pitch
Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to keep the rotor from turning in
winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.

Rotor
The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.

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Tower
The tower of the wind turbine carries the turbine blades and the nacelle. Towers
are made from tubular steel or steel lattice. Because wind speed increases with
height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more
electricity. Typical tower height increases with the MW size of the machine and
will vary from 100 to over 300 feet.

Wind Direction
The design illustrated in Figure 2-71 is an "upwind" turbine because it operates
facing into the wind. Other wind turbines are designed to run "downwind", facing
away from the wind.

Yaw Drive and Yaw Motor

Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing
into the wind as the wind direction changes. The yaw drive is operated by the
controller. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive because the wind blows
the rotor downwind. The yaw motor provides power for the yaw drive.

Wind Turbine Generators

The wind turbine generator converts the turbine’s mechanical energy to electrical
energy. Wind turbine generators are unusual when compared to other generating
units described in this section. A key reason for the difference is that a wind
turbine generator has to work with a power source (the wind turbine rotor) that
supplies constantly fluctuating mechanical power. As the wind speed and
direction varies, the mechanical power varies.
Wind turbines may be designed with either synchronous or asynchronous
generators. Wind turbines that use synchronous generators normally supply the
rotor’s field current from the local power system. Since the local power system
supplies AC current, the AC is first converted to DC before feeding it to the rotor.
The rotor field winding is connected to the DC current source using brushes and
slip rings. The synchronous machines used in wind turbines normally use rotors
with four or six poles and spin at 1200 or 1800 RPM.
Many wind turbines use an induction generator. Induction motors are very
common in the power system but induction generators are rarely used. The
reason for choosing this type of generator for a wind turbine is that it is very
reliable, simple, inexpensive design. An induction generator also has some
mechanical properties that are useful with wind turbines. Figure 2-72 contains a
photograph of wind turbine generators in a water based wind farm.
Figure 2-72 follows on the next page.

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Figure 2-72. Photograph of Wind Turbine Generators

Steam Turbines
A typical steam unit is composed of more than one turbine. The turbines are
classified by the steam pressure at which they operate. For example, one unit may
include high-pressure (HP), intermediate-pressure (IP), and low-pressure (LP)
turbines. Figure 2-73 illustrates an arrangement of multi pressure stages in a
steam turbine. The turbines themselves are composed of a series of blades or
buckets. Steam strikes the blades and turns the turbine. The blades grow longer
as the stage pressure decreases due to the increase in the volume of the steam.

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Figure 2-73. Steam Turbine Stages

Figure 2-74 contains a more detailed drawing of a typical multi-stage steam
turbine. A list and description of the major system components in a steam turbine
system follows Figure 2-74.
Figure 2-74 follows on the next page.

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Figure 2-74. Steam Turbine Components

The boiler is the source of
Î The main steam header contains and guides the flow of the the steam. The boiler is a
superheated, high-pressure steam from the boiler to the main stop furnace type device where
the water is converted to
valves. steam using water filled
Î The main stop valves admit steam to the turbine for normal tubes as heat exchangers.
operation or shut off the flow of steam quickly if emergency
conditions require.
Î The steam chest is a manifold that contains the control (governing) valves.
Î The control (governing) valves are located in the steam chest and control
the flow of steam to the high-pressure turbine. Each control valve admits
steam through a separate inlet bend (pipe) to a particular location around
the nozzle block.
Î The inlet bends connect the steam chest with the nozzle block in the high-
pressure turbine.
Î The nozzle block is the first point in the turbine where the energy within
the steam is turned into work. The steam is directed through the nozzle
block into the first row of rotating blades.
Î The high-pressure turbine contains impulse or reaction blading that
converts the stored energy in the steam to work that rotates the shaft. The
high-pressure turbine is generally the smallest of the turbines since high-
pressure steam is denser and requires less volume than low-pressure

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steam. As the steam goes through the turbine, it expands, which is why a
turbine is larger on one end than the other.
Î Extractions are points along the turbine blade path where steam is bled off
and piped to the boiler feedwater heaters.
Î The exhaust from the high-pressure turbine is piped back to the boiler to
be reheated. This exhaust is called cold reheat steam. Cold reheat steam
is reheated up to about the same temperature as the inlet to the high-
pressure turbine. The steam returning from the boiler returns to the
intermediate pressure turbine and is called hot reheat steam.
Î The intercept valve is located in the hot reheat steam line before the
intermediate pressure turbine. The intercept valve is provided to control
the steam flow from the large storage capacity of the reheat boiler.
Î The reheat stop valve is also located in the hot reheat steam line near the
intercept valve. It is provided for quickly shutting off the supply of
reheated steam to the intermediate pressure turbine. This valve works in
conjunction with the intercept valve.
Î The intermediate-pressure turbine is very similar to the high-pressure
turbine. One major difference is that the blades are longer. Again, this is
because the steam is expanding as the pressure reduces.
Î The crossover is the pipe or duct that contains and guides the steam from
the intermediate pressure turbine to the low-pressure turbine. The
crossover is likely the largest steam line in the entire turbine, as the steam
at this point has expanded 15 to 20 times from the main steam header
volume.
Î The last bit of work will be extracted from the steam in the low-pressure
turbine. After the steam passes through the last row of turbine blades, it
will pass into the condenser where it will turn into liquid water and return
to the boiler.
Steam is created in fossil plants by burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and
natural gas. The heat is used to produce steam. The fuel is usually burned in a
furnace or boiler. The walls of the furnace or boiler are lined with tubes through
which water is run. This arrangement is called a waterwall, and is where the
steam is actually created.
In a nuclear plant, heat from a nuclear reaction is used to create steam. The steam
may be produced via a heat exchanger arrangement with the reactor or the reactor
vessel itself may be the steam generator.

Combustion Turbines
Combustion turbines are rotating internal combustion engines that can be used to
turn an electric generator. Combustion turbines⎯often referred to as gas turbines
or peakers⎯utilize the energy released by the burning of a gas or oil fuel to
provide a rotational force to spin the turbine blades.

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The basic combustion turbine has three main components as illustrated in

Figure 2-75:
1. Compressor
2. Combustor
3. Turbine
In its simple form, as illustrated in Figure 2-75, air is compressed by several rows
of blades in the compressor section. Some of this air passes into the combustion
chamber where it combines with the fuel to burn. The majority of the air flows
around the chamber and is used to cool the chamber and the turbine.

A variation on this
simple cycle
combustion turbine
plant is the combined
cycle plant. In a
combined cycle
plant, the combustion
gases are not
exhausted to
atmosphere. The
exhaust gas is used
to produce heat for a
companion steam
turbine. The
Figure 2-75. Basic Combustion Turbine combined cycle
process is more
After burning occurs, the combustion gases leave the combustion section and efficient than a
strike the turbine blades at a temperature as high as 1600°F and at pressures of simple cycle process
approximately 200-225 pounds per square inch (psi). as less heat is
wasted.

Introduction to Generator Control Systems

Governor Control Systems

Steam turbine generators rely on a constant supply of steam to maintain proper Chapter 4 will examine
operation. This steam must be at a sufficient pressure to drive the turbine at the cause, effects, and
control of frequency
its normal operating speed. The steam is created and pressurized by the deviations in detail
boiler. The mechanism that controls the release of steam from the boiler is the including the operation
speed governor. The boiler control system maintains proper steam temperature of governor control
and pressure by monitoring the steam going to the turbine, and the position of systems.
the governor, and making adjustments as necessary.
Electric generators use governor control systems to assist with the control of
system frequency. The governor system senses the generator shaft speed and
adjusts the input power of the generator to increase or decrease the generator’s
speed as required. Figure 2-76 illustrates a basic governor control system.

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The governor shown in Figure 2-76 senses the speed of the generator shaft. The
governor has the ability to adjust the speed of the shaft by adjusting the amount of
steam supplied to the turbine. The speed of the shaft is fed back as an input for
speed control. A governor control system is an example of a feedback control
system. Variations of this type of control system are used in the control of many
devices in the modern world.

Figure 2-76. Model of Basic Governor Control System

Excitation Control System

Chapter 5 will
examine the cause, The excitation control system of a generator is used to control the generator’s
effects, and control terminal voltage as well as the generator’s reactive power (Mvar) output. The
of voltage level of DC excitation current supplied to the field winding determines the
deviations including generator’s terminal voltage and reactive power output. A basic excitation system
the operation of
block diagram is provided in Figure 2-77.
generator excitation
systems. A potential transformer (PT) senses the generator’s output voltage. The PTs
secondary voltage is compared to a target value. If the actual voltage differs from
the target value, the excitation current to the field winding on the generator rotor
is changed. Excitation systems can only control a unit’s terminal voltage within a
certain range. How large that control range is depends on the strength (power
rating) of the exciter and the strength (MW size) of the power system the
generator is tied to. For example, if a small generator is tied to a very strong bus,
the generator excitation has little effect on the bus voltage.

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At normal excitation levels, a generator is neither supplying nor absorbing The term "normal
reactive power from the system. The unit is at unity power factor. When a excitation" is not meant
to imply that a generator
generator is overexcited, it is supplying reactive power to the system. An normally runs at unity
overexcited generator may be referred to as a boosting, lagging or pushing power factor. The term
generator. When a generator is under excited, it is absorbing reactive power means that the
from the system. An underexcited generator may be referred to as bucking, generator's exciter is
leading, or pulling generator. supplying exactly the
excitation the generator
needs to operate.

This diagram illustrates

automatic voltage
regulation. A voltage
regulator can also be
operated in manual
mode. Chapter 5
explores excitation
systems in detail.

Figure 2-77. Block Diagram of a Generator Excitation System

2.6.3 Power Transformers

The operation of a transformer is based on the principle that electrical energy can
be transferred via electromagnetic induction from one set of windings to another.
A transformer consists of at least two windings. The building and collapsing
magnetic field caused by alternating current flow in one winding induces an
electromotive force (voltage) in the other winding. When this mutual inductance
exists, the two windings are inductively coupled. Figure 2-78 illustrates a basic
transformer connected between an AC source of power and a load.
The coil connected to the source of power is the primary winding and the coil In the power system, it
connected to the load is the secondary winding. The power delivered from is often difficult to
the source passes through the transformer and is delivered to the load. designate primary and
Although no physical connection need exist between the primary and secondary windings. It
is clearer to state
secondary circuits, a connection always exist via a magnetic linkage whether you are
between the coils. Transformers are in general very efficient devices. referring to the high or
Transformer losses will seldom exceed 1 to 2% of their load. low side winding.

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Turns Ratio
The magnitude of voltage induced in a winding depends primarily on the number
of turns in the winding. The voltages in the primary or secondary windings are
proportional to the total number of turns in each winding. By varying the number
of turns between the primary and secondary windings, the voltage that is
transformed via the magnetic linkage can be adjusted. The turns ratio of a
transformer is defined as:

VP V V N
= S or P = P
NP NS VS NS

The iron core

confines the
magnetic field to a
target area.

Figure 2-78. Basic Transformer

VP is the primary voltage, VS is the secondary voltage, NP is the number of
primary turns, and NS is the number of secondary turns. NP/NS is the transformer
turns ratio. Figure 2-79 illustrates the use of the turns ratio. This transformer has
10 primary turns and 5 secondary turns. Note that the voltage is halved while the
current is doubled across the transformer.

Figure 2-79 follows on the next page.

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If a transformer
reduces the voltage
level, the current
level must be
increased.

Figure 2-79. Transformer Turns Ratio

Types of Transformers
A two winding transformer consists of two windings, which are not physically
connected, wrapped around a common core. The transformers illustrated in
Figures 2-78 and 2-79 are examples of two winding transformers.
Figure 2-80 illustrates the evolution from a two winding transformer to an
autotransformer. In an autotransformer the primary and secondary windings are
physically connected. The advantages of an auto-connected transformer include
lower impedance, lower losses, and a smaller excitation current than two winding
transformers. Autotransformers are typically applied when the primary to
secondary voltage ratio is less than 2.5:1. The direct electrical connection
between the high and low voltage sides can be a disadvantage. A two winding
bank provides a certain degree of electrical isolation between the primary and
secondary. Autotransformers do not provide this electrical isolation. Figure 2-81
contains a photograph of a large autotransformer. This transformer has a 500 kV
high side and a 230 kV low side. It is rated at 600 MVA.

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An autotransformer
can be created by
starting with a two
winding transformer
and then physically
connecting the
primary and
secondary windings.

Figure 2-80. Autotransformer Evolution From a Two-Winding

Transformer

Figure 2-81. Photograph of an Autotransformer

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Transformer Connections
Large power transformers are 3Φ transformers. A 3Φ transformer may be
constructed as a 3Φ unit or composed of three separate 1Φ transformers
connected for 3Φ operation. The most common 3Φ connections are the delta and
wye configurations. Figure 2-82(a) illustrates a 3Φ transformer connected in wye
on the high side and delta on the low side. Note that the wye connection has a
common point for all windings while the delta has all three windings connected in
series. A wye winding is also called a star winding.

Tertiary is Latin for

third. This tertiary
winding is the 3rd
winding in this
transformer.

Figure 2-82. 3Φ Transformer Connections

One use for the
Figure 2-82(b) illustrates a wye-connected autotransformer. Note the optional
delta tertiary is to
delta winding in the autotransformer. This is a tertiary winding. The tertiary may trap harmonics.
be used for substation station service, as a connection point for shunt reactors, or Harmonics are
for many other uses. described in
Chapter 9.
Transformer Excitation
An energized transformer draws a certain amount of current even with no load on
the secondary. This is because an unloaded transformer still draws current to
magnetize its core. This current is referred to as the exciting current of the
transformer. There are two components of excitation current. The first is the
magnetizing component, which builds the magnetic field in the transformer’s
core. The second is the loss component, which is drawn due to core iron I2R
losses. The magnetizing component is a reactive current and is much larger than
the iron loss component.

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Transformers are users of reactive power. Transformers require reactive power to

support the magnetic field in their core. A large power transformer may use
several Mvar to support its magnetic field.

Transformer Capacity
When a company purchases a power transformer, they specify the maximum rated
load. The transformer’s nameplate lists this rated load. The rated load is a
function of the transformer design and the type of auxiliary cooling systems with
which the transformer is equipped. For example, a transformer may have three
rated loads such as 30/40/50 MVA. The different rated loads apply depending on
the available cooling systems.
A 30/40/50 MVA bank may have a 30 MVA limit if no auxiliary cooling is used.
If a first stage of fan cooling is operational, the bank has a 40 MVA limit. If a
second stage of fans is operational, the bank has a 50 MVA limit. The maximum
temperature rise in a transformer is typically 65° C above ambient. This
temperature limit applies no matter what cooling systems are available.

Transformer In-Rush Currents

Voltage zero means
closing the switch to When a transformer is first energized, it may experience a large in-rush of
energize the excitation current. The maximum in-rush occurs if the transformer’s core is still
transformer when
magnetized and the transformer is energized near a voltage zero. The in-rush
the AC system
voltage is near a current can be several times (possibly ten) the transformer’s normal load current.
zero crossing. Magnetizing in-rush currents can cause false protective relay operations
(especially differentials) and short term system voltage problems.

2.6.4 Transmission Lines

Lines energized at
voltages below 115 Transmission lines are used to connect electric power sources to electric power
kV are either loads. In general, transmission lines connect the system’s generators to the
subtransmission system’s distribution substations. Transmission lines are also used to interconnect
(46 kV, 60 kV, 69 neighboring power systems. Since transmission line power losses are
kV, etc.) or proportional to the square of the load current, high voltages are used to minimize
distribution (12.5
kV, 24.9 kV, etc.) for losses. Typical transmission voltages include 115 kV, 138 kV, 161 kV, 230 kV,
purposes of this text. 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765kV.

Transmission Line Structures

Overhead transmission lines are supported by towers that are typically built of
either wood or steel. Transmission line tower design is governed by many
factors. The factors range from the voltage level of the transmission line,
conductor size, minimum clearance, and aesthetics, to expected climatic
conditions such as wind and ice. The primary function of a transmission tower is
to support the transmission conductors at a proper distance above the ground, and
with proper separation between phases. Figure 2-83(a) illustrates a typical high
voltage steel lattice structure transmission tower while Figure 2-83(b) illustrates a
typical wood transmission structure.

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The wire positions at the top of the towers in Figure 2-83 are for shield wire
connections. Shield wires are used to protect the transmission line from lightning
strikes.

Figure 2-83. Transmission Line Structures

Transmission Line Conductors

In the early days of power transmission, conductors were mostly made of copper.
In modern transmission lines, copper has been largely replaced by aluminum. For
a slight increase in resistance, aluminum is cheaper and lighter than copper.
Aluminum has a relatively low tensile strength, and therefore is usually reinforced
with a stronger material. This reinforcement material is usually steel, but can also
be an aluminum alloy.
Aluminum conductor that is reinforced with steel is referred to as ACSR
(aluminum conductor steel reinforced). ACSR has a core composed of several
strands of steel with strands of aluminum wound around the core. Figure 2-84
illustrates a cross section of an ACSR type conductor. This particular conductor
has seven steel and 24 aluminum strands.
Each phase of a transmission line can be an individual conductor, or it can be a
group of conductors. Lines that have multiple conductors per phase are said to
have bundled conductors. For example, 345 kV lines often have two conductors
per phase while a 500 kV line may use two, three, or even four conductors per
phase. Bundled conductors reduce the impedance of the conducting path and
increase the effective diameter of the conductor. A larger diameter conductor is
an advantage because it reduces the corona loss of the conductor. Corona losses

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are power losses due to the intense electric field that surrounds high voltage
conductors. Larger diameter conductors have reduced corona losses.

Figure 2-84. ACSR Conductor

Transmission Line Capacity

Increased power transfer across a transmission line likely means increased current
flow. Increased current flow leads to increased conductor heating. Transmission
lines have thermal ratings that limit the amount of current that can be carried by
the line. Exceeding the thermal limit of a transmission line can cause the
conductors to sag and stretch due to overheating. Extreme overloads may lead to
permanent sag. Excessive sag may lead to contact with objects in the line’s right-
of-way resulting in faults and possible fires.
Figure 2-85 summarizes typical power transfer limits for different voltage
transmission lines. These limits are only estimates as actual transfer limits are
system specific. Note that the power transfer limits may be due to thermal
concerns but they also may be due to voltage limits, angle stability limits, or other
possible limiting factors.

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Voltage (kV) Transfer Limit (MVA)

Various types of
69 75 power transfer
limits are
described in
138 150 Chapter 3.

230 300

345 700

500 1400

Figure 2-85. Typical Transfer Limits

Impedance Model of a Transmission Line

When engineers model a power system component, they are representing that
component as an interconnection of basic electrical elements such as resistors,
capacitors and reactors. Accurate modeling of system components is important
for software packages such as power flow programs and training simulators.
A transmission line can be modeled as a series impedance (Z) along with shunt
capacitive reactance. The series impedance is composed of the natural resistance
(R) and inductive reactance (XL) of the line. The shunt capacitive reactance (XC)
is due to a transmission line’s natural capacitance.
Recall our earlier description of a capacitor. All that is needed to create a
capacitor are two conductors, a dielectric such as air, and a potential (voltage)
difference between the conductors. As illustrated in Figure 2-86, a transmission
line has all the necessary ingredients of a capacitor.

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The capacitive effects

of a transmission line
are commonly referred
to as the line’s
charging. Charging is
the current that flows
when a line is first
energized. This
current charges the
line’s natural
capacitance.

Figure 2-86. Natural Capacitance of a Transmission Line

The three phases of a transmission line are each energized at a different voltage.
The air forms a dielectric between the conductors. Transmission lines have
capacitive effects between the various conductors and from the conductors to
ground. The natural capacitance of a transmission line is represented by placing
shunt capacitors at both ends of the transmission line model.
Figure 2-87 illustrates the impedance model of a transmission line. Keep in mind
that this is an approximate model. In reality the resistance, inductive reactance,
and capacitive reactance values of a line are distributed along the entire length of
the line.
This model is called
the “PI” model. The
name derives from
the Greek letter “π”
since the model is
shaped like the
letter π.

Figure 2-87. Transmission Line Impedance Model

2.6.5 AC Circuit Breakers & Switches

Circuit breakers are used to open or close an electrical circuit. Power system
circuit breakers are capable of interrupting load and fault current.

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Circuit Breaker Operation

All circuit breakers operate by mechanically opening a set of contacts, then
extinguishing the resulting arc. The methods used to open the contacts vary
depending on the type and maker of the circuit breaker. As the contacts open, an
arc is formed. The arc is extinguished by a combination of stretching and cooling
of the arc. Because the arc is formed with alternating current, the magnitude of
the current in the arc crosses through zero 120 times a second. A circuit breaker
will not actually extinguish the arc⎯and open the circuit⎯until a current zero
crossing. Figure 2-88 illustrates the circuit breaker opening process.
Figure 2-88 follows on the next page.

Figure 2-88. Circuit Breaker Opening Process

Types of Circuit Breakers The type of circuit

breaker is defined
There are many different types of circuit breakers including: by the medium in
which the arc is
Î Oil circuit breakers extinguished.

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Î Air circuit breakers

Î SF6 gas circuit breakers
Î Vacuum circuit breakers
Different types of CBs are used depending on system conditions and the needs of
the utility. Figure 2-89 is a photograph of an SF6 circuit breaker. This circuit
breaker is installed in a 230 kV system. Also note that it is a 3Φ CB.

Figure 2-89. Photograph of Circuit Breaker

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High Voltage Switches

Circuit breakers are used to switch electrical circuits carrying normal or fault
currents. High voltage switches are used both to alter circuit arrangements and to
provide electrical isolation for equipment. The current interrupting capability of
switches is typically far less than a circuit breaker.
There are three basic categories of power switches. The categories are
determined by the switches ability to interrupt current. Plain disconnect switches
are normally opened and closed only when there is no current flowing. Air-break
switches can be used to interrupt current within the switches rated capacity. The
switch opening capacity is limited and only allows interruption of loads such as a
transformer’s exciting current or an unloaded transmission line. Loadbreak
switches use an additional interrupter device to increase their current interrupting
capability. One example of a loadbreak switch is a circuit-switcher.

2.6.6 Thyrister Systems

Thyristers are high power semiconductor devices. The technology used in
thyristers is similar to the technology used in low power solid state devices such
as a transistor. Figure 2-90 illustrates the symbol for a thyrister.

Figure 2-90. Thyrister Symbol & Operation

A thyrister can either allow or block the flow of current. When a thyrister
conducts current, it has turned on. When a thyrister blocks the flow of current, it
is turned off. A thyrister turns on if its anode voltage is more positive than its
cathode voltage and a pulse of gate current is applied. Figure 2-90 illustrates how
a thyrister is turned on. The greater the anode to cathode voltage (VA), the less of
a pulse of gate current is needed to turn the device on. If the anode to cathode or
cathode to anode voltage is too large, the thyrister could be damaged.

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Once a thyrister has been turned on by a pulse of gate current it can be turned off
with changes to its anode or cathode voltage. The gate current is only used to turn
the device on, not to turn it off. Thyristers are small devices by power system
standards. Each thyrister is about the size of a hockey puck. In a typical power
application, thousands of thyristers are arranged in series/parallel combinations to
achieve the desired voltage and current ratings. Common utility applications of
thyristers are static var compensators (SVC) and high voltage direct current
(HVDC) converters.
2.7 Power System Operations
Electric suppliers from throughout North America have many things in common.
The shared goal is to provide reliable service to the customers in a safe and
efficient manner. This section explains how the North American power system is
configured and briefly describes the role of the North American Electric
Reliability Corporation (NERC).

2.7.1 The Interconnections

In the infancy of the electric utility industry, individual utilities operated isolated
electrical systems. Most utilities were not interconnected with neighboring
utilities via transmission lines. When one system had a problem, that system was
more or less on its own to solve the problem.
Eventually utilities began to interconnect with their neighboring systems.
Advantages to interconnection included a reduction in the total generation
required, reduced power production costs and enhanced reliability. Total
generation could be reduced because utilities could now share capacity. When
one utility suffered a loss, an interconnected utility was there to supply emergency
assistance. Utilities no longer had to go it alone.
The electrical
connection between Our modern North American power system is composed of four large
widely dispersed interconnections. These interconnections are groups of utilities that are tied
points may be via together via AC transmission lines. Every facility in an interconnection is tied
many different electrically (via AC) to every other facility. For example, a substation in Florida
transmission lines, has an electrical connection to a substation in Maine or to a generator in
but the electrical
connection does Manitoba.
exist. The four large interconnections in North America are illustrated in Figure 2-91
and briefly described below:
Î The Eastern Interconnection (#1 in Figure 2-91. The Eastern
Interconnection is by far the largest of the interconnections. The peak
load of the Eastern Interconnection is approximately 650,000 MW.
Î The Western Interconnection (#2 in Figure 2-91). The Western
Interconnection is the next largest of the major interconnections. The peak
load is approximately 180,000 MW.

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Î The ERCOT Interconnection (#3 in Figure 2-91). The majority of the

state of Texas forms a separate interconnection. The peak load of the
ERCOT Interconnection is approximately 70,000 MW.
Î The Hydro-Quebec Interconnection (#4 in Figure 2-91). Hydro-Quebec is
the smallest of the major interconnections with a peak load of
approximately 35,000 MW.

Figure 2-91. The Four Major Interconnections of North America

These four Interconnections are the four largest of many in North America. For
example, the state of Alaska is electrically isolated from the rest of North
America. The portion of Alaska between Fairbanks and Anchorage forms a small
(≈1000 MW) Interconnection. The northern regions of the Canadian provinces
also have many small interconnections.

Interconnections and Frequency

Each large interconnection in North America maintains a 60 HZ frequency.
However, the interconnections each maintain their own version of 60 HZ. The theory and
operation of HVDC
For example, the frequency of the Eastern Interconnection has nothing to systems are addressed in
do with the frequency of the other Interconnections. The only transmission Chapter 10.
lines connecting the major Interconnections are high voltage DC (HVDC)
lines. HVDC lines are used because they operate independent of frequency.

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In the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, attempts were made to tie the Eastern and
Western Interconnections together with AC transmission lines. The lines
frequently tripped and caused more problems than they solved. The capacity of
the lines was too small to tie such large systems together. The AC ties were
opened permanently in the early 1970’s. The East and West Interconnections are
currently tied together but the ties are via HVDC, not AC.

2.7.2 The Role of NERC

U.S., Canadian and Mexican transmission companies, generation companies,
distribution companies, etc. have organized into a system of eight Regional
Reliability Entities or RREs. The eight RREs are all part of the North American
Electric Reliability Corporation or NERC. The RREs assist NERC with ensuring
a reliable power system. Acronyms for the eight RREs were provided in the map
of Figure 2-91. The full names of the eight RREs are as follows:
• FRCC: Florida Reliability Coordinating Council
• TRE: Texas Reliability Entity
• MRO: Midwest Reliability Organization
• NPCC: Northeast Power Coordinating Council
• RFC: Reliability First Corporation
• SERC: Southeastern Electric Reliability Council
• SPP: Southwest Power Pool
• WECC: Western Electricity Coordinating Council
NERC was formed by the electric utility industry in 1968 to promote the
reliability of electric utilities in North America. Initially membership in NERC
was voluntary and member systems followed operating rules that NERC
developed for the good of all systems.
Membership in NERC is now mandatory and member systems comply with
NERC’s Reliability Standards to both promote reliable operations and to avoid
costly monetary penalties if caught non-compliant.
NERC develops and publishes a set of operating rules called the Reliability
Standards. Every system operator should read and understand the Reliability
Standards that NERC maintains.

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2.8 Fundamentals Review Questions

1. If a generator is producing 500 MW and 200 Mvar, is the generator?

A. Leading
B. Lagging
C. Underexcited
D. Dropping

2. What is the IEEE device number for a differential relay?

A. 87
B. 86
C. 67
D. 50

3. Can a synchronous machine have a negative torque angle? What does

this mean?

A. Yes / the machine is absorbing reactive power

B. No / the machine is absorbing active power
C. No / the machine is absorbing reactive power
D. Yes / the machine is absorbing active power

4. A customer load is fed at 120 volts. The customer voltage is doubled

while the load magnitude stays the same. What effect does this have on
the power losses?

A. Doubles the losses

B. Halves the losses
C. Increases the losses by a factor of four
D. Decreases the losses by a factor of four

5. In a DC circuit, a 100 volt battery is connected to both sides of a 2 ohm

resistor. What is the current through the resistor and the power usage of
the resistor?

A. 50 amps / 5000 watts

B. 40 amps / 80 watts
C. 50 amps / 100 watts
D. 40 amps / 3200 watts

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6. The actual voltage is 362 kV on a 345 kV bus. What is the p.u. voltage?

A. 1.0
B. 1.05
C. 1.5
D. .95

7. A load has a power factor of 0.9 lagging. If the load draws 100 MVA,
what is the MW draw?

A. 100
B. 90
C. 111
D. 44

8. Which of the following is NOT a synchronizing variable?

A. Phase angle
B. Frequency difference
C. Voltage magnitude difference
D. MW flow differential

9. In a typical multi-stage steam turbine, the governor control valves control

the steam entry to the:

A. high pressure turbine

B. intermediate pressure turbine
C. low pressure turbine
D. crossover

10. The high side of a delta-wye connected transformer is connected to a

power system with 199 kV L-G high side voltage. What is the voltage
across the winding of the delta transformer?

A. 199 kV
B. 230 kV
C. 345 kV
D. 500 kV

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2.9 Fundamentals Review References

1. Protective Relaying Principles and Applications⎯Third edition of a textbook
initially written by Mr. J. Lewis Blackburn. Published by CRC Press, 2006.
Î Textbook addresses the basic theory of protective relaying. Text is easily
read which is unusual for a protective relaying text.
2. Electricity One-Seven⎯Third Edition of a textbook published by Hayden
Books, 1998. Harry Mileaf, Editor-in-Chief.
Î Classic textbook on basic electrical theory⎯Text takes its time developing
the theory so everything fits neatly together by the conclusion of the book.
3. Electric Utility Systems and Practices⎯Textbook written by the engineers of
General Electric. Published by John Wiley & Sons, 1983.
Î Basic introduction to all facets of an electric utility. Topics addressed
include transmission, generation, transformers, substations, protective
relaying and system operations.

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3
ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER

Power
Circle
Diagram

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ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER

SECTION OVERVIEWS
3.1 Introduction to Active and Reactive Power
A brief introduction to the concepts of MW and Mvar.
3.2 Review of Active and Reactive Power
A review of active power, reactive power, complex power, phase angles, power
angles, and torque angles.
3.3 Equations for Power Transfer
Equations are developed for active and reactive power transfer.
3.4 Graphical Tools for Power Transfer
Graphical techniques are developed to analyze power flow including:
Î Power-angle curve to help determine angle stability
Î Power-circle diagram to illustrate active and reactive power flows as
voltage, impedance, and power angle change
3.5 Power Transfer Limits
Active power transfers are constrained by thermal, angle stability, and voltage
limits.
3.6 Distribution Factors
Distribution factors are calculated to estimate how MW flow distributes in the
power system.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.1 Introduction to Active and Reactive Power........................................ 3-1

3.2 Review of Active and Reactive Power............................................... 3-1
3.2.1 Active, Reactive and Complex Power ....................................... 3-1
3.2.2 Phase Angle, Power Angle, and Torque Angle ......................... 3-2
3.3 Equations for Power Transfer.......................................................... 3-10
3.3.1 Development of Power Transfer Equations............................. 3-10
3.3.2 Use of the Active Power Transfer Equation............................. 3-13
3.3.3 Use of the Reactive Power Transfer Equation ........................ 3-16
3.4 Graphical Tools for Power Transfer ................................................ 3-18
3.4.1 Power-Angle Curve ................................................................. 3-19
3.4.2 The Power-Circle Diagram ...................................................... 3-21
3.5 Power Transfer Limits ..................................................................... 3-28
3.5.1 Thermal Limits ......................................................................... 3-28
3.5.2 Angle Stability Limits ............................................................... 3-29
3.5.3 Voltage Limits .......................................................................... 3-30
3.5.4 Determining Power Transfer Limits ......................................... 3-30
3.5.5 Total and Available Transfer Capability................................... 3-31
3.6 Distribution Factors ......................................................................... 3-32
3.6.1 Determining Distribution Factors ............................................. 3-32
3.6.2 Using Distribution Factors ....................................................... 3-33
3.7 Summary of Active and Reactive Power ......................................... 3-34
3.7.1 Active, Reactive and Complex Power ..................................... 3-34
3.7.2 Phase Angle, Power Angle, and Torque Angle ....................... 3-34
3.7.3 Development of Power Transfer Equations............................. 3-34
3.7.4 Use of Active Power Transfer Equation................................... 3-35
3.7.5 Use of Reactive Power Transfer Equation .............................. 3-35
3.7.6 Power-Angle Curve ................................................................. 3-36
3.7.8 The Power-Circle Diagram ...................................................... 3-36
3.7.9 Thermal Limits ......................................................................... 3-36
3.7.10 Angle Stability Limits ............................................................... 3-36
3.7.11 Voltage Limits .......................................................................... 3-36

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3.7.12 Determining Power Transfer Limits..........................................3-37

3.7.13 Total and Available Transfer Capability ...................................3-37
3.7.14 Determining Distribution Factors..............................................3-37
3.7.15 Using Distribution Factors........................................................3-37
3.8 Active and Reactive Power Questions .............................................3-38
3.9 Active and Reactive Power Flow References ..................................3-40

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3-1. Voltage Phase Angle .................................................................... 3-2

Figure 3-2. Concept of a Voltage to Current Phase Angle (q) ........................ 3-4
Figure 3-3. Measurement of the Power Angle (d) ........................................... 3-5
Figure 3-4. Determining Approximate Power Angle from Phase Angles ........ 3-6
Figure 3-5. Illustration of Phase & Power Angles ........................................... 3-6
Figure 3-6. Illustration of Actual Power Angle Data ........................................ 3-7
Figure 3-7. Synchroscopes & Power Angles .................................................. 3-8
Figure 3-8. Generator Torque Angle Illustration ............................................. 3-9
Figure 3-9. Transmission Line PI Model ....................................................... 3-10
Figure 3-10. Use of the Active Power Transfer Equation............................... 3-13
Figure 3-11. Use of a Phase Shifting Transformer ........................................ 3-16
Figure 3-12. The Power-Angle Curve ............................................................ 3-20
Figure 3-13. Sending End Power-Circle Diagram .......................................... 3-22
Figure 3-14. Sending & Receiving End Circle Diagrams ............................... 3-23
Figure 3-15. System for Illustrating the Use of a Power-Circle Diagram........ 3-24
Figure 3-16. Power-Circle Diagram with a δ of 0° .......................................... 3-25
Figure 3-17. Power-Circle Diagram with a δ of 40° ........................................ 3-26
Figure 3-18. Power-Circle Diagram with a δ of 86° ........................................ 3-27
Figure 3-19. Power-Circle Diagram with a δ of 120° ...................................... 3-28
Figure 3-20. Evaluating Power Transfer Limits .............................................. 3-31
Figure 3-21. Illustration of the TTC Concept.................................................. 3-31
Figure 3-22. Determining Distribution Factors ............................................... 3-33

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LIST OF EQUATIONS

Equation 3-1. Power Transfer Equation Set #1 ............................................. 3-11

Equation 3-2. Power Transfer Equation Set #2 ............................................. 3-11
Equation 3-3. Power Transfer Equation Set #3 ............................................. 3-12
Equation 3-4. Power Transfer Equation Set #4 ............................................. 3-12
Equation 3-5. Power Transfer Equation Set #5 ............................................. 3-12

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3.1 Introduction to Active and Reactive Power

An understanding of the concepts of active and reactive power flow are critical to
an understanding of power system dynamics. This chapter first reviews and
summarizes the theory related to active and reactive power. Simple equations are
then developed for the flow of both active (symbol “P” and units MW) and
reactive (symbol “Q” and units Mvar) power. Graphical means of describing the
flow of active and reactive power are developed and illustrated.
3.2 Review of Active and Reactive Power

3.2.1 Active, Reactive and Complex Power

The concept of active power is easily grasped. Active power (or MW) performs
the actual work. Power plants must consume fuel (coal, water, nuclear, gas, oil,
etc.) to produce active power. Active power lights the lights, produces heat, turns
the motors, etc. When active power flows from the generator to the load the
customer’s energy meter spins. The customer is eventually billed for this power
usage over a period of time.
The concept of reactive power is more of a challenge. Reactive power does not
actually flow but rather oscillates. Reactive power or Mvar is constantly being
exchanged between those devices that produce it and those devices that store it in
their electric and magnetic fields. The movement of reactive power between a
generator and an inductive load is designated as positive reactive power flow. AC
power systems are dependent upon electric and magnetic fields. Reactive power
is the building block for these required fields.
There is no net energy transfer with reactive power flow. Half the time the power
is stored in electric or magnetic fields, the other half the power returns to the
source. Over time the average reactive power flow is zero. Since the average
power flow is zero there is no energy usage. A generator may not have to
consume a fuel to produce reactive power.
Active and reactive power are components of the complex power. Complex
power stated in equation form is:
The “j” symbol next
S= P + jQ to the “Q” means
that reactive power
MVA = MW + jMvar (Q) is at a 90° angle
to active power (P).
The two powers
Complex power (S) is equal to the vector sum of the active (P) and reactive (Q) must be added as
vectors to determine
powers. Since reactive power has a 90° angle with respect to active power the the complex power
quantities must be added as vectors. The power triangle was presented in Chapter (S or MVA).
2 as a graphical method of adding the power vectors together.

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3.2.2 Phase Angle, Power Angle, and Torque Angle

Different names are Phase, power, and torque angles are used to describe the operation of a power
often used for these system. This section explains the difference between the three angles.
angles. For
example, the terms Voltage & Current Angles
bus angle, load
angle and voltage To fully understand the concept of a phase angle, first understand voltage and
angle are sometimes current angles. Recall the shape of power system voltage and current waves from
used in place of
power angle. The
Chapter 1. The voltage and current waves are sine waves that repeat themselves
term rotor angle is every 1/60TH of a second. Each full cycle of the voltage and current sine wave
sometimes used in can be further broken down into 360°.
place of torque
angle. At the beginning of the sine wave cycle, the magnitude is zero since the sin 0° is
equal to zero (0). The maximum value of the sine wave occurs at 90° and is equal
to one (1) while the minimum value occurs at 270° and is equal to minus one (-1).
An alternating voltage behaves like a sine wave as illustrated in Figure 3-1(b).

Figure 3-1. Voltage Phase Angle

Look closely at Figure 3-1(a). Notice that the zero crossings and minimum and
maximum values are shifted from where you might expect them to occur. The
sine wave of Figure 3-1(a) has been shifted 45° to the left, the zero crossings and
all other points on the voltage wave have been shifted by the same number of
degrees. The sine wave of Figure 3-1(a) therefore has a voltage angle (θV) of
+45°.
The voltage angle represents the amount by which the voltage sine wave has been
shifted left or right with respect to a reference. A positive angle shifts the wave to
the left, thus causing it to lead the reference wave. A negative angle shifts the
wave to the right, thus causing it to lag the reference wave.
A voltage angle
must be stated with
The concept of a voltage angle (θV) applies when comparing a voltage wave to
respect to a another voltage wave. There must be a reference to determine if there has been a
reference wave. shift to the left or the right. The reference for the voltage angles in Figure 3-1 is
the voltage waveform in Figure 3-1(b). Note that the reference voltage angle is
understood to be 0°.

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Current waves may have current angles. The current angle (θI) is the angular
separation between two current waveforms. In the sections that follow it is
sometimes useful to look at the voltage angle of a bus with respect to the current
angle at the same bus.
The equations for the two voltage waves in Figure 3-1 are written below each The Greek letter
wave. The term “ωt” represents the time changing nature of the voltage wave. “w” (omega) is the
Notice how in the right Figure 3-1(b) equation the sine value is purely a function angular frequency.
Omega is equal to
of the ωt term. There is no voltage angle in this equation. In contrast, the left 2p times the
Figure 3-1(a) voltage wave equation is for the sine of (ωt + 45°). The 45° is the frequency (w =2pf).
voltage angle and represents a 45° left shift of the voltage wave with respect to
the other voltage waveform. The Greek letter “ω” (omega) is the angular
frequency. Omega is equal to 2π times the frequency (w = 2pf).
Figure 3-1 illustrated how voltage angles are shown graphically and in equation
form. Throughout this text a shorthand method of stating a current or voltage
magnitude and angle is used. For example, if the voltage magnitude is 355 kV
and the voltage angle is 45°, a shorthand way of stating this is 355 ∠45°.

Phase Angle
The phase angle at a point in a power system is the angular separation, or
difference in phase, between the current and the voltage waves. The Greek letter
theta with no subscript (θ) is used to represent the phase angle. Recall that if
current lags voltage—as in an inductive system—θ is positive. If current leads
voltage, as in a capacitive system, θ is negative. The phase angle is defined to be
positive when voltage leads current. The phase angle relationships are illustrated
in Figure 3-2.
Recall also that the phase angle between current and voltage is the same as the
angle between active (MW) and complex power (MVA). The value of θ varies
from one point in a power system to another.

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Figure 3-2. Concept of a Voltage to Current Phase Angle (q)

The Greek letter d
is also used to Power Angle
designate a
generator’s The power angle is the voltage phase angle difference between two locations in
torque angle. This the power system. This angular value plays a large role in the magnitude of active
is intentional as and reactive power flow thus the name power angle. The power angle is
the torque and represented by the Greek letter delta or “δ”.
power angles are
very similar
concepts. The power angle is the angular difference between the voltage waveforms at two
different points in the power system. If you plotted the voltage waves from two
locations and measure the difference between the zero crossings, you are
An oscilloscope is measuring the power angle. Figure 3-3 illustrates the measurement of a power
an electronic angle. Assume the two voltage waveforms are oscilloscope traces. Note the
device that can difference between the zero crossings. The voltage wave at the sending bus (VS)
capture and
display voltage and
leads the voltage wave at the receiving bus (VR) by the power angle δ.
current waveforms.

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Figure 3-3. Measurement of the Power Angle (d) Active power flows
downhill on power
There is a simple rule of thumb that states that active power flows downhill on angle.
power angle. Active power flows from points where the measured voltage is
more leading to points where the measured voltage is more lagging. In
Figure 3-3, the active power must flow from the sending bus (VS) to the
receiving bus (VR).
When a phase angle between voltage and current is measured it is for a point in The two voltage
the power system. For example, the phase angle for a bus may be 20°. When a waves must be
compared at exactly
power angle is measured it is a measurement between two locations. The power the same time to
angle is the angular difference between voltages at two points. In Figure 3-3, the measure an
power angle is approximately 75°. A δ of 75° means there is a 75° angle between accurate power
the sending and receiving bus voltages. angle.

The larger the power angle (up to approximately 90°), the larger the active power
flow between the two points. Sustained operation with a δ greater than 90° leads
to an out-of-step condition. Out-of-step is
defined in Section
3.4 of this chapter.
Approximate Relationship Phase & Power Angles
Now that we have defined phase angle and power angle separately, we can
describe their approximate relationship to one another. Consider the simple two
bus system of Figure 3-4. Assume that there is no angular difference between the
current waves at the two buses (i.e., the two current vectors are in-phase). The
power angle is then equal to the difference between the phase angles at the buses
or:

δ = θS − θ R = 45° − 30° =15°

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 Active and Reactive Power

Note that θI is
negative in both of
these calculations.

Figure 3-4. Determining Approximate Power Angle from Phase

Angles
The use of the
Similarly, the power angle between any two buses or points in the power
difference in phase system is approximately equal to the difference in phase angle between the two
angles to determine buses. Values of θ and δ are given in Figure 3-5 to illustrate this approximate
the power angle is a relationship. Notice how the phase angles at the generator end of the system are
rough generally leading with respect to other system phase angles. Active power will, in
approximation. In
the high voltage
general, flow from the generator to the other buses in the system.
system, current is
not in-phase
throughout the
system. There are
substantial current
angles due to the
natural capacitive
effect of
transmission lines.
Accurate high
voltage system
power angles must
be determined
based on the
difference in voltage
angles.

Figure 3-5. Illustration of Phase & Power Angles

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Reliability Coordinators throughout NERC are starting to utilize power angle

monitoring as a method of ensuring accurate computer study data and to assist
with real-time monitoring of the power system. Measuring equipment has been
installed at key substations throughout the major interconnections. The
measuring equipment gathers voltage sine wave data and time stamps the data
with highly accurate atomic clocks. The voltage angle data and the timing data is
then gathered in a central computer system and the power angle data is distributed
to the Reliability Coordinators in the Interconnection.
Figure 3-6 is a snapshot of actual power angle data from the Western
Interconnection. The graphic shows both the actual power angle values and the
maximum allowable power angle. The appropriate Reliability Coordinator would
be concerned about the high angles between the Shiprock and Tesla buses.

Figure 3-6. Illustration of Actual Power Angle Data

A typical transmission system operator is not normally aware of the phase and
power angles in the system. However, every time a system operator uses a
synchroscope or a synch-check relay to close a circuit breaker, the power angle is
monitored.

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 Active and Reactive Power

Use of Synchroscopes

The three
A circuit breaker synchroscope is illustrated in Figure 3-7. A synchroscope
quantities compares the frequency, voltage phase angle, and voltage magnitude on both
monitored by a sides of an open circuit breaker. If the frequency on either side of the circuit
synchroscope are breaker is different the synchroscope rotates. The position of the rotating needle
called the represents the voltage phase angle across the circuit breaker or the power angle.
synchronizing
variables. The If the needle is at 12:00, the power angle is 0°. If the needle is at 6:00, the power
synchronizing angle is 180°. Ideally, the needle is rotating very slowly and reaches 0° at the
variables are: instant the circuit breaker is closed.
1. Frequency
Difference When synchroscopes are used in the transmission system, the frequency
2. Phase Angle difference is usually very small. If the power angle measured is too large, a
Difference system operator adjusts generation levels in the system to lower the angle and
3. Voltage
Magnitude
allow a closure.
Difference

Figure 3-7. Synchroscopes & Power Angles

Generator Torque Angle

As illustrated in Figure 3-8, a synchronous generator is composed of a rotating
member called the rotor and a stationary member called the stator. The rotor is
attached to the prime mover (often a turbine). When the working fluid (steam,
water, etc.) impacts on the turbine blades, it causes the turbine/rotor combination
to rotate. The rotor is actually an electromagnet as DC field coils are wound

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 Active and Reactive Power

about the rotor and fed DC current from the generator’s excitation system. A
synchronous generator is designed so the rotor turns at synchronous speed. This
creates a rotating electromagnetic field.
When a generator is first connected to the power system, the rotating
electromagnetic field of the rotor is synchronized to the rotating electromagnetic
field that naturally exists in the 3Φ power system. The generator is synchronized
by adjusting the generator speed, voltage magnitude, and phase to within a desired
range. Once voltage and speed are within this range the generator circuit breaker
is closed and the two rotating fields combine. The two rotating fields are “in-
step” with one another when they are synchronized.

The rotor and

stator magnetic
fields are actually
rotating at
synchronous
speed but are
shown as
stationary to
simplify their
description.

Figure 3-8. Generator Torque Angle Illustration

The torque angle of a generator is the angular difference between the rotor’s
rotating magnetic field and the rotating magnetic field about the stator of the
generator. Figure 3-8(a) represents a generator that is synchronized to the system
but has no MW output. The angular difference between the rotor and stator
magnetic fields is 0°. Both fields are rotating in lock-step with one another.
Figure 3-8(b) represents a generator that is synchronized and sending MW to the
system. Notice that the rotor field leads the stator field by a torque angle of 30°.
The magnetic field of the rotor is pulling the magnetic field of the stator along
with it. The generator is injecting a large amount of energy into the power system
as a result of the magnetic force it is exerting on the system. The generator has a
MW output as a result of this torque angle.
The torque angle of a generator has a large impact on the MW delivered by the See Figure 2-67
generator to the system. Within certain limits, the larger the torque angle the for an illustration
of torque angle in
more MW the generator outputs. The torque angle of a generator is very similar terms of a voltage
to the power angle measured between locations in the power system. A angle difference.
generator’s torque angle is the difference in phase between a generator’s internal
or excitation voltage and the unit’s stator voltage. Both torque and power angles
are voltage angle differences. The torque and power angles determine the
direction and magnitude of active power flow in the system.

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3.3 Equations for Power Transfer

3.3.1 Development of Power Transfer Equations

In order to better understand the factors that influence how active and reactive
power flows in the power system, simple equations relating to these factors are
now developed. These equations relate the power transfer between two
substations to system electrical data. The electrical data includes:
Î Sending and the receiving bus voltages
Î Power angle between the two buses
Î Series impedance of the transmission path connecting the two buses
Î Natural capacitance (charging) of the transmission path connecting the
two buses
The name PI is
used because the
Figure 3-9 contains a model for a high voltage transmission line. The impedances
model looks like that affect the flow of power are represented in this model. In addition, the
the Greek letter p. natural capacitance of the transmission line is represented by two shunt capacitors
(with impedance XC) connected at each end of the line. This transmission line
model, called the PI model, approximates the behavior of high voltage
transmission lines.

Note that positive

sending end
current is into the
line and positive
receiving end
current is into the
receiving bus.

Figure 3-9. Transmission Line PI Model

In the PI model for a transmission line, Z is equal to the series impedance of the
transmission line. Z includes both the line’s series reactance (XL) and the line’s
series resistance (R). XC is the line’s capacitive reactance. The line’s capacitive
reactance represents the natural capacitive nature of the transmission line.
Also shown on the model are the sending end voltage (VS) and current (IS) and the
receiving end voltage (VR) and current (IR). The model of Figure 3-9 is used to
develop simple equations for the transfer of active and reactive power between the
sending and receiving ends of the line.

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Using the data from our transmission line model in Figure 3-9 and applying
Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws, the four equations in Equation 3-1 are
developed. These equations define the sending and receiving end voltages (VS
and VR) and currents (IS and IR). Note the bar symbols above the voltage, current,
and impedance values. The bar symbol means the quantity is a vector or phasor.
For example, the symbol means the receiving end voltage phasor has both a
magnitude and an angle.

⎛ VR ⎞ ⎛ VS ⎞
VS = V R + ⎜ I R − ⎟Z V R = VS − ⎜ IS − ⎟Z
⎝ XC ⎠ ⎝ XC ⎠
VS VS − V R VR VS − V R
IS = + IR = − +
XC Z XC Z
Equation 3-1. Power Transfer Equation Set #1

The complex power (the MVA or S) is always equal to the voltage times the
current. The equations in Equation 3-2 are for the MVA flowing out of the
sending end of Figure 3-9 and into the receiving end of the line. The sending end
MVA is equal to the sending end voltage times the sending end current. The
receiving end MVA is equal to the receiving end voltage times the receiving end
current.
A few of the symbols used in Equation 3-2 require further explanation.
Î The “j” symbol signifies that the reactive power terms are 90° out-of-
phase with the active power terms.
Î The angle term “δ” (Greek letter delta) is the voltage phase angle (the
power angle) between the sending (VS) and receiving (VR) buses.
Î The hat symbol (^) is a math concept (called a conjugate) used to ensure
the proper sign conventions are used for reactive power.

VS2 VS2 VR VS∠δ Kirchhoff’s

SS = PS + jQS = VS × öIS = + − voltage law was
Zö X ö Zö
C used to construct
V VR2 VR VS∠δ
2 the two voltage
SR = PR + jQR = VR × öIR = − − R
+ equations.
Zö Xö
C
Zö Kirchhoff’s
current law was
Equation 3-2. Power Transfer Equation Set #2 used to construct
the two current
Equation 3-3 separates the active and reactive power portions of the equations in equations.
Equation 3-2. The two active power equations define the MW out of the sending
bus (PS) and into the receiving bus (PR). The reactive power equations define the
Mvar out of the sending bus (QS) and into the receiving bus (QR).

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 Active and Reactive Power

VS
The “Z” term has PS = ⎡ V R − RVR cosδ + X L VR sin δ ⎤⎦
been separated into Z2 ⎣ S
its R+jXL
components in V ⎡ V ⎤
QS = S2 ⎢ VS X L − X L VR cosδ + RVR sin δ − S Z2 ⎥
these equations. Z ⎣ XC ⎦
V
PR = R2 ⎡⎣ −VR R + RVS cosδ + X L VS sin δ ⎤⎦
Z
VR ⎡ VR 2 ⎤
QR = ⎢ −VR
X L
+ X L
VS
cosδ − RVS
sin δ + Z ⎥
Z2 ⎣ XC ⎦
Equation 3-3. Power Transfer Equation Set #3

The equations of Equation 3-2 are simplified by assuming that the series
Ignoring the series
resistance is a good
resistance (R) is much smaller than the series reactance (XL) and then ignore the
approximation for series resistance. The simplified equations in Equation 3-4 are the result:
high voltage
transmission lines. VS × VR VS2 − VS VR cosδ VS2
PS = sin δ QS = −
XL XL XC
VS × VR −VR2 + VS VR cosδ VR2
PR = sinδ QR = +
XL XL XC
Equation 3-4. Power Transfer Equation Set #4

The four equations in Equation 3-4 define the sending and receiving end active
and reactive power flows. When the bus voltages, the series reactance (XL), the
line charging (XC), and the power angle (δ) are known, the active and reactive
powers can be calculated. If the voltages used are line-to-line values, the power
flows calculated are 3Φ values.
To simplify our usage of the power transfer equations, from this point on, we
concentrate on the sending end equations. The sending end equations are listed in
Equation 3-5.

VS × VR VS2 − VSVR cos δ VS2

PS = sin δ QS = −
XL XL XC
Equation 3-5. Power Transfer Equation Set #5

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3.3.2 Use of the Active Power Transfer Equation

The active power transfer equation is stated below.

VS × VR
PS = sin δ
XL

This equation tells us that the MW transfer is determined by multiplying the

sending and receiving end voltages together and dividing by the series reactance
of the line. This quantity is next multiplied by the sine of the power angle. The
quantity [(VS x VR) / XL] is called the maximum power or PMAX.
PMAX is the maximum MW a system is electrically capable of transmitting. How
much of this maximum is actually transmitted depends on the sine δ term of the
equation. Within limits, the larger the power angle (δ), the more MW that will
flow.
Figure 3-10 contains a simple 115 kV two bus power system. The voltage at the
sending end is 115 kV and the receiving end voltage is 118 kV. The line series
reactance is 100 Ω. The bottom of Figure 3-10 contains a sample use of the
active power transfer equation. If you multiply out the numbers, the active power
transferred is 24 MW. Note that this power flow is from the sending bus (VS) to
the receiving bus (VR) since the voltage angle of VS leads that of VR.

The MW flow is
from the leading bus
to the lagging bus.

Figure 3-10. Use of the Active Power Transfer Equation

When the active power transfer equation is applied to the simple system of Figure
3-10, the bus voltages at either end of the system are used. The active power
transfer equation applies as long as the buses used are strong buses. By strong
bus we mean the buses have many connecting lines or are close to large sources
of reactive power generation. The buses must be strong to ensure they hold their
voltage. If the voltage of the bus falls sharply with increasing MW transfer, our
simple form of the power transfer equation is no longer accurate.
The active power transfer equation can be simplified even more the power angle
(δ) between the two locations is small. δ is a small angle if it is less than 20°. If δ
is less than 20°, the active power transfer equation can be reduced to:

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 Active and Reactive Power

VS × VR
P= δ = PMAX δ
XL
This simplification
of the active power In this very simple form of the active power transfer equation the angle δ is stated
transfer equation in radians. Angles can be stated in terms of degrees or in terms of radians. To
only applies if d is
convert from degrees to radians multiply the number of degrees by . For
less than 20° and d
is expressed in example, assume we wanted to determine the MW transfer between two points
radians (not with a power angle of 20°. To convert 20° to an equivalent number of radians
degrees). multiply 20 by 2π 360 . The result is 0.35 radians. The active power transfer
between our two points is now .35 x PMAX. To determine the actual MW transfer,
we need determine only PMAX.

Factors that Effect Active Power Flow

VS × VR By considering the active power transfer equation and other factors we can judge
PS = sin δ
XL the impact of various actions and system equipment on MW flow. For easy
Equation 6 reference the active power transfer equation is repeated in the margin.

System Generation & Load

For active power to flow, generators must produce MW and loads must absorb
MW. Active power always flows from source to load. Within an interconnected
power system active power typically has many sources, many loads, and many
paths to get from the source to the load. We can control the flow of active power
by controlling where it is generated and where it is used.

Voltage Magnitude
If the voltage magnitude of either the sending or receiving bus is increased, either
the active power transferred increases or the power angle decreases. Higher
voltages allow transfer of more active power, or transfer of the same amount of
active power with a lower angle. Assume we have a system with several possible
paths from the source to the load. If the voltage levels along one of the paths are
increased, more active power flows on that path.

Path Impedance
We use “XL” as
the path The “XL” in the denominator of the active power transfer equation is the
impedance
impedance impact on active power flow. As “XL” is increased either active
because we are
assuming the power flow decreases or the power angle increases. As “XL” is decreased active
resistance (R) is power flow increases or the power angle decreases. If two paths exist between a
much smaller than source and a load, more power flows on the lower impedance path. Every system
the reactance (XL) operator should understand the statement that “power flows the path of least
and so ignore
impedance”. More power flows on the lower impedance path.
resistance.

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Power Angle (d)

Typically, voltage magnitudes and path impedance are fixed. Changing the path’s
power angle is what normally changes the active power flow along a path. A
system operator normally does not change power angles via some conscious
effort. Power angles change as a natural result of actions that change a system’s
active power needs. For example, assume a utility has generation at one end of a
transmission path and load at the other. As the load increases the power angle
across the path also increases.

System Equipment
System equipment can have a large impact on active power flow. As new
transmission lines are added system active power flows redistribute to incorporate
the new path. System equipment such as transmission lines, transformers, etc.,
has natural impedance and so impacts the flow of active power.
Phase shifting
There are some types of equipment whose primary function is to adjust system transformers or
active power flows. One example of this type of equipment is a phase shifting PSTs may also be
transformer (PST). PSTs are transformers whose function is to adjust the flow of called phase angle
active power. Figure 3-11 illustrates the use of a PST. In Figure 3-11(a), 530 regulators or PARs.
MW of active power is flowing into a two path system. Power splits according to
the path of least impedance so most flows over the lower impedance underground
cable. Assume this power split overloads the underground cable while barely
loading the overhead line.
From a system operations perspective something must be done to relieve the
overloading on the underground cable. An option is to decrease the total system
flow below 530 MW to some manageable level for the underground cable.
However, this option prevents the transmission path operator from fully utilizing
their transmission system.
In Figure 3-11(b) a PST is installed in the underground cable. The PST is used to
control the magnitude of the power angle across the underground cable. If the
power angle can be controlled, the flow of MW can be controlled. The PST in
Figure 3-11(b) pushes a portion of the MW that normally flows across the cable
onto the parallel overhead line.

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 Active and Reactive Power

Chapter 10 of this
text describes the
construction,
operation and use of
PSTs in greater
detail.

Figure 3-11. Use of a Phase Shifting Transformer

3.3.3 Use of the Reactive Power Transfer Equation

The reactive power transfer equation is more difficult to interpret than the active
power transfer equation. However, there are a few simplifications that can be
made to make the equation useful to operations personnel. The equation for the
Mvar out of the sending end of a system is:

⎡ V 2 − VS VR cos δ ⎤ VS2
QS = ⎢ S ⎥−
⎢⎣ XL ⎥⎦ X C

The last term in the equation ( ) represents the effect of transmission line
capacitance. (Notice that the higher the line voltage, the greater the line’s Mvar
production.) For now, ignore the line capacitance. The reactive power transfer
equation then simplifies to:

⎡ V 2 − VS VR cos δ ⎤
QS = ⎢ S ⎥
⎢⎣ XL ⎥⎦

The reactive power transferred between two points is therefore determined by the
voltage magnitudes at the two points and the cosine of the power angle between
the points.

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In normal power system operations, the power angle between two connected
The Cosine of 20 is
buses is small. If δ is small (< 20°) the cosine δ term is very close to one (1). equal to 0.94.
If we assume that the power angle stays small then the reactive power transfer
simplifies even further to:
VS (VS − VR )
QS =
XL

The critical part of this equation is the portion in parenthesis or (VS – VR). This
portion tells us that Mvar will flow from the higher voltage to the lower voltage.
Reactive power does normally flow from the high to the low voltage bus. This is
a rule of thumb every system operator should know.
However, we also determined the conditions for which this rule of thumb is true.
Recall that we assumed the power angle was small and so ignored the cosine
term. If δ had been large (> 20°), we could not have ignored the cosine term.
When power angles exceed approximately 20°, the rule of thumb that reactive
power flows from high to low voltage no longer applies. Reactive power can
flow from the low to the high voltage bus if the power angle between the buses is
large enough.
VS2 − VS VR cos δ
QS =
Factors that Effect Reactive Power Flow XL
By considering the reactive power transfer equation and other factors we can VS2
−
judge the impact of various actions and system equipment on reactive power XC
flow. For reference, the reactive power transfer equation is repeated in the Equation 7
margin.

Reactive Sources and Reactive Loads Transmission lines can

be either a reactive
Reactive power flows from sources to loads in the same manner as active source or a reactive
power. However, reactive sources are not limited to generators. Shunt load. Chapter 5 explains
capacitors, synchronous condensers, and transmission lines are all possible this point.
reactive power sources. Reactive loads include not only the customer load but
also shunt reactors and the transmission system.
Reactive power is closely related to system voltage levels. When voltage levels
need to be increased the solution is often to increase the reactive supply to the
system. Generators may produce more reactive power, or shunt capacitors may
be placed in-service. When voltage levels need to be reduced the solution is often
to reduce the reactive power supply. Generators may be used to absorb excess
reactive power, or shunt reactors may be placed in-service.

Voltage Magnitude
Reactive power flow is strongly tied to voltage magnitudes. When a generator is
asked to increase its terminal voltage it does so by increasing its DC excitation
current. This increases the generator’s internal excitation voltage. The higher
internal voltage of the generator leads to more Mvar flowing out of the unit.

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When shunt capacitors are placed in-service the voltage at the point of the
capacitor insertion increases. Reactive power flows from this high voltage point
and disperses throughout the power system.

Path Impedance
The “XL” also appears in the denominator of the reactive power transfer equation.
As the “XL” of a path is increased, the reactive power usage of the path increases
(greater I2XL) and the reactive power transfer across the path decreases. As the
“XL” of a path is decreased, the reactive power usage of the path decreases and
the reactive power transfer increases. In the same manner as active power flow,
reactive power flows the path of least impedance.

Power Angle (d)

Reactive power is also impacted by the power angle. Active power is a function
The Cosine of of the sine of δ while reactive power is a function of the cosine of δ. Typical
20° is equal to
0.94.
power angles between buses are less than 20°. When the power angles are this
small the cosine of δ is close to one (1). The result is that while MW flow is
strongly impacted by power angles, Mvar flow is typically weakly impacted.

System Equipment
System equipment has a very strong impact on reactive power flow. When
voltage control equipment such as capacitors, reactors, or tap changing
transformers are used to adjust voltage this equipment is actually controlling the
flow of reactive power. Voltage control is reactive power flow control. The two
cannot be separated. Chapter 5 of this text will examine the operation and use of
several types of voltage (reactive power flow) control equipment.

Transmission Line Charging

Note the last term in the reactive power transfer equation. The VS2 XC term is
due to a transmission line’s natural capacitance. Transmission lines provide
reactive power to the system during light loading. Transmission lines absorb
reactive power from the system during heavy loading periods. The amount of
reactive power a transmission line provides to the system is related to the line’s
voltage. The greater the voltage, the more Mvar the line will supply.
3.4 Graphical Tools for Power Transfer
This section introduces two graphical tools for studying the flow of active and
reactive power. The first tool is the power-angle curve and the second the power-
circle diagram. The power-angle curve is easily developed and is illustrated and
explained first. Power-angle curves are a powerful tool for studying the angle
stability of a simple power system. The power-angle curve is used frequently in
Chapter 7 when angle stability is studied. The power-circle diagram requires
more effort to produce. The effort is worthwhile, as the diagram is an excellent

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tool for visualizing how MW and Mvar flow with changing power system
conditions.

3.4.1 Power-Angle Curve

Section 3.3 developed a simple form of the active power transfer equation as
stated below.

VS × VR
PS = sin δ
XL

The [(VS x VR)/XL] portion is a relatively constant value and is called PMAX.
PMAX is the largest possible MW transfer between two strong buses. The MW
transfer can only reach PMAX if the power angle is 90°. The amount of PMAX
actually transferred between the two points is dependent on the term sine δ. For
example, assume the power angle is 30°. The sine of 30° is ½ so ½ of PMAX is
transferred between two points if the power angle is 30°.
Figure 3-12 is a plot of the active power transfer equation. This plot is called the
power-angle curve. The power-angle curve is obtained by multiplying the PMAX
value by the sine δ term. Since the value of the sine function varies from 0 to 1 to
0 to -1 to 0, the power-angle curve magnitude varies from 0 to +PMAX to 0 to -
PMAX to 0. With active power transfer we are normally only concerned with the
first ½ cycle of the power-angle curve so we ignore the negative half cycle.
The power-angle curve graphically illustrates that the maximum continuous active The maximum
power transfer between any two strong buses occurs when the power angle power transfer
between these same two points is 90°. (This also could be determined from the actually occurs at
active power transfer equation as the maximum value of sine δ occurs when the transmission
line’s impedance
δ = 90°.) angle. The
impedance angle is
Point “A” in Figure 3-12 represents a point at which a medium amount of active
dependent on the
power (PA) is being transmitted from the sending bus (VS) to the receiving bus relative amounts of
(VR). The power angle for the active power transfer at point “A” is δA which is line resistance and
much less than 90°. Point “B” represents a point at which the maximum amount reactance. The
of power (PMAX) is being transmitted between the two buses. The power angle at line’s impedance
angle is always less
point “B” is 90°. Point “C” is for a power transfer with a δ greater than 90°. Note than 90° since there
that the power transfer at point “C” is less than at point “B”. As the power angle is always some
rises above 90°, the active power transfer decreases. resistance. Our use
of 90° is a
simplification that
assumes the line’s
resistance is much
smaller than its
reactance.

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Active and Reactive Power

Figure 3-12. The Power-Angle Curve

If the power angle reaches a high level (above 90°) and attempts to stay there,
synchronism is eventually lost between the two buses. It is impossible to operate
to the right of point “B” for an extended (more than a few cycles) period of time.
There is a very important feature to the power-angle curve of Figure 3-12. The
mechanical power input line is the horizontal dashed line through the power-angle
curve. This line represents the amount of mechanical power input to the generator
connected to the sending end. The mechanical power input line may cross the
power-angle curve at any point. Figure 3-12 shows the mechanical power input
line crossing near the middle of the power-angle curve. As the mechanical power
input to the generator varies, the mechanical power input line position varies.
The intersection of the mechanical power input line and the power-angle curve
yields the possible operating points. One of these points is an acceptable
operating point while the other would be unacceptable. For example in
Figure 3-12 point “A” is acceptable while point “C” is unacceptable. Operation at
point “C” would result in a loss of synchronism.

Introduction to Angle Stability

Power-angle curves are a powerful, yet simple to use, tool for determining the
angle stability of a simple power system. Angle stability is the study of whether a
power system maintains its magnetic bonds. A power system is angle stable if its
generators maintain strong magnetic bonds with the system and with one another.
A system is angle unstable if one or more of the magnetic bonds are lost. Other

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terms used to indicate angle instability are loss of synchronism, slipping poles,
and out-of-step operation.
When a section of the power system is operated in a state where the power angle
between the ends of a transmission line is close to 90°, we say that the system is
being operated at PMAX or at its steady state stability limit. For example, if a
major transmission line were operated with a power angle of 90° it would be at its
steady state stability limit. This is not an acceptable normal point of operation, as
any system disturbance, even minor, would cause the power system to lose
synchronism.
When the interconnected power system loses synchronism, portions of the system
operate at slightly different frequencies than the remainder of the system. A loss
of synchronism means that the magnetic bond that existed between points within
the interconnected power system is too weak to maintain a constant frequency.
The magnetic bond fails and the system eventually separates into smaller sections
or islands. Each island would then attempt to maintain its own separate 60 HZ
frequency.
Power systems lose synchronism when power transfers rise to such large
magnitudes that power angles reach excessive values. Power systems cannot
operate in an interconnected manner after synchronism is lost. When
synchronism is lost protective relays likely operate and system separation often
occurs. Some portions of the interconnected system may end up as electrical
islands that are unable to maintain scheduled frequency. System generators and
customer motors in these low or high frequency islands may be damaged if the
island is allowed to exist for too long a period with the abnormal frequency.
The term out-of-step is another way of saying that a section of power system has
lost synchronism with the remainder of the power system. The magnetic bond
between a generator’s rotor and the power system the generator is connected to
normally holds the generators respective magnetic fields in-step. When this bond
is broken, the generators are no longer in-step with the system but are out-of-step.

3.4.2 The Power-Circle Diagram

The power-circle diagram is a valuable tool for illustrating how active and
reactive power flow vary as voltage magnitude, impedance, and power angle
change. This section describes how power-circle diagrams are created and
illustrates their use.
Equation 3-2 contained equations for sending and receiving end MVA flow.
These equations were developed using the simple PI model (Figure 3-9) for a
transmission line. The equations of Equation 3-2 are repeated in Equation 3-7
with some rearrangement. SS is the complex power or MVA out of the sending
end bus and into the transmission line. SR is the complex power or MVA out of
the transmission line and into the receiving end bus. SS has two components, S1
and S2. SR also has two components, R1 and R2.

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 Active and Reactive Power

⎡ VS2 VS2 ⎤ ⎡ VS VR ∠δ ⎤
SS = ⎢ + + −
⎢⎣ Zö X ö ⎥⎥ ⎢ Zö ⎦
⎥
C⎦ ⎣

S1 S2
⎡ VR2 VR2 ⎤ ⎡ VS VR ∠δ ⎤
SR = ⎢ − − +
⎢⎣ Zö X ö ⎥⎥ ⎢ Zö ⎦
⎥
C⎦ ⎣

R1 R2
Equation 3-6. Equations for the Power-Circle Diagram

The sending and receiving end complex power equations form the outlines of
circles when plotted on the appropriate axis. Figure 3-13 is an example of a
possible circle diagram plot if sending end data from the equations of Equation 3-
12 are plotted. The complex power out of the sending end (SS) is equal to S1 plus
S2. The vector S1 starts at the origin and determines the center of the sending end
circle. The vector S2 starts at the end of S1 and determines the radius of the
sending end circle. A circle is then drawn with the end of S1 as the center and
with a radius of S2.

This diagram
assumes that the
system voltages and
impedance do not
change. If we
wanted to illustrate
voltage or
impedance changes
we would draw a
new sending end
circle with a
different diameter
and center location.

Figure 3-13. Sending End Power-Circle Diagram

The sending end circle in Figure 3-13 can be used to determine the active and
reactive power flows out of the sending end for any power angle. For example,
Figure 3-13 illustrates that with a power angle of 0° (δ is equal to 0° along the
vector S2) the sending end MW is equal to P0 and the sending end Mvar is equal
to -Q0. The negative sign on the reactive power means the Mvar is flowing from
the line into the sending end bus. Figure 3-13 also illustrates the MW and Mvar if

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the power angle is increased to 70°. Note the MW is P70 and the Mvar Q70 (the
Mvar flow is positive so it has reversed direction.)
Given a simple power system we are often interested in what happens to the
sending and receiving end MW and Mvar flows as we vary the power angle.
Figure 3-14 expands on the illustration of Figure 3-13 by adding the receiving end
circle to the diagram.

The 70° power

angle dashed lines
illustrate the MW
and Mvar flow for a
70° power angle.
The dashed lines
are used to read the
MW and Mvar flows
at the sending and
receiving ends.

Figure 3-14. Sending & Receiving End Circle Diagrams

The power angle is the angle between the sending and receiving voltages so it is
the same from either end of the line. As the power angle is raised to 70°, the MW
and Mvar flows for the sending and receiving buses change. You could determine
the MW and Mvar flows out of the sending bus and into the receiving bus by
noting the positions of the 70° power angle lines in Figure 3-14.

Use of the Power-Circle Diagram

There are many interesting concepts that can be explained using power-circle
diagrams. For example, the impact of voltage changes, impedance changes, and
power angle changes are easily illustrated. We will illustrate the use of a power-
circle diagram for studying the simple 345 kV power system given in Figure 3-15.

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Figure 3-15. System for Illustrating the Use of a Power-Circle

Diagram
Note that the MW
The magnitudes of VS, VR, R, XL and XC are input to the equations given in
portions of S1, S2
and R1, R2 are Equation 3-12. Values of S1 (70 MW & 930 Mvar), S2 (-70 MW & -990 Mvar),
opposite. When R1 (-70 MW & -880 Mvar) and R2 (70 MW & 990 Mvar) result.
plotted S1 and S2
and R1 and R2 are These values are plotted in Figure 3-16 to form the sending and receiving power-
on top of one circle diagrams for the sample system of Figure 3-15. S1 and R1 are plotted from
another. This is due the origin and respectively determine the center of the sending and receiving
to the small line circles. S2 and R2 are plotted from the ends of S1 and R1 and determine the radius
resistance
magnitude as
of the sending and receiving circles. Figure 3-16 applies for a δ of 0°. Figure 3-
compared to the 16 shows us that with a power angle of 0° our simple system has:
line’s inductive
reactance. Î Power flow from the sending bus into the transmission line of 0 MW and
-60 Mvar.
Î Power flow from the transmission line into the receiving bus of 0 MW
and +110 Mvar.
These flow numbers are given in the system one-line in the lower right corner of
Figure 3-16. Note the directions of the power flows. The flow numbers derived
from the power-circle diagram make sense. The MW value should be zero as
there is no power angle. There must be a power angle for MW transfer. The
Mvar flows are from the line into both buses. This also is expected as a high
voltage transmission line acts as a capacitor when lightly loaded.

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 Active and Reactive Power

This line is lightly

loaded and acts like
a capacitor. This is
expected of high
voltage
transmission lines
when they are
lightly loaded.

Figure 3-16. Power-Circle Diagram with a δ of 0°

Figure 3-17 is a power-circle diagram for the same system. All that has changed
from Figure 3-16 is that power angle has been increased to 40°. Note the increase
in both the MW and Mvar flows at both ends of the system. As the power angle
is raised the system is pushed harder and harder. Figure 3-17 shows us that with a
power angle of 40° our system has a:
Î Power flow from the sending bus into the transmission line of 640 MW
and +150 Mvar.
Î Power flow from the transmission line into the receiving bus of 610 MW
and -200 Mvar.
The 40° angle has resulted in increased MW and Mvar flow. Note the MW flow
out of the sending bus is 640 while the MW flow into the receiving bus is 610.
The difference is the line losses. The line losses grow as the power angle is
increased. Also note the Mvar flow is now into the line from both buses. The
heavy current flow on the line has resulted in large reactive power usage. The
system must supply this reactive power to the line or the bus voltages will fall.

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 Active and Reactive Power

Figure 3-17. Power-Circle Diagram with a δ of 40°

Figure 3-18 illustrates the effect of increasing the power angle to 86°. The
impedance angle of the system in Figure 3-15 is 86° (R=8 Ω and XL=120 Ω yields
an impedance angle of 86°). The maximum active power transfer into the
receiving bus occurs at the line’s impedance angle. Figure 3-18 shows us that
with a power angle of 86° our system has a:

Î Power flow from the sending bus into the transmission line of 1030 MW
and 825 Mvar.
Î Power flow from the transmission line into the receiving bus of 900 MW
and -870 Mvar.
Power circle
diagrams are not The active power losses for the system have climbed to 130 MW. The
designed to evaluate transmission line is absorbing 1,695 Mvar to support its bus voltages. Figure 3-18
a system’s angle has a power angle of 86° which is unacceptably high. Operating at this high an
instability risk. angle would likely be unstable as this angle is across only one line section.
The high power flow levels of Figure 3-18 are likely beyond the thermal
Section 3.5 of this capability of the transmission line. The equations we described in this chapter
chapter describes and the graphical tools presented are for calculating the power flows on system
thermal operating elements. The equipment itself may be thermally damaged when the power angle
limits. and flows grow to high values. It is often up to the system operator to ensure
system power flows do not violate thermal limits.

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If the power angle is increased above 86°, the MW flow starts to decrease. The
Mvar flow, however, continues to increase. The maximum Mvar flow occurs at
an angle near 180°. Remember that any angle greater than approximately 90°
cannot be sustained without the power system losing stability.

Figure 3-18. Power-Circle Diagram with a δ of 86°

In Figure 3-19 the power angle has risen to 120°. This is not an acceptable
operating angle. This large of an angle is illustrated only to show its effect on
system power flows. Note that the MW flow has shrunk from its previous peak
value. The Mvar flow has climbed to a very high value. With a power angle of
120° we have:
Î Power flow from the sending bus into the transmission line of 930 MW
and 1,360 Mvar.
Î Power flow from the transmission line into the receiving bus of 720 MW
and -1,430 Mvar.
Angles in excess of 90° are not an acceptable operating point but do briefly occur
on occasions. When a system suffers a loss of synchronism power angles grow
beyond 90°. As noted in Figure 3-19, when power angles grow beyond 90°, Mvar
flows reach very high magnitudes.

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 Active and Reactive Power

Note the large MW

losses. These are due
to the very high
current flows.

Figure 3-19. Power-Circle Diagram with a δ of 120°

3.5 Power Transfer Limits
To reliably operate a power system, we must recognize that there are power flow
or power transfer limits. The limits are to the generation and transmission of
active and reactive power in the system. The limits are usually divided into three
broad categories: thermal, stability and voltage limits.

3.5.1 Thermal Limits

Thermal limits are due to the thermal capability of power system equipment. As
power transfer increases, current magnitude increases. Current magnitudes are
the key to thermal damage. Both forms of power flow, MW and Mvar, contribute
to the current magnitude. As the current passes through equipment heat is
produced. The amount of heat produced is proportional to I2R. If the equipment
cannot safely dissipate the heat generated, it could be thermally damaged.
Chapter 5 of this
text describes For example, at power plants, sustained operation of units outside their maximum
the use of MW and Mvar capabilities results in thermal damage. The damage may be to the
generator stator (armature) windings or to the rotor (field) windings of the unit.
capability
curves. Out in the power system, transmission lines and associated equipment must also
Generators must be operated within thermal limits. Sustained excessive current flow on an
stay within their overhead line causes the conductors to sag thus decreasing the ground clearance
capability curve
to avoid thermal and reducing safety margins. Extreme levels of current flow eventually damage
damage. the metallic structure of the conductors producing a permanent conductor sag.

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Unlike overhead lines, underground cables and transformers must depend on

insulation other than air to dissipate the generated heat. These types of equipment
are tightly restricted in the amount of current they can safely carry. For this
equipment, sustained overloading results in a shortening of service life due to
damage to the insulation.
Most power system equipment can be safely overloaded. The key is how great is
the overload and how long does it last. Equipment manufacturers and utility
experts determine thermal ratings for equipment. Typically, these ratings may
allow a specified overload for a specified period of time. These ratings must be
followed to avoid equipment thermal damage.

3.5.2 Angle Stability Limits

A second category of power transfer limits is angle stability limits. Angle
stability limits are limits imposed to ensure that system torque and power angles
remain controllable. When a system is angle stable, power and torque angles are
small between connected buses. The angles change as system conditions change.
The important point is that the angles should never grow so large or change so
fast that system operators lose their ability to control power flows.
When a system is angle unstable, power and torque angles are no longer
controllable. The angles may reach high magnitudes and rapidly vary over a wide
range. System operators lose their ability to control power transfer. A system
may enter a period of angle instability following a system disturbance. A system
operator is typically helpless once this event starts as the system can enter an
unstable condition very rapidly (fraction of a second) following a major
disturbance. In the simple two-
Section 3.3 of this chapter introduced the active power transfer equation. bus power system
used in this chapter,
Theoretically, the maximum amount of active power transferred between two power angles could
strong buses occurs at a power angle of approximately 90°. Unfortunately, there never exceed 90°.
is a substantial difference between the theory and power system reality. In the Power angles
actual power system power angles can never approach 90° between connected across a large
interconnected
buses. The system would collapse before these high angles are reached.
system with many
Utilities study their systems to determine safe power transfer limits. Stability strong buses can
exceed 90°. The
limits are determined using complex computer modeling software. The entire angles between
power system is modeled to ensure that allowable power transfer limits do not adjacent buses are
expose the system to an unreasonable chance of angle instability. normally very small
but there are many
The world is not perfect and angle instability events do occasionally occur. buses and lines in
Usually automatic protective equipment activate to minimize the severity and an actual power
spread of the disturbance. The critical elements to the study of a system’s angle system.
stability are the synchronous generators. Chapter 7 of this text examines angle
stability in detail.

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3.5.3 Voltage Limits

A third category of power transfer limits is voltage limits. Both utility and
customer equipment are designed to operate at a certain rated or nominal supply
voltage. A large, prolonged deviation (high or low) from this nominal voltage can
adversely affect the performance of, as well as cause serious damage to, system
equipment.
Assume a large amount of power is transferred over a long distance to a load area.
The current flowing through the impedance of the lines, transformers, and other
transmission equipment may produce an unacceptably large voltage drop at the
receiving end of the system. This voltage drop is primarily due to the large
reactive power losses that occur as the current flows through the system. If the
Mvar produced by generators and other circuit elements are not sufficient to
supply the system’s usage of Mvar, voltages fall.
Systems often require reactive support (capacitor banks, etc.) to help prevent low
voltage problems. The amount of available reactive support often determines
power transfer limits. A system may be restricted to a lower level of active power
transfer than desired because the system does not possess the required reactive
power reserves to sufficiently support voltage.
Chapters 5 and 6 of this text examine the role voltage plays in the operation of the
interconnected power system.

3.5.4 Determining Power Transfer Limits

Three broad categories of power transfer limits have been described. Our
conclusion is that power transfer may be restricted due to any of these limits or to
combinations of these limits. Figure 3-20 illustrates this point. The figure
contains a simple power system. Power transfer experts have studied the system
and determined the following power transfer limits:
Î A transfer limit of 1,000 MVA due to expected low voltage at the
receiving bus (voltage limit).
Î A transfer limit of 2,000 MW due to an expected loss of angle stability if
the transfer exceeds 2,000 MW (angle stability limit).
Î A power transfer limit of 1,500 MVA due to thermal limits at the
receiving end transformer (thermal limit).
A question for the system operator is: what is the power transfer limit? It would
be wise to choose 1,000 MVA. Choosing any of the other limits would result in
low voltage problems at the receiving end. Perhaps the transmission system
operator could install shunt capacitors at the receiving bus. After the installation
of the shunt capacitors, the transmission system operator may be able to raise the
power transfer limit to 1,500 MVA.

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It does not
matter which
way the reactive
power is
flowing, it still
contributes to
the current
magnitude.

Figure 3-20. Evaluating Power Transfer Limits

3.5.5 Total and Available Transfer Capability

To assist with maintaining the reliability of the transmission system, NERC has
defined two terms that relate to transmission system MW transfer capability:
TTC and ATC.
The total transfer capability or TTC from one area to another is the amount of
NERC’s formal
MW that can be transferred between the areas while ensuring that the power definition for
system can suffer a disturbance and subsequently recover to an acceptable TTC is in this
operating state. NERC Reliability Standards require that the transmission system text’s glossary.
be operated in such a manner that the single most severe contingency can occur
without a severe disruption to the power system.
Figure 3-21 illustrates the concept of TTC. Power system areas 1 and 2 are
connected with three transmission lines. Assume engineers have determined that
the TTC of this three-line path is 1,200 MW. These engineers are therefore
stating that this path can be loaded to 1,200 MW and a major outage could occur
(perhaps to the 500 kV line) and the remaining system would not be unduly
impacted.

Figure 3-21. Illustration of the TTC Concept

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Active and Reactive Power

TTC numbers are directional. The TTC in Figure 3-21 is from area 1→2. The
TTC from area 2→1 may be more or less than 1200 MW.
The available transfer capability or ATC of a transmission path is the amount of
the TTC that the Transmission Service Provider for the transmission path has
available for sale to any marketing entities that may want to purchase the transfer
capability. In other words, the ATC is that portion of the TTC that is available for
further commercial activity.
For example, in Figure 3-21, assume the transmission operator sells 1000 MW of
the area 1 to area 2 TTC. The ATC from area 1 to area 2 is now reduced to 200
MW.
3.6 Distribution Factors
Power flows in inverse proportion to the impedance of the available transmission
paths. In other words, more MW and Mvar flows on the path with the lowest
impedance. Distribution factors are a convenient method of describing how
power flow distributes on the available transmission paths.

3.6.1 Determining Distribution Factors

Consider the simple power system in Figure 3-22. Assume you increase the
output of a generator at Bus “A” by 100 MW in order to serve a 100 MW load at
Bus “B”. The new MW from the generator at Bus “A” has two options to get to
the load at Bus “B”. The MW can flow directly from Bus “A” to Bus “B” or the
MW can take a longer path from Bus “A” through Bus “C” through Bus “D” and
finally to Bus “B”.
How much of the 100 MW takes the direct path and how much the longer path?
The answer is simple if you remember Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws. MW flows
the path of least impedance so you can determine the proportion of the MW flow
on each path by comparing the impedance of the two paths.
As illustrated in Figure 3-22 the impedance of path “A-B” is 50W. The
impedance of path “A-C-D-B” is 150W. The total system impedance is
therefore 50W + 150W = 200W. Path “A-B” will carry 150/200 or 75% of
the 100 MW while path “A-C-D-B” will carry 50/200 or 25% of the 100 MW.

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Figure 3-22. Determining Distribution Factors

The term
For a 100 MW intended or scheduled flow from Bus “A” to Bus “B” path “A-B”
“participation
therefore has a 75% (or .75 per unit) distribution factor and path “A-C-D-B” has factor” is
a 25% (or .25 per unit) distribution factor. Distribution factors are simply the sometimes used
percentage of a given schedule between any two locations that flows on a specific in place of
transmission line. “distribution
factor.
3.6.2 Using Distribution Factors
If the distribution factors are known for a given scheduled power flow, the impact
of that schedule on existing transmission line flows can be estimated. System
operators in all of the major Interconnections of North America use databases of
distribution factors to guide their actions to both relieve existing overloaded
transmission lines and to foresee and prevent future transmission system
overloads.

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3.7 Summary of Active and Reactive Power

3.7.1 Active, Reactive and Complex Power

Î Active power or MW performs the actual work. A utility must consume
a fuel (coal, water, nuclear, gas, oil, etc.) to produce MW.
Î Reactive power or Mvar is constantly being exchanged between those
devices that produce it and those devices that store it in their fields.
Î Complex power (symbol “S” units MVA) is a (vector) sum of the active
(symbol “P” units MW) and reactive (symbol “Q” units Mvar) powers.

3.7.2 Phase Angle, Power Angle, and Torque Angle

Î The voltage angle represents the amount by which a voltage sine wave
has shifted left or right with respect to a reference.
Î The phase angle at a point in a power system is the angular separation
between the current and the voltage waves.
Î The power angle is the voltage angle between two locations in the power
system. The power angle is represented by the Greek letter delta or “d”.
Î A rule of thumb is that active power flows downhill on power angle.
Î The larger the power angle (up to 90°), the larger the active power flow
between the two points.
Î The torque angle of a generator in the angular difference between the
rotor magnetic field and the rotating magnetic about the stator of the
generator.
Î The torque angle of a generator has a large impact on the MW delivered
by the generator to the system. Within limits, the larger the torque angle,
the more MW the generator outputs.

3.7.3 Development of Power Transfer Equations

Î The following four equations for the active and reactive power transfer
were developed in this section. With the bus voltages, the series
reactance (XL), the line charging, (XC), and the power angle between the
buses (d) known, one can calculate the MW and Mvar flow. If the
voltages used are line-to-line values, the power flows calculated are 3F
values.

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 Active and Reactive Power

VS × VR VS2 − VS VR cosδ VS2

PS = sinδ QS = −
XL XL XC
2
VS × VR −V + VS VR cosδ VR2
PR = sinδ QR = R
+
XL XL XC

3.7.4 Use of Active Power Transfer Equation

Î The active power transfer is determined by multiplying the sending and
receiving end voltages together and dividing by the series reactance of
the line. This quantity is next multiplied by the sine of the power angle.
The quantity [(VS x VR)/XL] is called the maximum power or PMAX.
Î PMAX is the maximum MW a simple two-bus system is electrically
capable of transmitting. How much of this maximum is actually
transmitted depends on the sine d term of the equation.
Î If the voltage magnitudes or the path impedance are changed, the active
power flow level or the power angle will also change.
Î MW flow along a path is normally changed by changing the path’s power
angle. Power angles change as a natural result of actions that change a
path’s active power flow.

3.7.5 Use of Reactive Power Transfer Equation

Î If the line capacitance is ignored and the power angle is assumed small,
the reactive power transfer equation simplifies to:
VS (VS − VR )
QS =
XL

Î The critical part in the above equation is the portion in parenthesis or (VS
– VR). This tells us that Mvar will normally flow from the higher voltage
to the lower voltage.
Î Mvar flows from sources to loads in the same manner as MW. However,
reactive sources are not just limited to generators. Shunt capacitors,
synchronous condensers, and transmission lines are all possible reactive
power sources. Reactive loads include not only the customer load but
also shunt reactors and the transmission system.
Î Reactive power is closely related to system voltage levels. When voltage
levels need to be increased the solution is often to increase the reactive
supply. When voltage levels need to be reduced the solution is often to
reduce the reactive supply.
Î While active power is strongly impacted by changing power angles,
reactive power is typically weakly impacted.

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Active and Reactive Power

Î When voltage control equipment such as capacitors, reactors or tap

changing transformers are used to adjust voltage, the equipment is
actually controlling the flow of Mvar.

3.7.6 Power-Angle Curve

Î A power-angle curve is obtained by plotting the active power transfer
equation. Power-angle curves are a powerful graphical tool for
visualizing the angle stability of a simple power system.

3.7.8 The Power-Circle Diagram

Î The power-circle diagram is a valuable tool for illustrating how MW and
Mvar flow varies as voltage magnitude, impedance, and power angle
change.

3.7.9 Thermal Limits

Î Power transfer thermal limits are due to the thermal capability of power
system equipment. As power transfer increases, current magnitude
increases. Current magnitude is the key to thermal damage. Both forms
of power flow, MW and Mvar, contribute to the currents magnitude.
Î Most power system equipment can be safely overloaded. Typically,
thermal ratings allow a specified overload for a specified period of time.
These ratings should be followed to avoid equipment thermal damage.

3.7.10 Angle Stability Limits

Î Angle stability limits are limits imposed to ensure that system torque and
power angles remain controllable.
Î Transmission line operators study their systems to determine safe power
transfer limits. Stability limits are determined using complex computer
modeling software. The entire power system is modeled to ensure that
allowable power transfer limits do not expose the system to an
unreasonable chance of angle instability.

3.7.11 Voltage Limits

Î A third category of power transfer limits are voltage limits. Both utility
and customer equipment are designed to operate at a certain rated or
nominal supply voltage.
Î If the Mvar produced by generators and other circuit elements are not
sufficient to supply the system’s need for Mvar, voltages will fall.

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3.7.12 Determining Power Transfer Limits

Î Three broad categories of power transfer limits were described. The
conclusion was that power transfer may be restricted due to any of these
limits or to combinations of these limits.
Î NERC has defined two terms to assist with determining and marketing
transmission capacity:
— The total transfer capability or TTC is the transmission path’s
maximum safe MW transfer limit.
— The available transfer capability or ATC is the portion of the TTC
still available for commercial usage.

3.7.13 Total and Available Transfer Capability

Î The total transfer capability, or TTC, is the amount of MW that can be
transferred across a transmission path while ensuring that a single most
severe contingency will not result in unacceptable transmission system
consequences.
Î The available transfer capability, or ATC, is that portion of the TTC
available for further commercial activity.

3.7.14 Determining Distribution Factors

Î Distribution factors are used to estimate how much of a specific schedule
will flow across a specific path.

3.7.15 Using Distribution Factors

Î All of the major Interconnections in North America utilize databases of
distribution factors as a tool in determining which schedules impact to
power flows on overloaded transmission lines.

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3.8 Active and Reactive Power Questions

1. Thermal limits are the direct result of?

A. High torque and power angles

B. The thermal capability of system equipment
C. A reactive power deficiency
D. All of the above

2. Reactive power flow is influenced more by system power and torque

angles than reactive power.

A. True
B. False

3. At what line power angle does the MW transfer across a transmission path
equal ½ of the path’s PMAX?

A. 15 degrees
B. 20 degrees
C. 30 degrees
D. 45 degrees

4. A transmission line is rated at 1000 MVA. The power flow is currently 0

MW and 1001 Mvar. Is the transmission line overloaded?

A. Yes
B. No
C. Impossible to determine
D. The line has no load

5. The TTC limit has been determine to be 1000 MW from east to west for a
particular transmission path. The transmission path operator sells 500
MW of this TTC. What is the path’s ATC?

A. 1000 MW
B. 1500 MW
C. 0 MW
D. 500 MW

6. A distribution line is rated at 50 MVA. The line’s power flow is currently

50 MW and -50 Mvar. This distribution line is overloaded.

A. True
B. False

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7. Angle stability limits are the result of?

A. High torque and power angles

B. The thermal capability of system equipment
C. A reactive power deficiency
D. All of the above

8. If the resistance is ignored, the maximum theoretical MW flow across a

transmission line will occur at a power angle of:

A. 0 degrees
B. 45 degrees
C. 90 degrees
D. 180 degrees

9. If the resistance is ignored, the maximum theoretical Mvar flow across a

transmission line will occur at a power angle of:

A. 0 degrees
B. 45 degrees
C. 90 degrees
D. 180 degrees

10. 200 MW is scheduled to flow from Bus “X” to Bus “Y”. Transmission
line “A-B” has a 10% distribution factor for this schedule. How much of
the 200 MW schedule will flow on transmission line “A-B”?

A. 20 MW
B. 40 MW
C. 180 MW
D. 200 MW

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3.9 Active and Reactive Power Flow References

1. Electric Power Systems Manual⎯Textbook written by Mr. Geradino Pete.
Published by McGraw-Hill, 1992.
Î Well written general reference on power systems. Contains material on
active and reactive power, development of the power transfer equations
and the construction and use of power-circle diagrams.
2. Reactive Power: Basics, Problems and Solutions⎯Tutorial course text
published by IEEE. Course text #87EH0262-6-PWR.
Î A collection of IEEE articles that address reactive power. Several articles
in the collection address the flow of active and reactive power.
3. Electric Energy System Theory⎯Textbook written by Mr. Olle I. Elgerd.
Published by McGraw-Hill, 1982.
Î Chapters 2, 3 and 4 of this text were very valuable in developing the
material in this chapter.
4. ATC Reference Document Published Periodically by NERC⎯NERC
periodically updates and publishes a reference document on the methods for
determining and utilizing the TTC and ATC. Read this document for the
current definitions of TTC and ATC.

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FREQUENCY CONTROL

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FREQUENCY CONTROL

SECTION OVERVIEWS
4.1 Introduction to Frequency Control
The load/frequency effect and system inertia help control frequency deviations
caused by a generation-to-load mismatch.
4.2 Governor System Components and Operation
Generating unit governors adjust the MW output of units in the power system in
response to frequency deviations.
4.3 Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
AGC calculates an area control error (ACE) signal which is used to adjust the
output of regulating units and restore frequency to 60 HZ.
4.4 Operating Reserve Requirements
Operating reserve requirements ensure sufficient MW capability to control normal
frequency deviations and respond to large generation contingencies.
4.5 Time Error Control
Accumulated time error is corrected by mutually agreed changes to the scheduled
frequency.
4.6 NERC Control Performance Standards
NERC has developed performance standards that apply during normal and
disturbance conditions.
4.7 Impact of Frequency Deviations
Substantial frequency deviations for prolonged periods can be damaging to power
system equipment and performance.
4.8 Underfrequency Protection
Underfrequency protection includes underfrequency load shedding and
underfrequency generator tripping.
4.9 Nature of a Frequency Deviation
A frequency deviation includes the undershoot, which varies according to
location, and a stabilization point, which is the same throughout the
Interconnection.

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4.10 Staged Response to a Generation Loss

A four-stage process is used to describe the response of the power system to a
generation loss.
4.11 Role of the System Operator
An experienced power system operator uses system frequency and other data to
effectively diagnose power system problems.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

4.1 Introduction to Frequency Control ..................................................... 4-1

4.1.1 The Changing Load................................................................... 4-1
4.1.2 Need for Frequency Control Systems ....................................... 4-1
4.1.3 Definition of a Control System ................................................... 4-2
4.1.4 The Energy Balance Concept ................................................... 4-2
4.1.5 Normal and Abnormal Frequency Deviations............................ 4-4
4.1.6 The Load/Frequency Relationship ............................................ 4-7
4.1.7 Power System Inertia ................................................................ 4-8
4.2 Governor System Components and Operation ............................... 4-10
4.2.1 Introduction to Governors ........................................................ 4-10
4.2.2 Centrifugal Ballhead Governor ................................................ 4-11
4.2.3 Modern Electronic Governors.................................................. 4-13
4.2.4 Governor Droop Curves .......................................................... 4-14
4.2.5 Governor Control in an Islanded Power System ..................... 4-19
4.2.6 Governor Control in an Interconnected System ...................... 4-25
4.2.7 Frequency Traces ................................................................... 4-27
4.2.8 Generator Response and Droop Settings ............................... 4-28
4.2.9 System Frequency Response Characteristic .......................... 4-31
4.2.10 Response to a Loss of Generation .......................................... 4-35
4.2.11 Limitations to Governor Response .......................................... 4-36
4.3 Automatic Generation Control (AGC).............................................. 4-40
4.3.1 Introduction to Automatic Generation Control ......................... 4-40
4.3.2 Balancing Authorities............................................................... 4-41
4.3.3 Types of Interchange............................................................... 4-44
4.3.4 Function of an AGC System .................................................... 4-49
4.3.5 Components of an AGC System ............................................. 4-50
4.3.6 Modes of AGC Control ............................................................ 4-51
4.3.7 Tie-Line Bias Control ............................................................... 4-53
4.3.8 Balancing Authority Implementation of AGC ........................... 4-58
4.4 Reserve Policies.............................................................................. 4-59
4.4.1 Operating Reserves ................................................................ 4-59

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4.4.2 Spinning and Non-Spinning Reserves .....................................4-60

4.4.3 Responsive Reserves ..............................................................4-61
4.4.4 NERC Reserve Definitions.......................................................4-63
4.5 Time Error Control ...........................................................................4-63
4.5.1 Definition of Time Error ............................................................4-63
4.5.2 Monitoring Time Error ..............................................................4-64
4.5.3 Correcting Time Error ..............................................................4-65
4.6 NERC Control Performance Standards ...........................................4-66
4.6.1 NERC’s Old Control Performance Criteria...............................4-67
4.6.2 NERC Performance Standards................................................4-70
4.7 Impact of Frequency Deviations ......................................................4-74
4.7.1 Effects on Steam Turbine Blades ............................................4-74
4.7.2 Effects on Hydro and Combustion Turbines ............................4-75
4.7.3 Effects on Other Power System Equipment.............................4-75
4.7.4 Effects on Active Power Flows.................................................4-76
4.8 Underfrequency Protection ..............................................................4-76
4.8.1 Power System Islands .............................................................4-77
4.8.2 Underfrequency Load Shedding (UFLS)..................................4-78
4.8.3 Underfrequency Generator Protection .....................................4-81
4.9 Nature of a Frequency Deviation .....................................................4-82
4.9.1 Analysis of a Frequency Deviation...........................................4-82
4.9.2 Actual Expanded Frequency Plots...........................................4-84
4.9.3 Effect of Time and Distance.....................................................4-86
4.9.4 Frequency Relation to Power Angle ........................................4-87
4.9.5 Speed of the Traveling Frequency Wave.................................4-89
4.10 Staged Response to a Generation Loss..........................................4-91
4.10.1 The Electromagnetic Energy Stage .........................................4-91
4.10.2 The Inertial Stage.....................................................................4-92
4.10.3 The Governor Response Stage ...............................................4-92
4.10.4 The AGC Stage........................................................................4-92
4.10.5 The Economic Dispatch Stage.................................................4-92
4.10.6 Illustration of a Staged Response ............................................4-93
4.11 Role of the System Operator ...........................................................4-96
4.11.1 Frequency Control Duties ........................................................4-97

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4.11.2 Islanded Systems and Frequency Control............................... 4-97

4.11.3 A Simple Example ................................................................... 4-98
4.12 Summary of Frequency Control..................................................... 4-100
4.12.1 The Changing Load............................................................... 4-100
4.12.2 Need for Frequency Control Systems ................................... 4-100
4.12.3 Definition of a Control System ............................................... 4-100
4.12.4 The Energy Balance Concept ............................................... 4-100
4.12.5 Normal and Abnormal Frequency Deviations........................ 4-100
4.12.6 The Load/Frequency Relationship ........................................ 4-100
4.12.7 Power System Inertia ............................................................ 4-100
4.12.8 Introduction to Governors ...................................................... 4-100
4.12.9 Centrifugal Ballhead Governor .............................................. 4-101
4.12.10 Modern Electronic Governors ............................................... 4-101
4.12.11 Governor Droop Curves ........................................................ 4-101
4.12.12 Governor Control in an Islanded Power System................... 4-101
4.12.13 Governor Control in an Interconnected System .................... 4-101
4.12.14 Frequency Traces ................................................................. 4-101
4.12.15 Generator Response and Droop Settings............................. 4-102
4.12.16 System Frequency Response Characteristic........................ 4-102
4.12.17 Response to a Loss of Generation....................................... 4-102
4.12.18 Limitations to Governor Response....................................... 4-102
4.12.19 Introduction to Automatic Generation Control ...................... 4-102
4.12.20 Balancing Authorities ........................................................... 4-103
4.12.21 Types of Interchange........................................................... 4-103
4.12.22 Function of an AGC System ................................................ 4-103
4.12.23 Components of an AGC System ......................................... 4-103
4.12.24 Modes of AGC Control........................................................ 4-104
4.12.25 Tie-Line Bias Control ........................................................... 4-104
4.12.26 Balancing Authority Implementation of AGC....................... 4-104
4.12.27 Operating Reserves ............................................................ 4-104
4.12.28 Spinning and Non-Spinning Reserves................................ 4-104
4.12.29 Responsive Reserves......................................................... 4-105
4.12.30 NERC Reserve Definitions.................................................. 4-105
4.12.31 Definition of Time Error ....................................................... 4-105

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4.12.32 Monitoring Time Error .........................................................4-105

4.12.33 Correcting Time Error ........................................................4-105
4.12.34 NERC’s Old Control Performance Criteria .........................4-105
4.12.35 NERC Performance Standards ..........................................4-105
4.12.36 Effects on Steam Turbine Blades ......................................4-106
4.12.37 Effects on Hydro and Combustion Turbines ......................4-106
4.12.38 Effects on Other Power System Equipment.......................4-106
4.12.39 Effects on Active Power Flows...........................................4-106
4.12.40 Power System Islands .......................................................4-106
4.12.41 Underfrequency Load Shedding (UFLS)............................4-107
4.12.42 Underfrequency Generator Protection ...............................4-107
4.12.43 Analysis of a Frequency Deviation.....................................4-107
4.12.44 Actual Expanded Frequency Plots.....................................4-107
4.12.45 Effect of Time and Distance...............................................4-107
4.12.46 Frequency Relation to Power Angle ..................................4-108
4.12.47 Speed of the Traveling Frequency Wave...........................4-108
4.12.48 The Electromagnetic Energy Stage ...................................4-108
4.12.49 The Inertial Stage...............................................................4-108
4.12.50 The Governor Response Stage .........................................4-108
4.12.51 The AGC Stage..................................................................4-108
4.12.52 Illustration of a Staged Response ......................................4-108
4.12.53 Frequency Control Duties ..................................................4-108
4.12.54 Islanded Systems and Frequency Control .........................4-109
4.12.55 A Simple Example..............................................................4-109
4.13 Frequency Control Questions ........................................................4-110
4.14 Frequency Control References ......................................................4-114

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4-1. Summer Load Curve ................................................................... 4-1

Figure 4-2. Simple Frequency Control System .............................................. 4-2
Figure 4-3. Load/Resources Balance Analogy .............................................. 4-3
Figure 4-4. Accumulating Time Error ............................................................. 4-4
Figure 4-5. Normal Frequency Deviations ..................................................... 4-5
Figure 4-6. Abnormal Frequency Deviations ................................................. 4-6
Figure 4-7. Frequency Deviations Summary ................................................. 4-6
Figure 4-8. Relationship Between Load Magnitude & Frequency.................. 4-8
Figure 4-9. Inertia of a Steam Generator Rotor ............................................. 4-9
Figure 4-10. Simple System to Illustrate Governor Control ........................... 4-11
Figure 4-11. Basic Centrifugal Ballhead Governor ........................................ 4-12
Figure 4-12. Electro-Hydraulic Governor Block Diagram ............................... 4-13
Figure 4-13. Isochronous Governor Characteristic Curve ............................. 4-15
Figure 4-14. Governor Characteristic Curve with 5% Droop.......................... 4-17
Figure 4-15. Droop in a Centrifugal Ballhead Governor................................. 4-18
Figure 4-16. 300 MW Unit with 5% Droop – Frequency Rise ........................ 4-19
Figure 4-17. Changing the Set-Point to 140 MW @ 60 HZ............................ 4-20
Figure 4-18. 300 MW Unit with 5% Droop – Frequency Drop........................ 4-22
Figure 4-19. Changing the Set-Point to 160 MW @ 60 HZ............................ 4-23
Figure 4-20. Load/Frequency Relationship & Droop Curves ......................... 4-24
Figure 4-21. Interconnected System Governor Response............................. 4-26
Figure 4-22. Frequency Trace ....................................................................... 4-27
Figure 4-23. Comparison of Large & Small Frequency Deviations ................ 4-28
Figure 4-24. Load Sharing – Same Unit Ratings – Same Droop ................... 4-29
Figure 4-25. Load Sharing – Same Unit Ratings – Different Droop ............... 4-30
Figure 4-26. Load Sharing – Same Unit Ratings – One in Isochronous ........ 4-31
Figure 4-27. Eastern Interconnection............................................................. 4-33
Figure 4-28. Western Interconnection............................................................ 4-34
Figure 4-29. ERCOT Interconnection ............................................................ 4-35
Figure 4-30. Definition of a Balancing Authority............................................. 4-42
Figure 4-31. Balancing Authority Interchange................................................ 4-45
Figure 4-32. Inadvertent Interchange............................................................. 4-46
Figure 4-33. Primary / Unintentional Versus Secondary / Intentional
Inadvertent .............................................................................................. 4-48
Figure 4-34. Components of an AGC System ............................................... 4-50
Figure 4-35. Summary of Modes of AGC Control .......................................... 4-53

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Figure 4-36. Tie-Line Bias Control ACE Calculation ......................................4-55

Figure 4-37. ACE for an External Generation Loss ........................................4-56
Figure 4-38. ACE for an Internal Generation Loss .........................................4-57
Figure 4-39. A Simple Implementation of a Balancing Authority AGC
System.....................................................................................................4-58
Figure 4-40. Operating Reserve Types ..........................................................4-60
Figure 4-41. Operating Reserve Sources.......................................................4-61
Figure 4-42. Responsive Reserves ................................................................4-62
Figure 4-43. NERC Reliability Coordinators ...................................................4-64
Figure 4-44. Interconnection Time Monitors...................................................4-65
Figure 4-45. Initiating Time Error Corrections ................................................4-65
Figure 4-46. Conformance with A1 & A2 Criteria ...........................................4-68
Figure 4-47. Violation of A1 & A2 Criteria.......................................................4-68
Figure 4-48. Concept of a MW-HZ .................................................................4-72
Figure 4-49. Steam Turbine Off-Frequency Limits .........................................4-75
Figure 4-50. Formation of an Island ...............................................................4-77
Figure 4-51. Western Interconnection UFLS ..................................................4-78
Figure 4-52. UF Load Shedding & Governor Response.................................4-79
Figure 4-53. Western Interconnection Automatic Load Restoration...............4-81
Figure 4-54. Plot of a Simulated Frequency Disturbance...............................4-82
Figure 4-55. Western Interconnection Disturbance Frequency Plot...............4-85
Figure 4-56. Eastern Interconnection Disturbance Frequency Plot................4-86
Figure 4-57. Illustration of Frequency Undershoots .......................................4-88
Figure 4-58. Distance and Frequency Undershoots.......................................4-89
Figure 4-59. Speed of the Traveling Frequency Wave...................................4-90
Figure 4-60. Stages of a Generator Response...............................................4-91
Figure 4-61. Stage #1 – The Electromagnetic Energy Stage .........................4-93
Figure 4-62. Stage #2 – The Inertial Stage ....................................................4-94
Figure 4-63. Stage #3 – Governor Response Stage ......................................4-95
Figure 4-64. Stage #4 – The AGC Stage .......................................................4-96
Figure 4-65. Data Available to a Generation Control System Operator .........4-97
Figure 4-66. Frequency Incident on PJM System ..........................................4-99

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4.1 Introduction to Frequency Control

4.1.1 The Changing Load

Loads within the power system are constantly changing. Each time a residential
customer starts an electric clothes dryer or an industrial customer ignites a
furnace, the power system load changes. This is why the task of matching
generation to load is difficult, the target is always moving. An exact match
between generation and load is only achieved for a short period of time. Loads
change constantly, always creating another imbalance between the generation
supply and the system load.
Figure 4-1 illustrates a 24-hour load curve for a large Eastern Interconnection
utility. This curve uses actual historical data from a summer day. Note how the
load varies from hour to hour. If the load changes were monitored for even
smaller time periods, such as seconds, the load would still constantly change. The
connected load is never constant; load changes each hour, each minute, and each
second of the day.

Figure 4-1. Summer Load Curve When utilities in the

East and Midwest
4.1.2 Need for Frequency Control Systems United States first
started to
In the early days of power systems, very basic control systems were used to interconnect in the
match generation to load. A plant operator may have used a simple hand mid 1920’s,
adjusted dial control to increase or decrease generator output until the output frequency control
matched the load. As power systems have grown and customer expectations of was typically
handled by a single
power system performance have increased, the equipment used to match power plant.
generation to load has also grown in complexity. Complex control systems have
been developed to achieve the desired match between generation and load. These
control systems are introduced and described in this chapter.

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4.1.3 Definition of a Control System

A control system is a means to automatically control the output of a system based
on measurements of various system inputs and outputs. For example, Figure 4-2
contains a block diagram of a simple control system that could be used to control
the output frequency of a generator. At point 1, the output frequency of the
generator is monitored. At point 2, the output frequency is compared to the target
or scheduled frequency and a frequency error determined. At point 3, the
necessary adjustments are calculated to correct the frequency error and make the
actual frequency equal the scheduled frequency. At point 4, the speed controller
adjusts a valve position to allow more or less working fluid (steam, water, gas,
etc.) into the generator.

The North Figure 4-2. Simple Frequency Control System

American power
system is divided
into areas called 4.1.4 The Energy Balance Concept
Interconnections.
All the operating Consequences of Over and Under Generation
utilities within an
Interconnection The major consequence of over or under generation is the effect on system
are connected frequency. When the generation supply within an isolated power system or an
together with AC
transmission lines.
Interconnection exactly matches the system load the frequency can be exactly 60
HZ. When not enough generation is supplied the frequency decreases to a value
less than 60 HZ. When too much generation is supplied the frequency increases
above 60 HZ. Figure 4-3 illustrates the need to achieve a balance between the
This text assumes
a 60 HZ nominal power consumed (load, exports, losses) and the power supplied (generation &
frequency. Many imports). Within an Interconnection, the individual power systems assist each
areas of the world other to maintain frequency within a narrow band about the nominal frequency
target 50 HZ. of 60 HZ.

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When generation
and imports exceed
load, the frequency
rises. When load,
losses and exports
exceed resources,
the frequency falls.

Figure 4-3. Load/Resources Balance Analogy

Time Error
A natural consequence of over and under generation is time error. Electric clocks
(those driven by motors connected to the power system) keep accurate time by
counting the cycles of the power system frequency. If the frequency varies from
60 HZ, the time kept by electric clocks also varies. Over a period of days the
clocks may develop errors, typically of a few seconds.
For example, if frequency decreases to 59.98 HZ and holds that value for two
hours, electric clocks run slower, losing 2.4 seconds in the two-hour period. Section 4.5 will
describe time error
Figure 4-4 illustrates how sustained frequency deviations lead to time error. control in greater
Utilities have developed methods to correct these time errors that are the direct detail.
result of over or under generation. The basic concept of time error correction
involves targeting or scheduling the system frequency at either a low value (59.98
Hz) or a high value (60.02 Hz) to eliminate past time error accumulations.

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If frequency holds at
60 HZ, no time
error accumulates.

If frequency holds at
less than 60 HZ,
clocks run slower
and negative time
error accumulates.

If frequency holds at
greater than 60 HZ,
clocks run faster
and positive time
error accumulates.

Figure 4-4. Accumulating Time Error

4.1.5 Normal and Abnormal Frequency Deviations

Definition of a Frequency Deviation

The target frequency is referred to as the scheduled frequency. When the actual
frequency deviates from the scheduled frequency a frequency deviation has
occurred. For example, assume the scheduled frequency is 60 HZ. If the actual
frequency is 59.95 HZ then a -0.05 HZ frequency deviation has occurred.

Normal Frequency Deviation

Under normal conditions, the power system frequency in a large Interconnection
(such as the East) varies approximately ± 0.03 from the scheduled value. If the
scheduled frequency is 60 Hz, the normal range is 59.97 to 60.03. These
variations are normal and constantly occur due to the varying nature of the
Interconnection’s load.
Figure 4-5 is an illustration of the normal frequency deviations that occur in a
large Interconnection. The goal is to ensure that these frequency deviations are
small and to ensure that the frequency stays close to 60 HZ. Maintaining the
frequency tightly around 60 HZ is achieved by adjusting the generating unit
outputs through the various control systems.

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These frequency
deviations would be
typical for a large
Interconnection
such as the Eastern
Interconnection. A
smaller
Interconnection
would routinely
experience larger
frequency
deviations than
these.

Figure 4-5. Normal Frequency Deviations

Abnormal Frequency Deviations

When abnormal events, such as the loss of a large generator, occur in the power
system, the frequency experiences larger deviations. Figure 4-6 illustrates the
change in frequency following the loss and eventual replacement of a large
generator. The frequency deviations of Figure 4-5 are normal and not of concern.
The frequency deviations of Figure 4-6, however, are large enough to cause
concern.
As seen in Figure 4-6, the frequency has recovered to 60 HZ within a few minutes
of the loss of a generator. If frequency deviates by more than ±1 HZ, damage to
utility and customer equipment could occur. Some types of utility and customer
equipment are designed for operation within a tight frequency band.
Figure 4-7 summarizes the concept of frequency deviations. The right side of the
figure illustrates typical deviations during normal system conditions. Depending
on the scheduled frequency, normal deviations are approximately ±0.03 from the
scheduled value. The left side of the figure illustrates larger deviations. If
frequency deviations in the range of 1 Hz occur, automatic protection systems
typically operate to minimize damage to the system equipment.

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This magnitude of
frequency deviation
is called abnormal
in this text. This
does not imply that
this size of deviation
is rarely seen. In
fact, depending on
the Interconnection,
frequency
deviations of this
magnitude may be
quite common,
occurring several
times a month.

Figure 4-6. Abnormal Frequency Deviations

Figure 4-7. Frequency Deviations Summary

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4.1.6 The Load/Frequency Relationship

The load that is connected to the power system will absorb different amounts of
MW depending on the frequency and voltage of the system. All loads can be
divided into two general types; non-motor load (non-spinning load) and motor
load (spinning load).

Non-Motor Load
Resistive load is
Non-motor loads, such as heaters, light bulbs, and electronic equipment, varies in sensitive to the
magnitude (MW) depending on the voltage and frequency of the power system to voltage squared.
If voltage drops
which it is connected. Non-motor load magnitude is more dependent on voltage by 10% to 90% of
than on frequency. It is a reasonably accurate statement to say that non-motor nominal, resistive
load magnitude does not vary as frequency is varied. In contrast, non-motor load load will drop to
is very dependent on the voltage of the system. For example, if the voltage of the 81% (0.9 X 0.9) of
power system drops 10% (to 90% of normal) the MW drawn by resistive electric nominal.
heater loads falls by approximately 19% (to 81% of nominal).

Motor Load
Motor load makes up a large portion of a utility’s total load (typically 40 to 60%).
The more populated the service territory, the more common are motor loads.
Most motor load is formed of induction motors. Typical uses for induction
motors are as air-conditioner compressor motors, vacuum cleaner motors, etc.
Large portions of commercial and industrial load are induction motor loads.
Motor load is also dependent on the voltage and frequency of the power system to
which it is attached. If the voltage or frequency declines, the connected motor If the voltage
load magnitude also declines. The frequency has a greater impact on motor load level falls
magnitude than the voltage. To simplify the description of the impact of voltage enough, motors
and frequency on motor load magnitude ignore the smaller effects of voltage and may stall. Motor
stalling is
concentrate on the larger effects of frequency. A rule of thumb is that the addressed in
connected motor load MW decreases by 3% if the frequency decreases by 1%. Chapter 6,

The Load/Frequency Relationship

Figure 4-8 illustrates how the two different types of load, non-motor and motor,
vary with frequency. The figure illustrates that non-motor load remains constant
no matter what the frequency. Motor load decreases as the frequency decreases.
Note the third curve shown in Figure 4-8, labeled the “total load characteristic”.
The total system load is composed of portions of both non-motor and motor load.
For example, a factory may have a large amount of electric heat in addition to a
large amount of induction motor load. The total load characteristic for the factory
load shows the overall change of this load with respect to frequency.
Figure 4-8 follows on the next page.

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Note the total load

curve. This line
indicates that a 1%
change in frequency
(from 60 to 59.4
HZ) typically leads
to a 2% change in
the total load.
Remember no
system is typical;
this is just a rule of
thumb for
estimating
purposes.

Figure 4-8. Relationship Between Load Magnitude & Frequency

The importance of the load/frequency relationship will become apparent as we
progress in our description of the frequency control process. For now just
remember that load magnitude varies with frequency.

4.1.7 Power System Inertia

Energy is stored in the rotating elements of the power system. This energy is
called inertial, stored, or rotational energy. Inertial energy has an important role
in the frequency control process.
Inertia is defined as the property of an object that resists a change to the object’s
current speed and direction. The inertia of a generator refers to the generator’s
resistance to changes in its speed of rotation. When a large turbine/generator is
rotating at 3600 RPM, it is not a simple matter to change its speed. There is a
large quantity of energy stored in the rotating elements of the turbine and
generator that help to maintain a constant speed of rotation. To change a
generator’s speed, it is either necessary to add rotational energy to the unit
(to speed up the rotation) or to remove rotational energy from the unit
(to slow down the rotation). Figure 4-9 illustrates energy storage in the rotor
of a large steam turbine/generator.

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When a large
generator
turbine/rotor is
spinning at 3600
rpm, it has a large
amount of
rotational or
inertial energy that
resists changes to
the speed of
rotation.

Figure 4-9. Inertia of a Steam Generator Rotor

The inertial energy stored in an object is dependent upon the mass, diameter, This 200 ton weight
for a large steam
and speed of rotation of the object. Large steam turbine /generators have a very unit's rotating
large mass (the rotating elements alone may weigh more than 200 tons) and, as a elements may
result, have a large inertial energy. The inertia of large turbine/generators helps appear large but an
maintain power system frequency at a constant value. Inertial forces resist equivalent size
changes to frequency. hydro unit's rotating
elements may weigh
The power system has many sources of inertia. Any rotating equipment that is 5 times as much or
connected to the system is a source of stored rotational energy or inertial energy. 1,000 tons.
Thus, all generators and spinning loads on the system are sources of inertial
energy. For purposes of this text, our description of inertia is limited to the
system’s generators but remember that spinning motors also contain inertial
energy.
The natural resistance of a generator to a change in speed helps to keep the power
system frequency constant. In general, the larger the generator, the larger the
inertia and the more rotational energy that must be added or removed from the
generator to change its speed of rotation. There are several ways to add energy to
or remove energy from a generator:
Î Increase or decrease the mechanical power supplied to the generator (for
example, increase the steam flow to a steam turbine or the water flow to
a hydro turbine).
Î Vary the load attached to the generator. If a load is removed from a
generator, the generator initially speeds up which is equivalent to
increasing the rotational energy to the generator. If a load is added to a
generator, it is initially equivalent to removing rotational energy from the
generator.

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Small variations in the system load normally cause little change in frequency.
This is because the inertial forces of a typical power system are so large that when
compared to the load variation, the generators and motors in the system keep
rotating at almost the same speed. When large loads are added to the power
system, the utility may see a change in a generator’s speed of rotation. For
example, if a utility were to suddenly add a 1000 MW load in the vicinity of a
generating station, the generator’s frequency (speed) monitors would detect a
reduction in rotational speed. Note that this reduction in speed should be
temporary, as this generator and other system generating units have control
systems to eventually return the speed to normal.
Section 4.10
describes the role of Consider another example. Assume that a utility suddenly loses a large generator.
inertia following a This lost energy causes an under-generation condition and must be made up by
generation loss in other generating resources. Other system generating units each supply a share of
greater detail. the lost energy by converting a portion of their rotational energy to electric energy
to help supply the generation shortage.
These generating units are using their inertial energy to replace the power
shortage caused by the loss of the unit. As a consequence of sacrificing some of
their inertial energy, the units experience a decline in rotational speed.
4.2 Governor System Components and Operation

4.2.1 Introduction to Governors

Electric generators use governor control systems to control the shaft’s speed of
rotation. The governor system senses generator shaft speed deviations and
initiates adjustments to the mechanical input power of the generator to increase or
decrease the generator’s speed as required. This section will address a governor’s
role in maintaining shaft speed once a unit is synchronized and carrying load.
Governors also have a role during the start-up and shut-down of a generator that is
not addressed in this section.
Governor
control systems Governor control systems control the position of input valves to the turbine of the
also control generator. In this text we normally assume the turbine for the generator is a steam
wicket gate turbine so the governor controls steam input to the turbine via a control valve.
position in
hydro units and To illustrate how generator governors operate, suppose that the simple generator
fuel inlet pumps system in Figure 4-10 undergoes a large load increase. This creates a system
in combustion
turbines.
energy deficiency causing the generator shaft speed to fall as energy is drawn
from the stored energy of the generator. The governor senses the reduced shaft
speed of its generator and acts to further open the throttle valve to the turbine.

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 Frequency Control

We say "hopefully"
increase the shaft
speed since it
depends on how
much rotational
energy was drained
from the generator
shaft as to how
much more new
input energy is
required before
shaft speed starts to
increase.

Figure 4-10. Simple System to Illustrate Governor Control

The further opening of the throttle valve increases the steam input to the generator
turbine and adds rotational energy to the shaft “hopefully” increasing the shaft
speed. If the shaft speed is still less than the desired value, the governor further
opens the throttle valve. The process continues over several seconds until the
desired shaft speed is attained.
All types of utility generators use governor control systems:
Î Hydro turbine/generators use governors to control the water flow to the
hydro turbine. The valve for controlling water input to the turbine is
either a wicket gate or a nozzle.
Î Steam turbine/generators use governors to control the steam flow to the
turbine blades. The valves for controlling the steam flow are called
throttle valves in this text.
Î Combustion turbines use governors to control the amount of fuel input to
the combustion chamber.

4.2.2 Centrifugal Ballhead Governor Centrifugal

ballhead
Figure 4-11 contains a diagram of a centrifugal ballhead governor. This type of governors are
governor uses a flyweight arrangement to monitor turbine/generator shaft speed. common on older
units. Many
The rotating ballhead assembly is mechanically geared or electrically driven by modern units use
the turbine/generator shaft. The spinning force from the shaft causes the electronic
flyweights to spread out a distance that is proportional to the current governors to
turbine/generator rotational speed. achieve the same
results.

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 Frequency Control

As shown this
governor controls
shaft speed to a
scheduled value.
For example, to the
equivalent of 60 HZ.
Governors on units
in the
interconnected
power systems use
what is called a
droop
characteristic. This
simple governor
model is expanded
later to include the
droop
characteristic.

Figure 4-11. Basic Centrifugal Ballhead Governor

When the flyweights pivot in or out, the speeder rod moves up or down which in
turn repositions a control valve. The control valve position determines whether
oil will be allowed in or out of the oil reservoir. The oil level in the oil reservoir
controls the fuel rod piston. If the fuel rod piston moves down, the throttle valve,
which controls the input (steam, water, etc.) to the turbine, is moved towards the
closed position. If the fuel rod piston moves up, the throttle valve is further
opened.
The speed of the generator is directly tied to the throttle valve position. If the
generator governor detects the generator speed is rising, it closes the throttle valve
further and arrests the speed increase. If the governor detects that shaft speed is
falling, it opens the throttle valve further and arrests the speed increase.
Ballhead governors can be used to control steam inlet valves to a steam turbine,
wicket gates or nozzle openings in a hydro turbine, or fuel pumps in a combustion
turbine. All systems use hydraulics to amplify the small flyweight forces to make
the force large enough to drive the appropriate control valves.

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4.2.3 Modern Electronic Governors

Modern generators often use electronic governors. Governors of this type
perform the same function as a ballhead (mechanical) governor; it simply uses
electronic components to perform these functions. Figure 4-12 illustrates, in
block diagram format, the components of an electro-hydraulic governor. An
electro-hydraulic governor uses electronic components to sense speed and create
the desired control signals, and uses hydraulics to obtain the forces necessary to
adjust steam valves or wicket gates.
As illustrated in Figure 4-12 a permanent magnet generator (PMG) is electrically
coupled to the turbine shaft. This small generator’s rotor is geared to the turbine
shaft so its output voltage is representative of shaft speed. The output voltage is
fed to a series of electronic components. These components sample the shaft
speed and compare it to a target value. The error detected is used to drive the
hydraulic system.

Figure 4-12. Electro-Hydraulic Governor Block Diagram

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Also illustrated in Figure 4-12 are two inputs; “AGC Signal” and “Manual
Control Access”. The Manual Control input is an access point for a plant operator
to assume control of the governor system. The AGC Signal is a control signal
sent by a utility’s system operations center to adjust governor settings. This AGC
signal is described in great detail in Section 4.3.
Depending on the age of the electronic governor it may be composed of analog or
digital electronic components. Latest generation electronic governors use digital
components. These governors are provided with data about the generator (speed,
target MW, etc.) and use digital components to perform the governor function.
Access to the performance characteristics (settings) of a digital governor are often
via software. For example, the plant operator may be able to adjust governor
characteristics by making adjustments in a software program.

4.2.4 Governor Droop Curves

Governor Control & System Operations

Our goal throughout this text is to analyze power system behavior from a system
operations perspective. This goal affects how to view a governor’s operations.
As stated earlier, governors monitor shaft speed and respond by changing a
throttle valve position. From a system operations perspective it is clearer if shaft
speed is equated to system frequency and throttle valve position to generator
output power. Accordingly, from this point forward in the text are assumption is
that governors monitor system frequency and adjust unit MW output to correct for
frequency errors.

Isochronous (Flat-Line) Governor Control

The expected response of a generator’s governor to changes in system frequency
may be plotted to form a curve. Generator operation can be illustrated with this
graphical tool, which is called a governor characteristic curve or more commonly
a droop curve. This curve shows the relationship between the generator output
MW and the frequency of the power system to which the generator is connected.
A governor that strives to maintain its target frequency (normally 60 HZ) for all
load levels is called an isochronous governor. A characteristic curve for such a
governor is given in Figure 4-13. If the frequency should change, the governor
represented by this characteristic curve tries to adjust its generator output until
frequency is returned to 60 HZ. An isochronous governor does everything within
its means to maintain 60 HZ.
The generator illustrated in Figure 4-13 has a minimum output rating of 0 MW
and a maximum output rating of 300 MW. In theory, this generator varies its
output in a range from 0 MW to 300 MW in response to system frequency
changes. If frequency falls below 60 HZ, this governor moves the generator
output towards 300 MW to return the frequency to 60 HZ. If frequency rises
above 60 HZ, this governor moves the generator output towards 0 MW.

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The cruise control of a car is a simple example of an isochronous control system.

This system attempts to keep the car at the same speed. When the system
encounters a change in load, such as when approaching a hill, it changes the gas
flow to the engine to try to keep the speed constant. The car’s cruise control
system has a characteristic curve similar in shape to that of Figure 4-13.

This figure is for an

isochronous
governor on a 300
MW unit. An
isochronous
governor is also
called a governor
with zero droop.
The MW output of
the generator
controlled by this
governor slides
back and forth
along its droop
curve changing the
unit's MW output in
an attempt to
maintain a 60 HZ
system frequency.

Figure 4-13. Isochronous Governor Characteristic Curve

Need for Droop

In actual practice, an isochronous governor characteristic is rarely used. Large
power system generators with isochronous governors tend to be unstable and
enter into power and speed oscillations following sudden load changes.
Isochronous governors may continually make minor corrections in search of the
target frequency of 60 HZ. In an interconnected power system, multiple
generators on isochronous control compete with each other to follow load
changes. The overall power system suffers due to frequent and conflicting
governor adjustments. These excessive governor actions could lead to failure of
generator components.
When a droop characteristic is added to a governor it forces generators to respond
to frequency disturbances in proportion to their size. For example, a 1000 MW
unit would respond with ten times the response of a 100 MW unit.

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Islanded power A generator’s governor could use the isochronous control mode illustrated in
systems are power Figure 4-13 if it were the only generator on isochronous governor control in the
systems that as a
result of a system
power system. This generator then provides the majority of the governor control
disturbance are no response. An islanded power system may use isochronous control. During the
longer connected restoration of the system following a blackout, a utility may have guidelines for
via AC lines to any operating islanded sections of the power system with selected generators on
other power system. isochronous control.
Chapter 11
examines the use of The units chosen to operate on isochronous control must carry sufficient spare
isochronous capacity to control or regulate the frequency. Assume the frequency drops and
governors in
islanded power
the governor exhausts the unit capacity in an attempt to return frequency to 60
systems. HZ. The system frequency could then continue to fall unless additional MW can
be found.

Governors with a Droop Characteristic

In practice, governors operate with a droop characteristic. Figure 4-14 illustrates
this type of governor characteristic curve. Note how the characteristic curve
droops from left to right. This means, that as power system frequency increases,
Spinning reserve is the governor reduces generator output and stabilizes at a higher frequency than
unused capability was initially held. When power system frequency decreases, the governor
held in a increases generation and the generator stabilizes at a frequency lower than
synchronized initially held. Droop settings on governors are necessary to enable many
generating unit.
This spare
generators to operate in parallel in the power system while all are on governor
capability may or control and not compete with one another for load changes.
may not be
responsive to
Governor droop is expressed as a percentage of the frequency change required for
governor a governor to move a unit from no-load to full-load or from full-load to no-load.
commands. Section For example, a 5% droop setting means that a 3 HZ (5% of 60 HZ) change in
4.4 examines frequency is required to move the generator across its entire range, from no load
reserves. to full load or from full load to no load. (Of course, generators can only adjust
their output if they have spinning reserve capacity available.)
North American industry practice is for governors to have a 5% droop setting. As
stated earlier, this 5% value of droop means that the generator would respond with
100% of its capability to a 5% change in the system frequency. Once the droop
value is known the response of the generator to various magnitudes of frequency
hits can be determined.
For example, if the 300 MW unit of Figure 4-14 was initially operating at 0 MW
it would increase its output by 300 MW if the frequency fell 3 HZ. The example
below illustrates how you would calculate this same unit’s response to a 1.5 HZ
frequency deviation.
The definition of a 5% droop setting does not imply that generators normally
operate with frequencies ranging from 58.5 to 61.5 HZ. The definition of a
governor’s droop only describes how a generator behaves when confronted with
frequencies different than 60 HZ. In actual operation (in large Interconnections),

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generators are rarely operated under load outside of a 59.5 to 60.5 frequency
range.

This characteristic
curve droops from
left to right. The
governor moves the
generator along the
droop curve to
arrest frequency
changes.

Figure 4-14. Governor Characteristic Curve with 5% Droop

A 5% droop setting on a 300 MW unit tells us that a 5% change in the 60 HZ

frequency (3 HZ) changes the unit output by 100% or 300 MW. The following
ratio can be constructed:

3 HZ
300 MW
This ratio states the frequency change needed for a 300 MW output change.
What if the frequency only dropped by 1.5 HZ?
Using our ratio above for this 5% droop 300 MW unit we calculate:

3 HZ 1.5 HZ
≈
300 MW ? MW
Using either cross-multiplication or observation the MW response to a 1.5 HZ
frequency drop can be calculated as 150 MW.

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Achieving Droop in a Centrifugal Ballhead Governor

Figure 4-15 illustrates how droop could be implemented in a ballhead governor.
The permanent droop rod across the top of the figure is used to select the %
droop. As the connection point between the permanent droop rod and the speeder
spring is adjusted, the % droop changes. (The permanent droop rod and speeder
spring act like a fulcrum.) When the fuel rod moves up or down the permanent
droop rod changes the speeder spring compression. Changes to the speeder spring
compression result in changes to the equilibrium position of the control valve and
in the speed setting the governor holds.
For example, assume a governor on an isolated unit is initially operating with an
equivalent 60 HZ speed. Further assume the speed suddenly rises and the
flyweights pivot out farther. The control valve position moves upward to allow
oil to drain from the hydraulic servo reservoir. This allows the fuel rod to move
downward reducing the amount of fuel (steam) input to the turbine.
The permanent droop rod also moves when the fuel rod moves. In this case the
permanent droop rod increases the speeder spring compression and forces the
pilot valve to return to its equilibrium position. The result of this permanent
droop rod movement is that the governor reduced the fuel input following a speed
increase but does not return the speed to 60 HZ. Rather the governor only arrests
the speed increase. The generator operates at a speed higher than 60 HZ until an
There are actually adjustment is made to the governor settings to return the unit to 60 HZ.
two droops
illustrated in this
figure. A
permanent droop
and a transient
droop (inside the
dashed line). The
permanent droop
is the droop that
has been described
in this text. The
transient droop is
often found in
hydro governors.
Transient droop is
a short term droop
characteristic that
helps avoid unit
oscillations and
prevents possibly
damaging impacts
to a hydro unit’s
water intake
system. (See
Section 8.5.2 for
more information
on transient
Figure 4-15. Droop in a Centrifugal Ballhead Governor
droop.)

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4.2.5 Governor Control in an Islanded Power System

The operation of a governor with a droop characteristic is initially described in a
simple islanded power system with only one generator. Later, the concepts of
droop and governor control are expanded to describe operation within an
interconnected power system with multiple generators.

Governor Response to a Frequency Rise

Assume that an isolated 300 MW generator’s governor has the droop curve given
in Figure 4-16. Further assume that an event occurs to cause the system
frequency to suddenly increase. The governor adjusts generation downward from
150 MW to 140 MW to stabilize the frequency at 60.1 HZ. The frequency might
stabilize at 60.1 HZ but this is an unacceptable frequency deviation and the
frequency must be returned to 60 HZ as soon as possible. Returning the
frequency to 60 HZ is done by adjusting the load reference set-point of the
governor.

The initial load

reference set-
point of this
governor is 150
MW. To recover
the frequency to
60 HZ from 60.1
HZ, the load
reference set-
point has to
change.

Figure 4-16. 300 MW Unit with 5% Droop – Frequency Rise

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The Load-Reference Set-Point

The load reference set-point of the governor represents the MW that is produced
by the generator when the frequency is 60 HZ. The set-point in Figure 4-16 was
initially 150 MW. The set-point is adjusted so that the generator produces the
desired output MW, provided that this is within the range of the unit, when the
shaft speed is the equivalent of 60 HZ.
Adjusting the set-point has the effect of sliding the whole governor droop curve.
For example, in Figure 4-17 the set-point of the governor is adjusted from 150
MW to 140 MW and the generator’s output frequency moves from 60.1 HZ back
to the target value of 60 HZ. Thus, when the load reference set-point of the
governor is adjusted, the MW that the generator produces at 60 HZ is changed.

1) The load
reference set-point
has been adjusted
from 150 MW to
140 MW to restore
the frequency to 60
HZ. The movement
of the set-point is
done slowly so as
not to shock the
unit.

2) The load
reference set-point
adjustment is made
either manually via
the power plant
controls or
automatically via
the AGC system.
AGC is described in
Section 4.3.

Figure 4-17. Changing the Set-Point to 140 MW @ 60 HZ

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An alternate way to visualize a governor set-point is to think in terms of the

rotational energy of the generator. By changing an isolated generators governor
set-point, the stored or rotational energy in the turbine/rotor is changed. For
example, in Figure 4-17 the movement of the set-point from 150 to 140 MW
changed the turbine-rotor speed of rotation from 60.1 to 60 HZ. Stored energy is
removed from the turbine-rotor, which results in a reduction in frequency.
When a governor set-point is changed to decrease the 60 HZ generator MW
output, the stored energy in the turbine-rotor is decreased which decreases
frequency. Similarly, a change in governor set-point to increase the 60 HZ
generator MW, increases the stored or rotational energy in the turbine-rotor,
increasing frequency without significantly adjusting the MW output of the unit.

Governor Response to a Frequency Drop

Governor activity typically occurs in response to a low frequency event. Figures
4-18 and 4-19 are used to illustrate the response of an isolated generator’s
governor to a frequency drop.
In Figure 4-18 the governor settings are such that the generator is maintaining a
150 MW output when the system frequency is 60 HZ. Assume that a load
increase causes the system frequency to drop. Figure 4-18 illustrates the governor
moving the generator down its droop curve to arrest the frequency drop at 59.9
HZ. As a result of the governor commands the generator output has increased
from 150 to 160 MW.

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In response to a
declining frequency,
the governor moves
the generator down
its droop curve. MW
output is increased
and the frequency
decline is arrested
at 59.9 HZ.

In an isolated power Figure 4-18. 300 MW Unit with 5% Droop – Frequency Drop
system, plant
operators are often The governor has done its job by arresting the system frequency decline at 59.9
responsible for HZ. The eventual goal is to return the frequency to 60 HZ but the governor does
frequency control. not recover frequency on its own. The governor will not return the frequency to
The plant operator 60 HZ unless its set-point is adjusted. For this isolated generator, assume the
may allow the plant operator adjusts the governor set-point.
governor to control
frequency Figure 4-19 illustrates the movement of the governor set-point from 150 MW @
automatically 60 HZ to 160 MW @ 60 HZ. Notice that as the set-point is moved, the frequency
(isochronous
control) or the plant of the isolated power system recovers from 59.9 HZ to 60 HZ.
operator may The set-point adjustment returns lost rotational energy to the system and allow
manually adjust the
governor set-point system frequency to recover. The movement of governor set-points may be done
to control by a plant operator as illustrated above, but in practice an additional control
frequency. system (AGC) is used to adjust set-points. AGC is described in Section 4.3.

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The governor
completed its
mission by
arresting the
frequency drop
at 59.9 HZ. To
recover the
frequency to 60
HZ, the plant
operator
adjusted the
governor set-
point.

Figure 4-19. Changing the Set-Point to 160 MW @ 60 HZ

Load/Frequency Relationship & Droop Curves

When the governor response of an isolated generator was examined we stated that
when the set-point was adjusted the rotational energy of the isolated system was
changed and this resulted in a change in frequency. No MW change was shown
when in fact a MW change does occur.
Recall Section 4.1.6 on the load/frequency relationship. This section stated that
any time the system frequency changes the MW also changes, since MW level is
related to frequency. A rule of thumb was given that a 1% change in frequency
will typically lead to a 2% change in the total system load.
The fact that MW changes with frequency complicates droop curves. Figure 4-19
illustrated the adjustment of a set-point to recover the frequency to 60 HZ. Note
in this figure that as the frequency was recovered the generator MW output did
not change. Figure 4-20 illustrates the same set-point movement as Figure 4-19
but the load/frequency relationship is also accounted for in Figure 4-20.

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The frequency drops

as a result of a load
increase. However,
the frequency does
not drop as much as
might be expected.
This is due to the
load/frequency
relationship. When
the set-point is
adjusted to recover
frequency, the load
magnitude rises
with the recovered
frequency.

Figure 4-20. Load/Frequency Relationship & Droop Curves

Compare Figures 4-19 and 4-20. Note that the frequency does not drop as much
in Figure 4-20 as it does in 4-19. This is due to the load/frequency relationship.
As the frequency drops, the load magnitude also drops. In Figure 4-20 if the
load/frequency effect was not accounted for frequency would drop down to point
n. Counting the load-frequency effect means frequency only drops to point o.
Section 4.2.7 When the governor set-point is adjusted to recover the frequency, both frequency
illustrates the and generator MW output increase. The generator output increases because as the
differences frequency is recovered to 60 HZ, the load magnitude also rises to a higher value.
between
governors The load/frequency relationship is very important in the operation of an
arresting a interconnected power system. In a large power system, the load/frequency
frequency
deviation and
relationship is often all that is needed to arrest frequency deviations. A governor
the load/ system response is required in a large Interconnection only when the mismatch
frequency between generation and load is large. For most mismatches, the change in load
relationship magnitude that accompanies a frequency deviation is sufficient to arrest the
arresting a frequency deviation.
frequency
deviation.

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The impact of the load/frequency relationship is not included in future droop

curves in this text as it complicates the usage of the droop curve. Just remember
that the effect exists and it has a critical impact on power system frequency
control.

4.2.6 Governor Control in an Interconnected System

The previous material described governor operation with respect to an isolated
generator. Most generators do not operate isolated but rather as part of an
interconnected power system. The differences between isolated generator
operation and operation within the interconnected power system are explained
next.
Figures 4-16 through 4-20 illustrated how the movement of a governor’s set-point
results in a change to the rotational energy and thus to the frequency of the
generator. In our example of an isolated generator, the governor first changed the
MW output of the unit in response to a frequency change. The set-point of the
governor was then changed to return the isolated system’s frequency to 60 HZ. In
the interconnected system there are more factors to consider since there are many
generators operating at any one time.
To illustrate the differences between isolated generator governor operation and
interconnected system governor operation first return to Figures 4-18 and 4-19.
Figure 4-18 illustrated an isolated generator under governor control with an initial
set-point of 150 MW. In response to a declining system frequency the governor
slid the unit down its droop curve to arrest the frequency decline at 59.9 HZ with
a 160 MW output.
The frequency would stay at 59.9 HZ if we relied totally on the automatic
response of the governor. The governor has done its job by increasing the unit’s
MW output and arresting the frequency at 59.9 HZ. Figure 4-19 illustrated the
movement of the set-point to restore the frequency to 60 HZ. The plant operator
performed this set-point movement.
Note that the movement to the final set-point in Figure 4-19 did not involve a
change in the MW output of the generator. The set-point change was entirely a
change in rotating energy and as a result the system frequency changed. This is
true (if we ignore the load/frequency relationship) in our isolated power system
because there is only one generator. When the set-point change was made, the
unit MW had already been adjusted by the unit’s governor. This is not the case in
the interconnected system as illustrated in Figure 4-21.
Figure 4-21 illustrates two generators in an interconnected power system. Units
“A” and “B” are initially operating at 95 MW as illustrated in the left of the
figure. Both units respond to a load increase in the interconnected system by
sliding down their respective droop curves as illustrated in the middle of Figure 4-
21. On the far right of the figure a set-point change is made to Unit “A” to correct
the frequency to 60 HZ. No set-point changes are made to Unit “B”.

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Note how the

movement of the
Unit “A” set-point
does not just
correct the
frequency but also
adjusts the unit’s
MW output.

Figure 4-21. Interconnected System Governor Response

Notice how the set-point change to the Unit “A” governor is not a straight up and
down movement as was illustrated in Figures 4-17 or 4-19, but rather a movement
of the characteristic curve up and to the right.
The set-point change is different in Figure 4-21 because both units initially
responded to the frequency drop by moving down their droop curves. However,
only one of the units had its set-point changed to restore frequency. The unit that
had its set-point changed increased its MW output to replace all of the governor
response from the other units in the interconnected system. When set-points are
changed in the interconnected system, rotational energy and unit MW output
change simultaneously.
When frequency deviations occur within a large interconnected system, such as
the Eastern Interconnection, hundreds of units provide governor response.
Governors are However, only a few of the units have their set-points adjusted. These few units
intentionally make up for whatever generation excess or deficiency caused the frequency
designed not to deviation in the first place. All the other units that provided governor response
respond to small
should slide back along their droop curves to their original set-points once the
frequency
deviations. frequency has recovered.
Section 4.2.11
Interconnected power systems are constantly experiencing frequency deviations.
describes this
design factor Governors do not respond unless the frequency deviations are substantial. For a
called the large Interconnection, widespread governor response may occur a few times a
governor month. For a small Interconnection governor response may occur daily. As a
deadband. mental picture of governor response visualize all the generators in the
interconnected system sliding up and down their droop curves collectively
arresting frequency deviations.

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4.2.7 Frequency Traces

Figure 4-22 is based on a frequency plot taken in the Eastern Interconnection
following the loss of a large generating unit. After the loss of this large unit the
frequency in the Eastern Interconnection dropped. The governors on the
generators in the Interconnection sensed the system speed change and opened
their respective valves to supply more fuel (steam, water, etc.) and together
arrested the frequency drop.
Note the tail of the frequency response trace (labeled governor response in the
figure). The tail approximates the total governor response. The longer the tail the
more governor response. The tail represents the governor’s recovering the
frequency from the low or undershoot point back to a stabilization point. Once
the frequency has stabilized from governor response, the set-points of a portion of
the system governors are adjusted to recover the frequency to 60 HZ. The
movement of the set-points are also labeled in the figure.

The tail of the

frequency trace
represents the
governor response.
Notice that after the
governor response
the frequency
recovered to about
59.95 HZ. This is
the impact of droop.
The governors do
not recover the
frequency to 60 HZ.

Figure 4-22. Frequency Trace

As stated earlier, in a large Interconnection widespread governor response occurs

infrequently. The majority of the time the load/frequency relationship is
sufficient to arrest frequency deviations. Figure 4-23 illustrates two frequency
traces. The trace on the left is for a large frequency deviation in which governor
response was necessary to arrest the frequency drop. The tail of the frequency
trace approximates the governor response.

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 Frequency Control

Section 4.2.9 The frequency trace on the right is for a smaller frequency deviation. Note there
examines is no pronounced tail to this frequency trace. The absence of a tail indicates that
frequency plots
in greater
the load/frequency relationship was enough to arrest the frequency deviation. The
detail. load/frequency effect does not recover frequency, it simply stops the decline.
Governor response will show a recovery to frequency, which is why the tail exists
when widespread governor response occurs.

Figure 4-23. Comparison of Large & Small Frequency Deviations

4.2.8 Generator Response and Droop Settings

To illustrate how governor droop settings impact a generators response to system
load changes, assume that a simple power system has two generators as shown in
Figure 4-24. Both units (each rated 750 MW) are initially loaded at 600 MW and
system frequency is 60 HZ as shown in the figure. When 200 MW of additional
load is suddenly added to this small power system, the system frequency declines
from 60 HZ. As frequency declines, the governors of the two generators respond
and increase MW output in order to arrest the frequency decline. How the two
generators individually respond depends on their respective droop settings.

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Note that the two

units combined
arrested the
frequency drop at
59.6 HZ. The more
units that respond
the less the
frequency will drop.
If 10 identical units
had responded the
frequency would
only have dropped
to 59.92 HZ and
each unit would
only have needed to
pick up 20 MW.

Figure 4-24. Load Sharing – Same Unit Ratings – Same Droop

Same Unit Ratings – Same Droops

If the two generators are the same size and have the same 5% droop settings, they
evenly split the 200 MW of new load as shown in Figure 4-24. Each unit is now
carrying 700 MW of load at a reduced frequency of 59.6 HZ. To bring the
frequency of the system back to 60 HZ, the load reference set-points for both
generators are adjusted upward so that at an output of 700 MW from each unit the
frequency is 60 HZ.

Same Unit Ratings – Different Droops

Now assume that the two generators are the same size but use different droop
settings. Unit “A” has a 3% droop while Unit “B” has a 6% droop. Because the
droop settings are different, the two generators no longer evenly share changes in
load as they did when the droop settings were the same. The generator with the
smaller droop setting (Unit “A”) assumes a larger portion of any load change as
illustrated in Figure 4-25.

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 Frequency Control

Notice that the

larger the % droop,
the steeper the slope
of the droop curve
and the more of a
frequency change it
takes to achieve a
given generator
output change.

Unit "B" has a

larger % droop than
Unit "A". This
means Unit "A" MW
response is greater
than Unit "B". The
greater the %
droop, the less the
unit response.
Figure 4-25. Load Sharing – Same Unit Ratings – Different Droop

Figure 4-25 illustrates that if the same 200 MW of load is added to the system
resulting in frequency declining to 59.7 HZ, Unit “A” assumes 133 MW of the
new MW load while Unit “B” assumes the remaining 67 MW. Unit “A” has ½
the droop setting of generator “B” so it picks up twice as much of the new load.

Same Unit Ratings – One Unit Isochronous Control

To conclude our description of how droop settings impact the response of
generators to load changes again consider a small isolated power system with two
generators. One of the generators has a 5% droop (Unit “A”) and the other
generator (Unit “B”) is on isochronous control (0% droop). Figure 4-26
illustrates the two generators.
When a unit is in Initially each generator is carrying 600 MW of load. Assume that a 100 MW load
isochronous control
it attempts to
addition suddenly occurs. Which unit will pick up the additional 100 MW? Since
control frequency as Unit “B” is on isochronous control it would pick up the entire 100 MW load
long as it has addition. Unit “A” will not pick up any additional load unless frequency drops.
available MW Since Unit “B” is on isochronous control it will not let the frequency drop unless
capability. Unit “B” it runs out of MW. The 100 MW load addition is within the capability of Unit
can add up to 150
MW of output to
“B” so it picks up the entire 100 MW while Unit “A” loading stays constant.
stop frequency from
dropping.

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 Frequency Control

Now assume that instead of a 100 MW load increase, a 200 MW load increase
occurs. Which unit will pick up this load change? Since Unit “B” is on
isochronous control it tries to maintain frequency and pick up the entire 200 MW
load change. However, Unit “B” only has 150 MW of spare capacity available.
Once Unit “B” reaches its capacity limit, the frequency starts to fall. When the
frequency starts to fall, Unit “A” starts to pick up load. Figure 4-26 illustrates the
split of the additional load. Notice that the system frequency falls to 59.8 HZ.

Figure 4-26. Load Sharing – Same Unit Ratings – One in

Isochronous
Frequency response
data is typically
4.2.9 System Frequency Response Characteristic reported in units of
MW per 0.1 HZ.
A power system characteristic, called the frequency response characteristic For example, a
(FRC), can be developed for any section of a power system. The FRC relates utility may report
the MW response of the system (or section of the system) to a change in that their system
frequency. The FRC is based on the combined response of all the generating typically responds
with 200 MW for
units and the spinning (motor) load in the system to changes in system frequency.
each 0.1 HZ of
The FRC includes the governor response of the various units and the frequency frequency deviation.
response of the loads.

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The system FRC depends on:

Î The governor droop settings of all on-line units in the system.
Î The condition of the power system when the frequency deviation occurs.
The condition of the power system includes current generator output
levels, transmission line outages, voltage levels, etc.
Î The frequency response of the connected load in the system.
Therefore, the FRC of a power system varies with the current operating
conditions. The FRC of a power system following a frequency disturbance varies
depending on the generating units currently on line, the magnitude of the load, the
transmission lines in-service, etc. Given the same size loss of generation
occurring at two different times, the FRC of the system will be different.
The FRC is similar to a droop characteristic. Both quantities relate MW changes
to frequency changes. The FRC for a power system is sometimes referred to as a
system droop. One can produce a droop type curve for any area of the power
system that describes how that area responds to frequency deviations.

Frequency Response of Different Interconnections

Figures 4-27 through 4-29 are based on typical frequency response data for the
three major NERC Interconnections. Figure 4-27 is for the Eastern
Interconnection, Figure 4-28 for the Western Interconnection and Figure 4-29 for
the ERCOT Interconnection. Each of the figures illustrates how the particular
Interconnection frequency varies following a significant generation loss.
The time scales on the bottom of each figure are measured in minutes. Time = 0
represents the initiation of the disturbance. The frequency response of a power
system takes approximately 10 to 20 seconds to develop following a disturbance.
Note in the figures that the frequency continues to improve as indicated by the
arrows on the three figures. What happens several minutes after a disturbance is
examined in the next section of this chapter.
Figure 4-27 illustrates typical Eastern Interconnection frequency response
following the loss of 1,200 MW of generation. Notice how the frequency plunges
to 59.972 HZ and then recovers to 59.985 HZ. The FRC for the Eastern
Interconnection is also calculated in Figure 4-27. For a loss of 1,200 MW the
frequency changes by .03 HZ. This is equivalent to 4,000 MW per 0.1 HZ.
An FRC of 4,000 MW/0.1HZ means that given a disturbance in the Eastern
Interconnection, for each 0.1 HZ the frequency drops, the Interconnection as a
whole typically responds with 4,000 MW to arrest and restore the frequency.
Remember, the FRC varies depending on current system conditions.

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The low point or

undershoot of the
frequency is 59.972
HZ. The frequency
recovers to 59.985
largely due to
governor response.
The FRC for the
Interconnection is
based on a
comparison of the
initial frequency
(60.015 HZ) and the
point the frequency
recovers to (59.985
HZ).

Figure 4-27. Eastern Interconnection

Figure 4-28 illustrates the Western Interconnection’s typical frequency response

following the loss of 1,200 MW. Notice how the frequency plunges farther for
the same generation loss as was shown in Figure 4-27. This is expected as the
Western Interconnection is about 1/5 the size of the Eastern Interconnection. The
FRC for the Western Interconnection is also calculated in Figure 4-28. The value
of 1,600 MW/0.1HZ indicates that following a disturbance, the Western
Interconnection as a whole will respond with approximately 1,600 MW for each
0.1 HZ the frequency plunges.
Figure 4-28 follows on the next page.

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 Frequency Control

Compare the FRC

of the Eastern
(4,000 MW) to the
Western
Interconnection
(1,600 MW). The
Eastern
Interconnection will
respond with 2.5
times the MW to 0.1
HZ frequency drop
as will the Western
Interconnection.
The Eastern
Interconnection is
approximately 5
times larger than
the Western, so this
is expected.

Figure 4-28. Western Interconnection

Figure 4-29 illustrates a typical frequency response of the ERCOT
Interconnection. Notice how only a 700 MW loss leads to a rather large
frequency deviation. The ERCOT Interconnection is a small Interconnection
when compared to either the Eastern or the Western. ERCOT utilities expect
large frequency deviations when major generation is lost and they design and
maintain their power systems accordingly. The FRC for the ERCOT
Interconnection as calculated in Figure 4-29 is 700 MW/0.1 HZ.

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The ERCOT
Interconnection is a
relatively small
Interconnection. That
is why a 700 MW loss
causes such a large
frequency deviation. If
700 MW were lost in
the ERCOT
Interconnection,
frequency would likely
stabilize at
approximately 59.9 HZ
following governor
response.

Figure 4-29. ERCOT Interconnection

Frequency Bias
The FRC for a Balancing Authority (a Balancing Authority is a physical division
of a power system) is an important measure of that areas response to a
disturbance. An estimate of the FRC (the symbol for the FRC is the Greek letter
β) for a Balancing Authority is an important setting for the automatic generation
control (AGC) system of the Balancing Authority. The term frequency bias or
symbol “B” is used when referring to a Balancing Authority’s estimate of their
FRC. The correct use and importance of the frequency bias term is described in
greater detail in Section 4.3.

4.2.10 Response to a Loss of Generation Section 4.10

describes the
When power systems experience frequency deviations, all of the interconnected system response
power system responds. The magnitude of the responses by the different systems to a generator
loss in greater
within the Interconnection depends on their respective FRC and on their location
detail.
in relation to the source of the frequency disturbance. This means that when a
frequency disturbance occurs within an Interconnection, generators throughout
the Interconnection respond.
The farther (in electrical distance or Ω’s) a generator is from a disturbance, the
less it will initially respond. A generator in Florida would initially see a large
frequency change if a large neighboring Florida unit tripped and would initially

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respond with a large output change. If a large unit in North Dakota were suddenly
lost, that same unit in Florida would also respond with an increase in MW output.
However, the initial response would typically not be as large as the electrical
distance is much greater and the Florida unit would not initially see as large of a
frequency decline.
The rock in the
pond analogy is One way to visualize frequency disturbances in the interconnected power system
also similar to a is to think of an interconnected power system as a smooth pond. When a
power system frequency disturbance occurs it is equivalent to tossing a rock into the pond. The
frequency
disturbance in that larger the waves in the pond, the greater the frequency disturbance. As you move
it takes time for the further away from the point where the rock initially struck the pond, the waves
waves to propagate slowly melt away.
throughout the
pond. In the same Frequency disturbances spread out from their original impact point in the same
manner, when a manner. The farther away from the disturbance location, the smaller the initial
generator is lost in frequency change. Eventually, after all the interconnected units in the power
the power system it system have responded, the system resumes operating at a common frequency.
takes several
seconds for all the This may take 10 to 20 seconds.
utilities in a large
Interconnection to 4.2.11 Limitations to Governor Response
see their maximum
frequency Governors are not designed nor is it intended that they perform perfect frequency
disturbance. control. Limitations to governor control, both intentional and unintentional,
include:
Î Spinning Reserve
Î Mismatch Size
Î Governor Deadband
Î Type of Generating Unit
Î Boiler Control Modes
Î Blocked Governors

Spinning Reserve
If a governor is to move a unit down along its droop curve in response to a
frequency drop, it can only do so if the generator has unused MW capability.
This unused MW capability is generally referred to as spinning reserve capability.
Spinning reserve is the difference between the current output level of the
synchronized generator and the maximum sustainable output level of the unit. A
generator can have a perfectly tuned governor, but if the unit is not carrying any
spinning reserve it will not respond when frequency drops.
Section 4.4 A generator may be carrying a large amount of spinning reserve and still not
describes the types adequately respond to governor commands. Not all spinning reserve is
of reserves in necessarily responsive to governor commands. That portion of the spinning
greater detail. reserve that is responsive to governor commands is called the unit’s responsive
spinning reserve. In general, the responsive spinning reserve attributable to a

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generator should be responsive to governor commands and fully available within

a few (possibly 15) seconds.
A large portion of the spinning reserve carried in hydro units is often responsive
spinning reserve. In general, hydro units can respond and sustain large MW
response due to their large stored energy reserves. Depending on the size and
type of hydro unit, ramp rates of 100’s of MW can be accomplished in a few
seconds.
The nature of the energy conversion process in a steam unit often limits the
responsive spinning reserve to only a fraction of the available spinning reserve.
Boiler temperatures and pressures must be maintained within certain limits in a
steam unit. These limitations restrict the maximum ramp rates allowed from the
unit. The maximum response that can be delivered by a steam unit is
approximately 10% of the unit’s remaining capability in 15 seconds. For
example, a steam unit with a 500 MW rating that is currently generating 300 MW,
could possibly deliver (and sustain) 20 MW within 15 seconds in response to
governor commands.
It makes no sense to allow a steam unit to over-respond to a frequency
disturbance if the consequences include loss of the unit due to boiler troubles.
However, preventing unit response due to concerns with the unit boiler-turbine
reduces the frequency response of the entire Interconnection. A compromise must
be reached wherein the power system’s need for rapid frequency response is
balanced with the needs of the individual generators.

Size of the Mismatch

The size of the mismatch refers to the percent mismatch between generation and
load that causes a frequency disturbance. The larger the percent mismatch, the
greater the frequency deviation. For example, the loss of a 100 MW unit in an
Interconnection the size of the Eastern Interconnection (≈650,000 MW peak) is
barely noticeable on frequency strip charts. Perhaps the frequency drops by 0.002
HZ. However, the loss of a 100 MW unit in an Interconnection such as Alaska
(≈1,000 MW peak) could result in a severe frequency reduction (as low as Underfrequency load
shedding is addressed
59 HZ) and possible system break-up if remedial actions such as
in Section 4.8.
underfrequency load shedding are not taken.
Governor response can only arrest the frequency deviation if sufficient capacity
under governor control is readily available. If there is too little responsive
spinning reserve capacity available or if the time delay to deliver this capacity is
too long, governor response alone may not be enough to arrest the frequency
deviation. More drastic measures, such as underfrequency load shedding, may be
required.

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The smaller the Interconnection, the more likely available governor response is
inadequate and other, more drastic actions taken. The Eastern Interconnection is
so large that it is highly unlikely a single contingency loss of generation could
lead to an unrecoverable frequency depression. The Alaskan Interconnection, on
the other hand, is so small that underfrequency load shedding is routinely used to
respond to first contingency generation losses.

Governor Deadband
A control system (such as a governor) maintains a designated variable close to a
target value based on a series of measured inputs. There is a certain “dead” area
around the target value within which the control system does not function. So
instead of a target value, a control system actually maintains a target range. For
example, if the controlled variable is frequency, instead of maintaining exactly 60
HZ, a governor control system may maintain frequency within a band of 60.03
HZ to 59.97 HZ. The inactive range around the target value is called the
deadband. In our example of a governor holding frequency within a range of
59.97 HZ to 60.03 HZ, the target value is 60.00 HZ and the deadband is ±0.03
HZ.
In older mechanical governor systems, deadband was impossible to eliminate.
Interaction between the moving parts resulted in deadband whether it was desired
or not. In newer mechanical and electronic governor systems, deadband can be
largely eliminated if so desired. However, in practice some deadband is desired.
The governor’s role is to arrest frequency deviations, not to control frequency
within a narrow range of 60 HZ. Other control systems are available to keep
frequency within a narrow band of 60 HZ. If governor deadband were eliminated,
the governor would constantly direct the generator to chase minor frequency
deviations. Generator components would suffer excess wear for no good reason.
Power oscillations could develop as the governor sends the generator conflicting
signals in a bid to correct minor frequency oscillations. Power oscillations could
also develop between neighboring generators as both try to keep their own,
unequal, versions of 60 HZ.
The IEEE (an industry standards organization) recommends a deadband of 0.036
HZ for governor control systems. By looking closely at plots of frequency
disturbances in the interconnected systems, one would note that the “tail” to the
frequency trace is normally not visible until the frequency deviation is larger than
approximately .03 HZ. This is evidence of an industry practice to set effective
governor deadbands in the neighborhood of 0.03 to 0.04 HZ.

Type of Unit
The type of unit (hydro, steam, combustion turbine) has a direct bearing on
governor response. While the governor control systems used on different units
may be identical, what is more important is the MW response from the unit. If the

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unit cannot deliver what the governor asks of it, the unit is of less value to the
system for frequency control.

Hydro
Hydro units are, in general very responsive to governor commands as they may The penstock
store a great deal of energy in their water storage reservoirs. Depending on the delivers the
size and type of hydro unit, response rates of 100’s of MW can be achieved in a water to the
few seconds. Not all hydro units respond well. Those with long penstocks may hydro turbine.
respond poorly to large frequency deviations due to turbulence in the incoming
water.

Combustion Turbine
Depending on the design of the combustion turbine, the unit may or may not be
responsive to governor commands. On those systems dependent on combustion
turbines for a large part of their generation, difficulties have been encountered
with respect to the combustion turbine maintaining their initial governor response.
These difficulties center on the reduced compressor output during low frequency
conditions.

Steam
Steam units make up the majority of system generators. The governor response of
steam units varies from very poor to very good depending on the type of steam
unit. The initial governor response from a steam unit is from stored steam. This
initial response may be quite fast. The difficulty may be in sustaining this initial
response.
Approximately 30% of a generators output power is developed in the high-
pressure turbine of a typical steam unit. The remaining 70% is developed in the
lower pressure stages. The high-pressure turbine is very responsive to governor
commands as the governor typically directly controls the high-pressure turbine
control valve. Lower pressure stages are indirectly controlled by the governor.
The lower pressure stages are fed steam via a reheat cycle of the boiler. The
reheat cycle adds several seconds of time delay from an initial call for MW from a
governor until the generator can actually deliver the majority of its MW response.

Coal Fired Steam Units

Coal fired steam units are capable of strong governor response. A well tuned coal
fired unit may respond with 10% of its remaining capability within 15 seconds
following a frequency disturbance. The actual response of a coal fired unit
depends on the specifics of the boiler-turbine. For example, units with a drum
type boiler have significant steam storage and this steam can be used for rapid,
sustained, governor response. In contrast supercritical (once through type) boilers
have little steam storage and, in general, cannot sustain a significant governor
response.

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Nuclear Steam Units

Nuclear units are capable of governor response much the same as coal fired units.
Pressurized water reactors being more capable than boiling water reactors.
However, nuclear units are often operated at full licensed output. Given a
frequency depression, nuclear unit governors are often blocked (see below) to
prevent further valve opening and MW response. This is not to infer that all
nuclear units have blocked governors. Some utilities are very dependent on
nuclear powered generation and achieve satisfactory governor response with their
nuclear units.

Blocked Governors
All governor response can be prevented. By adjusting the generator’s controls, a
generator operator can intentionally prevent the unit from responding to a
frequency disturbance. This is called blocking a governor. For example, nuclear
units are often operated at their maximum licensed output. The nuclear operating
company may choose to prevent steam valves from opening further in response to
a frequency decline. In effect, the nuclear plant operator has blocked the
governor’s response to a frequency drop.
4.3 Automatic Generation Control (AGC)

4.3.1 Introduction to Automatic Generation Control

As described in Section 4.1, generation must be matched to load or frequency
deviations will occur. Governors on generators are used to adjust the output of
the generator in response to frequency deviations resulting from generation/load
mismatches. The governors are assisted by system inertia and the load-frequency
relationship but all of these actions together will not maintain a constant system
frequency.

Governor control does not provide adequate frequency regulation for several
reasons including:
Î Governors do not return frequency to the scheduled value (normally 60
HZ) due to the required % droop characteristic of interconnected system
generator governors.
Î Governor control does not adequately consider the cost of power
production so control with governors alone is usually not the most
economical alternative.
Î Governor control is intended as a primary means of frequency control.
As such governor control is course and not suited to fine adjustment of
the interconnected system frequency

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Therefore, another form of control system is required to balance generation The first AGC
to load and maintain a constant system frequency. This other control system system was
implemented by an
is the automatic generation control (AGC). While governors control individual east coast utility in
generators, AGC systems simultaneously control many governors to balance 1927.
generation to load.
An AGC system operates at a much higher level of control than a governor.
Where a governor control system monitors and controls only one generator, an
AGC system monitors a section of the power system, known as a Balancing
Authority area, and controls multiple generators. Governor control is often
referred to as primary frequency control while AGC is referred to as secondary
frequency control. Power plant
operators can also
Recall from Section 4.2 how a governor arrests changes in generator adjust governor set-
frequency, and how the governor is not typically used to restore frequency points. The
to 60 HZ. Remember how frequency is restored by adjusting the load reference mechanism for
set-point of the governors. AGC is the control system that normally makes adjusting set-points
these important set-point adjustments. With control over the load reference set- is commonly called
a "speed changer".
points of the generators, AGC matches its Balancing Authority’s generation to
load and maintains frequency.

4.3.2 Balancing Authorities

Description of a Balancing Authority

A Balancing Authority is a part of an interconnected power system that is
responsible for meeting its own load. Each Balancing Authority operates an AGC
system to balance its generation resources to its load requirements. The
generation resources may be internal or purchased from other Balancing
Authorities and transferred over tie-lines between Balancing Authorities.
Similarly, load requirements may include internal customer load, losses, or
scheduled sales to other Balancing Authorities.
Figure 4-30 illustrates a simple interconnected power system with five Balancing
Authorities. Each of the Balancing Authorities in this power system must achieve
a 60 HZ balance between the power supplied and the power consumed.
Normally, Balancing Authorities achieve this balance with the help of power sales
and purchases using the tie-lines between the Balancing Authorities. These
transactions are normally scheduled in advance based on forecast load, the cost
and availability of on-line generation, and the MW of transfer capability available
on the tie-lines.
In real-time operation, Balancing Authorities are responsible for ensuring that the
actual flows on their connecting tie-lines are as intended or as scheduled. Any
difference between actual and scheduled net tie-line flows indicates an imbalance
or error with respect to generation levels in the Balancing Authority. Some of this
difference or error is desired and represents a part of the Balancing Authority’s
contribution to system wide frequency regulation.

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Each Balancing Authority operates an AGC system to balance its total generation
resources (including energy purchases) to its total load (including energy sales
and system losses). The AGC system monitors power system conditions within
the Balancing Authority including generation supply, load demand, losses, sales,
purchases, and system frequency. The AGC system analyzes all this data and
computes a control error.
The control error is called the ACE (area control error) signal. ACE represents
the discrepancy between the generation supply and total MW obligations of the
Balancing Authority. Dependent on the ACE signal, the AGC system send
signals or pulses to selected generating units within its Balancing Authority to tell
the generators what generation levels to hold (adjust the generator set-points).

This figure
illustrates five
Balancing
Authorities. The
Balancing Authority
in the middle is
shown in detail
while the other four
are just labeled.
Each Balancing
Authority monitors
frequency and their
tie-line flows to
other Balancing
Authorities. Note
the meters on the
tie-lines. The meters
are necessary to
monitor actual tie-
line MW flows.

Figure 4-30. Definition of a Balancing Authority

The number of It is not necessary for the AGC system to regulate the output of all the generators
units that
receive AGC in a Balancing Authority. Most Balancing Authorities have policies which
signals (pulses) require that as many units as needed are under control and able to respond to the
may vary from Balancing Authority’s continual load changes. Those units that receive and
a few for a respond to AGC signals are called regulating units.
small Balancing
Authority to 40-
50 for the
largest of
Balancing
Authorities.

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Metering of Balancing Authority Boundaries

Note the MW flow meters illustrated in Figure 4-30. Tie-line metering is required
on all transmission lines interconnecting Balancing Authorities. The metered data
from all of a Balancing Authority’s tie-lines or Interconnections are summed
together to equal the net MW flow out of or into a Balancing Authority.
Neighboring Balancing Authorities, those that that share tie-lines, must also share
the same metered data. It is important that Balancing Authorities receive identical
data concerning actual MW flows on interconnecting tie-lines. The location of
the meter is also significant. Tie-line losses may be split between adjacent
Balancing Authorities depending on the location of the meter.
Metering of Balancing Authority boundaries can get complicated. An important
point is that Balancing Authorities do not have to be contiguous areas. For
example, a Balancing Authority can be formed of many small pieces spread over
a large physical area. There are large Balancing Authorities (1000’s of MW) with
only a few metered tie-lines. There are also Balancing Authorities with hundreds
of metered tie-lines.

The Control Center

The control center is the headquarters of the Balancing Authority. The
intelligence (digital computer) of the AGC system is typically located in the
control center. All the data collected by the AGC system is processed in the
control center. Based on the gathered data, the AGC signals are transmitted from
the control center to the various generators currently receiving AGC control
signals.

Summary of the Duties of a Balancing Authority

The AGC related duties of a Balancing Authority could be summarized in two
statements:
1. To ensure that the sum of the actual MW flows on all tie-lines with
neighboring Balancing Authorities are as intended or as scheduled.
2. To assist all the other Balancing Authorities in the Interconnection with the
maintenance of a relatively constant system frequency.
If every Balancing Authority in an Interconnection performs these two duties the
Interconnection will experience acceptable frequency control.

NERC Balancing Authorities

As described in Chapter 2 of this text, there are four major Interconnections in
NERC. Each Interconnection in turn is composed of Balancing Authorities.
Every generator, every load, every piece of the transmission system must reside
within the metered boundaries of a Balancing Authority.

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The Eastern Interconnection is composed of approximately 90 Balancing

Authorities. These Balancing Authorities range in load size from over 130,000
MW peaks to Balancing Authorities that serve no load but simply use their
generation for meeting interchange responsibilities. The Western Interconnection
is composed of approximately 30 Balancing Authorities with a distribution similar
to the Eastern Interconnection.
The ERCOT and Hydro Quebec Interconnections are each operated as single
Balancing Authorities. Hydro Quebec has long operated as a single Balancing
Authority while the ERCOT Interconnection implemented single Balancing
Authority to facilitate operation as a market in 2001.

4.3.3 Types of Interchange

There are typically multiple tie-lines connecting a Balancing Authority to one or
more other Balancing Authorities. With respect to the operation of an AGC
system, the individual tie-line flows are not important. What is important is the
total or net flow on all the Balancing Authority’s tie-lines.
The net tie-line flow or interchange of a Balancing Authority is the difference
between the MW flowing out of the Balancing Authority and the MW flowing
into the Balancing Authority. When MW flow is out of a Balancing Authority, it
is referred to as positive (+) tie-line flow or positive (+) interchange. When
power flow is into a Balancing Authority, it is referred to as negative (-) tie-line
flow or negative (-) interchange.
The net tie-line flow or net interchange for a Balancing Authority is the sum of all
the tie-line flows into and out of the Balancing Authority. For example, if net
interchange is +100 MW, overall a Balancing Authority is sending 100 MW out
to all other Balancing Authorities. If net interchange is -100 MW, overall the
Balancing Authority is importing 100 MW from all other Balancing Authorities.
Figure 4-31 illustrates three Balancing Authorities with each Balancing Authority
connected to the others by two tie-lines. The actual MW flows on the tie-lines are
given in the figure. There are three types of interchange - actual, scheduled, and
inadvertent. Figure 4-31 is used to illustrate these three types of interchange.

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The MW
flows shown
are actual
interchange
flows.

Figure 4-31. Balancing Authority Interchange

Actual Net Interchange

Actual net interchange is the sum of the actual MW flows on the tie-lines. For a
Balancing Authority, it is the summation of the actual flows into and out of the
Balancing Authority on all tie-lines connecting the Balancing Authority to other
Balancing Authorities. The actual net interchange for the three Balancing To compute these
Authorities in Figure 4-31 is as follows: numbers you must
remember that
Î Balancing Authority “A” -300 MW interchange out of a
Î Balancing Authority “B” +600 MW Balancing Authority
is positive and
Î Balancing Authority “C” -300 MW interchange in is
negative.
Notice that the sum of the actual net interchange for the three Balancing
Authorities illustrated in Figure 4-31 is zero. The sum of the actual net
interchange must always equal zero for an Interconnection. Another Balancing
Authority must receive whatever the other Balancing Authorities send out.

Scheduled Net Interchange

Scheduled interchange is the interchange flow that a Balancing Authority intends.
For example, if Balancing Authority “A” intends to send 500 MW to Balancing
Authority “B”, a scheduled interchange of +500 MW exists from Balancing
Authority “A” to “B”. Scheduled net interchange for a Balancing Authority is the
summation of all scheduled sales and purchases to all other Balancing Authorities.
Sales are a positive scheduled interchange while purchases are negative scheduled
interchange.

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Actual net interchange is seldom exactly equal to scheduled net interchange. For
example, if generation exceeds demand, the Balancing Authority over-generates
and excess MW flows out of the area. Actual net interchange is then greater than
scheduled. Similarly, if the Balancing Authority under-generates, MW flows into
the area and actual net interchange is less than scheduled.

Inadvertent Net Interchange

Inadvertent net interchange is the difference between actual net interchange and
scheduled net interchange. For example, if a Balancing Authority schedules 100
MW to flow across tie-lines and only 90 MW actually flows, then there is an
inadvertent flow of -10 MW (90-100) on the tie-lines.
Consider Balancing Authority “A” in Figure 4-32. Assume Balancing Authority
“A” schedules 500 MW to Balancing Authority “B” but only 400 MW actually
flows. Balancing Authority “A” has a net inadvertent flow of 400 - 500 = -100
MW. Balancing Authority “B” has a net inadvertent flow of -400 - (-500) = +100
MW.

This inadvertent
flow is created
because Balancing
Authority "A" is
under-generating by
100 MW and
Balancing Authority
"B" is over-
generating by 100
MW.

Figure 4-32. Inadvertent Interchange

Accumulated Inadvertent Interchange

Accumulated inadvertent interchange is the amount of inadvertent that flows over
time. If, as shown in Figure 4-32, 100 MW of inadvertent flows for an hour,
Balancing Authority “A” would accumulate -100 MWh of inadvertent
interchange and Balancing Authority “B” would accumulate +100 MWh of
inadvertent interchange. If the 100 MW of inadvertent only flowed for 30
minutes, Balancing Authority “A” would accumulate -50 MWh of inadvertent and
Balancing Authority “B” would accumulate +50 MWh.
Balancing Authorities cannot operate with constant perfect matches between
generation and load. There will typically be some error or inadvertent flow
created. What is expected is that over the course of the daily, weekly, monthly
load cycles, a Balancing Authority over-generates approximately ½ the time and
under- generates approximately ½ the time. The positive net inadvertent

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produced when over-generating should then cancel the negative net inadvertent
produced while under-generating. This match between positive and negative net
inadvertent does not always occur but in general Balancing Authorities do a good
job of minimizing their net inadvertent flows.
Inadvertent flow is an indication of an imbalance between generation and load in
a Balancing Authority. If the net inadvertent is positive, the Balancing Authority
has been over-generating. If the net inadvertent is negative, the Balancing The size of a
Authority has been under-generating. When a Balancing Authority has a net Balancing
inadvertent flow on its tie-lines it may be a signal that there is a difference Authorities
accumulated
between power supplied and used. The Balancing Authority’s AGC system may
inadvertent account
respond by changing the set-points of the generators on AGC control. is not a good judge
of the performance
The AGC system and the system operator work to minimize inadvertent
of the Balancing
interchange. However, even with the AGC system functioning as expected and Authority.
the system operator doing their best, inadvertent power flows does occur. Over a Accumulated
period of time, a Balancing Authority may accumulate a considerable amount of inadvertent
net inadvertent, either positive or negative. As net inadvertent represents a accounts can grow
large from
mismatch in the interchange of power between Balancing Authorities,
responding to other
Balancing Authorities may make special arrangements with each other to Balancing
reduce their accumulated inadvertent. Authority’s poor
operations.
When disturbances occur on an interconnected power system, inadvertent
interchanges occur. Power automatically flows between Balancing Authorities to
supply deficiencies. For example, if in Figure 4-32 Balancing Authority “B”
loses a generator, the generating units in Balancing Authority “A” would rapidly
increase their output and increase actual power flow from Balancing Authority
“A” to Balancing Authority “B” on the tie-line. This would change the
inadvertent flow on the tie-line between the two Balancing Authorities.
A Balancing Authority’s accumulated inadvertent can be viewed as composed of
two components; primary or unintentional inadvertent and secondary or
intentional inadvertent. Secondary / intentional inadvertent results from a
Balancing Authorities MW response to external generation/load mismatches. The
largest component of intentional inadvertent is due to governor response. Primary
/unintentional inadvertent results from internal scheduling errors, metering errors,
or failures to keep up with load changes.
In terms of frequency deviations, the Balancing Authority who causes a frequency
deviation incurs primary / unintentional inadvertent. The Balancing Authority
who responds to a frequency deviation some other Balancing Authority caused,
incurs secondary / intentional inadvertent. Figure 4-33 illustrates the concept of
primary / unintentional and secondary / intentional inadvertent.
In Figure 4-33a, Balancing Authority “A” loses a generator. Note the frequency
drops from 60 to 59.95 Hz. Balancing Authority “A” then absorbs primary
inadvertent from the other three Balancing Authorities who are responding to the
low frequency. The other three Balancing Authorities did not cause the low
frequency condition so their inadvertent is classified as secondary.

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In Figure 4-33b, Balancing Authority “C” loses a load. Note the frequency rises
from 60 to 60.05. Balancing Authority “C” then provides primary inadvertent to
the other three Balancing Authorities who are responding to the high frequency.
The other three Balancing Authorities did not cause the high frequency condition
so their inadvertent is classified as secondary.

Figure 4-33. Primary / Unintentional Versus Secondary / Intentional

Inadvertent

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4.3.4 Function of an AGC System

The first AGC
The function of an AGC system is most easily understood in relation to an systems were
isolated power system. In an isolated power system, the output of all the installed in the mid
generators should ideally equal the total internal system load (including sales and 1920’s and were
system losses) with the frequency at 60 HZ. The main function of an AGC limited to simple
frequency control.
system in an isolated system is to maintain a 60 HZ balance of the following
equation:

Generation = Internal System Load + Internal Losses

Any difference between generation and load would cause the AGC system to
calculate and send control signals to selected generators to adjust their MW
output. These control signals are used to adjust the load reference set-points of
the generators. If generation in the isolated system were greater than load, the
AGC system would call for a decrease in generation. If generation were less than
load, the AGC system would call for an increase in generation.
Actual power systems, however, are normally not isolated. They are
interconnected with many other systems. The tie-lines between the different
Balancing Authorities allow power to flow between each and enable the system
participants to buy and sell energy between one another. In an interconnected
power system with multiple Balancing Authorities, the AGC systems must do
more than just match internal generating resources to internal load and losses.
AGC must also take into account the power flows that occur back and forth
between Balancing Authorities over the interconnecting tie-lines. An AGC
system in a Balancing Authority must therefore maintain a 60 HZ balance of the
following equation:

Generation = Internal System Load +

Internal Losses +
Net Scheduled Interchange

The new term in the above equation, net scheduled interchange, is the sum of the
scheduled or intended MW flow on all the tie-lines between the Balancing
Authority in which this AGC system is located and all adjacent Balancing
Authorities. The addition of the net scheduled interchange term greatly affects
the operation and complexity of an AGC system.
Since power systems are interconnected, it might appear that one AGC system
could be used to control the frequency of the entire Interconnection to the desired
60 HZ value, without the need to measure and control power flows between
Balancing Authorities. This is not always feasible, however, due to the sheer size
of some interconnected power systems and the fact that utilities often desire

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control over the operation of their own generating units and transmission system.
Instead, the larger interconnected power systems are broken down into smaller
sections (Balancing Authorities) in which individual AGC systems can function.

4.3.5 Components of an AGC System

Figure 4-34 illustrates the basic components of a Balancing Authority’s AGC
system. In order for an AGC system to perform its function it must be able to
continuously determine a system frequency error and a net interchange error.
Both of these errors are summed to form the Balancing Authority’s ACE (area
control error) value. The ACE value is then distributed to various generators
under AGC control.

The standard
time input is a
feature of time
error control.
Time error
control is
described in
Section 4.5.

Figure 4-34. Components of an AGC System

An AGC system has components in the control center and in the power system.
The control center components include the computer equipment that both
calculates the ACE signal and distributes the signal to controlled generators. The
AGC equipment in the power system includes AGC consoles at controlled
generators, frequency meters and tie-line meters. All of the AGC data is
transmitted via telemetry.
Figure 4-34 illustrates the following basic components of an AGC system:
Î A frequency meter is used to gather actual system frequency data (FA).
This data is compared to a scheduled value of frequency (FS) and a
frequency error (FA-FS) is determined and sent to the data monitoring
computer.

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Î The system operators enter scheduled net interchange (NIS) data into the
data monitoring computer. Actual interchange data (NIA) is gathered
from all the Balancing Authority tie-line meters. Telemetry channels are
used to gather the interchange data from remote locations in the
transmission system. The actual interchange is compared to the
scheduled interchange and a net interchange error (NIA-NIS) value is
calculated in the data monitoring computer.
Î The data monitoring computer uses the frequency error and the net
interchange error to compute an ACE value.
Î The AGC control computer distributes the ACE signal to the controlled
generators. This can be a complicated process. Not only must the ACE
signal be distributed to the proper generators but also the results of past
ACE signal distributions must be checked to be sure the generators are
moving in the direction AGC has sent them.
The process illustrated in Figure 4-34 is continuous. A new ACE signal may be
calculated and new set-points distributed to controlled generators every few (2-6)
seconds.

4.3.6 Modes of AGC Control

In order to operate within an interconnected power system, each Balancing
Authority must have an AGC system that satisfies the following requirements:
Î Each AGC system should control enough generating capacity to supply
the Balancing Authority’s loads, losses, and scheduled interchange and
also assist the Interconnection with maintaining a constant 60 HZ In contrast to AGC,
the generator
Interconnection frequency. governors in
Î Each AGC system should operate in such a manner that it does not neighboring
Balancing
normally cause generation changes and/or respond to normal Authorities respond
generation changes in neighboring Balancing Authorities. to each other’s
Î Each AGC system maintains the actual net interchange for its frequency swings.
This is proper
Balancing Authority within a close range of the scheduled interchange. operation for
There are three typical operating modes for AGC, namely: governors.

1. Constant Frequency Control (also called Flat Frequency Control)

2. Constant Net Interchange Control (also called Flat Tie-Line Control)
3. Tie-Line Bias Control
In this section, the first two modes of AGC control are only briefly described.
These modes, constant frequency and constant net interchange, are not used as
often as the third mode listed. This text concentrates on the third and most
common mode of AGC control, tie-line bias.

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Constant Frequency Control

In constant frequency control, the AGC system monitors only frequency. If
frequency deviates from 60 HZ, the AGC system adjusts the load reference set-
points of the governors on the generators under AGC control to return the
frequency to 60 HZ.
Constant frequency control (CFC) is the normal mode of AGC operation if the
Interconnection has only one Balancing Authority. For example, the ERCOT and
Hydro Quebec Interconnections use a form of CFC. CFC is seldom used in an
Interconnection composed of multiple Balancing Authorities.
Constant If a Balancing Authority in a multiple Balancing Authority Interconnection uses
frequency control
is different than
constant frequency control, the AGC system responds to frequency excursions
isochronous caused by other Balancing Authorities. This is not normally acceptable. An AGC
governor control. system should only respond to events within its own Balancing Authority’s
Constant metered boundaries. Constant frequency control is not normally used in a
frequency control multiple Balancing Authority power system. If two or more Balancing
is AGC control of
the governor set-
Authorities tried to control frequency this could result in erratic operation and
points to power swings between the Balancing Authorities.
maintain
frequency. Constant Net Interchange Control
Isochronous
governor control In constant net interchange control; the AGC system monitors only the tie-lines
is direct control connecting a Balancing Authority to neighboring Balancing Authorities. If the
actual interchange flows deviate from the scheduled values, the AGC system
adjusts generation until the flows are returned to scheduled values.
A serious problem with constant net interchange control is that frequency control
is ignored. A Balancing Authority on constant net interchange AGC could end up
backing off generation to correct tie-line flows while Interconnection frequency is
below 60 HZ. An overriding goal should always be the maintenance of system
frequency, and constant net interchange control does not always satisfy this goal.
Tie-line bias
control has many Balancing Authorities may use constant net interchange control during certain
advantages over emergency conditions. For example, if a Balancing Authority loses its AGC
other modes of frequency source, that Balancing Authority can temporarily use constant net
AGC control. interchange control.
NERC Operating
Standards specify
that all Balancing Tie-Line Bias Control
Authorities shall
use tie-line bias
Tie-line bias control is the preferred method of AGC system operation in multiple
control unless Balancing Authority systems. When a Balancing Authority uses tie-line bias
they have an control, its AGC system is not affected by, nor will it interfere with, the
operational operations of neighboring Balancing Authorities. Under tie-line bias control,
reason not to. once governor control has arrested the initial frequency deviation, the AGC
system in the Balancing Authority where the disturbance occurred assumes the
task of returning frequency to the desired 60 HZ. Neighboring Balancing

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Authorities adjust their generator set-points only if requested to do so by the

deficient Balancing Authority.
When an AGC system is in tie-line bias control mode, the AGC system responds
to both frequency and interchange errors. An AGC system in tie-line bias control
mode is capable of maintaining a match between actual and scheduled tie-line
flows while at the same time assisting the Interconnection with frequency control.
Tie-line bias control is actually a combination of constant frequency and constant
net interchange control.
This text further describes the use of tie-line bias control as this section
progresses. Figure 4-35 summarizes the three possible modes of AGC control.

Note that an ACE

signal is developed
no matter which
mode of AGC a
Balancing Authority
is operating in. The
ACE for constant
frequency is based
on the frequency
error. The ACE for
constant net
interchange is
based on the
interchange error.
The ACE for tie-line
bias is a
combination of the
frequency and
interchange errors.

Figure 4-35. Summary of Modes of AGC Control

4.3.7 Tie-Line Bias Control

The ACE Equation for Tie-Line Bias Control If the ACE quantity
In tie-line bias control, an area control error (ACE) signal is calculated is negative, the
Balancing Authority
based on the differences between scheduled and actual frequency and is deficient in
between scheduled and actual tie-line flows. ACE for tie-line bias control is generation. If the
defined as: ACE quantity is
positive, the
Balancing Authority
has an oversupply
of generation.

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ACE = ⎡⎣ Actual Net Interchange −Scheduled Net Interchange ⎤⎦

( )(
− ⎡⎣ 10 × B × Actual Frequency−Scheduled Frequency ⎤⎦ )
or

( ) ( )
ACE = ⎡⎣ NI A − NIS ⎤⎦ − ⎡⎣ 10 × B × FA − FS ⎤⎦

The first part of the equation, [actual net interchange - scheduled net interchange],
is the ACE equation for constant net interchange control. A portion of the second
part of the equation, (actual frequency – scheduled frequency), is the ACE
equation for constant frequency control. The whole equation is the ACE equation
for tie-line bias control.

Frequency Bias Constant (B)

All of the terms in the above ACE equation should be clear with the possible
exception of the frequency bias constant, “B”. The frequency bias constant is an
estimate of the frequency response of the Balancing Authority. As described in
Section 4.2, the frequency response characteristic or FRC of a power system is the
natural response of the power system to changes in system frequency. The unique
governor, load, and system characteristics of the respective Balancing Authority
cause this natural response.
A Balancing Authority’s frequency bias value should be based on their FRC. The
frequency bias term is included in the ACE equation to allow for the natural
NERC response of the Balancing Authority to frequency excursions. The addition of the
defines the frequency bias term also converts the frequency error signal to MW from HZ.
bias term (B)
as a negative
(“B” is in units of MW/0.1 HZ, and is a negative number). Note that in the ACE
number. equation “B” is multiplied by 10. This is because the frequency deviation (actual
frequency – scheduled frequency) is a deviation in HZ while “B” gives the MW
response per tenth of a HZ. The product (10 x B) is the MW response per HZ.
"B" values
for NERC Calculating the Frequency Bias Constant (B)
Balancing The frequency bias setting should be based on the actual Balancing Authority
Authorities
range from FRC. Every Balancing Authority should monitor power system frequency
less than 10 disturbances to determine what their respective frequency bias value is. At least
to greater once a year this value should be checked by analyzing actual system disturbances.
than 1000. The bias value within the AGC computer system should then be updated to reflect
any needed changes.

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Some Balancing Authorities put a great deal of effort into calculating their bias Frequency bias
value. Equations may be used that adjust bias based on the time of day, the size values are
of the load, the size of the disturbance, or other factors. Within the NERC reported yearly to
Interconnections several Balancing Authorities have implemented a form of real NERC. The
time bias calculation. The frequency bias value is continually updated based on minimum value
that can be
what generating units are on-line. This is an accurate way of computing reported is 1% of
bias as most of the bias is due to the governor response of on-line generators. the Balancing
The importance of the “B” term becomes apparent as the use of the tie-line bias Authority's past
control method of AGC is examined. year's peak load or
peak generation.
Figure 4-36 is a graphical summary of the calculation of the ACE value using tie-
line bias AGC control. Diagrams similar to Figure 4-36 are used in this text to
illustrate the operation of a Balancing Authority’s use of tie-line bias control. The top portion of
the figure is for
determining the
frequency error.
The bottom portion
determines the net
interchange error.
The frequency error
is multiplied by the
bias (B) value. The
resultant MW
number is
compared to the net
interchange error
to determine an
ACE value. The
ACE value is used
to adjust
generation.

The IME value

accounts for
known metering
Figure 4-36. Tie-Line Bias Control ACE Calculation errors. If tie-line
metering is
incorrect, an IME
value is entered to
Illustration of Tie-Line Bias Control Mode Operation compensate for the
error.
The use of the ACE equation in tie-line bias control is illustrated in Figures 4-37
and 4-38. Both figures illustrate the calculation of the ACE value within a
Balancing Authority following a generation loss. (In both of these examples, the
IME (interchange metering error) term is assumed to be 0 MW.) Figure 4-37 is for
a generation loss external to the Balancing Authority. Figure 4-38 is for a
generation loss internal to the Balancing Authority.

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External Generation Loss

Figure 4-37 demonstrates how AGC operates when a generator is lost in the
Interconnection. The lost generator is not in the illustrated Balancing Authority
but is in some other Balancing Authority within the Interconnection. Every
Balancing Authority detects a frequency reduction. In the example of Figure 4-37
the actual system frequency drops to 59.9 HZ.
The top portion of the figure illustrates how AGC calculates the frequency error
and multiplies this error by the frequency bias value. The frequency error of
-0.1 HZ when multiplied by the frequency bias value of -200 MW/0.1 HZ yields
an expected MW response to the frequency disturbance of +200 MW. This +200
MW value is what the AGC system has calculated as the expected response of this
Balancing Authority to the disturbance.

When the
disturbance is
external and AGC
works as intended
no ACE value is
developed.

Figure 4-37. ACE for an External Generation Loss

The bottom portion of the figure illustrates how AGC calculates the actual
response of this Balancing Authority. Since any MW response to the disturbance
must flow out over the tie-lines, the actual response is simply the difference
between scheduled and actual tie-line flows. In Figure 4-37 the actual response
is found by subtracting the scheduled interchange of 1000 MW from the actual
interchange of 1200 MW. The actual is greater than scheduled by 200 MW
so the actual response is +200 MW.

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The AGC system now compares the expected response to the actual response. When ACE is zero
The actual response is +200 MW and the expected +200 MW. Since actual is the Balancing
equal to expected, the error or ACE is equal to zero MW. When ACE is equal to Authority is
zero it means that the response of the Balancing Authority is exactly as intended. responding exactly
No adjustment to Balancing Authority generation is required. as expected. No
generator set-point
adjustments are
Internal Generation Loss needed.
Figure 4-38 also illustrates the operation of tie-line bias AGC within a Balancing
Authority. This example assumes the same size generator is lost but now it is one
of the illustrated Balancing Authority’s generators. This generation loss is
internal to the Balancing Authority. Every Balancing Authority again detects a
frequency depression to 59.9 HZ.

Figure 4-38. ACE for an Internal Generation Loss

The top portion of the figure works the same as in the previous example (Figure
4-37). The frequency error of 0.1 HZ when multiplied by the frequency bias
value of -200 MW/0.1HZ yields an expected MW response to the frequency
disturbance of +200 MW. The actual response is found by subtracting the
scheduled interchange of 1000 MW from the actual interchange of 500 MW. The
actual interchange is less than the scheduled interchange by 500 MW so the actual
response is -500 MW.

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The AGC system now compares the expected response to the actual response.
The actual response is -500 MW and the expected +200 MW. The actual
response is less than the expected response by 700 MW. The ACE is therefore
equal to -700 MW. An ACE of -700 MW indicates that this Balancing Authority
is under generating by 700 MW. To reduce this ACE the generators in the
Balancing Authority under AGC control must have their set-points adjusted to
increase MW output. As the generator outputs increase the ACE value reduces
towards zero.

4.3.8 Balancing Authority Implementation of AGC

Figure 4-39 illustrates how a Balancing Authority implements AGC. Notice that
this Balancing Authority uses tie-line bias control. The frequency error and
interchange errors are first used to develop a raw ACE value. This raw ACE
value may include telemetry errors and other factors that tend to make raw ACE
data unusable for generator control action. The solution is to modify the raw
ACE data using filters. The signal that is actually used to drive the generator
governor set-points is commonly called the filtered ACE.

This AGC system is

programmed to
automatically alarm
if NERC Control
Performance
Standards (CPS)
are violated. NERC
CPS are addressed
in Section 4.6.

Smoothing filters
eliminate short term
bumps in the ACE
value. Probability
filters attempt to
guess future ACE
values.

Figure 4-39. A Simple Implementation of a Balancing Authority AGC

System

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Economic Dispatch
Our previous description of how the ACE signal is distributed to the units under
AGC control was greatly simplified. The process by which generators are pulsed
is actually complex. ACE signals are continually being sent to controlled
generators. The AGC system must keep track of what signals have been sent and
where the generators are currently operating. Modern AGC systems are often
capable of estimating where the generator will be pulsed in the future.
One important process that has been ignored to this point is the economic dispatch
process. Economic dispatch is a process by which a Balancing Authority attempts
to minimize their overall cost of power production. The economic dispatch
process is an important part of the AGC process for those companies that choose
to implement it. In simple terms, the economic dispatch function is an added
feature to AGC systems. Economic dispatch determines the best economic Power systems
operating points for controlled generators. define reserves in
many different
The best operating points are based on many factors including system security ways. The reserve
and minimizing the cost of power production. Base operating points (MW descriptions used in
values) for generators are determined and signals sent to the generators to move this section are
towards these base operating points. When an ACE signal is developed, the general. Your
signal distribution to the generators is based on which controlled units can particular system
may have different
produce the power required at the least cost and with the least impact on power reserve definitions
system security. and requirements.
4.4 Reserve Policies
Reserves are unused MW capability. The ability of a power system to control
normal frequency deviations and to survive large disturbances is directly related
to their reserve requirements. All power systems have some rules as to what
constitutes reserves and what are sufficient reserve levels. This section reviews
several general classifications of reserves.

4.4.1 Operating Reserves

Operating reserves consist of the available MW response capability over and
above that demanded by the system loads. (Loads include net interchange and
losses.) Power systems must carry sufficient amounts of operating reserves to
ensure an ability to continually match generation to load during normal conditions
and to effectively respond to disturbances. Operating reserves are subdivided into
Regulating and Contingency reserves. Figure 4-40 illustrates the two types of
operating reserves.

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Figure 4-40. Operating Reserve Types

Large generators Regulating Reserves

(for example, a A Balancing Authority must carry a sufficient amount of regulating reserves.
1,300 MW nuclear
unit) are a Regulating reserves are responsive to AGC commands. Regulating reserves are
problem from a carried in the Balancing Authority’s regulating units. Without sufficient
contingency regulating reserves a Balancing Authority would not be able to respond to normal
reserve load changes.
perspective. The
large the unit, the
greater the Contingency Reserves
contingency Contingency reserves are required for responding to generation losses. Each
reserve
requirement. Balancing Authority must carry sufficient contingency reserves to respond to its
single most severe contingency. The single most severe contingency is the single
event that could happen in the Balancing Authority’s area that would cause the
greatest loss of generation.

4.4.2 Spinning and Non-Spinning Reserves

Interruptible load Spinning and non-spinning reserves are reserve sources. Regulating reserve and
is customer load contingency reserve are composed of either spinning or non-spinning reserve
available for sources. Figure 4-41 illustrates the concepts of spinning and non-spinning
shedding within a reserves.
set time period. A
contractual
agreement must
exist.

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Figure 4-41. Operating Reserve Sources

Spinning Reserves
Spinning reserves consist of unloaded generating capacity that is synchronized to
the power system. A governor cannot increase generation in a unit unless that
unit is carrying spinning reserves. An AGC system cannot increase a unit’s MW
output unless that unit is carrying spinning reserves. NERC also includes some
forms of interruptible load in the spinning reserve category. The load must be
automatically controlled and be available within a set time period.

Non-Spinning Reserves
Non-spinning reserve is a reserve MW capability that is not currently connected
to the system but that can be available within a specified time period. The exact
time period varies but a 15 minute window is common. Examples of non-
spinning reserves are combustion turbines while in cold standby. NERC also
allows interruptible load to be counted as non-spinning reserve.

4.4.3 Responsive Reserves

The definitions of operating reserves provided above are intentionally general.
Given the variety to the interconnected power systems it is difficult to define one
set of reserve rules that can apply equally well to all. From the standpoint of this
text what is of most concern with respect to reserves is the ability of the system to
respond to a frequency depression.
A recent trend in reserve policies is to define a category of reserves called
responsive reserves. Responsive reserves are directly related to the ability of the
system to respond to frequency depressions. Responsive reserves include MW
capability that can be rapidly (for example, within 30 seconds) made available
following a frequency deviation. Responsive reserves may include spinning or
non-spinning reserves. Figure 4-42 lists several types of responsive reserves.

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The ERCOT
Interconnection
specifies required
responsive reserve
levels. ERCOT
utilities may use all
four of these
responsive reserve
categories.

Figure 4-42. Responsive Reserves

Responsive Spinning Reserves

Responsive spinning reserve consists of unloaded synchronized generator
capacity that is immediately responsive to governor control. Note that the more
general category of spinning reserve is not necessarily responsive to governor
control. Sufficient responsive spinning reserves are necessary for effective
governor control.

HVDC Tie Responsive Reserves

Utilities in the
ERCOT HVDC systems are normally not responsive to frequency. However, the control
Interconnection and systems that control HVDC power flow can be made to act like a governor control
in the MRO area of system. If frequency falls, an HVDC system can be rapidly and automatically
the Eastern
Interconnection use adjusted to supply more MW to the deficient area.
their HVDC systems
to simulate High-Set Interruptible Responsive Reserves
governor response.
The classic use of interruptible load is for relieving an energy emergency by
shedding customer load. For example, if frequency falls over a several hour
period due to a worsening energy shortage, a system operator may be forced to
manually interrupt customers. The theory is basically to “cut off the arm to save
the body”.
A variation on this classic use of interruptible load is termed “high-set
interruptible responsive reserve”. High-set interruptible responsive reserves are
interruptible loads that are fed via circuit breakers with automatic load shedding
(frequency sensitive) relays attached. For example, an Interconnection may
depend on high-set interruptible loads to be automatically shed if frequency falls
below 59.7 HZ.
The ERCOT and Alaskan Interconnections use high-set interruptible loads as
responsive reserves. In Alaska, the tripping of the high-set interruptibles is
expected given a large generator loss. In Alaska, high-set interruptibles can be
expected to trip for what other Interconnections would consider small generator
losses.

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Hydro Condensing Responsive Reserves

A final category of responsive reserves are hydro condensing responsive reserves.
Hydro units can often be operated as synchronous condensers. When condensing
the hydro unit is actually operating as a synchronous motor. The hydro unit
draws MW from the system and can be used to either absorb or supply Mvar.
Certain hydro units can be rapidly (perhaps 10-15 seconds) switched from a
condensing mode to a generating mode. If the unit can switch from a load to a
generator rapidly, it can assist with arresting a frequency deviation.

4.4.4 NERC Reserve Definitions

The NERC Reliability Standards contain various requirements for maintaining
acceptable levels of operating reserve. NERC divides operating reserves into two
subcategories: regulating reserve and contingency reserve.
A Balancing Authority shall carry enough regulating reserves so AGC operates
effectively and the Balancing Authority satisfies the NERC control performance
standards (CPS1 and CPS2).
CPS1, CPS2, and
A single Balancing Authority or a group of Balancing Authorities (a reserve the DCS are
sharing group) are required to carry enough contingency reserves so they can described in Section
recover from a generation (or load) disturbance and satisfy the NERC disturbance 4.6.
control standard (DCS).
4.5 Time Error Control

4.5.1 Definition of Time Error

When frequency deviates from 60 HZ, electric clocks driven by motors fed from
the Interconnection incur time errors. The magnitude of the time errors is
dependent on the size of the frequency deviation and the length of time the
deviation occurs. If the frequency runs fast, clocks run faster than desired and
positive time error occurs. If the frequency runs slow, clocks run slower than
desired and negative time error occurs.
Frequency is seldom at exactly 60 HZ so time error is almost always occurring.
What is desired is that the periods within which positive time error occurs are
roughly canceled by the periods in which negative time error occurs. For
example, when entering the morning peak, negative time error typically occurs as
Balancing Authorities pursue the growing load. In contrast, when load starts to
drop in the evening hours, positive time error typically occurs as Balancing
Authorities pursue the declining load. If positive time error cancels negative time
error then over a long period of time there is less accumulated time error.
What happens in practice is that some time error does accumulate in either a
positive or negative direction. Once the magnitude of the accumulated time error
reaches a chosen maximum, time error correction procedures are used to reduce
the accumulated time error to an acceptable value.

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4.5.2 Monitoring Time Error

The frequency Each Interconnection assigns a time error monitor. The time error monitor is
standard may be
always a Reliability Coordinator. Figure 4-43 is a diagram of the NERC
obtained from
several sources. Reliability Coordinators. The Reliability Coordinators have overall responsibility
One source is the for the reliable operation of the North American power system. Every NERC
National Institute of Balancing Authority must report to a Reliability Coordinator. The operations of
Standards and each Balancing Authority are continually monitored by their Reliability
Technology (NIST)
Coordinator.
in Boulder,
Colorado.

Figure 4-43. NERC Reliability Coordinators

Figure 4-44 lists the time error monitors for the three largest NERC
Interconnections. Each time error monitor has equipment for comparing the
actual system frequency to an accurate frequency standard. This comparison
detects frequency deviations from 60 HZ and allows the time monitor to keep an
accurate record of the time error accumulated.

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Other
Interconnections
such as Hydro
Quebec or Alaska,
may also designate
a time error
monitor.

Figure 4-44. Interconnection Time Monitors

4.5.3 Correcting Time Error

Each Interconnection appoints an Interconnection time monitor. The time
monitor has the ability to monitor and record the amount of time error
accumulated. The time monitor is also responsible for determining when time
error is excessive and initiating time error correction procedures. Figure 4-45 lists
the levels of time error that are tolerated by each Interconnection. These levels
are published in NAESB business practice standards. The time error levels are
intended as guidelines for the time error monitors.

The time monitor

does not have to
Type of Initiate Time Terminate Time follow these
Correction guidelines exactly
Error Correction Error Correction
and deviates from
the guidelines as
East West ERCOT East West ERCOT needed.

Slow -10 -5 -3 ±6 ±0.5 ±0.5

Fast +10 +5 +3 ±6 ±0.5 ±0.5

Figure 4-45. Initiating Time Error Corrections

There are three columns across the top of Figure 4-45. Each column is briefly
explained below:
Î The first column is labeled “Type of Correction”. The two possible types
of time correction are slow and fast. If accumulated time error is slow or
negative the slow row is used. If time error is fast or positive the fast
row is used.

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Î The second column is labeled “Initiate Time Error Correction”. This

column contains the level of time error (in seconds) that is tolerated
before time correction procedures are initiated. Note the tolerance levels
vary depending on the Interconnection.
Î The third and last column is labeled “Terminate Time Error Correction”.
This column lists how far the time correction procedures should go in
correcting the time error before they are terminated.

Illustration of a Time Correction

To illustrate the use of time error correction procedures we step through a simple
example. Assume you are a system operator at the MISO Reliability Coordinator.
As part of your normal dispatch duties you receive periodic indication of the
accumulated time error. Further assume that you receive indication at 20:00
hours that accumulated time error has reached -11 seconds. (Time is 11 seconds
slow.)
From the chart in Figure 4-45 you realize 11 seconds exceeds the allowable 10
second slow time error maximum for this time period. Time error correction
procedures are required. As the system operator at MISO you initiate a
notification procedure that eventually informs every Balancing Authority in the
Eastern Interconnection that a slow time error of 11 seconds has accumulated and
a correction is needed.
After the MISO notification, all of the Balancing Authorities in the Eastern
Interconnection then adjust the scheduled frequencies (FS) in their AGC systems.
Normally, AGC scheduled frequency is 60 HZ. The scheduled value is changed
to 60.02 HZ for this time error correction. Each hour the Interconnection is
operated with an actual frequency of 60.02 HZ, 1.2 seconds of positive time error
accumulates. If 60.02 HZ is held for five hours, the accumulated time error is
reduced from 11 seconds to 5 seconds.
Time error accumulates due to periods of excessive over or under frequency
operation. Accumulated time error is reduced by intentional periods of over or
underfrequency operation. A frequency of 60.02 HZ is targeted to reduce slow
time error. A frequency of 59.98 HZ is targeted to reduce positive time error.
4.6 NERC Control Performance Standards
The control NERC publishes standards for acceptable AGC performance by its Balancing
performance Authorities. The standards address generation control performance during both
standards (CPS) normal and disturbance conditions. This section starts with a summary of the old
officially replaced
the old control
NERC control performance criteria (CPC, which included the A1, A2, B1, & B2
performance criteria). The CPC has been replaced by a new set of performance standards
criteria (CPC) in (CPS1, CPS2, and DCS). The new performance standards are the primary
February of 1998. emphasis of this section.

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4.6.1 NERC’s Old Control Performance Criteria

As stated in the beginning of this chapter, the load on the power system is
constantly changing. The control systems that have been described in this chapter
are designed to match resources to MW obligations and maintain frequency
within a narrow band of 60 HZ. An indicator of how well a Balancing Authority
is performing their generation control duties is the Balancing Authority’s ACE
signal. It was initially thought that the smaller the integrated ACE value, the
better the Balancing Authority’s generation control.
A Balancing Authority cannot hold ACE constantly at zero. Just as there are
constant fluctuations in system frequency, above and below the nominal value of
60 HZ so there are constant fluctuations in the value of the ACE, above and below
the desired value.

Normal Conditions
During normal system conditions, the goal was to minimize ACE. The question
asked was how much ACE fluctuation was normally admissible? How far above
and below zero can ACE deviate? How can a Balancing Authority ensure that the
ACE deviation nets to zero over a period of time? Remember that if ACE was
high or low for sustained periods, it was an indication that the Balancing
Authority was accumulating inadvertent interchange and not contributing to
frequency regulation.
In 1973, NERC implemented two criteria for control performance during normal
conditions, referred to as “A1 - Zero Crossing” and “A2 - Ld Compliance”.

A1 – Zero Crossing
The A1 criterion specified that a Balancing Authority’s ACE should return to zero
within 10 minutes of previously reaching zero. That is, the time interval between
successive zero values should never exceed 10 minutes. This criterion was
intended to help minimize inadvertent interchange. Periods of over-generation
(positive ACE) should be balanced by periods of under-generation (negative
ACE).

A2 – LD Compliance
The A2 criterion was designed to limit the magnitude of ACE. A2 stated that the
average ACE for each of the six ten-minute periods during the hour should be less
than or equal to a limit value known as Ld. Ld was representative of the largest
hourly load change experienced by the Balancing Authority in the past year. If
the Balancing Authority’s load pick-up were typically steep, Ld would be high.
For Balancing Authorities with a slow, gradual load pick-up, Ld was lower.
Figures 4-46 and 4-47 illustrate the application of NERC’s old A1 and A2
criterion. Figure 4-46 is a Balancing Authority ACE chart that indicates
compliance with both the A1 and A2 criteria. Figure 4-47 illustrates violations of
both the A1 and A2 criteria.

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This ACE chart

illustrates
conformance to
NERC A1 & A2
criteria for a two-
hour period. Note
that ACE crosses
zero at least once in
each ten-minute
period (the vertical
time scale is in
minutes). Also note
that the maximum
value of ACE never
exceeds ±Ld.

Figure 4-46. Conformance with A1 & A2 Criteria

Figure 4-47 follows on the next page.

This ACE chart

illustrates violations to
NERC A1 & A2
criteria. Note the
period from T=50
minutes to T=80
minutes. ACE only
crosses zero once in
this 30 minute period.
This was a violation of
the A1 criterion. Note
the period from T=90
to T=100. The average
value of ACE exceeds –
Ld. This was a violation
of the A2 criterion.

Figure 4-47. Violation of A1 & A2 Criteria

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Disturbance Conditions
Normal load
When a frequency disturbance occurred, the normal conditions criteria were variations should
replaced with the disturbance criteria. NERC defined a disturbance as occurring not trigger the use
when ACE reached a magnitude of three times the Balancing Authority’s Ld. of disturbance
NERC defined two criteria that apply during disturbances, the B1 and B2 criteria. criteria.

B1 – System Recovery
The B1 criterion required that ACE return to zero within 10 minutes of the initial
disturbance. If a Balancing Authority lost a generator, their ACE value would not
cross zero again until the Balancing Authority had replaced the lost generation.
The B1 criterion gave Balancing Authorities 10 minutes to recover from
disturbances.

B2 – Recovery Initiation
The B2 criterion required that ACE start to return to zero within one minute of a
disturbance. Once a disturbance occurred, the Balancing Authority was obligated
to begin recovery within one minute.

Problems with the Criteria

From the beginning of its usage in 1973, various NERC member systems pointed
out deficiencies in the performance criteria. The deficiencies identified included:
Î There was no technical justification for the usage of the performance
criteria.
- The performance criteria were based on operating experience with
little technical justification for its existence.
Î The A1 and A2 criteria did not provide a direct measure of the impact of
a Balancing Authority’s ACE on the Interconnection.
- For example, an A2 violation of 1 MW was treated the same as an
A2 violation of 500 MW.
Î A1 and A2 were blind to the fact that ACE could be in a direction that
supports Interconnection frequency.
- The performance criteria at times required Balancing Authority’s
to adjust generation even though they were hurting the
Interconnection’s frequency.
NERC appointed a task force to investigate options for a new set of control
performance standards in 1981. Many options were investigated and in 1996 a
new set of standards were agreed upon. The performance standards were
implemented on a test basis in 1997 and became mandatory in February of 1998.
The next section describes the control performance standards (CPS)

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4.6.2 NERC Performance Standards

Technically The performance standards have three components. The CPS is composed of
defensible
CPS1 and CPS2. CPS1 replaces the old A1 criterion while CPS2 replaces the old
performance
standards are A2 criterion. Both CPS1 and CPS2 are derived from a frequency based statistical
especially theory and are technically defensible.
important given
the deregulation CPS1 and CPS2 apply during both normal and disturbance conditions. The
of the electric performance standards also include a disturbance control standard (DCS) that
industry. applies only during disturbance conditions. The DCS replaces the old B1 and B2
criteria.

CPS1
CPS1 is intended to provide a Balancing Authority with a frequency sensitive
evaluation of how well the Balancing Authority is meeting its demand
requirements. CPS1 is a statistical measure of the Balancing Authority’s ACE
variability. CPS1 measures ACE in combination with the Interconnection’s
frequency error.
Each Balancing Authority is obligated to continually gather sufficient data to
determine its “control parameter” for each minute of the day. Every Balancing
Authority, using the following equation, calculates their control parameter:
The control
parameter can be
ACE MINUTE
derived from the Control Parameter = × ΔFMINUTE
ACE equation if you −10B MINUTE
realize that
inadvertent sums to Definitions for the terms used in this equation include:
zero in an
Interconnection. Î ACEMINUTE is the one-minute average of the Balancing Authority’s ACE
value.
Î ΔFMINUTE is the one-minute average of the Interconnection’s frequency
error.
Î -10BMINUTE is the one-minute average of the Balancing Authority’s
frequency bias value.

Balancing Every minute of every day, each Balancing Authority gathers data to calculate
Authorities must their control parameter. The control parameters for each minute are then
continually gather averaged together to determine the control parameters for each hour, day, month,
the required data to year, etc. (The control parameters that are most important to the CPS are the
calculate their
Balancing Authority’s monthly average and their sliding 12-month or yearly
control parameter.
average value.)
The control parameter values are then used to determine the Balancing
Authority’s “compliance factor”. The compliance factor is a ratio of the control
parameter to the Interconnection’s allowable frequency error. In equation form
the compliance factor is:

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Control Parameter
Compliance Factor =
(ε )
2
1

The term in the denominator (ε1 or epsilon-one) represents the allowable 1-minute
average frequency error for the particular Interconnection. Epsilon’s magnitude is
determined by NERC. (Think of epsilon as the target bandwidth for the
frequency error.) NERC has monitored each Interconnection’s historic frequency
error to determine an acceptable frequency error. As of the writing of this section,
the ε1 values for the three major Interconnections are: NERC may
change the
Î Eastern Interconnection — 0.018 HZ magnitude of
epsilon as
Î Western Interconnection — 0.0228 HZ operating
experience is
Î ERCOT Interconnection — 0.030 HZ gained with
For the final step in the CPS1 process, the compliance factor is used to determine CPS1.
the Balancing Authority’s CPS1 % conformance. The compliance factor is input
to the following formula:

(
CPS1 = 2 − Compliance Factor × 100% )
This formula was developed to judge a Balancing Authority’s CPS1 conformance
on a percentage scale. The formula can be used to determine a Balancing
Authority’s conformance to CPS1 across any time period. The compliance factor
is first determined for the desired time period. NERC is most concerned with the
value of CPS1 across a sliding one-year period. NERC also pays attention to one-
month averages of the CPS1 to detect problems with a Balancing Authority’s
compliance to CPS1 before any major generation control problems develop.
A CPS1 magnitude of 100% is the minimum acceptable performance. When a
Balancing Authority achieves a CPS1 of 100% it means the Balancing Authority
is adjusting their generation in a manner that just meets their obligation to
maintaining the Interconnection’s frequency. If a Balancing Authority’s CPS1 is
greater than 100%, they are doing more than their share of frequency control. If a
Balancing Authority’s CPS1 is less than 100%, they are doing less than their fair
share of frequency control.

CPS1 and MW-HZ

When the formulae for calculating CPS1 compliance are closely examined, what
is actually calculated and monitored is a MW-HZ number. Each Balancing
Authority is monitoring their ACE value in combination with their
Interconnection’s frequency error.

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CPS1 encourages all Balancing Authorities to control their generation such that
their MW-HZ numbers are negative. For example, assume the Interconnection’s
frequency error is negative (frequency is lower than scheduled). Further assume
that a Balancing Authority has a positive ACE (over-generating). The Balancing
Authority’s MW-HZ product would then be a negative number, which means the
Balancing Authority is helping reduce the frequency deviation. If the Balancing
Authority’s MW-HZ numbers were positive, that Balancing Authority is
contributing to the frequency deviation.
Figure 4-48 graphically illustrates the concept of MW-HZ. A simple ACE chart
and a frequency chart (in milli hertz or mHz) are shown. If a Balancing Authority
is over-generating when frequency is low, they are helping the Interconnection’s
frequency. If a Balancing Authority is over-generating while frequency is high,
they are hurting the Interconnection’s frequency.

The frequency in
this plot is shown in
milli-hertz. A milli-
hertz is a
thousandth of a
hertz or 1 mHZ =
0.001 HZ.

Figure 4-48. Concept of a MW-HZ

CPS2
Note the strong The second component of the CPS is CPS2. CPS2 is designed to limit the
similarity magnitude of a Balancing Authority’s ACE. The intent of CPS2 is to limit the
between CPS2 unscheduled power flows across tie-lines that can result from excessive ACE
and the old A2 values.
criterion.
CPS2 states that the average ACE value for each 10-minute period shall not
exceed a constant called “L10”. L10 is calculated for each Balancing Authority
using the following formula:

L10 =1.65× ε10 × (−10BC

× − 10BS )

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The variable terms used in the equation are defined as:

The Eastern e10
Î ε10 is the 10-minute average of the Interconnection’s allowable value is 0.0057 HZ.
frequency error. This value is determined by NERC. Western e10 is
0.0073 HZ. ERCOT
Î BC is the Balancing Authority’s frequency bias value.
e10 is 0.01315 HZ.
Î BS is the sum of all the Interconnection’s Balancing Authorities
frequency bias values.
Each Balancing Authority uses the above formula to determine their L10 value.
To comply with the CPS2, each Balancing Authority shall keep their average
ACE for each of the ten minute periods within the L10 bounds 90% of the time.

Pass/Fail CPS
CPS1 and CPS2 are evaluated together to determine if a Balancing Authority has
complied with CPS. To pass the CPS standard, a Balancing Authority must
conform to CPS1 100% of the time and conform to CPS2 90% of the time. A
Balancing Authority fails CPS if they fall below 100% compliance with CPS1 or
fall below 90% compliance with CPS2.

CPS Enforcement
Compliance with the old performance criteria was voluntary. NERC relied on
peer pressure as the driving force to keep Balancing Authorities in compliance.
The new CPS uses more than peer pressure. There are definite penalties for non-
conformance. These penalties typically involve monetary fines for non-
conformance.

The Disturbance Control Standard (DCS)

For DCS purposes, NERC defines a disturbance condition as any event that Note this standard
involves or leads to a loss of generation that is greater than or equal to 80% of differs from the old
the magnitude of the Balancing Authority’s single most severe contingency. B1 criterion in that
ACE does not have
The DCS states that a Balancing Authority is responsible for recovering from to be returned to
a disturbance within 15 minutes of the start of the disturbance. Recovery zero but rather to
means to restore ACE to either zero or its pre-disturbance value. A Balancing its pre-disturbance
Authority’s ability to satisfy the DCS is strongly influenced by its available value or to zero.
contingency reserve.
Every Balancing Authority must comply with the DCS standard 100% of the
time. If a Balancing Authority fails to comply, they are required to carry
additional reserves. Note that if the disturbance is larger than the controls area’s
single most severe contingency, it is excluded from the DCS. For instance, if a
Balancing Authority suffers multiple generator losses due to severe weather, this
disturbance may be excludable from the DCS and the Balancing Authority is not
obligated to restore ACE within 15 minutes.

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4.7 Impact of Frequency Deviations

Prolonged operation at frequencies above or below 60 HZ can damage power
system equipment. The most serious consequences are with respect to the turbine
blades of steam turbine/generators.

4.7.1 Effects on Steam Turbine Blades

Mechanical devices have a natural frequency of oscillation. When a mechanical
device is exposed to a force that oscillates at a frequency close to this natural
frequency of oscillation, the device may amplify the force or enter a resonant
A general theory condition. The resonant condition can lead to severe vibrations in the device. At
of resonance is times the vibrations grow so large that the device is damaged. Steam turbine
presented in blades have a natural frequency of oscillation.
Chapter 9.
During operation (while under load) at frequencies other than 60 HZ, the natural
frequency of oscillation of the turbine blades can be excited, resulting in severe
vibration of the blades. This vibration can lead to total failure of the blades. The
long blades on the low-pressure steam turbine are most susceptible to damage
from abnormal frequency operation. Once the first blade fails, other blades and
eventually the entire turbine stage may suffer severe damage.
Steam turbine blades can be exposed to only a certain amount of off-frequency
operation (while carrying load) over their entire lifetime. The generator operator
may track the amount of off-frequency operation and replace turbine blades when
they have reached their time limit. This helps to avoid a blade failure.
The best way to prevent this problem is to avoid substantial off-frequency
operation while under load. Steam turbine/generators often have under and
overfrequency relays installed to trip the unit if it is operated at off-frequency for
too long a period.
The 10 minutes is Figure 4-49 illustrates limits of off-frequency operation for a typical steam
over the lifetime of turbine. These are cumulative limits. This means the limits apply for the lifetime
the turbine. For
example, the 10
of the turbine. For example, the figure tells us that a typical steam turbine can be
minutes can be operated, under load, for 10 minutes at 58 HZ before damage is likely to occur to
reached via one 10 the turbine blades.
minute interval or
via 10 one minute
intervals.

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Figure 4-49. Steam Turbine Off-Frequency Limits

4.7.2 Effects on Hydro and Combustion Turbines

Hydro and combustion turbine-generators are less susceptible to the effects of off-
frequency operation than steam turbine/generators.
A hydro turbine is much less fragile than a steam turbine. Typically, hydro-
electric turbine/generators can be operated, without fear of damage, over a
frequency range from 57 to 63 HZ. Hydro units do have “rough-spots” with
respect to levels of water flow through the turbine. Certain MW output ranges
may need to be avoided to prevent excessive vibration in the hydro unit.
Combustion turbines (CTs) may be protected for off-normal frequency operation
but their trip settings are typically more lenient than steam turbines.

4.7.3 Effects on Other Power System Equipment

The majority of the equipment on the power system is not significantly impacted
by typically encountered off-normal frequency operation. Some more serious
consequences include:

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Î Motors rotate at a speed that depends on the frequency of the system. If

the frequency is low, the torque developed by the motor is reduced. This
could have serious consequences if the motor is used to drive key
equipment such as a pump or a coal mill. An additional impact on
motors involves the natural cooling action of their rotation (like a fan).
When frequency of rotation is reduced, this natural cooling action is
reduced. This could lead to overheating in the motor.
Î As described earlier, the magnitude of motor load varies directly with the
frequency. The higher the frequency, the higher the load and vice-versa.

Chapter 5 will Î Transformers can be damaged by low frequency operation. The strength
describe the over- of the magnetic field in a transformer’s core is a function of both voltage
excitation of and frequency. If a transformer is exposed to prolonged underfrequency
transformers in operation, the transformer can overexcite. Low frequency operation can
greater detail.
damage a transformer, especially if it is combined with high voltage.
Î Electronic equipment timing circuits may be dependent on a relatively
accurate system frequency. If this frequency is abnormal, the equipment
The period of may operate abnormally.
acceleration is
typically brief (a
few seconds) and 4.7.4 Effects on Active Power Flows
the frequency
In Chapter 2 an equation for MW transfer was developed. The equation is
difference is
typically small repeated below:
(fractions of a V × VR
hertz). PSR = S sin δ SR
X SR
According to this simple formula for MW transfer, the largest factor in
The Florida power determining the level of MW flow is the power angle, δ. The power angle can
system used to be
very susceptible to only change if a condition of relative acceleration existed. If MW transfer is to
island formation. increase between two locations, their must briefly be relative acceleration
At one time between the two locations. Relative acceleration is simply a difference in
Florida was frequency. Frequency differences between two locations in the same
weakly tied to the Interconnection lead to power angle changes. Section 4.9.4 will explore this point
rest of the Eastern
Interconnection. further.
Florida would
often separate and
4.8 Underfrequency Protection
form an island This section describes the use of underfrequency load shedding and
when major
disturbances
underfrequency generator tripping relays. Underfrequency protection schemes
occurred in the are required if the Interconnection frequency falls below acceptable levels. In a
East. The tie-lines large Interconnection (like the Eastern) it is unlikely that large mismatches
between Florida between generation and load will develop unless major disturbances occur. It is
and the rest of the therefore unlikely that underfrequency protection will activate unless a large
Eastern system are
much stronger
Interconnection splits into islands following a major disturbance.
today but the
Florida system is
still very lively!

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In a small Interconnection, underfrequency protection may be required to protect

the system even without major system breakups. It is easier to achieve a large
generation to load mismatch in a small Interconnection.

4.8.1 Power System Islands

Interconnected power systems operate at a common frequency. The systems are
not, however, uniformly distributed. Certain areas of the systems are tied tightly
together with many transmission lines while other areas are tied with few lines.
Figure 4-50 illustrates a weakly connected system (A) in an Interconnection with
other strongly connected systems (W, X, Y & Z).
When severe disturbances occur in the interconnected system the consequences
may be transmission line tripping that leads to islanding. Islanding refers to the
complete separation of areas of the system from the remainder of the
interconnected system.
When major disturbances propagate through an Interconnection, those areas of the
system that are tied tightly together tend to stay together. Areas that are loosely
tied (such as system “A” in Figure 4-50) tend to form islands. The magnitude of
the frequency deviations that occur in an islanded system are greater than those
that occur in a large interconnected system. Depending on the size of the island,
frequency deviations on the order of 2 to 3 HZ are possible.

Figure 4-50. Formation of an Island

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4.8.2 Underfrequency Load Shedding (UFLS)

When disturbances result in power system islands, there is no guarantee that the
islands that form will have the proper match between generation and load. In
fact, there will usually be a mismatch. The frequency in the island increases or
decreases until the correct balance exists between generation and load. If there is
too much load, the frequency drops. If there is too much generation, the
frequency rises.
If there is too much generation, and the frequency rises, the governors on the units
begin reducing generation. This may or may not solve the problem depending on
the amount of mismatch. If the frequency rises too high, for example above 62
HZ, overfrequency relays on thermal generators may trip. This will protect the
generators but, most likely, lead to a shortage of generation. If there is too much
load and the frequency drops, governors on the island’s units attempt to raise
generation. Again, this may or may not solve the problem depending on the
amount of mismatch. The possibility exists that the mismatch is too large and
governor response will not be able to arrest the frequency decline. Unless drastic
measures are taken the system could then collapse.
These drastic measures include underfrequency load shedding or UFLS. UFLS is
a protection program that automatically trips selected customer loads once
frequency falls below a specified value. The frequencies at which load is tripped
and the amount of load tripped vary with the Interconnection.
A typical UFLS setting for a North American utility may include three groups of
underfrequency relays set to trip load at three separate frequencies. For example,
a utility may trip 10% of their load at 59.3 HZ, 10% at 59.0 HZ and 10% at 58.7
HZ.
Figure 4-51 contains a more detailed description of a UFLS scheme used in the
Western Interconnection. Note there are five load shedding blocks in this scheme.
The tripping time is the maximum time for the load to be shed given the drop in
frequency. The % column is the % of the utilities load and the MW column is the
total load shed at the block in the Western Interconnection.
Shedding Frequency Tripping Load Shed Load Shed
Block (HZ) Time (%) (MW)
1 59.1 14 Cycles 5.3 7,032
2 58.9 14 Cycles 5.9 7,828
3 58.7 14 Cycles 6.5 8,625
4 58.5 14 Cycles 6.7 8,890
5 58.3 14 Cycles 6.7 8,890
Figure 4-51. Western Interconnection UFLS

In general, the larger the Interconnection, the higher the frequency at which UFLS
begins. Smaller Interconnections may not begin UFLS until the frequency falls
below 59 HZ. Smaller Interconnections are susceptible to large frequency swings

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even during normal interconnected operations and they do not want false tripping
of UFLS relays.
Figure 4-52 illustrates the operation of three stages of UFLS. The first stage
activates at 59.3 HZ, the second stage at 59 HZ and the final stage at 58.7 HZ.
Note that the rate of frequency decline improves after each stage of UFLS. The
intent of UFLS is not to recover the frequency to 60 Hz but rather to arrest or stop
the frequency decline. Once UFLS has operated, manual intervention by the
system operators is likely required to restore the system frequency to a healthy
state.
All Interconnections require some form of UFLS be implemented by member
systems. Interconnections may coordinate UFLS on an Interconnection basis or
divide the Interconnection into smaller regions in which separate UFLS programs
are administered. Periodically utilities evaluate their UFLS programs to ensure
enough load is being shed and that it is being shed at the proper frequencies.
Interconnections typically provide general requirements for UFLS. Individual
utilities work within these general requirements to match their own system
characteristics.

The line labeled

“governor
response”
illustrates what
frequency would do
if no UFLS was
activated.

Figure 4-52. UF Load Shedding & Governor Response

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Underfrequency Relays on Transmission Lines

Underfrequency relays (UF) may also be installed on transmission lines. The
function of these UF relays is to trip interconnecting lines following major
frequency disturbances. Systems that allow the use of UF tie-line tripping
The actual typically set rules concerning when these relays may operate. For example, if a
frequency the
tie-lines trip at utility is providing much needed governor response to a neighboring utility, we
varies with the would not want UF tripping of their tie-lines if the chance exists that the entire
size of the system will recover. All systems have obligations to help their neighbors and UF
Interconnection. tripping of tie-lines must not interfere with that obligation.
UF tripping of tie-lines may be appropriate if frequency has depressed to such a
low level that the odds of recovery for the whole system are dismal. In such a
case, utilities may design their UF tie-line tripping relays to separate themselves
from the main system in the hope that their system can recover. The relays are
calibrated to trip only during sustained (a few seconds) low frequency (perhaps 58
HZ or lower) conditions.

Coordinating UFLS and Reactive Equipment

The use of Many systems are dependent on the use of shunt capacitors for voltage control.
voltage control
equipment such
Typically the shunt capacitors are used to support system voltage during heavy
as shunt power flow periods. When UFLS programs activate, coordination with in-service
capacitors is reactive equipment may be required. For example, assume a system proceeds
addressed in through several stages of UFLS. If this system has numerous shunt capacitors
Chapter 5. still in-service, high voltages could rapidly result.
Several systems within NERC use UF relays to trip shunt capacitors. The intent
is to reduce the amount of shunt capacitors at the same time load is being shed in
order to control voltage.

Automatic Restoration Following UFLS

The system Several utilities within NERC incorporate automatic restoration following an
operators must UFLS event. For example, UFLS may be set to trip load if frequency falls below
be aware of
59.5 HZ. If as a result of UFLS, governor response, etc., frequency recovers to
automatic load
restoration greater than 60 HZ, a portion of the tripped load is automatically restored. The
schemes. intent of this load restoration is not so much to rapidly recover load, but rather to
Unexpected load prevent frequency from rising too much above 60 HZ. Figure 4-53 briefly
restoration can describes the automatic load restoration program used in the Western
delay system
Interconnection. This program is in addition to the UFLS scheme that was
restoration.
described in Figure 4-51. Note the tripping times listed in Figure 4-53 are
minimum times to trip. Participants are not allowed to restore faster than the
times listed.

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Frequency Tripping Load Restored Load Restored

(%)
(HZ) Time (MW)

60.5 30 Seconds 1.1 1,460

60.7 5 Seconds 1.7 2,256

60.9 15 Cycles 2.3 3,052

Figure 4-53. Western Interconnection Automatic Load Restoration

Rate-of-Change UFLS Protection

When large mismatches between generation and load occur, frequency may A rule of thumb is
that the loss of 1/3
drop at a rapid rate. The rate at which the frequency falls is often critical. For
of an area’s
example, if the Interconnection (or island) is small, frequency declines may be so generation will lead
rapid that governor response and the normal UFLS program are inadequate to stop to a 2 HZ per
the decline. Some areas have addressed this problem by installing rate-of-change second frequency
of frequency relays. These type relays respond to the speed at which frequency decline.
falls. If rate-of-change of frequency relays operate in a system, the system
quickly trips substantial portions of load in an attempt to arrest the rapid
frequency drop.

4.8.3 Underfrequency Generator Protection

If the operation of the UFLS program fails to achieve the desired match between
generation and load, the frequency may continue to decline or freeze at a low
value. Section 4.7.1 described the impact of sustained low frequency operation
on the low-pressure turbine stage blades. Many steam/turbine generators are
protected with UF tripping relays. These relays are designed to trip the generator
if the unit is exposed to sustained low frequency.
The first stages of generator UF tripping typically begin at 59 HZ. The generator
may be allowed to operate for several seconds at this frequency before tripping
occurs. If frequency declines to 58 HZ or lower the generator may trip with no
intentional time delay.
Coordination between a system’s UFLS program and their generator UF tripping
programs is essential. Every few years a disturbance occurs in which a generator
is tripped via UF relays prior to the last stage of UFLS activating. Once the
generators start tripping, UFLS is practically useless.

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4.9 Nature of a Frequency Deviation

This section describes the nature of a frequency deviation. A frequency deviation
is analyzed by breaking it down into smaller components and explaining how the
deviation develops. Also addressed in this section are the impact of distance on
the magnitude of the frequency deviation, the relationship between frequency and
power angle, and the speed of the traveling frequency wave.

A definition of a 4.9.1 Analysis of a Frequency Deviation

large or small
frequency deviation The power system frequency is constantly changing. Small changes are typically
depends on the due to normal load fluctuations and are of little concern. Larger changes, which
Interconnection.
Large are not an uncommon event, may require a system operator’s full attention. The
interconnections, majority of the larger frequency deviations that a system operator sees are the
such as the Eastern, result of tripped generators or load switching. Tripped generators and sudden
experience less load increases cause the frequency to spike low while sudden large load decreases
frequency deviation cause the frequency to spike high. This section is most concerned with frequency
than a smaller
Interconnection, depressions due to lost generation.
such as Alaska. Figure 4-54 is a plot of how a frequency deviation would look when a time scale
measured in seconds is used. Note that the horizontal axis is in seconds and the
vertical axis is in hertz. This figure simulates the frequency response following
the loss of a generator.

The frequency plots

we typically see are
recorded on strip
charts. These strip
charts have long time
scales (10 minutes per
inch). The frequency
plot illustrated here
between points “A”,
“B”, & “C” appears
on a strip chart as the
“tail” of the frequency
plot.

Figure 4-54. Plot of a Simulated Frequency Disturbance

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The Initial Frequency

At point “A” (the initial frequency), a generator is lost. The spinning load in Inertial energy is
the Interconnection quickly provides inertial energy to replace the lost the energy stored in
generation. As the spinning mass in the system supplies inertial energy it slows the rotating mass of
the speed of rotation. This leads to a reduction in frequency throughout the the system.
Interconnection.
As the frequency of the system declines, the load magnitude also declines due to
the load/frequency relationship. If the generation loss was small, the
load/frequency relationship may alone be enough to arrest the frequency drop. In
the example of Figure 4-54 we are assuming the generation drop is large. The
load/frequency relationship is not enough to arrest this frequency drop, governor
response is required.
The rate at which the frequency initially declines depends on several factors
including:
Î The amount of generation that was initially lost. The more generation
that is lost, the faster the frequency declines. Large generation trips, as a
percent of system size, could lead to frequency decline rates of several
hertz per second.
Î The impact of the load/frequency relationship. Earlier in this text a rule
of thumb for the load/frequency relationship was stated as a 1% change
in frequency leads to a 2% change in total load magnitude. This was
only a rule of thumb. In practice, the effect of frequency on load varies.
The greater the effect, the less the frequency declines.
Î The inertia of the local power system and of the entire Interconnection.
The more spinning mass in the Interconnection, the more difficult it is to
change the Interconnection’s frequency. The local system inertia also
impacts the frequency change. In general, the more inertia in the
Interconnection and in the local system, the slower the frequency
declines.
The speed and magnitude of the governor and generator response. A rapid, strong
governor response is only of value if the generator backs it up with sustained MW
support.

The Undershoot or Spike Frequency

The frequency dips all the way down to 59.93 HZ (point “C”) in Figure 4-54.
This dip is the frequency undershoot or spike. The reason the frequency stopped
declining at 59.93 HZ was due to a combination of system inertia, load/frequency,
and governor response. The reason the frequency rises from 59.93 HZ towards
59.96 HZ is primarily due to governor response.

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The Stabilization or Reset Frequency

Recall how governor control systems monitor shaft speed and then adjust
A major factor in mechanical input power to increase (or decrease) the speed of the shaft. Governor
the delay of a
steam unit’s
systems act relatively slowly as it takes time to adjust mechanical power input,
governor response especially in a steam unit. Note in Figure 4-54 that it takes approximately 10
is the reheat seconds to stabilize the frequency at 59.96 HZ (point “B”). This governor time
stages of a steam lag allows the system frequency to initially dip lower than the point at which the
generator. It takes governor systems eventually stabilize the system frequency. This is why the
several seconds to
recycle the steam
frequency dips to point “C” before climbing to the stabilization or reset point at
back through the “B”. The time period between points “C” and “B” (7 seconds) is again due to the
boiler. This delays relatively slow response of the governor systems.
the unit MW
response. Point “B” is the frequency deviation value typically seen in reports of
disturbances. The undershoot at point “C” shows up on control center frequency
strip charts as a sharp downward line (the tail of the response). When we talk
about frequency deviations we are typically referring to the stabilization point or
point “B”.

AGC Response
Once the governor response has stabilized the frequency at point “B”, it is up to
the AGC system to restore the frequency back towards 60 HZ. The AGC system
in the Balancing Authority that suffered the generation loss pulses those units on
AGC control to replace the generation loss. When the loss is replaced the
Balancing Authority’s ACE moves towards zero and the system frequency is
restored. Only a fraction of the AGC response is illustrated on Figure 4-54 since
AGC has 15 minutes to recover ACE according to the NERC DCS.

Governor Deadbands
One other important setting for a governor control system is illustrated in Figure
4-54. The deadband setting is 0.03 HZ for the governors of the system
represented in the figure. Recall, the governor deadband is a range of frequency
around 60 HZ for which the governor does not respond. A typical deadband
ranges from 0.02 to 0.04 HZ. For the system in Figure 4-54, the governors do not
begin to adjust unit outputs until the frequency has declined to below 59.97 HZ.

4.9.2 Actual Expanded Frequency Plots

Figures 4-55 and 4-56 are based on actual data from frequency disturbances.
Note that these plots are using expanded time scales. This frequency response
data was gathered using digital frequency recorders.
Figure 4-55 illustrates the affect of an approximately 4,500 MW generation loss
in the Western Interconnection. Frequency was initially 60 HZ and declined to a
low point of 59.52 approximately 25 seconds after the start of the disturbance.
Governor response was very effective (note the tail in Figure 4-55) and restored
the frequency to approximately 59.75 Hz. Given this large of a disturbance

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(many generators tripped) it took the Balancing Authorities involved longer than
15 minutes to get the frequency back to normal levels. However, steady progress
was made and frequency was recovered to 60 Hz about 17 minutes after the start
of the event.

Figure 4-55. Western Interconnection Disturbance Frequency Plot

Figure 4-56 illustrates the frequency in the New Brunswick area of the Eastern
Interconnection during the August 14, 2003 disturbance. This was one of the
largest disturbances ever in the North American power system. 70,000 MW of
load was lost. The system separation starts at time “0” on the time scale of the
figure. The New Brunswick area becomes part of a large northeast island that
separates from the remainder of the Eastern Interconnection. Note the frequency
oscillations that occur due to many generators, loads, and transmission lines
tripping. Eventually system operators in the northeast island get the frequency
under control and back down to 60 Hz.

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Figure 4-56. Eastern Interconnection Disturbance Frequency Plot

4.9.3 Effect of Time and Distance

When frequency disturbances occur within an Interconnection, the magnitude of
the disturbance depends on the time it was measured and the observer’s position.
At different times following the disturbance, an observer detects a different
frequency deviation. The farther away one is (in electrical distance or Ωs), the
less the magnitude of the frequency disturbance.
As is easily noted in Figure 4-56, a frequency disturbance often has an undershoot
and a stabilized value. An observer can note the effects of distance on frequency
plots such as the one in Figure 4-56. When the generation is first lost the
frequency starts to decline. How fast frequency drops depends on the size of the
loss, the load/frequency relationship, the inertia of the system generators, and the
It is the physical location of the generator that was lost.
undershoot The magnitude of the frequency undershoot varies with the observer’s location.
magnitude that
varies. The The stabilized value is the same no matter where the location in the
stabilized interconnected system.
frequency is
constant Earlier in the text the analogy of a rock thrown in a pond was used to visualize a
throughout the frequency disturbance. When disturbances occur within a power system they
Interconnection. propagate out from their point of origin to the rest of the power system. The
frequency disturbance itself is called a traveling wave. These traveling frequency
waves spread out from their point of origin in the same manner as a rock thrown
in a calm pond would cause waves to propagate out from the rock’s point of entry.

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When a frequency disturbance (for example, one caused by a loss of generation)

begins, the disturbance wave propagates out to the rest of the power system. The
traveling wave’s strength is diluted (damped) as it travels farther from its point of
origin. Eventually the wave dissipates. The farther an observer is from a
disturbance (in electrical distance or Ωs), the smaller the magnitude of the
frequency disturbance they see. After approximately 10 to 20 seconds all
observers see the same frequency. By this time all the interconnected systems
governors have responded and the frequency is stabilized at a new value.

4.9.4 Frequency Relation to Power Angle

Frequency deviations can be related to the MW transfer equation first presented in
Chapter 2. Recall that the MW transfer equation calculates the MW transferred
based on the impedance, voltage and power angle. The equation is repeated here
for convenience.

The “SR”
VS × VR subscripts are
PSR = × sin δ SR referring to a
X SR measurement
between the
sending and
Recall from Chapter 2 that the amount of MW transferred between two locations receiving ends of
is primarily dependent on the impedance and the power angle (δSR) between the the system.

two locations. If the power angle stays the same, the MW transferred does not
vary significantly. Following the loss of a large generator, the lost MW must be
replaced. Neighboring generators supply the MW from their inertia energy. The
MW flow must therefore increase on the lines feeding into the area that lost the
generation.
If the power flows increase it means that the power angle must have increased.
Power angles only change if there has been a momentary change in relative speed
or an acceleration between two areas of the power system. When a major
generator is lost the areas of the power system that replace the lost generation
must briefly accelerate with respect to the area that lost the generation.
If the frequency undershoots were measured at the point where the generation was
lost and also near the different generators that respond by increasing generation,
one would find that these undershoots have slightly different magnitudes. The
point where the generation is lost has a larger frequency undershoot then the
points from which the generation is replaced.
The different undershoots represent the supplying areas briefly accelerating with
respect to the area that lost generation. For several seconds the supplying areas
run slightly faster than the receiving areas to allow power angles to increase and
power flows into the generation deficient area to increase.

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Figure 4-57 illustrates the differences in frequency response across a simple

system following a generation loss. Assume a loss of generation occurred in area
“X”. Note the large undershoot in area “X”. Area “Y” is strongly connected to
area “X”. The undershoot in area “Y” is slightly less than that in area “X”. Since
area “Y” is tightly connected with area “X”, it supplies significant MW support to
area “X”. The undershoot in area “Z” is small. Area “Z” is weakly tied to area
“X” and provides little MW support.
Eventually, after several seconds, power angles stop increasing and the entire
power system stabilizes at a new, lower, frequency. (System Operator manual
actions and AGC systems then return the system to the scheduled frequency of 60
HZ.)

The size of the

undershoot is
directly related to
the strength of the
tie-lines between the
deficient area (X)
and the supplying
areas (Y & Z).

Figure 4-57. Illustration of Frequency Undershoots

Figure 4-58 further illustrates this concept. Figure 4-58 (a) represents a simple
power system with frequency initially at the normal value of 60 HZ. Assume a
large generator is lost. Frequency immediately begins to drop throughout this
sample system. At the point where the generation is lost the frequency
undershoot reaches its minimum value of 59.9 HZ as illustrated in Figure 4-58
(b). At the ends of the simple power system, the frequency undershoot is 59.95
HZ. The differences in the frequency undershoot values between the ends and
middle of the system result in a power angle change. For example, the difference
in undershoots is 0.05 HZ (59.95-59.90). If this difference lasts for 2 seconds
then the power angle can change within this two second window. The
calculations are shown below:

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59.95−59.90 = 0.05HZ
Assume this Difference Lasts for 2Seconds
0.05 Cycles × 2Seconds × 360 Degrees
Second Cycle
Equals a 36°Change in Power Angle

Following a generation loss, MW flows adjust as the Interconnection supports the

deficient area. MW flows do not change significantly unless the power angle
changes. To change the power angle you must have relative acceleration.
Frequency must be different throughout an Interconnection immediately
following a disturbance. This is how you achieve relative acceleration and power
angle changes.

Figure 4-58. Distance and Frequency Undershoots Given modern

telecommunications
systems, more
accurate methods
4.9.5 Speed of the Traveling Frequency Wave are now available to
calculate the speed
If the frequency disturbance following a generation loss travels through the of the traveling
power system as a traveling wave, how fast does it travel? This section will wave. This example
answer that question by recalling some interesting work performed years ago by is used due to the
a group of Eastern utilities. interesting manner
in which the answer
was obtained.

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In the late 1960’s a utility in Kentucky was one of the first utilities to install a
digital AGC system. This system had a capability to automatically record
frequency data following a disturbance. The frequency recorder function was
known as a frequency trap. An Iowa utility, located west of the Kentucky utility,
also installed a digital AGC system with frequency trap capability.
In early 1970 a Tennessee utility lost a generating unit that was then carrying 800
MW. A frequency disturbance wave propagated throughout the Eastern
Interconnection. The Kentucky and Iowa utility frequency traps activated and
recorded the frequency disturbance.
Utilities in this time period did not have accurate time measurement equipment.
The Kentucky and Iowa utilities could not tell each other exactly what time their
frequency traps were triggered. The two utilities could, however, exchange
frequency response data. Figure 4-59 is a plot of both the Kentucky and Iowa
frequency data following the disturbance. Note that at a plot time of -4 seconds
The subsequent both frequencies start to plunge. This is in response to the Tennessee disturbance.
disturbance was the Also note that at a plot time of 40 seconds both frequencies start to plunge again.
loss of the tie-lines This was due to a subsequent disturbance that occurred west of Iowa.
between the
Western and
Eastern
Interconnections.
The
Interconnections
were connected
with AC tie-lines at
the time. These lines
frequently tripped
and were eventually
removed from
service due to this
constant tripping.

Figure 4-59. Speed of the Traveling Frequency Wave

By lining up the initial frequency plunges due to both disturbances the utilities
were able to compare frequency response data with accurate time scales. Note
that as the first frequency wave from the Tennessee disturbance travels through
the Interconnection, Kentucky records the maximum frequency plunge 3.6
seconds later than Iowa does. For the subsequent disturbance, Iowa records the
maximum disturbance 3.6 seconds later than Kentucky records it.

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The conclusion is that it took 3.6 seconds for a frequency disturbance wave to Note that this speed
travel between the Kentucky and Iowa frequency recorders. Since the distance was for this
particular
between the frequency recorders was known, the utilities were able to estimate disturbance. Other
that the frequency disturbance wave traveled at approximately 200 miles/second. disturbances will
have different
4.10 Staged Response to a Generation Loss speeds due to
changing system
A four-stage process can be used to describe the response of the power system to
conditions.
a generation loss. Assume that a major generator is lost. The power system
progresses through the stages listed in Figure 4-60.
Given modern
Stages of a Generation Loss telecommunication
systems, more
accurate methods
1. Electromagnetic Energy Storage are now available
to calculate the
2. Inertial Stage speed of the
traveling wave.
This example is
3. Governor Response Stage used due to the
interesting manner
4. AGC Stage in which the
answer was
Figure 4-60. Stages of a Generator Response obtained.

4.10.1 The Electromagnetic Energy Stage

Immediately following a loss of generation, those generators that are electrically
closest to the point of loss respond first and with the most MW. Recall from the
MW transfer equation that the amount of MW delivered from a generator to a
point in the system depends on the impedance from the generator to that point.
This impedance is composed of the internal impedance of the generator and the
impedance of the transmission path.
When a load is suddenly applied to a generator, its internal impedance reduces
sharply and then returns to normal in a few seconds. For generators that are
electrically close to the loss of generation, this drop in impedance significantly
lowers their impedance, thus enabling the generator to supply more MW. The How long a
amount of MW supplied by each generator in the Interconnection during this generator
stage is directly proportional to their electrical distance (measured in Ωs) from the sustains its
loss of generation. response during
the electro-
The generator delivers this MW very rapidly, almost immediately, but only magnetic stage
sustains the MW support for approximately 1/3 of a second. The MW the and how low the
voltage of the
generator supplies does not come from normal MW sources (the turbine) but generator falls
rather from energy stored within the magnetic field of the generator. This stage is during this stage
called the electromagnetic energy stage since the generator’s own magnetic is dependent on
energy is the source of the generator response. The time frame for stage #1 is the strength and
from immediately following the loss to approximately 1/3 second after the loss. speed of the
generator’s
excitation system.

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4.10.2 The Inertial Stage

Immediately following the loss of generation, the frequency in the area that
suffered the loss begins to fall. The statement “begin to fall” is used here because
the frequency drop does not occur instantaneously, it takes time to slow down the
huge spinning masses in the system. Visualize the frequency in the area that
suffered the generation loss as a “pocket” of depressed frequency or as a
frequency pocket.

The approximate The remainder of the interconnected system has not yet experienced a frequency
time frames given decline. As the frequency pocket develops in the area that suffered the loss, the
for each of the remainder of the interconnected system begins to supply inertial (rotational)
stages overlap one energy to the low frequency pocket. Over the next several seconds, the frequency
another. This is throughout the Interconnection moves towards a common lower value. The
intentional; the
stages are not frequency of the pocket recovers significantly during this period while the
discreet but tend frequency of the remainder of the interconnected system falls slightly. This
to overlap one second stage of the response is called the inertial stage. The inertial stage has an
another. approximate time period from 1/3 second after the generation loss to 5 seconds
after the loss.
During the inertial stage all the interconnected system generators supply MW in
proportion to their relative size. Large (massive) generators respond with more
MW.

4.10.3 The Governor Response Stage

Stage # 3 is the governor response stage. The generators throughout the
Interconnection respond with MW in proportion to their governor settings. If all
the units have the same droop, then all units respond in proportion to their MW
size. The governor stage stabilizes the frequency throughout the Interconnection
at a common value. The approximate time frame for the governor response stage
is from 2 seconds after the loss to 20 seconds after the loss.

4.10.4 The AGC Stage

Stage # 4 is the AGC stage. Over the next several minutes the AGC system of the
Balancing Authority that lost the generation pulses its units to return frequency to
60 HZ. If the Balancing Authority cannot handle the loss, it should request
emergency assistance from neighboring systems. The approximate time frame for
the AGC stage is from a few seconds following the loss to 15 minutes after the
loss.

4.10.5 The Economic Dispatch Stage

A final stage in the system response could be called the economic dispatch
stage. During the economic stage, the MW output set-points of the participating
generators are adjusted in such a manner as to insure the participating generators
are operating economically to meet the system load.

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4.10.6 Illustration of a Staged Response

Figures 4-61 through 4-64 illustrate a simulated staged response to a generation
loss. Figure 4-61 contains a simple power system with four generators. Initially,
the system is operating normally. Assume generator “A” trips. The following
four-stage response occurs.
1. Of the four generators, generator “C” is electrically closest to the loss. Note
that the transmission path between generators “A” and “C” is composed
of two 500 kV lines. Electrically, generator “C” is very close to generator
“A”. Figure 4-61 lists the change in MW from each generator during the
electromagnetic energy stage. Note that generator “C” provides the largest
response. Generator “C” may sustain this MW response for approximately
1/3 second or 20 cycles.
Figure 4-61 follows on the next page.

During the
electromagnetic
energy stage the
generators
respond with
energy stored in
their magnetic
fields. Those units
electrically
closest to the
point of loss will
provide more
MW.

Figure 4-61. Stage #1 – The Electromagnetic Energy Stage

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During the inertial

stage the
generators
respond in
accordance with
their respective
inertias. The
system generators
slow down at
different rates
leading to short
term frequency
differences
throughout the
Interconnection.

Figure 4-62. Stage #2 – The Inertial Stage

2. Figure 4-62 illustrates stage # 2 of the process. Stage # 2 is the inertial stage.
Note that the dominant MW response has shifted from generator “C” to
generator “B”. Generator “B” has more inertia than generator “C” and
provides more of the response during this stage. The time frame for this stage
is from 1/3 to 5 seconds following the loss. During this stage the frequency of
the entire Interconnection is falling. However, the frequency is not falling
uniformly. Some generators are slowing faster than other generators.
3. Figure 4-63 illustrates stage # 3 of the response. This is the governor
response stage and the distribution of the MW response is now dependent on
the governor settings of the various units. Generators “D” and “B” provide
the majority of the governor response. The generator “C” governor is blocked
(it does not respond to a frequency drop) and this unit does not participate
during this stage. The time frame for this stage is from 1 to 20 seconds
following the loss.
4. Figure 4-64 illustrates stage # 4, the AGC stage. Note that generator “C” is
now providing all the MW response. Generator “C” is in the same Balancing
Authority as the generator that was lost. The assumption is that generator “C”
was pulsed by AGC and was able to provide the 200 MW of lost power.
In the actual power system, the response of the system to a generator loss does not
neatly follow each of these four stages. The stages overlap and at times one stage
dominates over other stages. The four stages are intended to provide a framework
for visualizing the system response to a generation loss.

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During the
governor response
stage the generators
respond in
accordance with
their respective
governor settings,
their spinning
reserve levels, and
the ability of the
generators to
provide the
requested governor
response.

Figure 4-63. Stage #3 – Governor Response Stage

When generators in the interconnected systems respond to a generator trip, the
responding generators enter into a period of oscillations. The oscillations may
last several minutes following a large disturbance. If the oscillations grow large
enough, responding units could trip and lead to severe consequences in the
interconnected system. Chapter 8 examines generator oscillations in greater
detail.

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During the AGC

stage the units
pulsed by the
deficient Balancing
Authorities AGC
system provide the
MW response.

Figure 4-64. Stage #4 – The AGC Stage

4.11 Role of the System Operator
Experienced power system generation control operators agree that the single most
important piece of information available to an operator is the power system
frequency. By monitoring a chart of system frequency along with other available
system data, an experienced operator can estimate the type, size, and perhaps the
location, of power system disturbances. Figure 4-65 lists some of the additional
data a system operator may consult when evaluating a frequency disturbance.
As an example of a system operator analyzing a disturbance, consider a
If the B value is generation loss. Following a generation loss a Balancing Authority’s ACE should
incorrect, ACE
will not be zero
be close to zero if the loss was external and approximately equal to the loss if the
for an external loss was internal. However, in the real world tie-line bias AGC does not work
disturbance. perfectly. A Balancing Authority will develop a non-zero ACE if the loss is
external or internal. If the loss is external, the ACE is typically small. A system
operator would note the small value of ACE and note the direction and magnitude
of their tie-line flows to verify that the loss was external. If the loss is internal,
ACE should roughly approximate the loss and tie-line flows should swing so MW
is flowing into the deficient Balancing Authority.

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Watch Frequency in Conjunction with:

Interchange
ACE
Total Area Generation
Total Area Load
Tie-Line Flows
Generating Plant Output
Key Voltages
SCADA Alarms
Figure 4-65. Data Available to a Generation Control System Operator

4.11.1 Frequency Control Duties By simultaneously

viewing frequency
The majority of the time the automatic control systems, such as the governor and recordings from
AGC, control frequency. If these systems fail or must be disabled, the system several areas of
operator may have to take a more active role in the frequency control process. A the power system,
a system operator
system operator’s frequency control duties range from the routine chores to less can determine if
frequent emergency duties. islands have
formed.
A routine frequency control duty would include a system operator assisting AGC
with the control of frequency during the morning load rise. AGC may not move
the units fast enough so a system operator may manually assist the AGC process
by pushing the units along a little faster.
An emergency frequency control duty may follow a system disturbance after
In many
which a Balancing Authority’s AGC system is automatically suspended. The Balancing
system operator assumes direct responsibility for frequency control until the Authorities, AGC
power system problems can be diagnosed and corrected and AGC resumed. is automatically
suspended if
4.11.2 Islanded Systems and Frequency Control frequency falls
below 59.8 HZ.
When a disturbance occurs that separates the power system into islands, the island
may have a generation surplus or deficiency. Governors and UFLS will attempt
to achieve a match between generation and load. Assume this is successful and
the frequency is stabilized at a new value. Normally the AGC system would
Chapter 11, Power
return the frequency to 60 HZ. However, islanding may force the Balancing System Restoration
Authority to suspend AGC. As you recall the AGC sends signals to the expands on
Balancing Authority’s generators to adjust governor set-points. If an island frequency control in
occurs within a Balancing Authority, the AGC system’s controlled generators an island.
may not be included in the island. Therefore, it is reasonable practice for a
Balancing Authority to disable AGC if the Balancing Authority breaks into
separate islands.

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If the AGC is disabled, the system operator must return the frequency of the
islands to 60 HZ. To raise an island’s frequency, a system operator can have on-
line generators raise generation levels, start peaking units, or if no generation is
available, manually drop load within the island. To lower frequency, a system
operator would request that generators within the islanded area lower generation.
If the interconnected system breaks into or is restored into islands and AGC is
used, the method by which AGC controls the power system may be modified.
During normal interconnected operations, AGC is typically set in a “tie-line bias”
mode of operation. This means that frequency is monitored to maintain 60 HZ
but any corrections are “biased” or modified based on the difference between
scheduled and actual net interchange.
During islanded operation, the island’s tie-lines to neighboring systems are
severed. The islanded system cannot control to non-existent tie-line flows so
AGC may be switched to a mode of operation called “flat-frequency” control. In
this mode of operation the difference between the actual and scheduled frequency
is all that drives the AGC control signals.

4.11.3 A Simple Example

PJM is the acronym
for the Figure 4-66 contains data for an actual event that occurred in the PJM system
Pennsylvania, New many years ago. The system operator on duty was monitoring the power system.
Jersey, Maryland
Initially all indications were normal. Suddenly the system operator was presented
area power system.
with the data illustrated in Figure 4-66. What does the system operator conclude?
The data indicates that MW flow has reversed from north to south to south to
north. Frequency has risen above 60 HZ. What system event would cause flows
to reverse and frequency to rise?
If frequency rises, one can typically assume that load was lost. Based on the new
directions for power flow one could further deduce that the load was lost in the
south.

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Figure 4-66. Frequency Incident on PJM System

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4.12 Summary of Frequency Control

4.12.1 The Changing Load

Î Power system load is constantly changing. This is why the maintenance
of a relatively constant system frequency is difficult.

4.12.2 Need for Frequency Control Systems

Î Human, manual based control is not sufficient to maintain frequency.
Complex control systems are required.

4.12.3 Definition of a Control System

Î A control system automatically controls the output of a system based on
measurements of various inputs and outputs.

4.12.4 The Energy Balance Concept

Î When generation is lower than load, frequency falls. When generation is
greater than load, frequency rises.

4.12.5 Normal and Abnormal Frequency Deviations

Î When the actual frequency deviates from the scheduled frequency, a
frequency deviation has occurred. Normal frequency deviations are
small frequency deviations. Normal deviations always occur due to the
constant adjustments to load and generation. Abnormal deviations are
larger deviations that result from sudden, large changes to the generation
supply or to the load.

4.12.6 The Load/Frequency Relationship

Î Non-motor load is not significantly impacted by frequency. Motor load
is strongly impacted by frequency. A 1% change in frequency typically
leads to a 2% change in the total system load magnitude.

4.12.7 Power System Inertia

Î Inertial energy or rotational energy is energy stored in spinning mass.
Power systems hold inertial energy in their generators and motors.

4.12.8 Introduction to Governors

Î System generators use governor control systems to control the
generator’s speed of rotation.

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4.12.9 Centrifugal Ballhead Governor

Î Centrifugal ballhead governors are mechanical governor control systems
in which flyweights rotate in proportion to shaft speed.

4.12.10 Modern Electronic Governors

Î Many newer generators use electronic governors. Governor settings,
such as droop and deadband, can often be chosen via software.

4.12.11 Governor Droop Curves

Î To simplify the description of governors, shaft speed is equated to system
frequency and valve position to MW output.
Î An isochronous governor attempts to maintain a 60 HZ system
frequency. A governor may be placed in isochronous control mode if its
generator is solely responsible for frequency control.
Î Droop is required on governors used in interconnected power systems.
Without droop characteristics the governors on parallel generators
compete for load changes. Droop forces generators to respond to
frequency disturbances in proportion to their size.

4.12.12 Governor Control in an Islanded Power System

Î The load reference set-point is the MW the governor directs the generator
to produce when frequency is at the scheduled value.
Î For an isolated generator, an adjustment to a governor set-point is
equivalent to a change in the stored energy. Set-point adjustments
change the target frequency, which changes the stored energy.

4.12.13 Governor Control in an Interconnected System

Î When a frequency deviation occurs, governors throughout the
Interconnection respond. Once the cause of the deviation is determined,
the Balancing Authority responsible restores the frequency. As
frequency is restored, the majority of the units that provided governor
response slide along their droop curves to their original set-points.

4.12.14 Frequency Traces

Î On a strip chart recording of an Interconnection’s frequency following a
major disturbance, one may notice a “tail” to the frequency chart. The
tail approximates the governor response. If no tail exists, the governor
response was minimal.

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4.12.15 Generator Response and Droop Settings

Î If two similar size generators have the same % droop, expect a similar
MW response to a frequency disturbance. If two similar generators have
a different % droop, expect a different response to a frequency
disturbance. The generator with the smaller droop provides a greater
response.

4.12.16 System Frequency Response Characteristic

Î The frequency response characteristic (FRC or β) of a power system is
that system’s natural response to a frequency disturbance. FRC data is
often reported in units of MW/0.1HZ. The FRC varies depending on
current system conditions.
Î The frequency bias (B) is used in a Balancing Authority’s AGC systems.
The B value should be representative of the typical FRC for the
Balancing Authority.

4.12.17 Response to a Loss of Generation

Î When frequency disturbances occur in an interconnected power system,
the entire system is impacted. The farther an observer is from the point
of the disturbance, the less of a disturbance they initially detect.

4.12.18 Limitations to Governor Response

Î Governors do not respond the instant frequency deviates from 60 HZ.
Governors have a deadband within which they are designed not to
respond. A typical deadband would be 0.036 HZ. A governor with a
0.036 HZ deadband would not respond to frequency deviations within
±0.036 HZ of the target frequency (60 HZ).
Î A governor control system can be perfectly designed and tuned.
However, if the generator behind the governor is not capable of
responding, the governor is useless. The type of unit controlled by the
governor strongly impacts the MW a governor will actually respond
with. In general, hydro units provide excellent governor response.
Steam units can provide good governor response depending on the type
of unit.
Î Governor response can be intentionally eliminated. When a generator
intentionally prevents governor response it is called “blocking” the
governor.

4.12.19 Introduction to Automatic Generation Control

Î Governor control is primary frequency control while AGC is secondary
frequency control. Governors arrest frequency deviations while AGC
restores frequency to the scheduled value.

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4.12.20 Balancing Authorities

Î The entire power system is divided into Balancing Authorities.
Balancing Authorities are individually responsible for matching their
scheduled net interchange to their actual net interchange. All of an
Interconnection’s Balancing Authorities are jointly responsible for
maintaining the scheduled (typically 60 HZ) system frequency.
Î The tie-lines that connect Balancing Authorities must be metered to
determine the actual net interchange. The same metered data is sent to
all Balancing Authorities that share the tie-line.
Î The AGC related duties of a Balancing Authority can be summarized in
two statements:
1. To ensure that the sum of the actual MW flows on all tie-lines with
neighboring Balancing Authorities are as scheduled.
2. To assist all the other Balancing Authorities in the Interconnection
with frequency regulation.

4.12.21 Types of Interchange

Î Positive interchange is MW flow out of a Balancing Authority. Negative
interchange is MW flow into a Balancing Authority.
Î There are three types of interchange; actual, scheduled and inadvertent.
Actual net interchange is the sum of the actual MW flow on all of a
Balancing Authority’s tie-lines. Scheduled net interchange is the sum of
the scheduled MW flow on all of a Balancing Authority’s tie-lines.
Inadvertent net interchange is equal to the difference between the actual
and scheduled net interchange.

4.12.22 Function of an AGC System

Î An AGC systems function in an interconnected power system is to assist
with Interconnection frequency regulation and maintain a close match
between the Balancing Authority’s actual and scheduled net tie-line
flows.

4.12.23 Components of an AGC System

Î An AGC system has components in the control center, at the controlled
generators, and in the transmission system. AGC gathers data to
determine frequency and interchange errors. These errors are combined
to compute an ACE signal. The ACE signal is used to adjust controlled
generators output levels.

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4.12.24 Modes of AGC Control

Î There are three common modes of AGC control; constant frequency,
constant net interchange, and tie-line bias control. Tie-line bias control is
normally used by most Balancing Authorities.
Î The constant frequency control mode of AGC compares actual to
scheduled frequency and adjusts generation to return frequency to the
scheduled value.
Î The constant net interchange mode of AGC compares actual to scheduled
interchange and adjusts generation to eliminate the interchange error.
Î Tie-line bias AGC is a combination of the constant net interchange and
constant frequency modes of AGC. In tie-line bias AGC an interchange
error is determined. The interchange error is biased by the frequency
error to determine an ACE signal.

4.12.25 Tie-Line Bias Control

Î The ACE equation for tie-line bias control is:

ACE = ⎡⎣ NI A − NIS ⎤⎦ − 10 × B × ⎡⎣ FA − FS ⎤⎦ − ⎡⎣ I ME ⎤⎦

Î The “B” or frequency bias value is based on the frequency response

characteristic (FRC) for the Balancing Authority and is stated in MW/0.1
HZ.

4.12.26 Balancing Authority Implementation of AGC

Î The implementation of AGC in actual Balancing Authorities is a
complex task. The actual ACE values calculated based on raw data are
called raw ACE. Raw ACE is massaged to determine the filtered ACE.
Filtered ACE is used to drive the controlled generators.

4.12.27 Operating Reserves

Î Operating reserves types include regulating reserve and contingency
reserve.
Î Regulating reserves are utilized by the AGC system.
Î Contingency reserves are held to facilitate response to a disturbance.

4.12.28 Spinning and Non-Spinning Reserves

Î Spinning reserves include unused synchronized capacity and interruptible
load.
Î Non-spinning reserves include quick-start generation and interruptible
load.

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4.12.29 Responsive Reserves

Î Responsive reserves are rapidly available to respond to frequency
deviations. Responsive reserves can be spinning or non-spinning
reserves.

4.12.30 NERC Reserve Definitions

Î NERC defines two types of operating reserve; regulating and
contingency.
Î Carry enough regulating reserve to satisfy CPS1 and CPS2.
Î Carry enough contingency reserve to satisfy the DCS.

4.12.31 Definition of Time Error

Î Anytime frequency varies from 60 HZ, time error accumulates. The
amount of time error accumulated depends on the magnitude of the
frequency deviation and the length of time the deviation is held.

4.12.32 Monitoring Time Error

Î Each Interconnection chooses a Reliability Coordinator to serve as the
error monitor. The time error monitor records the accumulated time error
and initiates time error corrections.

4.12.33 Correcting Time Error

Î Time error corrections consist of periods in which scheduled frequency is
intentionally varied from 60 HZ. If time error is fast, a frequency of
59.98 HZ is scheduled to reduce the fast error. If time error is slow, a
frequency of 60.02 HZ is scheduled to reduce the slow error.

4.12.34 NERC’s Old Control Performance Criteria

Î In 1973, NERC implemented two criteria for control performance during
normal conditions, referred to as “A1 - Zero Crossing” and “A2 - Ld
Compliance”.

4.12.35 NERC Performance Standards

Î The performance standards (CPS1, CPS2, DCS) were implemented in
February of 1998.
Î CPS1 and CPS2 apply during both normal and disturbance conditions.
The CPS is supplemented by a disturbance control standard (DCS) that
applies only during disturbance conditions.

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Î CPS1 is intended to provide a Balancing Authority with a frequency

sensitive evaluation of how well the Balancing Authority is meeting its
demand requirements. A CPS1 magnitude of 100% is the minimum
acceptable performance.
Î CPS2 is designed to limit the magnitude of a Balancing Authority’s
ACE. CPS2 states that the average ACE value for each 10-minute period
shall not exceed a constant called “L10”. To comply with the CPS2, each
Balancing Authority shall keep their ACE within the L10 bounds 90% of
the time.
Î To pass the CPS standard, a Balancing Authority must conform to CPS1
100% of the time and conform to CPS2 90% of the time.
Î The DCS states that a Balancing Authority is responsible for recovering
from a disturbance within 15 minutes of the start of the disturbance.
Recovery means to restore ACE to either zero or its pre-disturbance
value. Every Balancing Authority must comply with the DCS standard
100% of the time.

4.12.36 Effects on Steam Turbine Blades

Î The low pressure stage steam turbine blades may vibrate and eventually
fail if operated (while under load) outside of a 59.5 to 60.5 HZ frequency
range for a substantial period of time.

4.12.37 Effects on Hydro and Combustion Turbines

Î Hydro and combustion turbines are less susceptible to damage during
off-frequency operation than steam turbines.

4.12.38 Effects on Other Power System Equipment

Î Motor output torque and the motor’s natural cooling action may be
reduced during low frequency operation.
Î Spinning load (motor) magnitude varies directly with the frequency.
Î Transformers may overexcite during low frequency operation.

4.12.39 Effects on Active Power Flows

Î To change power angle there must be relative acceleration. Low
magnitude, transient frequency deviations are required if power angles
are to change.

4.12.40 Power System Islands

Î Power system islands may be created due to major disturbances. Those
areas of an Interconnection that are weakly tied to neighboring systems
are candidates for island formation.

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4.12.41 Underfrequency Load Shedding (UFLS)

Î UFLS is a drastic measure in which customer load is automatically shed
to arrest a severe frequency decline. UFLS is designed to supplement
governor control.
Î Underfrequency tripping of transmission lines is not common but is used
by some utilities.
Î Automatic load restoration is used in some systems. Following
activation of UFLS, if frequency recovers to a specified level, a portion
of shed load may automatically be restored to prevent high frequency.

4.12.42 Underfrequency Generator Protection

Î UF tripping of generators is typically applied to steam turbine units. The
purpose is normally to protect the turbine blades. The UF tripping of
steam turbines must be coordinated with the UFLS program.

4.12.43 Analysis of a Frequency Deviation

Î The rate at which the frequency declines following a generation loss is
dependent upon the amount of generation lost, the load/frequency
relationship, the inertia of the system, and the speed and magnitude of the
governor response.
Î The lowest point of the frequency drop is called the frequency
undershoot or the spike. The frequency first spikes low and then
recovers to a stabilized value due to the natural time lag in the governor
response. Once the full impact of the governor response is available the
frequency recovers from the undershoot point to a stabilized value. AGC
signals to the units in the deficient Balancing Authority recover the
frequency from the stabilized value back towards 60 HZ.

4.12.44 Actual Expanded Frequency Plots

Î When expanded time scale frequency plots are examined for disturbances
in the different Interconnections, the impact of governor response is
easily observed.

4.12.45 Effect of Time and Distance

Î Following a generation loss, the observed frequency deviation varies
depending on the observer’s location with respect to the loss. What
varies is the short-term frequency undershoot magnitude. The stabilized
frequency is approximately the same throughout the Interconnection.

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4.12.46 Frequency Relation to Power Angle

Î Following a generation loss, frequency must be different throughout an
Interconnection. The frequency differences are necessary to achieve
relative acceleration and power angle changes.

4.12.47 Speed of the Traveling Frequency Wave

Î An actual example was described in which the speed of the traveling
wave of a frequency disturbance was measured at approximately 200
miles per second.

4.12.48 The Electromagnetic Energy Stage

Î The response of the power system to a major generation loss can be
described by a four-stage process. The electromagnetic energy stage
begins immediately and lasts approximately 1/3 second. During this
stage the remaining system generators supply energy from their magnetic
fields.

4.12.49 The Inertial Stage

Î The inertial stage follows the electromagnetic energy stage. During the
inertial stage, spinning mass (motors and generators) in the system
provide a portion of their rotational energy. The inertial stage lasts from
approximately 1/3 second to 5 seconds after the loss.

4.12.50 The Governor Response Stage

Î During the governor stage units respond in relation to their governor
settings. The governor stage lasts from approximately 2 to 20 seconds
after the loss.

4.12.51 The AGC Stage

Î During the AGC stage AGC controlled units in the Balancing Authority
that suffered the generation loss attempt to return ACE to zero and
restore system frequency.

4.12.52 Illustration of a Staged Response

Î A sample system was illustrated and the four-stage response to a
generation loss described.

4.12.53 Frequency Control Duties

Î When the system is normal, automatic systems typically control
frequency. However, a system operator may occasionally need to take
active control of the frequency control process.

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4.12.54 Islanded Systems and Frequency Control

Î When the interconnected system breaks into islands, AGC is often
suspended. The system operator must then assume an active role in the
frequency control process until the system is restored.

4.12.55 A Simple Example

Î A simple example was described to illustrate frequency control related
decision making by a system operator.

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4.13 Frequency Control Questions

1. According to the load/frequency relationship, a 1% change in frequency

will lead to what approximate magnitude of load change in a typical
10,000 MW system?

A. 500 MW
B. 1000 MW
C. 200 MW
D. 50 MW

2. A governor with a 0% droop is called:

A. Flat frequency control

B. Transient droop
C. A blocked governor
D. An isochronous governor

3. Steam turbine generators typically have better governor response than

hydro-electric generating units.

A. True
B. False

4. A Balancing Authority’s frequency bias setting is equal to:

A. The Balancing Authority’s frequency response characteristic

(FRC)
B. The natural response of the Balancing Authority
C. The AGC system’s bias value
D. All of the above

5. All of the following are modes of AGC EXCEPT:

A. Flat tie-line control

B. Isochronous control
C. Flat frequency control
D. Tie-line bias control

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6. In which stage of a generator’s response to a system disturbance is the

power flow supported primarily by the generator’s excitation system?

A. Governor response stage

B. AGC stage
C. Electromagnetic energy stage
D. Inertial stage
7. If system frequency were to run at 60.02 HZ for two consecutive hours,
how much positive time error would occur?

A. 2.0 seconds
B. 2.4 seconds
C. 1.0 second
D. 1.2 seconds

8. A Balancing Authority has a bias of -150 MW. Frequency falls 0.05 HZ

due to an external disturbance. How many MW would you expect this
Balancing Authority to provide to the disturbance?

A. -75
B. +75
C. -150
D. +150

9. An isochronous governor has a droop setting of:

A. 5%
B. 0%
C. 10%
D. 8%

10. What element of the power system is typically most susceptible to damage
from prolonged operation at frequencies above or below 60 HZ?

A. Transformers greater than 300 MVA

B. Low pressure turbine stage blades
C. Synchronous motors
D. Induction motors

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11. Hydro-electric generators typically exhibit better governor response than

thermal generators because:

A. Hydro-electric generators typically have more stored energy

B. Thermal generators typically do not carry spinning reserve
C. Water is a better conductor than steam
D. Hydro-electric generators utilize microprocessor based governors while
thermal units utilize mechanical governors

12. A generator with a 6% droop governor is connected to a 60 HZ power

system. Initially the generator is at 100% load. Frequency then falls 0.9 HZ.
What is the generator’s new % output?

A. 75%
B. 100%
C. 0%
D. 25%

13. What magnitude of frequency change would cause a 10% droop governor
to move its generator from zero to full output in a 60 HZ system?

A. 6 HZ
B. 10 HZ
C. 3 HZ
D. 5 HZ

14. Which component of the CPS is intended to limit the magnitude of

unscheduled power flows?

A. DCS 1
B. DCS 2
C. CPS1
D. CPS2

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15. What is the upper limit to the CPS1 magnitude?

A. 50%
B. 100%
C. 200%
D. No limit

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4.14 Frequency Control References

1. NERC Reliability Standards. The NERC web site contains a huge amount of
information on the field of frequency control.
2. NAESB Business Practice Standards. The NAESB website contains
information on the time error correction process.
3. The Field of System Governing. Article by Mr. Albion Davis that was
obtained from IEEE archives.
Î This article was written over 50 years ago but is still very applicable to
modern governor control systems. The article is an understandable
tutorial on utility generator governors.
4. The Control of Prime Mover Speed. A series of three reports written by the
Woodward Governor Company of Fort Collins, CO. Woodward Bulletin
#25031.
Î The single best source of information the author of this text located on
governor control system components and operation.
5. Understanding Automatic Generation Control. Article which appeared in the
August, 1992 issue of IEEE Transactions on Power Systems.
Î This article reviews the requirements of an AGC system.
6. Power System Response to Frequency Transients. IEEE paper 71-TP-82-
PWR.
Î Section 4.9.5 of this text was based on this paper (and other writings) by
Mr. A. Doyle Baker.

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VOLTAGE CONTROL

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VOLTAGE CONTROL

SECTION OVERVIEWS
5.1 Introduction
Voltage control is closely related to the availability of reactive power.
5.2 Causes of Low Voltage
Heavy power transfers are a principle cause of low voltage due to the Mvar
losses.
5.3 Causes of High Voltage
Lightly loaded transmission lines are a principle cause of high voltage.
5.4 Effects of Low Voltage
Low voltages can impact power system equipment and operations in numerous
ways.
5.5 Effects of High Voltage
High voltages can lead to the breakdown of equipment insulation, cause
transformer over-excitation, and adversely affect customer equipment.
5.6 Use of Voltage Control Equipment
Capacitors, reactors, LTCs, and SVCs supplement generators as means of
controlling system voltage.
5.7 Role of the System Operator
The system operator is usually responsible for maintaining reactive reserves and
controlling voltage deviations.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.1 Introduction to Voltage Control........................................................... 5-1

5.1.1 Review of Active, Reactive and Complex Power........................ 5-1
5.1.2 Reactive Power & Voltage Levels .............................................. 5-3
5.1.3 Flow of Reactive Power.............................................................. 5-4
5.2 Causes of Low Voltage ...................................................................... 5-5
5.2.1 Reactive Power and Low Voltage............................................... 5-5
5.2.2 Heavy Power Transfers .............................................................. 5-6
5.2.3 Transmission Line Outages...................................................... 5-12
5.2.4 Reactive Equipment Outages................................................... 5-14
5.2.5 Failure to Get Ahead of the Voltage ......................................... 5-14
5.2.6 Motor Stalling ........................................................................... 5-15
5.3 Causes of High Voltage.................................................................... 5-15
5.3.1 Overvoltage Time Frames ........................................................ 5-16
5.3.2 Long Term Overvoltages .......................................................... 5-16
5.3.3 Short Term Overvoltages ......................................................... 5-21
5.3.4 Transient Overvoltages ............................................................ 5-24
5.4 Effects of Low Voltages.................................................................... 5-26
5.4.1 Effect of Low Voltage on System Equipment ........................... 5-27
5.4.2 Effect of Low Voltage on Load Magnitude................................ 5-27
5.4.3 Effect of Low Voltage on Angle Stability................................... 5-33
5.4.4 Effect of Low Voltage on Customer Equipment........................ 5-34
5.4.5 Effect of Low Voltage on Power Losses ................................... 5-34
5.5 Effects of High Voltages ................................................................... 5-35
5.5.1 General Effects of High Voltages ............................................. 5-35
5.5.2 Effect of High Voltage on Power Transformers ........................ 5-36
5.5.3 Effect of High Voltage on Load Magnitude ............................... 5-38
5.5.4 Effect of High Voltage on Angle Stability .................................. 5-38
5.5.5 Effect of High Voltage on Customer Equipment ....................... 5-38
5.5.6 Effect of High Voltage on Power Losses .................................. 5-39
5.6 Use of Voltage Control Equipment ................................................... 5-40
5.6.1 Use of Capacitors and Reactors............................................... 5-40

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5.6.2 Use of Transformers ................................................................ 5-44

5.6.3 Use of Generators.................................................................... 5-51
5.6.4 Use of Static Var Compensators (SVC)................................... 5-57
5.6.5 Line Switching for Voltage Control........................................... 5-61
5.7 Role of the System Operator ........................................................... 5-61
5.7.1 Monitoring Voltage ................................................................... 5-61
5.7.2 Actions to Raise Voltage.......................................................... 5-62
5.7.3 Actions to Lower Voltage ......................................................... 5-62
5.7.4 Reactive Reserves................................................................... 5-63
5.8 Summary of Voltage Control............................................................ 5-65
5.8.1 Review of Active, Reactive and Complex Power ..................... 5-65
5.8.2 Reactive Power and Low Voltages .......................................... 5-65
5.8.3 Heavy Power Transfers ........................................................... 5-65
5.8.4 Transmission Line Outages ..................................................... 5-65
5.8.5 Reactive Equipment Outages .................................................. 5-65
5.8.6 Failure to Get Ahead of the Voltage......................................... 5-66
5.8.7 Motor Stalling ........................................................................... 5-66
5.8.8 Reactive Power and High Voltages ......................................... 5-66
5.8.9 Long Term Overvoltages ......................................................... 5-66
5.8.10 Short Term Overvoltages......................................................... 5-66
5.8.11 Transient Overvoltages............................................................ 5-66
5.8.12 Effect of Low Voltage on System Equipment........................... 5-67
5.8.13 Effect of Low Voltage on Load Magnitude ............................... 5-67
5.8.14 Effect of Low Voltage on Angle Stability .................................. 5-67
5.8.15 Effect of Low Voltage on Customer Equipment ....................... 5-67
5.8.16 Effect of Low Voltage on Power Losses .................................. 5-67
5.8.17 General Effects of High Voltages............................................. 5-67
5.8.18 Effect of High Voltage on Power Transformers........................ 5-67
5.8.19 Effect of High Voltage on Load Magnitude .............................. 5-67
5.8.20 Effect of High Voltage on Angle Stability ................................. 5-68
5.8.21 Effect of High Voltage On Customer Equipment...................... 5-68
5.8.22 Effect of High Voltage on Power Losses.................................. 5-68
5.8.23 Use of Capacitors and Reactors .............................................. 5-68
5.8.24 Use of Transformers ................................................................ 5-68

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5.8.25 Use of Generators ....................................................................5-68

5.8.26 Use of Static Var Compensators (SVC) ...................................5-69
5.8.27 Line Switching for Voltage Control ...........................................5-69
5.8.28 Monitoring Voltage ...................................................................5-69
5.8.29 Actions to Raise Voltage ..........................................................5-69
5.8.30 Actions to Lower Voltage..........................................................5-70
5.8.31 Maintaining Reactive Reserves ................................................5-70
5.9 Voltage Control Questions ...............................................................5-71
5.10 Voltage Control References .............................................................5-73

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 5-1. Active, Reactive and Complex Power ............................................ 5-1

Figure 5-2. Reactive Power Storage................................................................. 5-3
Figure 5-3. Use of a Shunt Capacitor ............................................................... 5-4
Figure 5-4. Direction of Reactive Power Flow................................................... 5-5
Figure 5-5. Radial Power System ..................................................................... 5-6
Figure 5-6. MW & Mvar Losses ........................................................................ 5-7
Figure 5-7. MW Required Versus Mvar Transferred ......................................... 5-8
Figure 5-8. Illustration of Surge Impedance Loading ...................................... 5-10
Figure 5-9. Concept of Unscheduled flow....................................................... 5-11
Figure 5-10. Introduction to the P-V Curve ..................................................... 5-12
Figure 5-11. Reactive Power & Line Outages – Normal System .................... 5-13
Figure 5-12. Reactive Power & Line Outages – Line Outage ......................... 5-13
Figure 5-13. 138 kV Shunt Capacitor Bank Output......................................... 5-15
Figure 5-14. High Voltage Types .................................................................... 5-16
Figure 5-15. Charging Current Flowing into an Open-Ended Line.................. 5-18
Figure 5-16. Voltage Profile Due to Ferranti Effect ......................................... 5-18
Figure 5-17. Calculating the Ferranti Effect Voltage Rise ............................... 5-19
Figure 5-18. Ferranti Voltage Rise for Different Length Lines ........................ 5-20
Figure 5-19. Source End Voltage Rise ........................................................... 5-21
Figure 5-20. Self-Excitation of a Generator .................................................... 5-22
Figure 5-21. Harmonic Overvoltages .............................................................. 5-23
Figure 5-22. Energizing a Line-Transformer Combination .............................. 5-24
Figure 5-23. Capacitive Switching .................................................................. 5-26
Figure 5-24. Effect of Voltage on Load Magnitude ......................................... 5-28
Figure 5-25. Effect of Voltage on Load Magnitude ......................................... 5-29
Figure 5-26. EPRI Load Magnitude Equations ............................................... 5-30
Figure 5-27. Central Air Conditioner Type Load ............................................. 5-32
Figure 5-28. Resistive Space Heater Type Load ............................................ 5-32
Figure 5-29. Voltage and Frequency Decay ................................................... 5-33
Figure 5-30. Transformer Saturation Curve .................................................... 5-37
Figure 5-31. Transformer Over-Excitation ...................................................... 5-38
Figure 5-32. Information Technology Industry Equipment Voltage Limits....... 5-39
Figure 5-33. Shunt and Series Capacitors...................................................... 5-41
Figure 5-34. Series Compensation ................................................................. 5-42
Figure 5-35. Shunt and Series Reactors......................................................... 5-44
Figure 5-36. Illustration of a Tap Changer ...................................................... 5-45

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Figure 5-37. Under Load Tap Changing Mechanism ......................................5-47

Figure 5-38. A ULTC Control Scheme.............................................................5-48
Figure 5-39. Tap Change and Reactive Power ...............................................5-49
Figure 5-40. Circulating Reactive Power .........................................................5-51
Figure 5-41. Block Diagram of a Generator Excitation System .......................5-52
Figure 5-42. Generator Reactive Capability Curve..........................................5-54
Figure 5-43. Actual Steam Unit Reactive Capability Curve .............................5-55
Figure 5-44. Actual Hydro Unit Reactive Capability Curve..............................5-56
Figure 5-45. Reactive Production Limitations..................................................5-57
Figure 5-46. Static Var Compensator (SVC) One-Line ...................................5-58
Figure 5-47. Static Var Compensator (SVC) Photograph................................5-59
Figure 5-48. Static Var System (SVS) .............................................................5-60
Figure 5-49. Types and Sources of Reactive Reserve....................................5-64

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5.1 Introduction to Voltage Control

5.1.1 Review of Active, Reactive and Complex Power

There are two types of power produced by the system generators, active (the MW)
and reactive (the Mvar). The active power is what does the work in the system.
Active power lights the lights, produces heat in the heaters, and turns the motors.
Reactive power enables the active power to do its work. AC power systems
cannot operate without adequate amounts of both types of power.
Figure 5-1 graphically illustrates the concepts of active and reactive power. The
A 1F system is
top portion of Figure 5-1 is a plot of the voltage and current for a typical 1Φ
used to keep this
system. Notice that the voltage and current waves are not in-phase with one description as
another. The voltage wave crosses the zero axis before the current wave. The simple as possible.
current wave lags the voltage wave by the phase angle “θ” (Greek letter “theta”).

The letter “j”

means 90 degrees.

Figure 5-1. Active, Reactive and Complex Power

The asterisk next to
The total or complex power being delivered by this 1Φ system is the product of the current (I*)
the voltage and current. In equation form this is stated as: indicates that the
current is a
S1φ = Complex Power = V × I * “conjugate”. This
is required to keep
our sign
Complex power (symbol “S”) has units of MVA and is composed of a mixture of conventions for
MW (symbol “P”) and Mvar (symbol “Q”). reactive power
consistent.

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The middle portion of Figure 5-1 is a plot of the complex power (“S” or MVA)
being delivered by this system. This complex power wave was formed by
multiplying a point in time on the voltage wave by the corresponding point in
time on the current wave. Notice how the complex power wave oscillates up and
down and is at times negative. The negative portion of the wave represents
periods in which power is actually being absorbed back into the system
generators.
The bottom portion of Figure 5-1 breaks down the complex power wave into two
separate waves. One wave is always positive and has an effective value of “P”.
This is the active power or MW portion of the power. A second wave oscillates
equally between positive and negative. Over each cycle the average value of this
power wave is zero. This wave represents reactive power and has maximum and
minimum values of “±Q”. The summation of active (“P”) and reactive power
(“Q”) is done using the power triangle as illustrated in the bottom right of Figure
5-1.
Figure 5-2 further illustrates the concepts of active and reactive power. Three
types of systems are represented in this figure: pure resistive, pure inductive and
pure capacitive. In the resistive system voltage and current are in-phase with one
another. The complex power (“S” or MVA) is found by multiplying the voltage
and current waves together. Notice that the complex power is always positive.
This means that there is no reactive power in a purely resistive system. All the
complex power is active power or MW.
In the pure inductive system of Figure 5-2 the current wave lags the voltage wave
by ¼ cycle or 90°. The complex power wave oscillates equally between negative
and positive. The complex power has an average value of zero. In a pure
inductive system there is no active power; all of the complex power is reactive or
Mvar.
The last system illustrated in Figure 5-2 is a pure capacitive system. Notice that
the current leads the voltage by 90°. The complex power again oscillates equally
between positive and negative and has an average value of zero. In a pure
capacitive system there is no active power; all the power is reactive.

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Figure 5-2. Reactive Power Storage

5.1.2 Reactive Power & Voltage Levels

Over a period of time reactive power has an average value of zero. A useful way
to visualize reactive power is to think of it as oscillating back and forth between
the system’s generators and loads. Most of the load in the power system is an
inductive type load. Inductive loads alternately store reactive power in their
magnetic fields and then return the Mvar back to the system. Inductive loads are
constantly repeating this store/return cycle.
Capacitive loads also follow a storage/return cycle. Capacitive loads store
reactive power in their electric fields. Compare the inductive and capacitive
portions of Figure 5-2, and note that the storage and return cycles of inductive and
capacitive loads are opposite one another. When an inductive load needs to
absorb reactive power from the system, a capacitive load is ready to return
reactive power to the system.
Power system designers take advantage of the difference in capacitive and
inductive load reactive power storage cycles to help with system voltage control.
As stated earlier, most of the load on the system is inductive load. When an
inductive load exchanges reactive power with the system, the exchange is
between the load and the system generators. This means that current is flowing
between the loads and the generator. This current causes voltage drops and power

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losses as it flows through the system. One way to reduce these voltage drops and
losses is to reduce the amount of reactive power flowing through the system.
A simple way to reduce the amount of reactive power flowing is to add capacitors
near the inductive load. The capacitor can take the place of the generator as the
source of reactive power. When the inductive load needs to store reactive power
the capacitor is ready to give its reactive power back to the system. The reactive
power does not have to come from the generators so less voltage drop and fewer
losses occur across the power system.
Figure 5-3 illustrates the use of a capacitor to supply the reactive needs of an
inductive load. As far as the power system is concerned, the capacitor acts like a
source of reactive power for the inductive load. The generator’s reactive power
obligation is reduced when the capacitor is switched in-service. Less reactive
power flow from the generator means less system current flow, less power loss,
and less voltage drop.

Notice how the

reactive power flow
from the generator
is reduced once the
capacitor is
switched in-service.

Figure 5-3. Use of a Shunt Capacitor

5.1.3 Flow of Reactive Power

The previous section described how reactive power actually oscillates back and
forth between the generators and loads. However, it is common practice to think
of reactive power as flowing in a certain direction. By convention, when a
generator is exchanging reactive power with an inductive load we say that
positive reactive power is flowing from the generator to the load. When a
generator is exchanging reactive power with a capacitive load we say that positive
reactive power is flowing from the load to the generator.

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If these conventions for the flow of reactive power are used we can further say
that reactive power normally flows from the high voltage to the low voltage point.
For example, to get more reactive power to flow from a generator, simply raise
the generator’s voltage level.
Figure 5-4 summarizes conventions for the flow of reactive power. In the top of
the figure reactive power is flowing from the generator to an inductive load. In
the bottom portion of the figure the generator is absorbing reactive power from a
capacitive load.

A generator
supplies reactive
power to an
inductive load. A
generator absorbs
reactive power from
a capacitive load.

Figure 5-4. Direction of Reactive Power Flow

When a generator is supplying reactive power to the system, the generator mode
of operation is referred to as lagging, boosting, pushing or overexcited. When a
generator is absorbing reactive power from the system, the generator mode of
operation is referred to as leading, bucking, pulling or underexcited.
5.2 Causes of Low Voltage
This section describes several common causes of low voltages. Voltage levels are For the remainder
directly tied to the availability of reactive power. If adequate reactive power of this text, shunt
capacitors are
resources exist in the areas where the Mvar is needed, system voltages can be treated as sources
controlled. If there is a deficiency of reactive power voltage levels will drop. of reactive power.
If there is an excess of reactive power voltage levels will rise.

5.2.1 Reactive Power and Low Voltage

The root cause of low voltage is a deficiency of reactive power. There are many
ways in which this reactive deficiency can develop. No system is immune from
low voltages. A power system may be able to progress through one day’s heavy
load periods with no low voltage problems. This same system could experience
low voltages if it has a major element out-of-service during the day’s peak load
hours. Some common causes of low voltage include:

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Î Heavy Power Transfers

Î Transmission Line Outages
Î Reactive Equipment Outages
Î Failure to “Get Ahead of the Voltage”
Î Motor Stalling

5.2.2 Heavy Power Transfers

Throughout this section of the text, a simple “radial” power system is used to
illustrate concepts. A radial power system is illustrated in Figure 5-5. A radial
power system has generation at one end of the system, load at the other and a
transmission path connecting the two.

Figure 5-5. Radial Power System

Also note in Figure 5-5 the transmission line’s natural inductance (X) and
resistance (R). (For this description, the line’s natural capacitance is ignored.)

Reactive Losses
Reactive power is As complex power (both active and reactive) flows through the radial system of
never actually lost. Figure 5-5 voltage drops occur. The magnitude of the system voltages is directly
The term reactive related to the availability of reactive power. The greater the amount of spare
losses is used to reactive power, or reactive reserves, the more capable the system is of
refer to reactive
power that is in
maintaining its voltages. One way to increase reactive reserves is to minimize the
use by a system reactive usage by the system, or to reduce the reactive losses of the system.
element.
The formulas given in Figure 5-6 for active and reactive power losses can be
easily derived (using Ohm’s Law) from the simple radial power system illustrated
in Figure 5-5. These two formulas are used to calculate the active and reactive
power losses as power flows through the transmission system.

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⎡ P2 +Q2 ⎤
MWLoss =3× ⎢ 2 ⎥ ×R=3× I2 × R
⎣ V ⎦
⎡ P2 +Q2 ⎤
MvarUsage =3× ⎢ 2 ⎥ ×X=3× I2 × X
⎣ V ⎦

Figure 5-6. MW & Mvar Losses

There are two forms of each loss equation provided in Figure 5-6. One form is in
terms of the complex power and the voltage [(P2 + Q2)/V2] and the other in terms
of the current (I2). The two forms are equal; they are simply different ways of
stating the same mathematical relationship.
Based on these loss formulas, to minimize power losses minimize current and
maximize voltage. The lower the current, the lower the losses. The greater the
voltage, the lower the losses. An additional method of reducing the losses is to
minimize the line’s impedance. Note from Figure 5-6 that active power (MW)
losses are dependent on the line’s resistance while reactive power (Mvar) losses
are dependent on the line’s inductive reactance.
In high voltage transmission systems, the line’s inductive reactance is much
greater than the line’s resistance. A 100-mile long 345 kV line may have a Chapter 6 on
Voltage Stability
resistance of 6 Ω’s and an inductive reactance of 60 Ω’s. The fact that the
examines the
inductive reactance of a line is much greater than its resistance strongly impacts problems associated
voltage control. It is very difficult to transmit reactive power long distances. with transmitting
When attempts are made to transmit Mvar long distances, the reactive losses are reactive power in
often so large that system voltages will tend to fall as reactive power reserves are greater detail.
used up.

MW Transferred Versus Mvar Required Plot

Reactive power losses are directly related to system voltage levels. The heavier
the power transferred through the system, the greater the reactive power losses
and voltage drop. If system loads are high or if power transfers are high, power
system voltages correspondingly decline unless additional reactive power support
is provided.
If the active power transfer on the system is extremely high, even a small increase
in MW transfer could lead to a large increase in Mvar usage. Figure 5-7
illustrates this concept. As MW transfer increases, it takes more and more Mvar
to maintain voltages. As illustrated in Figure 5-7 increasing the MW transfer
from 600 to 800 increases the Mvar that must be supplied from the system from
75 to 220 Mvar. If this additional Mvar is not supplied by the system voltages
will fall.

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The SIL of this

transmission line is
450 MW.

Figure 5-7. MW Required Versus Mvar Transferred

Incremental Increase in Reactive Losses

The shape of the Mvar usage curve in Figure 5-7 indicates that reactive losses do
not increase uniformly as MW transfer increases. For each additional increment
of MW transfer it takes a larger and larger increment of Mvar to maintain system
voltage. In other words, the incremental Mvar losses are increasing at an
increasing rate.
The amount of the Since Mvar losses are a function of the square of the current, a good rule of thumb
increase in the
reactive losses is
is to assume that if you double the MW transfer, you quadruple (2x2) the Mvar
dependent on the losses. However, this rule of thumb may substantially underestimate the Mvar
line loading. In needs of the system. A more conservative rule of thumb is to assume that in a
practice, the heavily loaded power system, any increase in MW transfer must be accompanied
increase lies by the cube of that increase in Mvar injection. For example, if MW transfer is
between the square
rule and the cube
doubled, Mvar needs increase by a factor of eight (2x2x2).
rule.
Significance of Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
In Figure 5-7, note the point where the MW transfer on the line requires 0 Mvar
from the system to support voltage. This point is called the “surge impedance
loading” or SIL of the transmission line. The SIL is the point at which the Mvar
from the line’s natural capacitance exactly provides the Mvar the line needs to
support its voltage. Every transmission line has a SIL.

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The Mvar provided to the system from a transmission line’s natural capacitance Lightly loaded lines
can be stated mathematically as: are capacitive while
heavily loaded lines
are inductive.
V2
MvarProduced =
XC

Where XC is the line’s capacitive reactance. Note that the Mvar produced is a
function of voltage, not current.
The Mvar used by a line can be stated mathematically as:

MvarUsed = I 2 × XL

Where XL is the line’s inductive reactance. Note that the Mvar used is a function
of current, not voltage.
The SIL of a line occurs when:

MvarProduced = MvarUsed

or when:

V2 2
= I «X L
XC

When a transmission line is loaded below its SIL, the line is equivalent to a
capacitor. The line provides Mvar to the power system. When a transmission line
is loaded above its SIL, the line is equivalent to a reactor. The line absorbs Mvar
from the system.

Much can be inferred about voltage levels across a transmission line if the SIL of
the line is known. When a line is loaded below its SIL, the high voltage point on
the line is toward the middle of the line. When a line is loaded at its SIL the line
voltage profile is almost flat. When a line is loaded above its SIL the low voltage
point is in the middle of the line. Figure 5-8 illustrates these points. The vertical
dashed lines in Figure 5-8 represent voltage levels across a simple transmission
system when the line is below, at, and above its SIL.

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Note that this figure

assumes the VS and
VR buses are similar
strength.

Figure 5-8. Illustration of Surge Impedance Loading

Unscheduled Power Flows

Many NERC Unscheduled power flows may contribute to voltage drops. Power flow divides
systems arrange to
compensate their
according to the relative impedance of the available paths. Utility “X” may
members when operate a transmission path and have no power currently scheduled to flow across
unscheduled power the path. However, other companies may be scheduling power across other
flows negatively transmission paths in such a manner that their schedules heavily load Utility “X”
impact the transmission. These unscheduled flows may lead to significant reactive loses and
member’s system.
voltage drops for Utility “X”.
Figure 5-9 illustrates the concept of unscheduled flow. Assume that a power
schedule of 100 MW sources in the generation area and sinks in the load area.
Assume the transmission service for this power schedule is on path “A”. When
the generation is raised 100 MW some of the power flows on the scheduled path
“A” but some power also flows on the unscheduled path “B”. The MW that flows
on the unscheduled path is called unscheduled flow. Two other terms are also
used for unscheduled flow; loop flow and parallel flow.

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Figure 5-9. Concept of Unscheduled flow

Introduction to Power-Voltage Curves

A method of illustrating how voltages decrease as MW transfers increase is the
power-voltage curve or P-V curve. A P-V curve is illustrated in Figure 5-10. The
curve is best introduced for a simple radial power system such as was provided in
Figure 5-5. A P-V curve illustrates that as MW transfer across the transmission
system is increased, the voltage at the receiving substation gradually declines.
This is due to the increased Mvar losses in the system.
Note on Figure 5-10 that if the MW transfer is continually increased the system
voltages enter a period of rapid decline and can eventually collapse. The point of
voltage collapse is the point at which the system runs out of usable reactive
reserves.

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Chapter 6 “Voltage
Stability” addresses
the use of P-V
curves in greater
detail.

Figure 5-10. Introduction to the P-V Curve

5.2.3 Transmission Line Outages

A transmission line may trip leading to increased loading on parallel lines and
subsequent lower voltages. This is due to increased active and reactive power
losses. The increase in Mvar losses is typically more evident than the increase in
MW losses.
Figures 5-11 and 5-12 illustrate how the loss of a major transmission line can lead
to a large increase in Mvar losses and voltage drops. Figure 5-11 is a simple
power system with two 345 kV lines. To maintain voltages in this system the
generator is producing 148 Mvar. The system is also absorbing 312 Mvar from a
strong neighboring bus (labeled the infinite system). The box in the lower left of
Figure 5-11 lists loss data and Mvar production data. The MW losses are 28, the
Mvar losses 465. Note the total Mvar generation is 460 while the two 345 kV
transmission lines’ natural charging contributes 355 Mvar.
In Figure 5-12, one of the two 345 kV transmission lines trip. The power flows
must readjust following the line trip. The remaining line is now heavily loaded
and active and reactive power losses sharply increase.
The box in the lower left corner of Figure 5-12 again lists loss and reactive
production data. The MW losses have increased to 85, the Mvar losses to 1309.
Note the total Mvar generation is now 1484 while the line charging has been
reduced to 175 Mvar. The net increase in reactive power injection to this system
was 1024 Mvar. Voltages in this system did not decline significantly due to the
availability of 1024 Mvar of additional reactive power. If this additional reactive
power had not been available the simple power system would likely have
collapsed due to this outage.

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Figure 5-11. Reactive Power & Line Outages – Normal System

An indication of just
how heavily loaded
the remaining line is
can be seen in the
line’s power angle.
Note the angle
spread across the
transmission path
has increased from
26° in Figure 5-11
to 68° in Figure 5-
12.

Figure 5-12. Reactive Power & Line Outages – Line Outage

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5.2.4 Reactive Equipment Outages

Generators are the primary means of controlling power system voltages. If a
generator trips, a portion of the most important source for controlling voltage is
lost. Not only is the generator’s reactive power supply lost, but the forced
rearrangement of the system’s generation may lead to further voltage drops as
power flow increases over parallel high impedance lines. Loss of reactive power
sources other than generators (such as capacitor banks or static var compensators)
also reduces the ability of a system to control voltage.

5.2.5 Failure to Get Ahead of the Voltage

The term “shunt” In addition to the complete loss of a capacitor bank, the Mvar output capability of
refers to the method capacitor banks is reduced as voltages drop. A shunt capacitor bank’s reactive
of connecting the
capacitor to the
output varies with the square of the voltage the capacitor is energized at. If
system. Capacitor system voltage drops to 90% of nominal, a shunt capacitor bank is good for only
banks installed for 81% (0.9 x 0.9) of rated output. Figure 5-13 illustrates the relationship between a
voltage control 138 kV, 50 Mvar shunt capacitor bank’s Mvar output and system voltage levels.
purposes are System operators should place shunt capacitor banks in-service before system
connected in shunt.
This concept will be
voltage falls significantly. This avoids a reduced shunt capacitor Mvar output.
described in greater The expression “get ahead of the voltage” emphasizes the need to put shunt
detail in Section capacitors in-service before system voltage drops significantly.
5.6.1.
To calculate the actual Mvar produced by a shunt capacitor use the following
formula:

2
⎡V ⎤
MvarActual = MvarRated x ⎢ ACTUAL ⎥
⎣ VRATED ⎦

This formula states that the Mvar output of a shunt capacitor is equal to its
nameplate or rated value times the square of the per-unit voltage at which the
capacitor is energized. As an example, if a 100 Mvar capacitor (rated 100 Mvar
at 345 kV) is energized at 362 kV the capacitor output is:

2
⎡ 362 ⎤
MvarActual =100 x ⎢ ⎥ =110 Mvar
⎣ 345 ⎦

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Figure 5-13. 138 kV Shunt Capacitor Bank Output

5.2.6 Motor Stalling

The behavior of the customer’s load can cause low voltages. Induction motor
load is especially troublesome. Customers may place induction motors in-service
that require large amounts of Mvar (commonly called in-rush current) to start.
The in-rush current period does not last long (a few seconds) but the reactive
burden on the system is large. When large motors are started, the in-rush can drag
down an entire feeder’s voltage. Induction motors are designed to operate
roughly between 90 and 110% of their rated voltage. If the system voltage Chapter 6 “Voltage
Stability addresses
declines to values below 70-80% of rated there is a chance that the motors could induction motor
slow down or stall. Stalled motors may naturally try to regain speed as the system stalling in greater
voltage attempts to recover. If enough motors have stalled, their combined detail.
reactive power draw could prevent a system voltage recovery.
5.3 Causes of High Voltage
As stated earlier, voltage levels are directly tied to the availability of reactive By reactive
power. If adequate reactive power resources exist in the areas where the Mvar is resources we mean
equipment to both
needed, system voltages can be controlled. If there is a deficiency of reactive supply and absorb
power, voltage levels drop, and if there is an excess of reactive power, voltage reactive power.
levels rise. This section describes several common causes of high voltage.
While the root cause of high voltages is an excess of reactive power, the means by
which high voltages occur varies across a wide spectrum. This section first
defines three time frames for high voltages and then describes several types
within each time frame.

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5.3.1 Overvoltage Time Frames

Excessively high voltages - or overvoltages - on the power system can be more
dangerous than low voltages as high voltage can easily damage expensive power
system equipment, such as generators, transformers, or customer equipment.
There are three general time frames for overvoltage: long term, short term and
transient.
Î Long term overvoltages develop and exist over substantial periods of
time, from several minutes to several hours. Long term overvoltages will
typically exceed scheduled voltages by 5 to 10% but could be higher.
Î Short term overvoltages are typically greater in magnitude than long term
overvoltages. A short term overvoltage can easily exceed 200% of a
scheduled value. Short term overvoltages may last several seconds.
Î Transient overvoltages are extreme examples of short term overvoltages.
Transient overvoltages can reach very high magnitudes (10 times
nominal), however, they last only a very short period of time. A typical
transient overvoltage (TOV) will last a fraction of a cycle.

High Voltage Type Time Frame Magnitude

Long Term Minutes to Hours 5 to 10% High
Short Term Seconds >100% High
Transient Cycles Up to 10 Times Normal
Figure 5-14. High Voltage Types

5.3.2 Long Term Overvoltages

Light Power Transfers

System load or power transfer can in some conditions be very light, for instance,
during the late evening / early morning hours. The light loading condition often
leads to excessive reactive power supply. Overvoltage due to light loading is a
recurring problem. During the light load periods of the year off-peak hours may
experience sustained overvoltage. System operator action is often required.
The excessive supply of reactive power during light system loads is usually due to
the capacitive nature of transmission lines while lightly loaded. Those power
systems with an abundance of long, extra high voltage transmission (for example
345 kV & 500 kV) experience the greatest problems with high voltages during
light loads.

Reactive Equipment Outages

Power system equipment is lost, intentionally or forced, that normally helps to
reduce voltages. Equipment that is used to absorb Mvar, such as reactors or
generators, may be lost leading to excessive Mvar supply. The loss of a critical
element, such as a transformer, can lead to overvoltages. For example, assume a

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transformer is passing large amounts of Mvar from a 230 to a 115 kV system. If

the transformer is lost, 230 kV voltages may rise.

Ferranti Rise
The Ferranti rise effect is a long term overvoltage condition that is associated with
high voltage lines that have their receiving ends open. Overvoltages greater than
10% above nominal can easily occur. The magnitude of the overvoltage depends
on the length of the open-ended line and the strength of the system tied to the
closed-end of the line.
Figure 5-15 illustrates an open-ended high voltage transmission line. The voltage
at the closed or sending end is VClosed. The voltage at the open or receiving end is An open-ended
VOpen. Since the line is open there is no significant active (MW) power flow. line may still have
However, there is Mvar flow on the line. Recall that a transmission line is the a small MW flow
due to line losses.
equivalent of a shunt capacitor. When a line is open-ended the shunt capacitor
effect still exists.
The current flow on an open-ended line is that current needed to charge the line’s
natural shunt capacitance. In Figure 5-15, current flow is shown from the system
into the closed-end of the line. This current flow is charging the line’s natural
capacitance which is spread out over the entire length of the line. The current
flow into an open-ended line is called the “charging” current since this current is
charging the natural capacitance of the line.
Charging current is a “leading” reactive current flow. Normally when we think of
reactive current flow we think of lagging reactive current. For example, induction
motors draw lagging reactive current from the power system. When lagging
reactive current passes through a transmission line’s inductive reactance (X) it
results in a voltage drop.

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Circuit breaker “B”

at the end of the line
is open.

Figure 5-15. Charging Current Flowing into an Open-Ended Line

Leading reactive current behaves differently with respect to voltage. When
leading reactive current passes through the line’s inductive reactance it causes a
voltage rise. As the charging current flows into the closed-end of the line in
Figure 5-15 it causes a voltage rise from the closed-end to the open-end. The
highest voltage occurs at the open-end of the line. Figure 5-16 illustrates the
voltage profile for an open-ended line. Notice the voltage rise from the closed to
the open-end.

Figure 5-16. Voltage Profile Due to Ferranti Effect

The voltage rise from the closed to the open-end is not a linear rise. Notice in
Figure 5-16 that rate of voltage rise is steeper near the closed-end of the line than
at the open-end. This is due to the gradual decrease in charging current away
from the closed-end and toward the open-end of the line. There is more charging
current at the closed-end of the line so it results in a greater rate of voltage rise at

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the beginning of the line. By the time the charging current reaches the open-end
of the line there is not much capacitance left to charge and the rate of increase in
voltage is smaller.

Calculating the Amount of Ferranti Voltage Rise

The most important
If some simplifying assumptions are made, an easily applied equation for assumption in the
calculating the amount of Ferranti voltage rise for various lengths of high voltage development of this
line is developed. Figure 5-17 illustrates a simple equation, which is also equation is that the
repeated below: ratio of the line’s
inductive reactance
VClosed to its resistance is
VOpen =
( 8.61)
large. This means
cos L the equation only
applies to large
conductor lines
This equation states that the open-end voltage (VOpen) is equal to the closed end such as might be
voltage (VClosed) divided by a cosine term. The cosine term value is only used at 230 kV and
dependent on the length (“L” in miles) of the line. Figure 5-17 contains an greater. The
equation is also
example of the use of this equation. Assume we have a 200 mile long open-ended
applicable to only
line. If we work through the equation it tells us that this 200 mile long open- 60 HZ systems.
ended line will experience an 8.8% voltage rise from the closed to the open-end.
This 8.8% voltage rise applies no matter what the nominal voltage level of the
high voltage line. If we are dealing with a 200 mile long 230 kV line with a
closed-end voltage of 242 kV, the 8.8% voltage rise would mean the open-end
voltage is 263 kV. If we are dealing with a 200 mile long 345 kV line with a
closed-end voltage of 350 kV, the open-end voltage would be 381 kV.

This equation is
actually based on
traveling wave
theory. When the
line is open-ended a
standing wave
develops and the
open-end voltage
magnitude is a
function of the
length of the line.

Figure 5-17. Calculating the Ferranti Effect Voltage Rise

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Figure 5-18 was developed from the equation for the Ferranti voltage rise. This
figure plots the expected voltage rise from the closed to the open-end for various
lengths of line. The plot can be used to estimate the Ferranti effect for any length
high voltage line.

These magnitudes of
Ferranti rise
assume no series or
shunt compensation
is in use.

Figure 5-18. Ferranti Voltage Rise for Different Length Lines

Strength of the Closed-end Voltage

The Ferranti voltage rise is a rise in voltage from the closed-end to the open-end.
The highest voltage is at the open-end. If the closed-end voltage also rises, the
open-end voltage is even higher. For example, assume a 150 mile long 345 kV
line with an initial voltage of 348 kV at the closed-end. After opening the end of
the line the voltage rise from the closed to the open-end is 4.8% or 365 kV (348 x
1.048). However, if after opening the CB at the end of the line the closed-end
voltage rises 3%, then the voltage at the open-end is 376 kV (348 x 1.03 x 1.048).
Whether the closed-end voltage rises after opening the end of the line depends on
the strength of the power system attached to the closed-end. If the closed-end is
strongly connected to other buses and generators the voltage is not expected to
rise very much. However, if the closed-end is weakly connected to other buses
and remote from generators, the voltage may rise significantly during open-ended
conditions.
Engineers use Figure 5-19 illustrates the impact of a strong or weak closed-end. The generator
equivalents to and reactance to the left of the sending end bus in Figure 5-19 is referred to as an
simplify their study “equivalent” power system. If the closed-end bus in Figure 5-19 was a strong bus
of the power system.
An equivalent is a
the equivalent generator would be large (a strong voltage source) and the
simplified equivalent reactance small (low impedance system). If the closed-end bus were
representation of an weak, the equivalent generator would be small (a weak voltage source) and the
entire section of the reactance large (high impedance system).
system.
Once the line in Figure 5-19 is opened, the voltage at the closed-end bus adjusts
from its initial value to a value close to the equivalent system voltage, EEquivalent.
The equation below Figure 5-19 is used to calculate the magnitude of EEquivalent.
We will not get into any details concerning the use of this equation except to
make one important observation. The magnitude of the voltage EEQ strongly

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depends on how much Mvar (QS) is flowing from the equivalent system into the
closed-end bus prior to the line being open-ended. The greater the Mvar into the
closed-end bus prior to opening the receiving end, the higher the closed-end
voltage will rise.

PS and QS are the

MW and Mvar flows
prior to open-
ending the line.

Figure 5-19. Source End Voltage Rise

X Equivalent × Q s ⎡ X Equivalent × PS ⎤
E Equivalent = VClosed + + j⎢ ⎥
VClosed ⎢⎣ VClosed ⎥⎦

What this means from a practical standpoint is that you should always be
concerned about open-ending a line. However, when open-ending a high voltage
line that depended heavily on reactive support from the closed-end, you should be
even more concerned. This type of situation occurs if there is a long thin system
feeding a remote load, and a line that forms part of this system is open-ended.

5.3.3 Short Term Overvoltages

Generator Load Rejection and Self-Excitation

The sudden loss of a major load can lead to short-term excessive generator
production of active and reactive power. This may cause both system voltage and
generator overspeed problems. The loss of load may be due to the loss of
transmission service to a load, to loss of a major tie-line with another system, or
to the operation of a load shedding plan. It does not matter what caused the loss
of load or the “load rejection”. The generator could overspeed and induce
overvoltages until its control systems can match the generator’s output to the new
system load. This is classified as a short term overvoltage because the generator
has the capability of controlling the system voltages within several seconds of the
loss of load.
A severe variation on the load rejection theme described above is when the
generator is isolated on a long transmission line. Figure 5-20 illustrates a possible
scenario. Assume system events are such that a remote generator ends up tied to A rule-of-thumb of
¾ Mvar per mile is
one 200-mile long 345 kV transmission line as illustrated in Figure 5-20. If this
used.
line should open-end, the generator is tied to the equivalent of a 150 Mvar shunt
capacitor.

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Figure 5-20. Self-Excitation of a Generator

The generator’s excitation system was initially providing field current to hold a
scheduled high-side generator bus voltage. Once the 345 kV line open-ended no
MW load was tied to the generator. The generator’s bus voltage therefore raises
sharply once the line open-ends. The generator’s excitation system rapidly
attempts to reduce the high side voltage by absorbing Mvar from the system.
The reactive Assume the generator is capable of absorbing 100 Mvar. Once the generator
capability of reaches its reactive power absorbing limit there will still be substantial reactive
generators is
addressed in power available from the open-ended line. This excess reactive power appears to
Section 5.6.3. the field winding of the generator to be additional DC field current.
The excess DC field current takes over as the excitation source of the generator.
This material
addresses self- The generator could lose control of excitation and its voltage could rise. As the
excitation from a generator voltage rises, the open-ended transmission line voltage rises. The Mvar
practical approach. of charging supplied by the open-ended line is a function of voltage (recall the
The basic theory for voltage squared relationship.) The increase in line charging further excites the
self-excitation is generator. A runaway condition develops. Possible results of this self-excitation
that of a resonance
condition between include overvoltage damage to the generator and to its step-up transformer.
the generator and A further complication to the self-excitation phenomena is the overspeed of the
the system to which
it is attached. generator. Once the MW load attached to the generator is interrupted the
Resonance is generator’s MW production is automatically stored as additional rotational
described in energy. This results in an overspeed of the generator.
Chapter 9.
The capacitive effect of a transmission line is dependent on system frequency.
The greater the frequency the more Mvar a line naturally produces. The
overspeed of the generator leads to more Mvar production from the transmission
line and increases the likelihood of generator self-excitation.

Preventing Generator Self-Excitation

If the generator’s Mvar absorption capability had been greater than the Mvar
production of the open-ended transmission line self-excitation would not have
occurred. To prevent generator self-excitation always ensure that a generator has
the ability to absorb whatever Mvar may be available at its terminals. To be safe,
further ensure there is a large margin of safety. For example, one western utility

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with self-excitation possibilities has an operating order that no generator may be

connected to a transmission system (that has the possibility of open-ending)
unless that generator can at least absorb twice the nominal charging of the
transmission system.
Note in Figure 5-20 that the shunt reactor attached to the load end of the system
was out-of-service. If this shunt reactor had been in-service it would have
absorbed some of the available reactive power. This reduction in the available
reactive power may have been enough to avoid self-excitation.

Harmonic Overvoltages
Harmonic overvoltages (illustrated in Figure 5-21) are caused by the interaction Harmonic over-
voltages are
of capacitive and inductive elements, and sources of harmonics. The circuit of introduced here.
Figure 5-21 is typical of the circumstances that can cause harmonic overvoltages. Chapter 9 provides
The “L” and “R” of the transformer and the “C” of the capacitor form a natural greater detail.
“RLC” circuit that “resonates” or oscillates at a certain frequency value. If the
harmonics generated by the HVDC converter have a frequency close to this
resonant frequency high magnitudes of current could pass back and forth between
the capacitor and transformer. These high currents could produce voltages high
enough to damage the transformer or shunt capacitor.
Figure 5-21 follows on the next page.

Figure 5-21. Harmonic Overvoltages

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Figure 5-22 contains an additional illustration of harmonic overvoltages. The

circuit breaker at bus “A” is used to energize a line/transformer combination.
When the transformer and line are energized a possibility exists that a resonant
condition could develop. The resonance develops due to the combination of
capacitance and inductance in the circuit.
Figure 5-22 follows on the next page.

Figure 5-22. Energizing a Line-Transformer Combination

The voltage diagram in the bottom of Figure 5-22 illustrates what can happen to
the system voltage. Initially the system voltage (measured at the bus “A” breaker)
is 100% of nominal. After the bus “A” breaker is closed a 180 HZ harmonic
voltage exists in combination with the 60 HZ system voltage. The combination of
the harmonic voltage (180 HZ or the 3RD harmonic) and the 60 HZ voltage
exposes the transformer to twice its nominal voltage rating.

5.3.4 Transient Overvoltages

Lightning Overvoltages
Lightning strikes lead to transient overvoltages. This is one reason for installing
surge or lightning arresters, to arrest or trap the high voltage surge caused by
lightning strikes to a transmission line or substation. Lightning strikes are a very
rapid event. A typical lightning strike may last less than 0.00005 seconds.
However, a lightning strike packs a large amount of energy in this short period.
Transient overvoltages may be in the millions of volts.

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Switching Overvoltages
Power system switching also leads to transient overvoltages. Each time a circuit A switching surge is
breaker or disconnect switch is opened under load the power system experiences a a large change to
switching surge. It is not uncommon for lightning arresters to operate in system voltage that
substations during switching of high voltage breakers. These surges are very lasts only a fraction
of a cycle.
rapid, lasting only milliseconds, but may exceed 200% of the scheduled voltage.
A 500 kV breaker may initiate a switching surge of 1000 kV when first opened.

Capacitive Switching
Switching of capacitors or open-ended lines is especially susceptible to switching
surges. When switching a capacitive element, the circuit breaker (or other
switching device) could end up with opposite polarity voltages on either side of
the switch. This could lead to twice nominal voltage across the circuit breaker.
For example, a 500 kV breaker could end up attempting to interrupt near 1000 kV
if it is used to open a long unloaded 500 kV line. The voltage that appears across
the open switching device is called the “recovery voltage”. The higher the
recovery voltage across the open contacts, the greater the likelihood of a re-strike
occurring.
Figure 5-23 illustrates the opening of a capacitive load. When the circuit breaker
interrupts the capacitive current the voltage is at a maximum or minimum value
(minimum in Figure 5-23). One-half cycle after the circuit breaker opens, the
capacitor is still charged to a minimum value but the system voltage has reached a
maximum. The circuit breaker now has twice system voltage across it. The
probability of a re-strike has increased.

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When the circuit

breaker contacts
first separate an arc
is formed and then
extinguished. A re-
strike is a
resumption of the
arc.

Notice that the

circuit breaker does
not interrupt the
circuit until a
current zero. When
the current is zero
the voltage is at a
maximum in a
capacitive circuit.

Figure 5-23. Capacitive Switching

Successive re-strikes can compound the magnitude of the recovery voltage. For
example, if the circuit breaker in Figure 5-23 fails to withstand the recovery
voltage and re-strikes, the subsequent recovery voltage could reach 400% of the
nominal voltage. Power system designers consider the likelihood of switching
surges when choosing the interrupting capacity of circuit breakers and switches.
5.4 Effects of Low Voltages
Chapter 6 on Sustained low voltages can have substantial impact on the power system. This
Voltage Stability
addresses a
section addresses the impacts of low voltage on:
severe low Î Power System Equipment
voltage condition
called a voltage Î System Load Magnitude
collapse.
Î Angle Stability
Î Customer Equipment
Î Power Losses

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5.4.1 Effect of Low Voltage on System Equipment

The ability of a transformer to transform voltages is not affected by low power
system voltages. The transformer simply transforms the low voltage primary
value through the windings to a lower-than-scheduled secondary voltage value. If
the transformer is heavily loaded a sustained low voltage may result in a rise in
current flow through the transformer. This high current could lead to thermal
overloads of the transformer.
When transmission lines are exposed to low voltages the thermal capability of the
lines can be exceeded. Due to the high currents that may accompany low voltages
the transmission line MVA rating may need to be reduced during sustained low
voltage periods. Thermal damage to the conductor could occur if no adjustments
in the line’s MVA loading capability are made.

5.4.2 Effect of Low Voltage on Load Magnitude

Utilities sometimes
When customer voltage falls, the overall power system load magnitude normally take advantage of
falls. There are two general types of customer load; motor load and non-motor the dependence of
load magnitude on
load. voltage. For
Motor load does not significantly vary with the voltage magnitude. As long as the example, during an
energy emergency a
voltage is within the normal operating range of the motor (approximately 90% to company that serves
110% of rated voltage), the connected motor load magnitude does not drop load may
significantly when the voltage drops. As voltage decreases, current increases to intentionally lower
keep a relatively constant MW load. voltage (called
brown outs) to
Non-motor load magnitude varies with the voltage. There are two general reduce customer
classifications of non-motor load - constant current and constant impedance. load magnitude.
Constant current load varies directly with the voltage while constant impedance
loads, such as electric heaters, varies with the square of the voltage. Studies of
load magnitudes have shown that on average the power drawn by non-motor loads
decreases by approximately 6% if the voltage decreases by 5%.
We conclude that the effect of voltage upon the connected load magnitude is
dependent upon the nature of the load. If the load is predominantly induction
motor, a typical voltage deviation has little impact. If the load is predominantly
non-motor, such as resistive heating, a voltage deviation could have a large
impact. An approximate rule of thumb is that for a typical mix of motor and non-
motor load, the total MW drawn decreases by 3% if the customer’s voltage
decreases by 5%. This is only a rule of thumb; the actual amount of load
magnitude change depends on the relative mix of motor and non-motor load.
Figure 5-24 graphically illustrates the effect of voltage on the connected load
magnitude.

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A rule of thumb is
that a 5% reduction
in the customer’s
voltage will result in
approximately a 3%
reduction in the
customer’s load
magnitude.

Figure 5-24. Effect of Voltage on Load Magnitude

Effect of Time on Load Magnitude Change

There is little doubt that the magnitude of the voltage impacts the load magnitude.
However, there is doubt as to how long this magnitude change actually lasts.
The recovery over Figure 5-25 is a plot of a load magnitude change following an intentional 4.5%
time of the load voltage reduction on a 69 kV feeder circuit.
magnitude is due to
a “loss of load Note that both the MW and Mvar load drop sharply when the feeder voltage is
diversity”. Loads reduced. However, after several minutes the MW load is almost fully restored
that normally cycle while the Mvar load is about half restored. This test was performed in the winter
during a time period in an area with substantial non-motor load. A large chunk of the load was heating
are all on at the load. With a voltage reduction, the heating load initially reduced but after a few
same time due to the
voltage reduction.
minutes more heaters are on at the same time (due to thermostatic control), and
the load magnitude begins to recover.

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Figure 5-25. Effect of Voltage on Load Magnitude

Load Magnitude Equations

Several EPRI sponsored research projects have dealt with the impact of voltage
on load magnitude. The equations and data given in Figure 5-26 are derived from
reports for several of these research projects.
There are two equations provided below Figure 5-26. One equation is for the
MW load (PNEW) and the other for the Mvar load (QNEW). Both equations are
used to estimate a new load magnitude based on deviations from nominal voltage
and frequency (recall that load magnitude is also dependent on frequency). For
example, assume the initial load magnitude was 100 MW and 20 Mvar. These
equations could be used to estimate what the new load magnitude would be if the
voltage fell 5% and the frequency rose 1%.
The main part of Figure 5-26 is a table of numbers for many different types of
load. Next to each type of load is a horizontal listing of a series of numbers.
These numbers are used in the two equations (described above) for estimating
how each of the different types of loads varies following changes to voltage and
frequency.

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Figure 5-26. EPRI Load Magnitude Equations

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PV Pf
⎡V ⎤ ⎡f ⎤
PNew = PRated × ⎢ Actual ⎥ × ⎢ Actual ⎥
⎣ VRated ⎦ ⎣ f Rated ⎦

QV Qf
⎡V ⎤ ⎡f ⎤
Q New = Q Rated × ⎢ Actual ⎥ × ⎢ Actual ⎥
⎣ VRated ⎦ ⎣ f Rated ⎦

The first column in the table describes the load type. For example, “resistive
space heater” and “heat pump space heating” are the first two load types. The
second column labeled “PF” is a typical power factor for that particular load. For
example, a resistive space heater typically has a unity (1.0) power factor.
The third column is labeled “PV”. The PV value predicts how that particular
load’s MW magnitude varies with a change in service voltage. The greater the
positive magnitude of PV the more that load’s MW magnitude decreases as its
service voltage decreases. The fourth column is labeled “Pf”. Pf predicts how the
MW load magnitude varies with frequency. The fifth column is QV and the sixth
Qf. QV predicts how the Mvar load magnitude varies with voltage and Qf predicts
how the Mvar load magnitude varies with frequency. Note that if any of the four
load coefficients (PV, Pf, QV, Qf) is negative then a drop in voltage or frequency
leads to a rise in MW or Mvar load magnitude.
The best way to illustrate the use of these load magnitude equations is to step
through a few simple examples.

Load Magnitude Equations Example #1

Our first use of the load magnitude equations is to estimate the load change if a The frequency is not
central air conditioning type load (nominal value 100 MW and 60 Mvar) is changed from its
nominal value of 60
subjected to a 10% sustained voltage drop. Assume the initial voltage was 100%
HZ to keep this
of its nominal value. example simple.
Figure 5-27 illustrates the use of the load magnitude equations. Note the terms PV
and QV. These two terms are used to make the load equations specific to a central
air conditioner type load. The values for PV and QV are taken directly from the
table in Figure 5-26. Simply find the row in Figure 5-26 (4th from the top) for a
central air conditioner and read off the values of PV (0.2) and QV (2.2).

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Central Air Conditioner Voltage Drops to 90% Normal

For a Typical Central Air Conditioner Load if Voltage Drops 10% the MW
Load Drops 2.1% While the Mvar Load Drops 21%.
Figure 5-27. Central Air Conditioner Type Load
The new load magnitude as a result of a 10% reduction in voltage is 97.9 MW and
47.5 Mvar. Our conclusion is that the 10% voltage reduction has little impact on
the MW load but a strong impact on the Mvar load. This is expected since an air
conditioner load is predominantly a motor type load and we would not expect
voltage to impact its MW magnitude that strongly.

Load Magnitude Equations Example #2

Note that the
resistive space Our second use of the load magnitude equations (Figure 5-28) is to estimate the
heater type load has load change if a resistive space heater type load (initial value 100 MW and 0
a unity power Mvar) is subjected to a 10% sustained voltage drop.
factor.

Resistive Space Heater Voltage Drops to 90% Normal

For a Typical Resistive Space Heater Load if Voltage Drops 10% the MW
Load Drops 19% While the Mvar Load Does Not Change.
Figure 5-28. Resistive Space Heater Type Load
The new load magnitude as a result of a 10% reduction in voltage is 81 MW and 0
Mvar. Our conclusion is that the 10% voltage reduction has a strong impact on
the MW load and no impact on the Mvar load. This is expected since resistive
type load magnitude varies with the voltage squared. If the voltage drops to 90%
of nominal the load magnitude will drop to 81% (0.9 x 0.9) of nominal.

Voltage, Frequency and Load Magnitude

Remember these are
approximate rules Both voltage and frequency impact load magnitude. Two rules of thumb have
of thumb. Your been presented so far in this text:
particular system
likely behaves Î A 1% change in customer frequency leads to approximately a 2% change
differently. in total customer load magnitude.

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Î A 5% change in customer voltage leads to approximately a 3% change in

total customer load magnitude.
Recall our description of system inertia in Chapter 4. In a large power system,
large changes to system frequency (such as 1%) are highly unlikely. It follows
that the greatest impact on system load magnitude likely comes from voltage
changes. Figure 5-29 illustrates this point. This figure is based on data from a
disturbance several years ago. Note the voltage decay is more rapid and reaches a
greater magnitude than the frequency decay. The impact of voltage on load
magnitude exceeded the impact of frequency on load magnitude during this
disturbance. This is typical during power system disturbances.

Figure 5-29. Voltage and Frequency Decay

5.4.3 Effect of Low Voltage on Angle Stability

Recall the active power transfer equation first presented in Chapter 3. This
equation is repeated below:

⎡ V × VR ⎤
PTRANSFER = ⎢ S ⎥ sin δ S − R
⎣ XS−R ⎦

Note the dependence of MW transfer on the voltage magnitude of the sending

(VS) and receiving (VR) buses. If either of these bus voltages falls the power System (angle)
angle (δ) must increase to maintain the same MW transfer. If the voltage stability is
addressed in
magnitudes fall far enough the system could lose synchronism. From a system Chapter 7.
stability perspective, the lower that system voltages are held, the greater the risk
of instability.

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5.4.4 Effect of Low Voltage on Customer Equipment

Low voltage can seriously impact utility customers. The impacts range from
minor irritations such as reduced light bulb brightness to industrial process
interruptions with outage costs exceeding thousands of dollars per minute.
This section addresses only one area of customer load, namely the impact on
motor loads. Previous sections described how voltage magnitude does not
Many motors have significantly affect motor load magnitude as long as the voltage stays within the
undervoltage drop- rated operating range of the motor. What concerns us now is what happens if the
out circuits that trip voltage falls below 90% of the nominal voltage, for example to 70% of nominal?
the motor if the
What could happen is that the motor may stall. Stalling means the motor slows
voltage falls too
low. below its rated speed and may even stop spinning completely.
When induction motors are first started the motor draws large amounts of reactive
power from the system. This initial reactive power draw is called the “in-rush”
and may cause an initial motor current of 8 to 10 times the normal full load
current. The reactive in-rush causes short term (a few seconds) low voltages
depending on the strength of the feeder used to start the motor.

Chapter 6 on Once motors stall due to exposure to low voltages, the motor may try to recover
Voltage Stability speed automatically as system voltages recover. To recover speed the motor
examines the impact draws large amounts of Mvar in the same manner as when it was first started.
of motor stalling on The combined reactive power needs of many motors trying to recover from a
system voltage in
stalled condition could prevent system voltage recovery. Eventually an entire
greater detail.
power system could collapse.

5.4.5 Effect of Low Voltage on Power Losses

Simple Equations for Power Losses

Recall that there are two types of power losses; active and reactive power losses.
Active and reactive power losses can collectively be called the MVA loss. Recall
from basic AC theory that the equation for 3Φ power (in MVA) is:

S3φ =3x I *x V

This is the same equation used to calculate the MVA losses in a power system.
The “I*” term is the phase current in the circuit while the “V” term is the line-to-
ground voltage drop across the element. To make our study of the effect of low
voltage on power system losses clearer this MVA loss equation is broken down
into two separate equations - one for the active power (MW) losses and one for
the reactive power (Mvar) losses.
Ohm’s law states that the voltage is equal to the product of the current and the
impedance (V = I x Z). It follows then that the MVA loss is also equal to:

S3φ = 3x I *x (I x Z) = 3 × I 2 × Z = MVA LOSS

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“Z” is the series impedance of the power system. As you recall, the series
impedance is composed of the inductive reactance (X) and the resistance (R). If
the resistance and reactance is substituted for the impedance two simple equations
for power loss are derived as stated below:

PLOSS = 3 × I 2 × R = MWLOSS

Q USAGE = 3 × I 2 × X = MvarUSAGE

Note the dependence of both losses on the current magnitude. If the current
magnitude is increased both types of losses increase. If the current magnitude is
decreased both types of losses decrease.

Minimizing Power Losses Impedance also

strongly impacts
To minimize power losses in the system, minimize the current flow. It follows loss magnitude. We
from Ohm’s Law that you can reduce the current by maximizing the voltage. The are assuming
higher the system voltage, the lower the current flow for a given power delivery. impedance stays
A transmission operating company can reduce its losses by building a higher constant in this
analysis.
voltage system or by operating their existing system with higher voltages. For
example, compare the losses on two identical 345 kV systems. One system is
Not only will
operated with all voltages at 345 kV and the other with all voltages 5% lower at reactive power
328 kV. If the same power transfer occurs on both systems, the higher voltage losses increase
system incurs a minimum of 10% fewer 345 kV system losses. when voltage is low
but the transmission
System operators can have a substantial impact on power system losses. Many system’s natural
utilities have implemented extensive loss reduction programs. A central feature Mvar production
of most of these programs is for system operators to hold system voltages as high also decreases. Both
as practical to minimize current and thus minimize losses. factors work to
reduce the available
5.5 Effects of High Voltages reactive power
reserve.
5.5.1 General Effects of High Voltages
High voltage limits protect power system equipment (both customer and system)
from exposure to voltage levels that exceed the insulating and/or operating
capability of the equipment. High voltage can cause system equipment (for
example, a circuit breaker) insulation to fail resulting in internal flashovers. The
equipment may then have to be removed from service, possibly leading to
customer outages and high repair costs.
Under high voltage conditions that exceed the insulation capability of system
equipment, a fault can begin as a small leakage current. This current would pass
through the insulation to a grounded portion of the equipment that it insulates.
The leakage current would gradually increase as the insulation slowly deteriorates
until the insulation completely fails and a solid fault occurs.
While high voltages typically have some negative impact on the power system,
many of these consequences have little effect on system operation. For example,

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transmission lines can withstand long term high voltages if the magnitude does
not lead to insulator flash-over. Major areas of high voltage impact include:
Î Transformers
Î Customer Equipment
Î System Load Magnitude
Î Angle Stability
Î Power Losses

5.5.2 Effect of High Voltage on Power Transformers

Transformer Saturation
Transformers are very susceptible to damage from sustained high voltages.
Transformers operate based upon the principle of electro-magnetic induction.
Recall from Chapter 2 that a voltage is induced in one of the transformer’s
windings via an alternating magnetic field that links this winding to the
transformer’s other energized windings.
A transformer is an inductive load as it draws reactive power from the power
system to support its magnetic field. The magnetic field is required to transfer
active power between the windings. A transformer is designed to operate at a
rated voltage level. This rated voltage level is directly related to the strength of
the magnetic field in the core of the transformer. If the transformer’s rated
voltage level is substantially exceeded (greater than 10-20%) the transformer
draws additional Mvar from the system to support a spread of the transformer’s
magnetic field. The magnetic field spreads out from the core of the transformer to
areas that are not designed for changing magnetic fields. This could lead to
excessive heating in parts of the transformer and eventually may lead to
transformer failure.
Figure 5-30 illustrates the relationship between the operating voltage of a
transformer and the excitation current it draws to magnetize its core. Note that
when the transformer is operated near its rated voltage the excitation current is
small. As voltage is increased above rated the excitation current rapidly
increases. This excitation current is a reactive current. By noting the rapid
increase in excitation current in Figure 5-30 one can see why the reactive needs of
a transformer rise sharply when it is operated at too high a voltage.

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Figure 5-30. Transformer Saturation Curve

The process in which the magnetic field of a transformer spreads from the core is
called “saturation”. When a transformer is saturated, the power losses
dramatically increase and can lead to thermal damage and eventual transformer
failure.

Transformer Over-Excitation
A transformer can saturate even when the operating voltage is near its rated value.
Transformer saturation is a function of both the operating voltage and the
operating frequency since both voltage and frequency impact the magnetic field
strength. If the voltage is high, the transformer core is subjected to a sustained
high magnitude voltage which increases its magnetic field strength. If the
frequency is low, the transformer is subjected to longer periods of the AC voltage
peak magnitude which also increases the magnetic field strength.
Transformer over-
The ratio of the operating voltage to the operating frequency is called the excitation and
transformers “% excitation”. Figure 5-31 is a plot of % excitation versus time of saturation is treated
exposure. For example, Figure 5-31 tells us that a transformer can be exposed to in greater detail in
a 20% “over-excitation” for less than 2 minutes before probable failure. The data the solar magnetic
disturbances section
in Figure 5-31 is for a typical transformer. (Remember, no transformer is of Chapter 9.
typical!) Note that for this typical transformer, a 10% over-excitation can be
handled indefinitely.

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Power plant
transformers are
often protected with
over-excitation
relays. These relays
look at the ratio of
voltage to
frequency. This type
of protection is used
in power plants
since both high
voltage and low
frequency operation
is possible,
especially during
start-up of the
generator.
Figure 5-31. Transformer Over-Excitation

5.5.3 Effect of High Voltage on Load Magnitude

As stated earlier (and illustrated in Figure 5-24) for low voltages, load magnitude
varies with the voltage level. When voltages are high, the overall system load
magnitude rises. Non-motor load is most impacted by voltage. In a typical
distribution system, if voltages rise to 105% of normal, the total system load
magnitude increases by 3%.

5.5.4 Effect of High Voltage on Angle Stability

The simple equation for active power transfer is repeated below:

⎡ V × VR ⎤
PTRANSFER = ⎢ S ⎥ × sin δ S− R
⎣ X S− R ⎦

Note the dependence of MW transfer on the voltage magnitude of the sending

(VS) and receiving (VR) buses. If either of these bus voltages rise, the power
angle (δ) can be decreased and still maintain the same active power transfer. The
greater the system voltage, the more MW can be transferred at the same angle
spread. High voltages (within operating limits) assist with power system angle
stability.

5.5.5 Effect of High Voltage on Customer Equipment

High voltages can damage customer equipment. Motor load is highly susceptible
to high voltages. Motor insulation is designed to withstand specific voltage
levels. If these voltage levels are exceeded the insulation may fail. Typically
motors are designed to safely operate with voltages 10% above rated.

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Information technology equipment manufacturing type load is susceptible to

damage from high voltages. Information technology industry equipment
manufacturers are paying increased attention to their equipments exposure to
voltage deviations. The degree of that exposure is illustrated in Figure 5-32. The
data in Figure 5-32 is based on actual measurements of voltage deviations at
information technology industry manufacturing sites throughout North America.
An organization called ITIC (Information Technology Industry Council) created
this curve based on their member companies input.
The thick lines in the figure are voltage limits. As long as voltages stay within
these limits, the typical electronic manufacturing process is not susceptible to
damage or shutdown. If voltages stray outside these limits damage is possible.
Figure 5-32 illustrates that not only is the magnitude of the voltage deviation
important but also how long the voltage deviation lasts. For example, a -30%
voltage deviation can be tolerated if it lasts less than 20 msec (.020) seconds.

Figure 5-32. Information Technology Industry Equipment Voltage

Limits

5.5.6 Effect of High Voltage on Power Losses

In Section 5.4.5 two equations for active and reactive power losses were
developed. These equations are repeated below:

PLOSS =3 × I 2 × R = MWLOSS QUSAGE =3 × I 2 × X = MvarUSAGE

Note the dependence of both types of losses on the square of the current. If the
current can be reduced both active and reactive losses can be reduced by the
square of the current reduction. For example, if current can be reduced to 95% of
its initial value then power losses can be reduced to 90% (0.95 x 0.95) of their
initial value.

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There are obviously

The fundamental equation for determining power (PFLOW = I x V) tells us that to
limits as to how reduce the current it is necessary to increase the voltage. By increasing system
high the system voltage power losses will be reduced. This is not a recommendation that all
voltage can be system operators should raise their system voltage levels as far as they possibly
raised before system can. What is recommended is that during normal operations power systems
equipment is
damaged.
should be operated towards the upper end of their allowable voltage range.
5.6 Use of Voltage Control Equipment
This section reviews the purpose and operation of equipment used to control
system voltage and describes how a system operator makes use of this equipment.

5.6.1 Use of Capacitors and Reactors

The primary sources of voltage control are the system generators. Capacitors and
reactors are an alternate, versatile method of voltage control. Capacitors and
reactors are not as expensive as generators, and are easier to construct and locate
in the power system. Capacitors and reactors can be designed to be a permanent
part of the system (fixed, not switchable) or be switched in and out-of-service via
circuit breakers or circuit switchers.

Capacitors
Capacitors are viewed as sources of reactive power. Capacitors can be connected
to the power system in either a shunt or series connection. Shunt capacitors are
used to supply reactive power to the system. Series capacitors are used to reduce
the impedance of the path in which they are inserted.

Shunt Capacitors
Shunt capacitors are a source of Mvar that are installed in close proximity to the
point at which the extra Mvar is needed. When a shunt capacitor is switched in
the local voltage rises. Shunt capacitor switching is often used to control normal
daily fluctuations in system voltage levels due to load changes. Shunt capacitors
are connected to the power system as illustrated in the bottom of Figure 5-33.
When the shunt capacitor is in-service it effectively serves as a source of reactive
power. System voltages typically rise as the current draw from other reactive
sources is reduced.

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Figure 5-33. Shunt and Series Capacitors

Shunt capacitors are installed in various power system locations including:
Î Transmission substations to help supply the reactive power needs of the
bulk power system.
Î Distribution substations and large customer locations to supply the
reactive power needs of the customer loads.

Voltage Squared Output Relationship

As stated earlier in this chapter, the Mvar output of a shunt capacitor bank is
dependent on the voltage it is energized at. For example, if a 25 Mvar shunt
capacitor normally rated at 115 kV is operated at a 5% low voltage (109 kV) the
output of the capacitor is 90% (0.95 x 0.95) of rated, or 22.5 Mvar.

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Series capacitors Series Capacitors

are rare in the
Eastern Series capacitors are installed in transmission lines to reduce the line’s natural
Interconnection inductive reactance. The reactance of a series capacitor is 180° out-of-phase with
with only a few a transmission line’s natural inductive reactance (XL). The series capacitor
installations.
Series capacitors reactance subtracts from the line’s inductive reactance, reducing the overall line
are relatively reactance.
common in the
Western If the line’s inductive reactance is reduced, its power transfer capability can be
Interconnection increased. Series capacitors increase the power transfer capability of the
where load centers transmission system. The top portion of Figure 5-33 illustrates the connection of
and generators are a series capacitor in a transmission line.
typically farther
apart.
Percent Series Compensation
Figure 5-34 illustrates the impact of a series capacitor on a transmission line’s
impedance. Assume this figure is for a 100 mile long 345 kV line. The line’s
resistance (R) is 6 Ωs and its inductive reactance (XL) is 60 Ωs. A series
capacitor rated at 30 Ωs (XC) is installed in the line as illustrated in the middle of
Figure 5-34. The combination of a 60 Ω inductive reactance with a 30 Ω series
capacitance yields an effective line reactance of 30 Ωs.

There are limits to

the amount of series
compensation used.
A typical limit might
be 70%. The limits Figure 5-34. Series Compensation
are related to
allowable voltage The series capacitor reactance and the line’s inductive reactance have subtracted
rise across the from one another. The bottom portion of Figure 5-34 illustrates the effective line
capacitor and the
possibility of
impedance. The power transfer across this line can now be increased (without
subsynchronous increasing the power angle) due to the reduction in line impedance.
resonance (SSR).
SSR is addressed in
The % series compensation of a transmission line is a method of stating the
Chapter 9. amount of series capacitors used in the line. For example, in Figure 5-34, 30 Ωs
of series capacitors were used to reduce the line’s reactance by 50%. The %
series compensation for this line is 50%.

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Self Regulating Series Capacitor

Unlike shunt capacitors, whose output decreases when it is most needed, series
capacitors are “self-regulating”. The term self-regulating means that a series
capacitor adjusts its performance automatically to match the needs of the system.
When current passes through a series capacitor, reactive power is produced by the
capacitor and made available to the system. The amount of reactive power
produced is proportional to the level of current flow.
When a series capacitor is needed the most, during heavy power and current
flows, it produces more reactive power. During light loads on the system, when
the series capacitor’s Mvar is less important, the Mvar output naturally reduces.
Series capacitors therefore regulate themselves or are self-regulating.

Reactors
Reactors can be viewed as absorbers or sinks of reactive power. Reactors can be
connected to the power system in either a shunt or series connection. Shunt
reactors are used to absorb reactive power from the system. Series reactors are
used to increase the reactance of the path in which the series reactor is inserted.

Shunt Reactors
Shunt reactor banks are used to absorb excessive reactive power from the power
system and thereby reduce system voltages. When high voltage transmission
lines are built, fixed and switchable reactor banks are often installed to help
reduce the overvoltages caused by lightly loaded high voltage lines. The
switchable reactor banks are typically under SCADA control. Switched reactor
banks are often found on transformer tertiary windings. These reactor banks are
remotely switched in and out-of-service to control high voltages. The bottom
portion of Figure 5-35 illustrates a shunt reactor bank.
Figure 5-35 follows on the next page.

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Figure 5-35. Shunt and Series Reactors

Series Reactors
Reactors can also be installed in series. Series reactor installations are not
uncommon in the distribution system or within older power plants. Series
reactors add inductive reactance to a path thereby increasing the overall path
impedance. The primary use of series reactors is to limit fault current. Fault
Chapter 8 describes
current is limited due to the increase in the path’s impedance. Series reactors can
power oscillations.
also be installed in the transmission system to help reduce power oscillations
between generators. The top portion of Figure 5-35 illustrates the connection of a
series reactor.

5.6.2 Use of Transformers

Transformers in which the number of turns in a winding can be adjusted under
load are a valuable tool for voltage control. The construction and operation of tap
changing transformers are described in this section.

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Tap Changing Transformers

Off-Load Tap Changing (OLTC)

Power transformers are often equipped with a means to vary the number of turns
in its primary or secondary windings. If the number of turns can be controlled,
the voltage induced in the winding can (usually) be controlled. The ability to
control the number of turns gives the transformer operator a range of control over
the primary and secondary output voltages of the transformer.
Figure 5-36 illustrates the control of a transformer’s secondary output voltage via
a tap changer in the high voltage winding. This transformer normally has a 10:5
turns ratio since it normally has 10 primary turns and 5 secondary turns. If the
primary voltage is 100 V the secondary voltage should be 50 V. Note the 9 tap
positions on the primary side labeled A - I. If the input connections are switched
from H1 & H2 to H1 and G, the number of primary turns, is changed from 10 to 7.
The turns ratio is now 7:5 instead of 10:5. If the primary voltage is 100 volts the
secondary voltage should be 100 x 5/7 = 71.4 volts.

Figure 5-36. Illustration of a Tap Changer

Most power transformers include tap changers that can only be adjusted when the
transformer is out-of-service. These taps are called “off-load tap changers” or
OLTCs. Off-load tap changers are mechanical linkages within the primary or
secondary windings of the transformer. The linkages are designed to be adjusted
to change the transformer turns ratio. These linkages can only be adjusted when
the transformer current flow has been completely interrupted.
A typical power transformer may have five tap positions (labeled A - E or 1 - 5)
within the off-load tap changer. For example, a 345/138 kV transformer with an
OLTC on the 345 kV winding may have five taps: 327,750 - 336,375 - 345,000 -
353,625 - 362,250. Note the nominal or mid-point voltage is 345 kV. The low
voltage (327,750) is 5% less than the nominal while the high voltage (362,250) is
5% greater than the nominal. Adjustments to OLTCs are typically made

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following major changes to the power system. OLTCs are used to correct long
term (often seasonal) voltage problems.

Under Load Tap Changing (ULTC)

Some power transformers possess a more powerful means for changing tap
positions. Under load tap changing or ULTC equipped transformers are designed
to change tap positions while the transformer is carrying load current. Figure 5-
37 illustrates one form of an ULTC mechanism for a power transformer’s
winding.
The ULTC in Figure 5-37 is a 17 position ULTC with a ±10% voltage range.
There is a neutral position (tap position # 9), eight raise positions (taps # 1-8) and
eight lower positions (taps # 10-17). Since there are 16 possible tap adjustments
spread across a 20% total voltage control range, each tap position is rated for a
1¼% voltage adjustment.
The switches labeled 1-9 in Figure 5-37 are used to select the different tap
positions. The switches labeled R, S, & T are used to switch between different
tap positions. This method is used to avoid exposing the tap selector switches (1-
9) to arcing. Switches R, S, & T are designed to withstand arcing. The table
below the graphic in Figure 5-37 indicates the switch positions for each of the 17
different tap positions.
Many new ULTCs are 33 position devices. These ULTCs have a neutral position,
16 raise and 16 lower taps. The voltage control range is typically ±10% so each
tap is good for a 5/8% voltage adjustment. The advantage of a 33 position ULTC
over a 17 position is better (more exact) voltage control.

Operation of ULTCs
ULTCs can be operated in either a manual or an automatic mode of operation.
When in manual mode, tap positions are adjusted via selector switches installed in
the ULTC control cabinet. These selector switches are also operated via SCADA
if the utility has installed the necessary equipment. While in manual mode the
ULTC does not automatically respond to voltage changes in the system. An
operator must intervene to adjust the tap positions.

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Figure 5-37. Under Load Tap Changing Mechanism

A ULTC can also be placed in an automatic mode of operation. When in
automatic mode the ULTC automatically responds to system conditions and
adjusts its tap positions without operator intervention. For example a ULTC may
be designed to keep a constant secondary voltage. When the secondary voltage
deviates from the intended point the ULTC automatically adjusts the tap position
in an attempt to return the secondary voltage to the set-point. Whether the ULTC
is successful in the attempt to control the secondary voltage depends on several
factors including the room left to adjust taps. A ULTC can only make a voltage
adjustment if it has taps available to adjust. The ULTC may go to full boost or
full buck and still be unable to control the voltage.
The point at which an ULTC controls voltage does not have to be at the ULTC’s
physical location. For example, an ULTC may be equipped with controls that
allow the ULTC to control the voltage well out into a secondary feeder. The
ULTCs taps are adjusted to maintain a remote secondary voltage.

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Figure 5-38 illustrates an ULTC control scheme. Note the PT and CT used to
input secondary current and voltage to the ULTC. The ULTC in this figure
adjusts tap positions if either the PT reads a voltage out of range or the CT reads a
current out of range. This combination of voltage and current monitoring allows
the ULTC to control the voltage at a remote secondary point. The ULTC adjusts
tap positions to compensate for changes in load. The load changes are detected
by monitoring the circuit current. This control scheme is commonly referred to as
load drop compensation (LDC).

The “90” symbol is

the IEEE device
number for a
voltage regulating
relay.

Figure 5-38. A ULTC Control Scheme

Tap Changing and Reactive Power

Tap changers control the voltage of a transformer’s winding by adjusting the
number of turns in the winding. When the turns ratio is adjusted, the flow of
reactive power across the transformer is normally adjusted. Changes in reactive
power flow are necessary to accomplish the intended voltage change. Figure 5-39
illustrates the impact of tap changes on the flow of reactive power through a
transformer.
In Figure 5-39(a) the ±10% - 33 position ULTC in the secondary winding is set at
its neutral point (flat taps). The voltages on the primary and secondary side are
initially at their nominal values of 345 kV and 138 kV. There is 5 Mvar flowing
into the primary and 2 Mvar flowing out of the secondary. Therefore the
transformer is using 3 Mvar to build its internal magnetic field.

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The large arrow on

the line connected
to the low voltage
winding is a
common symbol for
a ULTC.

Figure 5-39. Tap Change and Reactive Power

In Figure 5-39(b) the secondary taps are raised five positions. Five positions are
equivalent to a 3.125% (5/8 x 5) or a 4.3 kV voltage increase if we assume the
voltage changes in exact relation to the turns ratio change. However, note the
voltage only rises from 138 kV to 141 kV or 3 kV. This is typical. The amount
of voltage change a given tap change produces is dependent on the strength of the
power system connected to the ULTC. The effects of tap changes on voltage
depend on the transformer's location and the condition of the power system when
the tap change is made.
Note the change in reactive power flows after the tap change in Figure 5-39(b).
The Mvar into the primary and out of the secondary windings has increased, also
the transformers Mvar usage has increased slightly. When the secondary winding
size was increased via the five position tap boost the transformer automatically
pulled Mvar from the high side in an attempt to support a higher secondary
voltage. This tap change resulted in an increase in secondary voltage because the
primary side was able to provide the needed reactive power. If the primary side
was weak (no spare reactive power) the tap change may not have resulted in a
secondary voltage increase. Spare reactive power or reactive power reserves must
be available for a tap change to be successful.

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Similar In Figure 5-39(c) the secondary taps are raised 16 positions. Sixteen positions is
transformers have equivalent to a 10% change in winding size. In our example, this tap change has
the same turns
ratio, tap changing
resulted in a 5.7% voltage rise to 146 kV. Note the change in the reactive flows
capability, and in Figure 5-39(c). The transformer is now pulling a large amount of reactive
impedances. power from the primary winding. The 345 kV voltage has dropped 3 kV (to 342
kV) as a result of this reactive power flow. When the secondary voltage is raised
via a tap change the primary often drops. Typically the voltage drop is so small
as to not be noticeable. The greater the tap change and the weaker the primary
side, the greater the primary voltage drop.

Circulating Reactive Power

When similar transformers equipped with tap changing equipment are electrically
close together, operating problems may develop if an attempt is made to operate
the banks at different tap positions. Figure 5-40 illustrates this concept. Two
345/138 kV transformers (labeled “A” and “B”) are paralleled in Figure 5-40.
The high and low voltage sides of the banks are tied together via low impedance
paths.
In Figure 5-40(a) both transformer low side tap changers are set at identical
positions. If the low sides of the two transformers were opened their respective
high and low side open-circuit voltages would be nearly equal. Recall from
Section 2.3 how reactive power normally flows from the high to the low voltage.
No reactive power flows or circulates between the high and low sides of the two
banks in Figure 5-40(a) as their voltages are equal. The two banks then share the
100 Mvar reactive load equally.
The only time the
voltage differences In Figure 5-40(b) the “A” transformer’s tap changing equipment has been
could be seen is adjusted to reduce the number of low side turns by 5%. If the low sides of both
when the low sides transformers were now open circuited the “A” transformer would have a smaller
are open. When the magnitude low side voltage than the “B” transformer. The “A” transformer
low sides are closed
would also have a greater magnitude high side open-circuit voltage than the “B”
the circulating
reactive power transformer. Reactive power is forced to flow between the two transformers due
eliminates the to these open-circuit voltage differences. Reactive power circulates from the low
voltage differences. side of the “B” transformer to the low side of the “A” transformer. The reactive
power then continues to circulate from the high side of “A” to the high side of
“B”.
The circulating reactive power could take up capacity in the transformers and also
lead to increased active and reactive power losses in the transformers. The cause
of the circulating reactive power was mismatched low side tap positions. If the
tap changers are returned to matched positions, the circulating reactive power
flow will disappear.

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When the tap

positions are
mismatched a
circulating current
flows between the
transformers. This
circulating current
is 90° out-of-phase
with the system
voltage. This is
where the
circulating Mvar
comes from.

Figure 5-40. Circulating Reactive Power

When two identical transformers are paralleled it is important to match their tap
positions. Note that if the banks have different impedances the tap positions may
need to be intentionally mismatched in order to eliminate circulating reactive
power. Mismatched impedances lead to mismatched open-circuit voltages. The
mismatch in the open-circuit voltages can be eliminated by intentionally
mismatching the transformer tap positions. Transformer tap position mismatching
is normally something to avoid. However during special circumstances, such as
during system restoration, transformers taps may be intentionally mismatched to
increase the Mvar losses in the transformers. This action could be used to reduce
system voltages a few kV.

5.6.3 Use of Generators

Generators are the backbone of voltage control. This section describes the use of
generators for reactive power production and absorption. The section also
illustrates the use of a graphical tool (reactive capability curve) for determining
the power production limits of a generator.

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Excitation Systems
The excitation systems of the generating units on the power system are used to
control the overall voltage profile of the power system. Changes made to the
generator’s terminal voltages are subsequently spread throughout the power
system. Figure 5-41 illustrates the major elements of a generator’s excitation
system. The excitation system is used to control the terminal voltage and Mvar
production of the generator.

Figure 5-41. Block Diagram of a Generator Excitation System

The automatic voltage regulator (AVR) senses the voltage level at the generator
terminals via a potential transformer (PT). Circuitry is included in the voltage
regulator to compare the voltage measured to a set-point voltage. If the measured
voltage is lower than the set point the AVR tells the excitation system to increase
the DC excitation current. This DC current is applied to the generator’s rotor
field winding. If the voltage measured is higher than the set-point the excitation
system lowers the DC excitation current applied to the field winding. Plant
operators control the voltage level of the generator by selecting the proper AVR
set-point.

Method of Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulators can be operated in an automatic mode (as described above) or
in a manual mode. When in automatic mode the excitation system tries to
maintain a specified bus voltage. When in manual mode a plant operator selected
magnitude of field current is provided to the field winding. A voltage regulator in
manual mode makes no attempt to automatically control a bus voltage magnitude.
From a system operations perspective all voltage regulators should remain in
automatic mode. This ensures the generators automatically assist with the control
of system voltages. When voltage regulators are placed in a manual mode, a
major voltage control tool (the generator) is eliminated from the voltage control

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process. Power plant operators may occasionally need to place voltage regulators
in manual mode. The voltage regulators should be returned to automatic mode as
soon as possible.

Reactive Capability Curves

The Mvar support capabilities of each generator are defined by each unit’s
reactive capability curve. Figure 5-42 is an example of a generator’s reactive
capability curve. This plot illustrates the limits of acceptable generator operation.
The horizontal axis of the plot represents the MW produced by the generator. The
positive vertical axis represents Mvar produced by the generator and the negative
vertical axis represents Mvar absorbed by the generator.
Generators should be operated within the limits of their capability curves. There
are three circular sections to a typical capability curve. Note the section labeled
“Curve A-B” in Figure 5-42. The generator can not exceed this curve section
limits or field winding thermal damage may occur. Note the section labeled
“Curve B-C”. The generator must stay within the confines of this curve section or
stator winding thermal damage may occur. The final section is labeled “Curve C-
D”. The generator must stay within this section of the curve or thermal damage to
the end-turn area of the stator core could occur. While the magnetic
bond is weaker
Also illustrated in Figure 5-42 is an under-excitation limit line. This line when a generator is
represents a limit to how far the generator may be taken into the leading region of leading, this does
operation. The farther a generator operates in the lead, the weaker the magnetic not imply that
bond between the generator and the power system. As a generator’s magnetic generators cannot
bond strength reduces the likelihood of a generator losing synchronism increases. absorb reactive
power. Modern
Many generators have protective systems that prevent their operation deep within generators have
the leading region of their capability curves. fast, powerful
exciters that allow
Each generator in the power system has a reactive capability curve. Plant leading operation.
operators are primarily responsible for keeping the generator MW and Mvar
output within the limits of its capability curve. Generators are often equipped
with protective relays to detect operation significantly outside of the rated
capability curve of the unit. When activated, these relays may initiate a unit
alarm, automatic runback, or unit trip.

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When operating in
the upper half of the
curve the generator
is supplying
reactive power to
support the system
voltage. This type of
operation is called
lagging or
overexcited. When
operating in the
lower half of the
curve the generator
is absorbing
reactive power to
lower system
voltage. This type of
operation is called
leading or
underexcited
operation.

Figure 5-42. Generator Reactive Capability Curve

Steam Unit Reactive Capability Curve

Figure 5-43 is a capability curve for an actual steam unit. An important feature of
this capability curve is that there are actually a series of four capability curves
illustrated. This is typical for a steam unit as the active and reactive power
production capability of the unit is often a function of the stator’s hydrogen
cooling system pressure. The greater the hydrogen cooling system pressure the
greater the capability of the unit. Note the hydrogen pressures of the unit
illustrated in Figure 5-43 can vary from 5 psig to 45 psig. Also note the series of
straight lines crossing the curve. These are constant power factor lines. All
points along one of these lines have the same power factor.
A system operator could use the capability curve of Figure 5-43 to estimate the
remaining reactive capability of the generator. You must first know the current
hydrogen pressure of the unit and the current MW generation. Plot the current
MW generation on the curve and determine the remaining reactive capability by
noting the reactive limits from the appropriate capability curve. For example,
assume this unit is presently operating at 375 MW and 100 Mvar with a hydrogen
pressure of 45 psig. From Figure 5-43 you can determine that the remaining
reactive capability is approximately 170 Mvar in the lagging direction and 300
Mvar in the leading direction.

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The rated power

factor of the unit
(this unit’s is 0.90)
defines the break-
point between the
curve sections
related to stator and
field winding
thermal limitations.

Figure 5-43. Actual Steam Unit Reactive Capability Curve

Hydro Unit Reactive Capability Curve

Figure 5-44 is an actual reactive capability curve for a hydro-electric generator.
The curve shape is similar to the steam unit of Figure 5-43 with the exception of
the leading region. Hydro units are water cooled and not subject to stator end-
turn thermal limitations. The leading reactive capability of a typical hydro unit is
therefore much greater than that of a steam unit.
Also note there are two capability curves given in Figure 5-44. One curve is for
rated system voltage and the other is for voltages 15% higher. The power
capability limits of a generator are mostly thermal related limits. If the system
voltage is raised, the current is lowered and the power capability can be extended.

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The large leading

capability of a
typical hydro unit
makes hydro units
very valuable
during system
restoration.

Figure 5-44. Actual Hydro Unit Reactive Capability Curve

Constraints on the Capability Curve

A generator’s reactive capability curve is what a generator is physically capable
of producing. Unfortunately, the power system the generator is attached to and
the auxiliary equipment within the plant often restricts the generator to operating
within only a portion of its capability curve.
The shaded region of Figure 5-45 illustrates how a generator may be restricted to
only a portion of its capability curve. For example, operation in the upper or
lagging portion of the curve may be restricted due to high auxiliary bus voltages
within the plant. Operation in the lower or leading portion of the curve may be
restricted due to unit stability problems. The actual capability of a generator can
only be determined by testing the generator to determine what the reactive limits
are. Many utilities have generator reactive capability test programs in place to
ensure they know the true reactive capabilities of their generators.

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Figure 5-45. Reactive Production Limitations

Synchronous Condensers
A synchronous condenser is very similar to a synchronous generator with the
exception that it is not capable of producing any sustained active power.
Synchronous condensers produce /absorb reactive power. Synchronous
condensers do not need a prime mover as they are operated as a synchronous
motor. The power system supplies the MW to turn the rotor. An excitation
system is used to control the amount of Mvar produced or absorbed by the
synchronous condenser.
Synchronous condensers are an expensive source of reactive power and are Utilities that
seldom used in modern power systems. However, some companies do use operate HVDC
systems are good
synchronous condensers for Mvar support. The most common reason is that the
candidates for
company also wants the increased inertia from the spinning mass of the owning synchronous
synchronous condenser. condensers.
Some types of generating units (typically hydro) can be used in a synchronous
condenser mode. For example, in light load conditions utilities in the Pacific
Northwest may switch hydro generators from a generating to a motoring mode
and then use the generator excitation systems to absorb reactive power. Steam
units are rarely operated as synchronous condensers, although there are a few
exceptions.

5.6.4 Use of Static Var Compensators (SVC)

Components of an SVC
A static var compensator (SVC) is similar to a synchronous condenser in that it is
also used to supply or absorb reactive power. However, in an SVC there are no
rotating parts, every element is static. SVCs are composed of shunt reactors and

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Thyristers were shunt capacitors. High speed electronic switching equipment (thyrister switches)
introduced in are used to adjust the amount of reactors or capacitors in-service at any one time.
Section 1.6.5.
SVCs have the equivalent of automatic voltage regulator systems to set and
maintain a target voltage level.
Figure 5-46 is a one-line diagram of a modern SVC. Note there are two shunt
There are many
variations to SVCs.
capacitor legs and two shunt reactor legs. A control system for the SVC sends
The SVC signals to the thyristers to control the amount of current flow through the
illustrated in this capacitor and reactor legs. For example, if the 230 kV bus voltage were to dip
figure is only one below the target value the control system would send electronic signals to the
possibility. thyristers. These signals may be either to reduce the current flow to the reactors
or to switch more shunt capacitors in-service. Either action raises the 230 kV bus
voltage. Figure 5-47 contains a picture of an actual SVC.

Figure 5-46. Static Var Compensator (SVC) One-Line

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Figure 5-47. Static Var Compensator (SVC) Photograph

Thyrister Switched and Controlled Capacitors

Note the shunt capacitors in Figure 5-46. These are thyrister switched capacitors
or TSCs. The thyristers controlling these shunt capacitors are similar to a circuit
breaker. The thyristers switch the shunt capacitors in-service or out-of-service
very rapidly once a command to switch is received. Note the shunt reactors in
Figure 5-46. These are thyrister controlled reactors or TCRs. The thyristers
controlling these shunt reactors continuously control the amount of current flow
through the reactors. If the current flow is blocked, the reactors are out-of-
service. If the current flow is at a maximum all of the shunt reactors are in-
service.
The TSCs, TCRs, and SVC control systems work together to control the bus
voltage. The current flow through the TCRs is continuously adjusted. When
more capacitors are required the TSC is signaled and a shunt capacitor bank is
switched in-service. The TCR then rapidly adjusts to move voltage toward the
set-point.

SVC Filters
When thyristers are used to continuously control a current magnitude (as in the
TCRs of Figure 5-46) the 60 HZ current and voltage waveforms are affected. Harmonics are
addressed in
Harmonics are created. Harmonics are whole multiples of the fundamental greater detail in
frequency. (For example, the 3RD harmonic is 180 HZ.) When harmonics exist in Chapter 9.
the power system, the 60 HZ voltage and current waveforms no longer resemble

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pure sine waves. There will be some degree of waveform distortion. This
distortion can damage utility and customer equipment. Utilities try to remove
whatever harmonic content is present in the power system waveforms.
One method of reducing the impact of harmonics is to add harmonic filters.
Harmonic filters are combinations of capacitors, resistors and inductors. These
filter elements are tuned to absorb specific frequencies of harmonic energy. For
example, in Figure 5-46 the far left of the figure illustrates harmonic filters for the
5TH, 7TH and 13TH harmonics. In addition, a “high pass” (HP) filter is included.
The HP filter is tuned to absorb all high frequency harmonics.

Static Var Systems (SVS)

Figure 5-48 contains a one-line diagram of a static var system (SVS). This SVS
contains an SVC and also mechanically switched capacitors (MSC). The
mechanically switched capacitors are switched in and out-of-service automatically
to ensure that enough reactive reserve always exists in the SVC. An SVC may be
combined with several types of voltage control equipment to form an SVS. For
example, utilities have combined an SVC with local ULTCs to form an SVS.
Voltage control is best accomplished within a defined area of a power system.
You cannot control one bus voltage and not impact a close neighboring bus
voltage. SVSs are a natural consequence of this “area” approach to system
voltage control.

Figure 5-48. Static Var System (SVS)

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SVC Limitations In contrast a

generator’s
There is a significant disadvantage to SVCs as compared to generators. If system reactive output is
voltage drops low enough to force the SVC output to its capacitive ceiling its not a function of
Mvar output starts to drop. One must remember that if system voltage drops low the voltage
enough an SVC reaches its reactive (capacitive) output limit. At its output limit squared
relationship. When
an SVC acts like a simple shunt capacitor and the reactive power output drops a generator’s
with the square of the voltage. reactive output is
most needed the
5.6.5 Line Switching for Voltage Control generator can
actually exceed its
High voltage transmission lines appear to the power system as shunt capacitors reactive limits (for
when they are lightly loaded. During light load periods of the year many utilities a short period).
are forced to take high voltage lines out-of-service to reduce system voltage
levels. For example, a utility may remove several long 345 kV lines each spring
evening and return the lines to service when the load picks up the next morning.
The lines that are removed from service are those that contribute significant
reactive power and whose removal does not significantly reduce system security.
Rules of thumb for charging from high voltage lines are approximately 1/3 Mvar
per mile for 230 kV, 3/4 Mvar per mile for 345 kV, 2 Mvar per mile for 500 kV
and 5 Mvar per mile for 765 kV. If a utility has a choice between removing either
a 100 mile long 230 kV or 100 mile long 500 kV line, the 500 kV line removal
would normally have more impact on system voltage.
5.7 Role of the System Operator
The system operator exercises a great deal of control over power system voltages.
This control is largely limited to long term (sustained) voltage deviations. A
system operator cannot typically respond fast enough to have any impact on short
term or transient voltage deviations.
A system operator can often prevent the conditions that lead to short term or
transient overvoltages. For example, several utilities have written operating
procedures that provide guidelines to system operators as to the minimum number
of generators on-line at any one time to avoid a self-excitation condition.

5.7.1 Monitoring Voltage

The following are indications that voltage deviations exist that may require
system operator response. These indications may be observed on the SCADA
system or via reports from field personnel and other system operators.
Î Key substations or specific areas of the power system have lower than
normal voltages
Î Reactive power flows are higher or lower than normal or flowing in
unusual directions.
o This is especially important if the Mvar flows are on tie-lines to
neighboring utilities.

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Î ULTCs are at abnormal positions, such as full boost or full buck

Î Generator reactive power flows are higher or lower than normal.
Generators may be operating near reactive output limits.
Î The power system may enter a period of voltage oscillations. This could
be the result of reactive power shortages.

5.7.2 Actions to Raise Voltage

Among the options available to a system operator to respond to low voltage
problems on the power system are:
Î Ensuring that all available equipment (lines, transformers, etc.) are in-
service.
o For example, a transmission line may have been removed
previously for high voltage control or for maintenance.
Î Removing switchable shunt reactors
Î Inserting switchable shunt and series capacitors
Î Adjusting taps on ULTCs
Î Requesting all available support from area generating units and
neighboring systems.
o Request that the units produce more Mvar.
Î Adjusting the output of area generators by changing the mix of
generation.
o For example, reducing MW generation at one power plant and
increasing it on another to change system power flows. This action
may involve cost to the utility as more expensive generation may
have to be brought on-line.
Î Requesting that power sales or purchases be cut to lower transfers
through a low voltage area.
Î Initiating load shedding schemes.

5.7.3 Actions to Lower Voltage

Among the options available to a system operator to respond to high voltage
problems on the power system are:
Î Removing switchable shunt and series capacitors
Î Inserting switchable reactors
Î Adjusting taps on ULTCs
Î Requesting all available support from area generating units.

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o This would require the generators to absorb (buck) additional

reactive power.
Î Request help from neighboring systems
Î Removing high voltage lines from service that have minimal MW flow
but are supplying large amounts of Mvar

5.7.4 Reactive Reserves

In the same manner as spare MW capability is held in reserve to respond to
unforeseen events, spare Mvar capability must also be held in reserve to respond
to unforeseen events. Reactive reserves are spare reactive capability available to
assist with system voltage control. Reactive reserves are composed of both
reactive supply (lagging reactive) and reactive absorption (leading reactive)
capability. Reactive reserves may be held in shunt capacitors, series capacitors,
shunt reactors, SVCs, HVDC systems, synchronous condensers, and generators.

Sources of Reactive Reserves

All reactive reserves come from one of two possible sources, rotating and static.
Rotating reactive reserves are Mvar resources that rotate. For example generators
and synchronous condensers are rotating reactive reserves. Static reactive
reserves have no moving parts. Shunt capacitors and SVCs are examples of static
reactive reserves.

Dynamic Versus Manual Reactive Reserves

Dynamic reactive reserves are reactive reserves that can be used to rapidly
respond to system voltage deviations. In this context rapidly could means
responding within a few cycles to a few seconds dependent on the particular
power system. Manual reactive reserves are spare Mvar which take too long to
place in-service. The majority of the time manual reactive reserves require
operator action to utilize.
From a system operations perspective maintaining an adequate level of dynamic
reactive reserves is the key. Every transmission operating company must examine
their reactive supply needs for both normal and disturbance conditions and then
ensure they have enough spare dynamic Mvar to respond to support system
voltages.
Figure 5-49 illustrates the relationship between the types of reactive reserve
(dynamic and manual) and the sources of reactive reserve (static and rotating).

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TYPES OF REACTIVE RESERVE

Dynamic Manual
Sources of Dynamic Sources of Manual
• Rotating • Rotating
• Generator with Automatic • Generator with Manual Voltage
Voltage Regulator Regulator
• Static • Manually Switched Shunt
• SVC in Automatic Control Capacitors
Figure 5-49. Types and Sources of Reactive Reserve

Generator Reactive Reserves

The voltage control capabilities of a generator are a function of the reactive range
(both Mvar production and absorption) of the generator and the speed of the
excitation system. Modern generators have very rapid excitation systems. The
combination of a fast excitation system and a large reactive range creates a
powerful voltage control device.
To respond to rapid unexpected system voltage deviations a utility needs to carry
sufficient reactive reserves in the better responding reactive resources. For
example, if a rapid voltage drop or rise occurs, a utility often does a better job of
correcting the voltage deviation if they are carrying reactive reserves in
generators.
To ensure sufficient response to system voltage changes it is a wise practice to
establish accurate limits to the amount of reactive reserves available from system
generators. For example, a utility may specify that all generators must have
available at least ½ of their lagging and ½ of their leading reactive capability to
respond to unforeseen events. To ensure acceptable levels of reactive reserves are
kept in the system generators, a system operator may have to switch shunt
reactors or shunt capacitors. For example, assume load is rising and the
generators are moving well up into their lagging region. By switching in shunt
capacitors a system operator can relieve the Mvar supply obligations of the
generators and allow an increase to their reactive reserves.

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5.8 Summary of Voltage Control

5.8.1 Review of Active, Reactive and Complex Power

Î When a generator is supplying Mvar to the system, the generator mode of
operation is referred to as lagging, boosting, pushing or overexcited.
When a generator is absorbing Mvar from the system, the generator
mode of operation is referred to as leading, bucking, pulling or
underexcited.

5.8.2 Reactive Power and Low Voltages

Î Voltage levels are directly tied to the availability of Mvar. If adequate
Mvar resources exist in the areas where it is needed, system voltages can
be controlled. The root cause of low voltages is a deficiency of Mvar.

5.8.3 Heavy Power Transfers

Î One way to increase Mvar reserves is to minimize the reactive usage of
the system or to reduce the reactive losses of the system. To minimize
power losses we should minimize current and maximize voltage.
Î The fact that the inductive reactance of a transmission line is much
greater than its resistance strongly impacts voltage control. It is difficult
to transmit Mvar long distances.
Î A conservative rule of thumb is to assume that in a heavily loaded power
system, any increase in MW transfer must be accompanied by the cube
of that increase in Mvar injection.
Î The surge impedance loading (SIL) is the point at which the Mvar from a
line’s natural capacitance matches the Mvar the line needs to support its
voltage.

5.8.4 Transmission Line Outages

Î A transmission line outage may lead to increased loading on parallel
lines and subsequent lower voltages. This is due to increased MW and
Mvar losses.

5.8.5 Reactive Equipment Outages

Î Generators are the primary means of controlling power system voltages.
If a generator trips, a portion of the most important method of controlling
voltage is lost.

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5.8.6 Failure to Get Ahead of the Voltage

Î The Mvar capability of a shunt capacitor is reduced as system voltages
drop. A shunt capacitor bank’s Mvar output varies with the square of the
system voltage.

5.8.7 Motor Stalling

Î When large motors are started, the in-rush current drawn can drag down
an entire feeder’s voltage.

5.8.8 Reactive Power and High Voltages

Î While the root cause of high voltages is an excess of Mvar, the means by
which high voltages occur vary across a wide spectrum.

5.8.9 Long Term Overvoltages

Î The magnitude of Ferranti overvoltage depends on the length of the
open-ended line and the strength of the system tied to the closed-end of
the line. An equation for calculating the amount of Ferranti rise is:
VS
VR =
(
cos L
8.61)
5.8.10 Short Term Overvoltages
Î A severe variation on the load rejection theme is generator self-
excitation. Generator self-excitation is a possibility if a generator is
isolated on a capacitive source and does not have the ability to absorb the
available reactive power. To prevent generator self-excitation you
should ensure that a generator has the ability to absorb whatever Mvar
may be available at its terminals.
Î Harmonic overvoltages are caused by the interaction of capacitive and
inductive elements and sources of harmonics.

5.8.11 Transient Overvoltages

Î Lightning strikes lead to transient overvoltages. This is one reason for
installing surge or lightning arresters, to arrest or trap the high voltage
surge caused by lightning strikes to a transmission line or substation.
Î Power system switching causes transient overvoltages. Each time a CB
or switch is opened under load, the power system experiences a
switching surge.

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5.8.12 Effect of Low Voltage on System Equipment

Î When transformers and transmission lines are exposed to low voltages,
the thermal capability of the equipment can be exceeded.

5.8.13 Effect of Low Voltage on Load Magnitude

Î An approximate rule of thumb is that for a typical mix of motor and non-
motor load, the total customer load decreases by 3% if voltage decreases
by 5%.

5.8.14 Effect of Low Voltage on Angle Stability

Î From a system stability perspective the lower the system voltages are
held the greater the risk of instability.

5.8.15 Effect of Low Voltage on Customer Equipment

Î The combined reactive power needs of many motors trying to recover
from a stalled condition could prevent system voltage recovery.

5.8.16 Effect of Low Voltage on Power Losses

Î There are two types of power losses; active and reactive. A utility can
reduce both types of losses by operating their existing system with higher
voltages.

5.8.17 General Effects of High Voltages

Î High voltage can cause system equipment insulation to fail resulting in
internal flashovers.

5.8.18 Effect of High Voltage on Power Transformers

Î If a transformer’s rated voltage level is substantially exceeded the
transformer draws increased Mvar from the system to support the
increased strength of the transformer’s magnetic field. This may lead to
excessive heating in parts of the transformer and could eventually lead to
transformer failure.
Î Transformer saturation is a function of both the operating voltage and the
operating frequency since both voltage and frequency impact the
magnetic field strength. The ratio of the operating voltage to the
operating frequency is called the transformers % excitation.

5.8.19 Effect of High Voltage on Load Magnitude

Î When voltages are high, the overall system load magnitude rises. Non-
motor load is most impacted by voltage. In a typical system, if voltages
rise to 105% of normal the total system load magnitude increases by 3%.

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5.8.20 Effect of High Voltage on Angle Stability

Î The greater the system voltage the more MW can be transferred at the
same angle separation. High voltages (within operating limits) help
ensure system stability.

5.8.21 Effect of High Voltage On Customer Equipment

Î Motor load is highly susceptible to high voltages. Motor insulation is
designed to withstand specific voltage levels. If these voltage levels are
exceeded, the insulation may fail. Typically, motors are designed to
safely operate with voltages 10% above rated.

5.8.22 Effect of High Voltage on Power Losses

Î Increasing system voltage reduces MW and Mvar losses.

5.8.23 Use of Capacitors and Reactors

Î Shunt capacitors are a source of Mvar that are installed in close
proximity to the point they are needed.
Î Series capacitors are installed in transmission lines to reduce the line’s
natural inductive reactance.
Î Shunt reactor banks are used to absorb excessive Mvar from the power
system and reduce system voltages.
Î Series reactors add inductive reactance to a path increasing the path
impedance.

5.8.24 Use of Transformers

Î Most power transformers include tap changers that can only be adjusted
when the transformer current flow is interrupted. These taps are called
off-load tap changers or OLTCs.
Î Under load tap changing or ULTC equipped transformers are designed to
change tap positions while the transformer is under load.
Î ULTCs control the voltage on the transformer’s winding by adjusting the
number of turns in the winding. Changes in Mvar flow are typically
necessary to accomplish the intended voltage change.

5.8.25 Use of Generators

Î The excitation systems of the generating units on the power system are
used to control the overall voltage profile of the power system.

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Î Voltage regulators can be operated in an automatic or in a manual mode.

When in automatic mode the excitation system tries to maintain a
specified bus voltage. When in manual mode a constant magnitude of
field current is provided to the field winding. From a system operations
perspective all voltage regulators should remain in automatic mode.
Î A generator’s reactive capability curve is what a generator is physically
capable of producing. The power system a generator is attached to and
the auxiliary equipment within the plant itself often restrict the generator
to operating within only a portion of its capability curve.

5.8.26 Use of Static Var Compensators (SVC)

Î SVCs are typically composed of shunt reactors and shunt capacitors.
High speed electronic switching equipment (thyrister switches) are used
to adjust the amount of reactors or capacitors in-service at any one time.
Î An SVC may be combined with several types of voltage control
equipment to form a static var system or SVS.

5.8.27 Line Switching for Voltage Control

Î During light load periods of the year many utilities are forced to take
high voltage lines out-of-service to reduce system voltage levels.
Î Rules of thumb for charging from high voltage lines are approximately
1/3 Mvar per mile for 230 kV, 3/4 Mvar per mile for 345 kV, 2 Mvar per
mile for 500 kV and 5 Mvar per mile for 765 kV lines.

5.8.28 Monitoring Voltage

Î The following are indications that voltage deviations exist that may
require system operator response:
— Key buses have abnormal voltages
— Reactive power flows are abnormal especially on tie-lines
— ULTCs are at abnormal positions
— Generator reactive power flows are abnormal
— System voltage oscillations occur

5.8.29 Actions to Raise Voltage

Î Voltage raising options include:
— Ensuring that all available equipment are in-service
— Removing switchable shunt reactors
— Inserting switchable shunt and series capacitors

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— Adjusting taps on ULTCs

— Requesting support from area generating units
— Changing the mix of generation
— Cutting power sales or purchases
— Initiating load shedding schemes

5.8.30 Actions to Lower Voltage

Î Voltage lowering options include:
— Removing switchable shunt and series capacitors
— Inserting switchable reactors
— Adjusting taps on ULTCs
— Requesting support from area generating units
— Removing lightly loaded high voltage lines from service

5.8.31 Maintaining Reactive Reserves

Î In the same manner as spare MW capability is held in reserve to respond
to unforeseen events, spare Mvar capability should also be held in
reserve to respond to unforeseen events.
Î Static reactive reserves are spare Mvar from sources with no moving
parts.
Î Rotating reactive reserves are spare Mvar from sources with moving
parts.
Î Dynamic reactive reserves are reactive reserves that are used to
automatically and rapidly respond to system voltage deviations.
Î Manual reactive reserves typically require an operation action to utilize.

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5.9 Voltage Control Questions

1. What is the Mvar production of a 50 Mvar shunt capacitor that is
energized at 90% of its nominal voltage?

A. 40.5
B. 45
C. 55.6
D. 61.7

2. A 5% change in voltage will typically lead to what change in the total load
magnitude?

A. 2%
B. 3%
C. 5%
D. 10%

3. A transformer can be overexcited if exposed to:

A. High voltage
B. Low frequency
C. High voltage and low frequency
D. All of the above

4. What is the approximate Mvar/Mile production for a 345 kV overhead

line?

A. 1/3
B. 3/4
C. 2.0
D. 5.0

5. A 345 kV transmission line operates at various voltage levels throughout

the day. At which voltage level does the transmission line produce more
Mvar?

A. 345 kV
B. 340 kV
C. 350 kV
D. 360 kV

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6. A transmission line has 50 ohms of inductive reactance. 25 ohms of series

capacitors are inserted in the line. What is the line’s % series
compensation?

A. 25%
B. 40%
C. 50%
D. 80%

7. A transmission line’s __________ is the MW loading at which the Mvar

from the line’s natural capacitance is equal to the Mvar the line needs to
support its voltage.

A. surge impedance loading

B. angle stability limit
C. voltage stability limit
D. thermal limit

8. What is the approximate Mvar/Mile production for a 500 kV overhead

line?

A. 1/3
B. 3/4
C. 2.0
D. 5.0

9. Given a purely inductive load, what can be said about the MVA this load
draws from the power system?

A. The load draws only MW

B. The load draws only Mvar
C. The load magnitude cannot exceed 100 MVA
D. The load magnitude cannot exceed 1000 MVA

10. A generator with spare Mvar is always a source of dynamic reactive

reserve.

A. True
B. False

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5.10 Voltage Control References

1. Power System Analysis⎯Textbook written by Mr. John Grainger and Mr.
William Stevenson. (Actually a revision of an earlier text by Mr. Stevenson.)
Published by McGraw Hill, 1994.
Î Well written general reference on power system analysis. Chapters on the
capacitance and series impedance of transmission lines were useful. This
test is advanced and of more value to an engineering audience.
2. Electric Power Systems Manual⎯Textbook written by Mr. Geradino Pete.
Published by McGraw Hill, 1992.
Î Collection of descriptions of various power system phenomena. Well
written text, suited to a system operator audience. Chapters on power flow
and transmission lines were useful.
3. Reactive Power: Basics, Problems and Solutions⎯Tutorial course text
published by IEEE. Course text #87EH0262-6-PWR.
Î A collection of IEEE articles that address reactive power. The first paper
in the tutorial “Power System Concepts of Reactive Power” contains an
excellent description of active and reactive power concepts.
4. Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book⎯Textbook written
by the engineering staff of Westhinghouse. Currently available through Asea
Brown Boveri (ABB).
Î Chapter 9 of this classic text on power systems contains useful material on
Ferranti rise and surge impedance loading.
5. Transients in Power Systems⎯Textbook written by Mr. Harold Peterson.
Published by Dover Books, 1951.
Î An older but very useful reference. The text contains useful descriptions
of the causes of switching surges.
6. Electric Energy Systems Theory⎯Textbook written by Mr. Olle L. Elgerd.
Published by McGraw Hill, 1982.
Î Chapters 1 and 2 of this text contain a useful description of power basics.
7. Load Modeling for Power Flow and Transient Stability Computer
Studies⎯EPRI report EL-5003, January, 1987.
Î Four volume report on load modeling. The equations for load magnitude
in this chapter are based on this series of reports.
8. Reactive Power Control in Electric Systems⎯Primary author Mr. T. J. Miller.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, 1982.
Î Advanced text that is more useful to an engineering audience. The
equations for the amount of Ferranti rise developed in Section 5.3 are
based partly on material from this text.

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6
VOLTAGE STABILITY

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VOLTAGE STABILITY

SECTION OVERVIEWS
6.1 Voltage Stability
Introduction to an extreme type of voltage deviation that can result in a voltage
collapse.
6.2 Definitions
Definitions of voltage collapse and voltage stability are presented.
6.3 Types of Voltage Instability
Long term voltage instability, classical voltage instability, and transient voltage
instability.
6.4 Long Term Voltage Instability
Description of a long term voltage instability.
6.5 Classical Voltage Instability
Description of a classical voltage instability.
6.6 Transient Voltage Instability
Description of a transient voltage instability.
6.7 Preventing Voltage Instability
Techniques to prevent voltage instability.
6.8 Role of the System Operator
A system operator may be able to recognize the conditions during which a voltage
instability can occur and take appropriate actions.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

6.1 Voltage Stability................................................................................. 6-1

6.1.1 Introduction to Voltage Collapse & Voltage Instability ............... 6-1
6.2 Definitions.......................................................................................... 6-1
6.2.1 Voltage Stability & Instability Definitions.................................... 6-1
6.2.2 Voltage Collapse Definition ....................................................... 6-2
6.2.3 Voltage Stability Versus Angle Stability..................................... 6-2
6.3 Types of Voltage Instability ............................................................... 6-3
6.3.1 Long-Term Voltage Instability.................................................... 6-4
6.3.2 Classical Voltage Instability ....................................................... 6-4
6.3.3 Short-Term or Transient Voltage Instability ............................... 6-4
6.4 Long-Term Voltage Instability............................................................ 6-5
6.4.1 Introduction to Long-Term Voltage Instability ............................ 6-5
6.4.2 Radial Power Systems .............................................................. 6-5
6.4.3 Use of the P-V Curve ................................................................ 6-6
6.4.4 Conditions for Long Term Voltage Instability........................... 6-10
6.4.5 Long Term Voltage Instability Process .................................... 6-11
6.4.6 Role of Tap Changing Equipment ........................................... 6-12
6.4.7 Tap Changing and Load Magnitude ........................................ 6-14
6.4.8 Example of Long Term Voltage Instability ............................... 6-15
6.5 Classical Voltage Instability............................................................. 6-16
6.5.1 Introduction to Classical Voltage Instability ............................. 6-16
6.5.2 Loss of Load Diversity ............................................................. 6-17
6.5.3 Simulation of Classical Voltage Instability ............................... 6-17
6.5.4 Response of Generation ......................................................... 6-19
6.5.5 Phases of Classical Voltage Instability .................................... 6-21
6.5.6 Introduction to the V-Q Curve.................................................. 6-21
6.5.7 Usage of the V-Q Curve .......................................................... 6-22
6.5.8 Combining P-V & V-Q Curves ................................................. 6-23
6.5.9 Example of Classical Voltage Instability .................................. 6-25
6.6 Short-Term or Transient Voltage Instability..................................... 6-28
6.6.1 Introduction to Short-Term or Transient Voltage Instability ..... 6-28

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6.6.2 Voltage Instability & Induction Motor Stalling...........................6-28

6.6.3 Example of Transient Voltage Instability..................................6-30
6.6.4 Voltage Collapse & Loss of Synchronism ................................6-33
6.7 Preventing Voltage Instability ..........................................................6-34
6.7.1 Dynamic Reactive Reserves....................................................6-34
6.7.2 Voltage Control Zones .............................................................6-35
6.7.3 Load Shedding.........................................................................6-35
6.8 Role of the System Operator ...........................................................6-36
6.8.1 Detecting Voltage Instability.....................................................6-37
6.8.2 Responding to Voltage Instability.............................................6-37
6.8.3 Relationship of the Types of Voltage Instability .......................6-39
6.9 Summary of Voltage Stability...........................................................6-41
6.9.1 Introduction to Voltage Collapse & Voltage Stability................6-41
6.9.2 Voltage Stability & Instability Definitions ..................................6-41
6.9.3 Voltage Collapse Definition......................................................6-41
6.9.4 Voltage Stability Versus Angle Stability ...................................6-41
6.9.5 Long-Term Voltage Instability ..................................................6-41
6.9.6 Classical Voltage Instability .....................................................6-41
6.9.7 Short-term or Transient Voltage Instability...............................6-41
6.9.8 Introduction to Long-Term Voltage Instability ..........................6-41
6.9.9 Radial Power Systems.............................................................6-42
6.9.10 Use of the P-V Curve ...............................................................6-42
6.9.11 Conditions for a Long-Term Voltage Instability ........................6-42
6.9.12 Long-Term Voltage Instability Process ....................................6-42
6.9.13 Role of Tap Changing Equipment............................................6-42
6.9.14 Tap Changing and Load Magnitude.........................................6-42
6.9.15 Example of Long-Term Voltage Instability ...............................6-43
6.9.16 Introduction to Classical Voltage Instability..............................6-43
6.9.17 Loss of Load Diversity..............................................................6-43
6.9.18 Simulation of Classical Voltage Instability................................6-43
6.9.19 Response of Generation ..........................................................6-43
6.9.20 Phases of Classical Voltage Instability ....................................6-43
6.9.21 Introduction to the V-Q Curve ..................................................6-43
6.9.22 Usage of the V-Q Curve...........................................................6-43

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6.9.23 Combining P-V & V-Q Curves ................................................. 6-43

6.9.24 Example of a Classical Voltage Collapse ................................ 6-44
6.9.25 Introduction to Short-Term or Transient Voltage Instability ..... 6-44
6.9.26 Voltage Stability & Induction Motor Stalling............................. 6-44
6.9.27 Example of Transient Voltage Collapse .................................. 6-44
6.9.28 Voltage Collapse & Loss of Synchronism................................ 6-44
6.9.29 Dynamic Reactive Reserves ................................................... 6-44
6.9.30 Voltage Control Zones............................................................. 6-44
6.9.31 Load Shedding ........................................................................ 6-44
6.9.32 Detecting Voltage Instability .................................................... 6-45
6.9.33 Responding to Voltage Instability ............................................ 6-45
6.9.34 Relationship of the Types of Voltage Instability....................... 6-45
6.10 Voltage Stability Questions ............................................................. 6-46
6.11 Voltage Stability References ........................................................... 6-48

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 6-1. Definition of Voltage Stability....................................................... 6-2

Figure 6-2. Definition of Voltage Collapse ..................................................... 6-2
Figure 6-3. Voltage Stability Versus Angle Stability....................................... 6-3
Figure 6-4. Voltage Instability Types & Time Frames .................................... 6-5
Figure 6-5. Simple Radial Power System ...................................................... 6-6
Figure 6-6. A Sample P-V Curve ................................................................... 6-7
Figure 6-7. P-V Curve Illustration of Voltage Instability ................................. 6-7
Figure 6-8. Shunt Capacitor Effect on P-V Curves ........................................ 6-9
Figure 6-9. Sample Systm to Demonstrate Usage of P-V Curves ............... 6-10
Figure 6-10. P-V Curves for System of Figure 6-9......................................... 6-10
Figure 6-11. Radial Power System for Long Term Voltage Collapse ............ 6-11
Figure 6-12. Tap Changers and Load Overshoot .......................................... 6-13
Figure 6-13. Tokyo Electric’s Shin-Fuji 500 kV Substation Voltage ............... 6-16
Figure 6-14. Conditions at Receiving Bus Prior to Adding 10 MW Load........ 6-18
Figure 6-15. High and Low-Side Voltages After 10 MW Load is Added ........ 6-18
Figure 6-16. Adjusting the Generator Operating Point................................... 6-20
Figure 6-17. Temporary Mvar Boost .............................................................. 6-20
Figure 6-18. The V-Q Curve .......................................................................... 6-22
Figure 6-19. Disturbance Report V-Q Curve.................................................. 6-23
Figure 6-20. P-V & V-Q Analysis ................................................................... 6-24
Figure 6-21. Additional View of P-V & V-Q Curves ........................................ 6-24
Figure 6-22. One-Line Diagram for July 2, 1996 Disturbance........................ 6-26
Figure 6-23. Boise 230 kV Voltage Collapse ................................................. 6-27
Figure 6-24. Fan Load Torque/Speed Curve ................................................. 6-29
Figure 6-25. Air-Conditioner Compressor Load Torque/Speed Curve........... 6-30
Figure 6-26. TVA and MLG&W Power Systems ............................................ 6-31
Figure 6-27. Post Disturbance System Conditions ........................................ 6-33
Figure 6-28. Voltage Collapse Due to a Loss of Synchronism ...................... 6-34
Figure 6-29. Voltage Control Zones............................................................... 6-35
Figure 6-30. Time Frames for Voltage Instability ........................................... 6-40

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6.1 Voltage Stability

6.1.1 Introduction to Voltage Collapse & Voltage Instability

This chapter introduces an extreme type of voltage deviation called a voltage
collapse. When a power system experiences a voltage collapse, system voltages
decay to a level from which they are unable to recover. A voltage collapse is a
possible result of a period of voltage instability. The effects of a voltage collapse
are more serious than those of a typical low voltage scenario. As a consequence
of voltage collapse, entire utility systems may experience a blackout. Restoration
procedures are then required to restore the power system.
As power systems are pushed to transfer more and more power, the likelihood of
a voltage collapse occurring becomes greater. For example, in the past a power
system may have had its power transfer limited due to angle stability
considerations. Complex protection schemes and new types of equipment may
now be used to extend power transfers beyond these angle stability imposed
limits. The resulting increase in power transfer limits can make the system more
susceptible to voltage collapse.
6.2 Definitions

6.2.1 Voltage Stability & Instability Definitions

Voltage stability is the ability of a power system to maintain adequate voltage
magnitudes. When the load connected to a voltage stable system is increased, the
power delivered to that load also increases. In a voltage stable system both power
and voltage are controllable. In a voltage unstable system system operators have
lost control of both voltage magnitudes and power transfer.

Nominal Versus Actual Load

Before continuing with definitions of voltage stability and instability, we first
distinguish between two types of load. The nominal load is the rated load.
Nominal load is the MW the customer load draws if it is operated at its nominal
(or rated) voltage and frequency. The actual load is the actual MW drawn from
the power system by a load. The actual load may be different than the nominal
load.
Chapters 4 and 5 stated that voltage and frequency levels impact the load
magnitude. Assume a 100 MW load is connected to a power system with
customer voltages 5% below nominal values. 100 MW is the nominal load.
However, since the customer’s voltage is 5% low, the actual load is less (perhaps
97 MW) than the nominal load.
Given these definitions of nominal and actual load we are now ready to present a
concise definition of voltage stability. In a voltage stable system when nominal
load is increased, the MW transferred to that load also increases. In a voltage
unstable system when nominal load is increased, the MW transferred to that load
will decrease. Figure 6-1 restates our definition of voltage stability.

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Voltage Stability

Voltage Stability is the Ability of a Power System

to Maintain Voltage so That When the System
Nominal Load is Increased the MW Transferred
to That Load Will Increase.

Figure 6-1. Definition of Voltage Stability

6.2.2 Voltage Collapse Definition

Voltage collapse is a process during which voltage instability leads to loss of
voltage in a part of the power system. A system enters a period of voltage
instability prior to a voltage collapse. During voltage instability the power system
is in grave danger and the system operators have lost control of system voltage
and power flow. System voltage levels could be in the neighborhood of 70 to
90% of normal. System reactive supplies are exhausted and motors may begin to
stall. If voltages decline any further a voltage collapse occurs.
In simple terms, a voltage collapse occurs when there is not enough Mvar
available to serve the reactive power requirements of the area power system and
loads. The Mvar deficiency leads to decay in voltages. If the deficiency in
reactive power is great enough, system voltages decay to a level that they are
unable to recover from. Figure 6-2 summarizes this definition of voltage collapse.

Voltage Collapse is a Process in Which a

Voltage Unstable System Experiences an
Uncontrolled Reduction in System Voltage.

Figure 6-2. Definition of Voltage Collapse

6.2.3 Voltage Stability Versus Angle Stability

Angle instability occurs when generators lose their magnetic bond. Angle
stability is chiefly a function of generator stability. When torque /power angles
are too large, and disturbances occur, magnetic bonds may be lost. When a power
system experiences angle instability, system voltages will likely collapse.
However it is not a shortage of reactive power that drove this voltage collapse but
rather excessive voltage phase angles. Chapter 7 expands on the concept of angle
stability.

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Voltage stability is chiefly a function of power system load. Excessive loading in

the power system leads to deficiencies in Mvar and the system is no longer able to
support voltage. A voltage collapse could then occur. It is a shortage of reactive
power that drives this voltage collapse not large voltage phase angles.
Figure 6-3 compares angle stability to voltage stability. In Figure 6-3(a) the
generator could lose its magnetic bond if voltage phase angles are pushed to far.
In Figure 6.3(b) the load area voltage could collapse if excessive load consumes
the available reactive power.

Figure 6-3. Voltage Stability Versus Angle Stability

6.3 Types of Voltage Instability
As a general observation a triggering event is required to initiate voltage
instability. For example, a key transmission line or generator may trip due to a
fault. This could lead to Mvar shortages as remaining lines accommodate the
redistributed MW and Mvar flows. Reactive power losses may then sharply
increase. The low voltages that result from the reactive power deficiency may
lead to further line trips. Regional or total system voltage instability is a
possibility.
This section examines the concepts of voltage instability and voltage collapse by Every voltage
describing three general types of voltage instability: instability incident
does not neatly fit
1. Long-Term Voltage Instability into one of these
three categories.
2. Classical Voltage Instability The categories are
3. Short-Term or Transient Voltage Instability defined to simplify
our presentation of
the theory of
voltage instability
and collapse.

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6.3.1 Long-Term Voltage Instability

In long-term voltage instability a transmission path separates a system’s
generating sources and load areas. The transmission path used to connect the
generation to the load is stressed to the point that the system can no longer
maintain voltages. Power system voltages go unstable due to a failure to transmit
sufficient reactive power to the points (the load area) where the Mvar is needed.
This type of voltage instability may take several minutes to several hours to occur.
(Section 6.4 expands on the long term type of voltage instability).

6.3.2 Classical Voltage Instability

In classical voltage instability an interconnected power system does not have
enough Mvar to satisfy the needs of the system and the customer load. A system
disturbance creates the deficiency of Mvar. The greater the deficiency of Mvar,
the greater the risk of voltage instability. Eventually the Mvar shortage reaches a
point from which the system cannot recover and voltage instability results. This
type of voltage instability may take from 1 to 5 minutes following the disturbance.
(Section 6.5 expands on the classical type of voltage instability.)

6.3.3 Short-Term or Transient Voltage Instability

Short-term or transient voltage instability typically involves large numbers of
induction motors stalling and attempting to restart. The motor stalling leads to a
large increase in Mvar consumption. If a severe enough shortage of reactive
power develops voltage instability may occur. (Section 6.6 expands on the short-
term or transient voltage instability concept.)
Utilities are increasing the time they spend examining the probability of voltage
instability. Utilities must often make do with the transmission lines and
generation they currently have in place. The prospects for initiating major new
construction projects are dim. Complex protection schemes are often installed to
extend system operating limits that were once restricted due to angle stability and
thermal loading concerns.
With these equipment additions the existing power systems are stressed to greater
limits. An undesirable consequence of extending operating limits is an increased
probability of voltage instability. The complex protection schemes installed to
extend angle stability limits may extend the system’s operating limits into the
areas of voltage instability and voltage collapse.
Figure 6-4 summarizes the three types of voltage instability that are examined in
the next three sections of this chapter.

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Type Cause Time Frames

1. Long Term Slowly Uses Up Reactive Several Minutes to
Reserves, No Outage Several Hours
2. Classical Key Outage Leads to One to Five Minutes
Reactive Power Shortage

3. Transient Induction Motor Stalling Five to Fifteen Seconds

Leads to Reactive Power
Shortages

Figure 6-4. Voltage Instability Types & Time Frames

6.4 Long-Term Voltage Instability

6.4.1 Introduction to Long-Term Voltage Instability

This section describes the long-term voltage instability concept. In long-term
voltage instability slowly developing changes to the power system occur that
eventually lead to a shortage of reactive power and declining voltages. A radial
power system is used to illustrate long-term voltage instability.

6.4.2 Radial Power Systems

A radial power system is a power system in which generation and load areas are
separated by a transmission path. Several parallel lines may be used to connect
generation sources to the load areas. Radial power systems often develop as a
means to connect inexpensive sources of generation to large metropolitan load
areas. Figure 6-5 illustrates a radial 345/138 kV power system that is referenced
frequently throughout this chapter.
Radial power systems occur in unexpected areas. For example, many
metropolitan areas are progressing towards being radial power systems. It is very
difficult to build generation in heavily populated areas so utilities build their
generation in more remote, distant places and transmit it to the load areas. These
types of systems are radial power systems.
Figure 6-5 follows on the next page.

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 Voltage Stability

The arrow symbol

on the low voltage
side of each
transformer
indicates the
transformer has
under load tap
changing capability
(ULTC).

Figure 6-5. Simple Radial Power System

6.4.3 Use of the P-V Curve

When MW is transferred across a radial power system a curve can be created that
compares the voltage at the receiving end of the system (VR) to the MW
P-V curves were transferred across the system. Figure 6-6 contains an example of this type of
introduced in curve (called a power versus voltage curve or P-V curve). Note from this curve
Section 5.2.2.
that as the MW transfer increases across the system, the voltage at the receiving
bus (VR) slowly decreases.
Eventually a point is reached (the “knee” of the P-V curve) where any further
increase in MW transfer leads to a rapid decrease in voltage. The knee of the P-V
curve is the boundary between voltage stability and voltage instability. The
voltage and MW transfer levels at the knee of the curve are called the “critical”
values. For example, in Figure 6-6, the critical voltage is 70% of nominal and the
critical MW transfer is 3000 MW.
Once the critical values are exceeded the system has entered a condition of
voltage instability. The system voltage could collapse at any time. When voltage
is unstable system operators have lost control of power transfer and voltage
magnitude.

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Figure 6-6. A Sample P-V Curve

Assume the power system whose P-V curve is shown in Figure 6-7 is initially
operating at an MW transfer of 2,000 MW. From the curve, the receiving bus Recall from Section
voltage would be approximately 100% of nominal at this MW transfer level. 6.2.1 the distinction
Assume further that the system load (the nominal load) starts to grow. MW between the
nominal and actual
transfer grows with the increasing nominal system load. Eventually the MW
system load.
transfer grows to 3000 MW.

P-V curves are a

tool to avoid voltage
instability. Avoid
operating near the
knee of the P-V
curve.

Figure 6-7. P-V Curve Illustration of Voltage Instability

The system is now on the brink of voltage instability. If the nominal load were to
grow any larger, the MW transferred to the load would actually begin to decrease.
Once the MW transfer exceeds the critical value the system is voltage unstable
and a voltage collapse could occur at any time.

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 Voltage Stability

P-V Curves and Reactive Power

Two points are labeled on the curve of Figure 6-7, “A” and “B”. If the power
system is operated in the area of point “A”, any small increase in MW transfer
leads to only a small decrease in receiving end voltage, VR. In contrast, if the
power system is operated in the area of point “B”, any small increase in MW
transfer leads to a large decrease in VR. This is due to the heavy Mvar usage of
the system in the area of point “B”. Typically, a utility with voltage instability
concerns avoids system operation to the right of point “B” in Figure 6-7.
When a system is heavily loaded current magnitudes are high. Mvar losses are
proportional to I2X. When current increases, Mvar losses increase at a rate at
least equal to the square of the increase in current. The large voltage drops that
result from increased MW transfers, in the area of point “B”, are due to the large
Mvar losses on the system.
When the sending end system tries to replace these large Mvar losses, current
increases even further and voltages may drop even more. Heavily stressed power
systems experience heavy Mvar losses and large voltage drops. The knee of the
P-V curve is the point at which the system runs out of usable reactive reserves.

Creating P-V Curves

P-V curves are often

P-V curves are typically created by utility planning and operating engineers as an
used in combination analysis tool to study voltage collapse in the power system. Many utilities that
with V-Q curves. V- are concerned with voltage collapse develop P-V curves to help with their study.
Q curves are The P-V curves of Figures 6-6 and 6-7 are provided only as samples. Each
introduced in system must produce P-V curves for the different operating conditions –
Section 6.5.
equipment outages, generation patterns, load levels, etc - encountered on their
systems. The operating restrictions associated with the curves are then discussed
with the system operations.

Shape of the P-V Curve

Many utilities are increasingly using shunt capacitors to both solve system voltage
problems and to increase MW transfer capabilities. Shunt capacitors are
considered a source of Mvar that is relatively inexpensive to install and maintain.
However, shunt capacitors present an interesting operating problem with respect
to voltage instability. Figure 6-8 contains three P-V curves combined in one plot.
The three curves are for three different receiving-end load power factors. The 0.9
lagging power factor is the normal case. The unity power factor (1.0) curve is the
result of adding shunt capacitor banks at the receiving-end. The 0.9 leading
power factor curve is the result of adding still more shunt capacitors at the
receiving-end.
Notice the location of the knee of the three curves. Recall that the knee is the
boundary between voltage stability and instability. You need to operate the
power system far enough from the knee to avoid the risk of voltage instability and
possible collapse. As more and more shunt capacitors are added to the system,

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the knee of the P-V curve moves out and up into the range of normal system
voltages. From a system operator perspective this is very dangerous. The best
warning signal - rapidly declining system voltages - is taken away with increased
use of shunt capacitors. As more and more shunt capacitors are installed, the
point of voltage instability is hidden or “masked”.

As additional shunt
capacitors are
placed in-service
the nose of the P-V
curve is pushed out
and up. The point of
voltage instability is
“masked”.

Figure 6-8. Shunt Capacitor Effect on P-V Curves

Usage of P-V Curves

Figure 6-9 illustrates a power system with four 345 kV transmission lines
connecting a generation area with a load area. Figure 6-10 contains three P-V
curves for the power system of Figure 6-9. The three P-V curves in Figure 6-10
are for system normal (curve “A”), one 345 kV line out-of-service (curve “B”),
and two 345 kV lines out-of-service (curve “C”). Note the three possible load
levels labeled #1 (2,500 MW), #2 (3,000 MW) and #3 (3,250 MW) that are noted
on Figure 6-10. Assume that the customer load could grow to any of these three
levels.
If all four 345 kV lines are in-service this system could safely serve all three load
levels since the nose of the normal system P-V curve (curve “A”) is to the right of
load levels #1, #2, and #3. There is no risk of voltage instability if all four 345
kV lines are in-service.
If one 345 kV line is out-of-service the system could not serve load level #3
because this load level exceeds the P-V curve (curve “B”) range and it would

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Voltage Stability

cause voltage instability. Load level #2 is questionable as it rests right on the

nose of Curve “B”. This would be a very dangerous point of operation.
If two 345 kV lines were out-of-service none of the load levels could be served
safely as the nose of curve “C” is to the left of all three load levels.

Figure 6-9. Sample Systm to Demonstrate Usage of P-V Curves

Figure 6-10. P-V Curves for System of Figure 6-9

6.4.4 Conditions for Long Term Voltage Instability

In order for long term voltage instability to occur certain initial conditions must
exist. The most important prerequisite is for the active and reactive power flows
on the system to be heavy. For example, the system would be operated in the area
of point “B” in Figure 6-7. Any small increase in MW transfer then leads to a
significant decrease in receiving end voltage.

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6.4.5 Long Term Voltage Instability Process

The simple system of Figure 6-11 is used to summarize the long-term voltage
instability process on a heavily loaded radial power system. In Figure 6-11 note
the three ULTCs and the two shunt capacitor banks. Also note there are two types
of load, motor load and non-motor (possibly resistive) load. To set-up our voltage
instability process assume the initial loading on this radial power system is heavy.
In other words, the system is operating towards the nose of its P-V curve.

Assume the ULTCs

in this system are in
automatic mode. No
operator
intervention is
required.

Figure 6-11. Radial Power System for Long Term Voltage Collapse
A summary of the steps to long-term voltage instability follows. (Refer to
Figure 6-11 as you progress through these steps.)
Î In response to increasing customer load, the power system ULTCs act to
raise declining low-side voltages. ULTCs raise voltage by adjusting the
transformer turns ratio. When the low-side turns are increased, the
transformer draws Mvar from the high side to support the larger winding
on the low side. The increased Mvar supply to the low voltage system
should raise low side voltage levels.
Î The Mvar supplied to the low voltage system was drawn from the high
voltage (345 kV in Figure 6-11) transmission system. This will cause a
reduction in the already low transmission system voltage levels. The
amount of reduction depends on how much additional Mvar can be
obtained from the sending end sources. (Assume that all available shunt
capacitors are already in-service.)
Î The generators at the sending system attempt to increase their Mvar
output. These generators are already close to their reactive capability
limits and can manage only small Mvar increases. In addition, only a

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 Voltage Stability

small portion of this Mvar makes it to the receiving end. The higher I2X
losses absorb the majority of the increased Mvar generation.
Î The failure to obtain additional reactive power results in a system voltage
decline. This reduction in voltage reduces the Mvar output of the shunt
capacitor banks and reduces line charging. (Recall the dependence of
shunt capacitors and line charging on the square of the voltage level.)
This further reduces the system voltages.
Î Over a several minute to several hour period the customer load increases
further. The ULTCs continually attempt to raise low-side voltage. These
ULTC adjustments have little impact on low-side voltages as there is
little Mvar available from the high side transmission system. Besides
being of no help to the low-side voltages, the tap changer action further
depresses high side voltages.
Î As new load is added the system voltage decays further, eventually
reaching the knee of the P-V curve. Once the system passes over the
knee, voltage and MW transfer could collapse following minor system
condition changes. The only way to save the system is to reduce the MW
load, or add additional Mvar, prior to reaching the point of voltage
instability.

6.4.6 Role of Tap Changing Equipment

The ULTCs that acted to increase the low-side voltage performed their job well as
long as Mvar was available for flow from the high to the low side. When the high
side Mvar reserves were depleted, the action of the ULTCs hastened the
beginning of voltage instability. As the ULTCs attempted to raise low-side
voltages they further decreased high side voltages and the outputs of high side
shunt capacitive sources. Once the high side voltages decreased far enough it did
not matter what level the low-side voltages were at. If the high side is lost the
entire system collapses.
Many systems have recognized the problems with ULTCs during voltage
instability prone operating conditions. These systems often have operating
Voltage regulators procedures that contain instructions warning system operators to avoid manually
are similar to
adjusting ULTCs or placing the ULTC in automatic mode when the possibility for
ULTCs with a 1:1
turns ratio. Voltage voltage instability exists. However, systems often have little control over the use
regulators are of voltage regulators. The majority of these devices are on automatic control.
commonly used in The best that can often be done is to consider avoiding the use of bulk power
the distribution system ULTCs during the operating periods in which the system is susceptible to
system.
voltage instability.

Tap Changers and Load Overshoot

In Figure 6-11 a 345/138 ULTC and a 138/12 ULTC are shown in series. This
was done intentionally to illustrate a possible phenomenon called “load
overshoot”. During the voltage instability process just described the ULTCs

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 Voltage Stability

automatically responded to support their low-side voltages as the system loads

increased. If the response time of the two series ULTCs is not properly
coordinated the MW and Mvar load could overshoot. This load overshoot occurs
at the worst possible time and could push the system further toward voltage
instability.
Figure 6-12 illustrates only the two series ULTCs of Figure 6-11. Assume that
system voltages are dropping. After a 30 second time delay the “upstream”
ULTC responds first to raise its low-side voltage (V2). The stair-step rise in
voltage V2 is noted in the voltage plot at the bottom of Figure 6-12. The upstream
ULTC moves through a total of eight tap positions.
The “downstream” ULTC starts to raise its low-side voltage after a 45 second
time delay. The downstream ULTC moves through three tap positions. Note the
period on the voltage plot of Figure 6-12 in which both ULTCs are adjusting taps.
The distribution voltage recovers before the transmission voltage. The tap
changes by transformer #2 were unnecessary. The result is a voltage overshoot on
the 12 kV voltage. The transformer #2 ULTC cannot reverse its tap movement
for several (45) seconds as illustrated in the figure.
Figure 6-12 follows on the next page.

Upstream ULTCs
should be
configured to adjust
their taps before
downstream
ULTCs.

Figure 6-12. Tap Changers and Load Overshoot

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 Voltage Stability

Recall that load magnitude is dependent on voltage. The voltage overshoot yields
MW and Mvar load overshoot. The Mvar load increase may be enough to push
the system over the brink to voltage instability. The solution to this dilemma is to
allow the upstream ULTC to adjust voltage before the downstream ULTC starts
its tap movement. ULTCs are equipped with time delays that can be adjusted.

6.4.7 Tap Changing and Load Magnitude

Tap changers are often a critical component in voltage instability scenarios. Tap
changer impact is not only due to their draw of reactive power from the high side
but also to their impact on customer load magnitude. To avoid voltage instability,
system load should if at all possible be minimized. Since load magnitude is
dependent on voltage levels, tap changers strongly impact load magnitude.

Tap Changing with Non-Motor Load

The effects of tap changers are dependent on the type of load connected to the
low side of the transformer. If the load is primarily non-motor (such as resistive
electric heating) the use of tap changers normally hurts rather than helps the
situation. Non-motor load normally decreases when voltage drops, which is a
good thing during a voltage collapse. However, if tap changers act to raise taps
and voltage, the load magnitude rises. In general, during conditions that may lead
to a voltage collapse you do not want to use tap changers that supply non-motor
load. It is typically better to let the voltage drop.

Tap Changing with Motor Load

Motor load is not If the transformer with the tap changer feeds motor load, you may want to use the
strongly impacted
tap changer. Motor load is not strongly affected by voltage. When voltage drops
by voltage as long
as you stay within the motor draws more current to draw constant power. However, if the motor is
the normal heavily shunt compensated, as most large industrial motors are, you would want
operating range of to increase its voltage during a voltage collapse.
the motor (typically
90 to 110% of rated Increasing the voltage to a shunt compensated motor lowers the current drawn
voltage). (and the Mvar losses) while increasing the output from the shunt capacitors.
During conditions that could lead to a voltage collapse you may want to use tap
changers to raise voltage in heavily industrialized areas of the system. This may
lower the reactive power drawn through the power system.

Self-Defeating Tap Change

An interesting situation can develop if automatic load tap changing occurs during
the conditions prior to a voltage collapse. Assume that the high voltage system is
heavily loaded. As load increases tap changers act to maintain low-side voltages
at their desired values. If the high side is weak the movement of Mvar to the low
side further reduces high side voltages. If high side voltages drop far enough the
net result of the tap change may be to lower both the high and low-side voltages.

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The tap changer could then runaway and eventually move to full boost. The
result of all the tap changes is lower high and low-side voltages. This sequence of
events is called a “self-defeating” tap change.

6.4.8 Example of Long Term Voltage Instability

A real world case of a long-term voltage collapse is illustrated by the Tokyo
Electric Power Company voltage collapse of July 23, 1987. In this instance an
extremely high, unexpected demand caused a sustained decay of voltage that led
to a partial system shutdown.
Tokyo Electric’s major power sources, such as nuclear plants and large-scale
thermal power plants, are located in the eastern regions of their service area with
very few generating facilities in the west where much of the load is located.
Thus, large blocks of power typically flow east to west on the bulk 525 kV
system.
On the day of the disturbance temperatures reached record highs (102°F) and
power usage began to rise. By the early afternoon, demand was increasing at a
rate of 400 MW/minute, about 40% greater than the estimated rate of rise.
Despite various countermeasures, such as increasing the Mvar supplied by
generators, bringing new generation on-line, arranging for imports, and switching
on shunt capacitors, voltage steadily decreased.
The usage of automatic shunt capacitor insertion schemes was particularly
important during this event. The peak load on this day hit approximately 40,000
MW. There are 10,600 Mvar of shunt capacitors available in the system. During
the lunch break, demand dropped from 39,100 MW to 36,500 MW and voltages
rose. Several shunt capacitors (approximately 1,300 Mvar) were automatically
removed due to high voltage on some area transformers. After lunch break (about
1 pm), these shunt capacitors were expected to be switched on automatically as
demand increased. However, the MW load increase was faster than ever
experienced, and the automatic controls could not keep up with the dropping
voltage. All of the 1,300 Mvar of shunt capacitors were inserted but too late,
voltages had already dropped.
In the western part of the system, voltage decayed to 370 kV (70% of the
scheduled value of 525 kV) as illustrated in Figure 6-13. About 20 minutes after
the voltages began to fall protective relays began to operate. Two 500 kV lines,
four 275 kV lines, and four 275/66 kV transformers tripped with zone 4 distance
targets. There were no faults, these facilities tripped because associated distance
relays detected low voltage combined with high current and high Mvar flow. The
relays were fooled into tripping by the unusual system conditions.
As a result of the tripping two 500 kV and one 275 kV substations were shut
down, dropping about 8,200 MW of load (2.8 million customers affected).
Within 20 minutes the three substations were re-energized and about 60 percent of
the load was restored.

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In this disturbance MW demand continued to build without adequate Mvar

support in the vicinity of the load. The system was stressed to the point where the
reactive limits of the generators were reached and the shunt capacitor banks that
were in service were not as effective due to the low voltage. Tap changer and
voltage regulator usage, in an effort to hold load voltage - only made matters
worse by depressing transmission voltage further every time a tap step-up
occurred. A loss of load diversity served to bring on even more load thus
depressing voltage even further until key facilities began to trip.

Figure 6-13. Tokyo Electric’s Shin-Fuji 500 kV Substation Voltage

6.5 Classical Voltage Instability

6.5.1 Introduction to Classical Voltage Instability

This section describes classical voltage instability. Classical voltage instability is
similar to long-term voltage instability with two important differences. First, the
time frame is shorter, lasting from 1 to 5 minutes. Second, classical voltage
instability requires a triggering event such as the loss of a major transmission line.
This section also describes the V-Q curve concept, which is an important tool for
studying voltage instability.
Classical voltage instability occurs when conditions develop in which there is not
enough Mvar available to meet the needs of the system and the loads. A power
system that is normally strong with many interconnecting lines and sources of
reactive power is possibly susceptible to classical voltage instability if:

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Î Loads on the system are heavier than normal

Î A contingency occurs such as the loss of a key line or generator
The events described in Section 6.4 for long-term voltage instability also may
occur during classical voltage instability. For example, the Mvar contributed by
capacitors and line charging is reduced as voltages drop; tap changer (both from
ULTCs and regulators) action may further depress transmission system voltages.

6.5.2 Loss of Load Diversity The reduction in

The system load may naturally adjust to help avoid voltage instability. For load magnitude is
also eliminated if
instance, when voltage decreases non-motor load magnitude decreases. This the voltage
natural response lowers the overall system load magnitude and helps reduce regulators restore
voltage drop. This effect is largely eliminated if the heavy load period lasts for voltage. This is a
a long time. negative effect of
voltage regulator
For example, consider electric resistive heating. When voltages are low the heat operation.
output of electric heaters reduces. The heater thermostat is designed to hold the
building temperature at a pre-set level. If the output of a heater decreases the
thermostat simply energizes more heaters or keeps the heaters on for a longer
period. The combined effect of more heaters operating and running the heaters
for a longer period eventually causes an increase in the total system load.
Power system load is constantly changing. Small loads are always being added
or removed. When a majority of these loads are running at the same time, such
as the electric heaters described above, the condition is known as a “loss of load
diversity”. A loss of load diversity leads to an increase in the total system load
level.

6.5.3 Simulation of Classical Voltage Instability

Figure 6-14 is a simple system put together to illustrate classical voltage
instability. Note the 150-mile long radial 138 kV transmission path. Study
Figure 6-14 while noting the following points:
Î The load is initially 100 MW
Î The 138 kV voltage is 4.7% above nominal or 144.5 kV
Î The low-side voltage level is 100% of its nominal value of 12 kV
Î The generator is providing 14.3 Mvar to the system
Î The 35 Mvar capacitor is providing 38.3 Mvar to the system
2
⎛ 142.5 ⎞
35 × ⎜ = 38.3 Mvar
⎝ 138 ⎟⎠
o

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Note the 35 Mvar

capacitor supplies
38.3 Mvar. The
capacitor output is
proportional to the
voltage squared.

Figure 6-14. Conditions at Receiving Bus Prior to Adding 10 MW

Load
A 10 MW load Classical voltage instability is triggered in this system by adding 10 MW of load.
addition may not
seem like a large
Figure 6-15 illustrates what happens to the high and low-side voltages. When the
disturbance. 10 MW load is added both voltages initially drop. The ULTC then starts its tap
However, in the changing sequence in an effort to raise the low-side voltage. Notice how this tap
simple system of change does very little to improve the low-side voltage but causes a gradual
Figure 6-14 this reduction in the high side voltage.
represents a sudden
10% load increase.

Figure 6-15. High and Low-Side Voltages After 10 MW Load is Added

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Loss of Load Diversity

Approximately 4 minutes after the 10 MW load addition the system appears to
stabilize. This stabilization does not last long as illustrated by the gradual
collapse of voltages in Figure 6-15. The gradual collapse is due to two factors.
First, the load on this system was non-motor (unity power factor) load. This type
of load is very sensitive to voltage. When the voltage is low, the load magnitude
shrinks. This load reduction helps the system out, at least for a few minutes.
The load relief does not last very long as more and more of the connected load
is active at the same time. Over a period of 10 to 15 minutes most of the load
reduction due to voltage disappears.
The second factor that drove this system into voltage instability is a short term
boost of reactive power from local generators. Generators can leave the limits
of their reactive capability curves for short periods of time. Eventually the
generator’s protective systems force the generator’s Mvar output back within
limits. This forced reduction in Mvar output contributed to the slow decline
of voltages as illustrated in Figure 6-15.

6.5.4 Response of Generation

The response of local generation is a critical factor in avoiding voltage instability.
If local generators are at their reactive power producing limits the system may be
in serious trouble. A generator’s reactive power limits are defined by the unit’s
reactive capability curve. When conditions are such that voltage instability is
probable, system operators and plant operators must try every means possible to
increase reactive power reserve.
This may include a re-dispatch of generation. In a re-dispatch of generation, local
generator MW levels are decreased to allow an increase in the unit’s reactive
power generating capability. The MW output from generators outside the
troubled area would then be increased. Figure 6-16 illustrates how cutting back
on a generator’s MW output increases the available Mvar capacity.
Point “A” in Figure 6-16 represents a power output of 80 MW and 57 Mvar. The
generator cannot exceed these power limits for sustained periods (a few minutes)
without risking damage to the generator. However, if the MW output is reduced
to 60 MW, as shown by point “B”, the Mvar output can be increased to 68 Mvar.
When voltages drop suddenly following a key line loss, the area generators will at
first boost their Mvar output to try to support the system voltage. This is
illustrated in Figure 6-17 by the movement from point “A” to “B”. Note from the
figure that the generator has actually exceeded its reactive capability. After a few
minutes the generator’s protection systems return the unit within its capability
curve. This reduction in Mvar output may be enough to cause voltage collapse.

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Figure 6-16. Adjusting the Generator Operating Point

Figure 6-17. Temporary Mvar Boost

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6.5.5 Phases of Classical Voltage Instability

The apparent stabilization of system voltage just described in our simulation of
voltage collapse is a common feature of actual classical voltage instability
incidents. Two phases of classical voltage instability can be identified.

Phase 1 immediately follows the triggering event. For example, a large line trips
quickly driving down local area voltages. Voltages stabilize during phase one at a
low value but the voltage does not collapse. Voltages do not collapse due to a
combination of the impact of voltage on load magnitude and the short term
reactive boost from area generators. Phase 1 may last for a few minutes, at most,
due to the response of the generator overexcitation protection systems.

Phase 2 is the period in which the system actually experiences voltage instability
and likely collapse. As a loss of load diversity develops and generators
automatically run-back their Mvar outputs, the voltage collapses.

6.5.6 Introduction to the V-Q Curve

The V-Q curve is used to study voltage instability scenarios. Figure 6-18 is a Power flow
programs are
sample V-Q curve. V-Q curves are developed for critical buses in the power software tools that
system. Each curve is a plot of the amount of Mvar that must be inserted at the are used to create
critical bus to maintain a desired voltage level. The entire curve is produced computer
with a constant MW transfer. Power flow studies are run to determine how much simulations of the
Mvar support is needed to achieve a range of critical bus voltage levels. behavior of a power
system.
For example, from Figure 6-18 the bus voltage is approximately 226 kV if no
additional Mvar is injected in the system (point “A” in the figure). The bus would
require an injection of approximately 265 Mvar to maintain a voltage of 235 kV
(point “B” in the figure). Point “C” is the point of voltage instability. If the
critical bus voltage falls to this low a level (200 kV or 87% of normal), the area
voltage will likely collapse.
V-Q curves can be used to determine the benefits of system changes and to
determine how much of a Mvar margin exists for a given operating condition.
For example, system designers may use V-Q curves to determine the impact of a
new 100 Mvar shunt capacitor. This is illustrated in Figure 6-18 where the
addition of the 100 Mvar bank raises the system voltage to 230 kV (point “D”). If
the 100 Mvar bank is in-service the V-Q curve illustrates that the system has a
350 Mvar reactive margin from voltage instability. 350 Mvar is the reactive
power difference between points “D” and “C” The more reactive reserve margin,
the less likely voltage instability would occur.

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Point “C” is the

“knee” of the V-
Q curve.

Figure 6-18. The V-Q Curve

6.5.7 Usage of the V-Q Curve

Figures 6-9 and 6-10 illustrated the application of the P-V curve concept. This
section applies the V-Q concept to the simple power system of Figure 6-9.
Assume that as a result of our P-V analysis we use a transfer limit of 3,000 MW
for the system of Figure 6-9. From our earlier analysis we know that this limit
allows for a single 345 kV line outage while still ensuring voltage stability.
Figure 6-19 contains four V-Q curves for the 3,000 MW transfer case first
illustrated in Figure 6-9. If all four 345 kV circuits are in-service a very large
Mvar margin would exist to help avoid voltage instability. If one of the 345 kV
lines was out-of-service the Mvar margin decreases but there is still a positive
margin. If two 345 kV lines were out-of-service the Mvar margin is very small
and this would be a dangerous operating scenario. If three 345 kV lines were
out-of-service the Mvar margin is negative which means voltage instability would
occur.

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Figure 6-19. Disturbance Report V-Q Curve

6.5.8 Combining P-V & V-Q Curves

Figure 6-20 contains a P-V curve and a V-Q curve. These two types of curves are
used to determine a simple system’s voltage stability related power transfer limits.
First the utility produces many P-V curves by running numerous power flows. P-
V curves are developed for all the critical buses in the system, for all key outages,
for different load levels, etc. This must be done to ensure that all operating
conditions and all areas of the system are checked and the most restrictive bus
identified.
Once the critical bus is identified a P-V curve as shown in the left side of Figure
6-20 is created. According to this P-V curve the maximum MW transfer before
voltage instability is 1,500 MW. The utility does not use 1,500 MW as the
transfer limit but rather 1,000 MW to ensure it has a sufficient safety cushion.
The users of the
Using a 1,000 MW power transfer the utility produces a V-Q curve. The V-Q power flow program
curve is also created using a power flow program. The power flow program is place a fictitious
synchronous
used to determine how many Mvar must be inserted at the critical bus to hold a condenser at the
range of bus voltages. Together the two curves give system operations a great critical bus to
deal of information. From the P-V curve the utility sets a transfer limit of 1,000 determine how
MW and by looking at the V-Q curve the utility knows they have a 300 Mvar many Mvar must be
margin before voltage instability occurs at this MW transfer limit. supplied to hold a
certain voltage
level.

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Figure 6-21 contains the same P-V and V-Q curves of Figure 6-20. The V-Q
curve in Figure 6-21 is simply a rotation and mirror image of the V-Q in Figure 6-
20.

Figure 6-20. P-V & V-Q Analysis

The P-V curve is

typically developed
for the most critical
bus given a key
facility outage.

The V-Q curve is

created using the
1,000 MW transfer
limit determined
from the P-V curve.

Figure 6-21. Additional View of P-V & V-Q Curves

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6.5.9 Example of Classical Voltage Instability

Conditions in the Western Interconnection in the summer of 1996 included heavy
loads (several power systems set new peaks) and heavy exports from the hydro
resources of the Pacific Northwest to California. On July 2, 1996, at 14:24:37 a
conductor of the Jim Bridger-to-Kinport 345 kV line contacted a tree. (Figure 6-
22 contains a simple one-line of the area power system.) The line tripped
(correctly) via a ground relay. A parallel 345 kV line—Jim Bridger-to-Goshen—
then tripped (improperly) due to a mis-operating ground relay at the Jim Bridger
station. A protection scheme (an SPS or special protection scheme) correctly
activated, initiating several actions including tripping two of the four units (1,040
MW) in operation at the Jim Bridger steam plant.
Figure 6-22 follows on the next page.

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Figure 6-22. One-Line Diagram for July 2, 1996 Disturbance

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Generators throughout the Western Interconnection responded with inertial and

governor support. Voltages throughout the area declined slightly, but did not
collapse. At 14:24:39 the LaGrande-to-Round Up 230 kV line tripped via a faulty
zone 3 impedance relay package. Voltages in the area declined further and at
14:24:51 a CJ Strike unit (key hydro units in the Boise, Idaho area for Mvar
support) tripped on a field overcurrent target.
Power flows from the Pacific Northwest into Idaho increased by approximately
500 MW as a result of these events. Voltages in the 500 kV systems along the
California-Oregon border and in the Boise, Idaho area declined and Mvar flow
into the Boise area rose sharply in a bid to support declining voltage. (Boise 230
kV voltage is illustrated in Figure 6-23.) The remaining CJ Strike units tripped at
14:25:01 and 14:25:02 along with several other hydro units in the BPA system (at
McNary). Also at 14:25:01 the Mill Creek-to-Antelope 230 kV line tripped via a
zone 3 impedance relay (the relay saw low voltage, with high current, high Mvar
flow and activated). At 14:25:04 the four Boise-to-Brownlee 230 kV lines
tripped—with distance targets—followed two seconds later by the separation of
the three 500 kV California-Oregon Intertie lines. The remaining ties that
connected the southern Idaho/eastern Oregon area with the rest of the Western
Interconnection open shortly after.

Figure 6-23. Boise 230 kV Voltage Collapse

At this point the entire west was experiencing major difficulties and would shortly
split into five islands. The major problem area was the southern Idaho/eastern
Oregon island (shaded area in Figure 6-22) as it experienced a complete voltage
collapse. 3,400 MW of load (425,000 customers) were interrupted for up to six
hours. The Boise area system voltage could not be supported with available Mvar
sources.

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The following day - July 3RD - a similar chain of events unfolded. At 2:03 p.m.,
the Jim Bridger-to-Kinport 345 kV line contacted a tree and tripped. The parallel
345 kV Jim Bridger-to-Goshen line falsely tripped due to ground relay
misoperation. The SPS activated and tripped two units at Jim Bridger.
Fortunately, operating conditions on July 3RD were substantially different than
July 2ND or a similar system response may have occurred. Schedules and
generator outputs had changed substantially from the previous day so area MW
and Mvar stress was substantially less. In addition, a key generator in the area
(Brownlee #5) was now in-service and delivering needed Mvar support.
Generators throughout the west again responded with inertial and governor
support. Voltages in the Boise area declined but stabilized at near normal
levels—97% on the 230 kV system. The Brownlee hydro units were the key units
in the area. Plant operators were concerned with the high Mvar output of the units
(field alarms had triggered) due to their support of the low system voltages. The
plant operators began to manually reduce the Mvar output to relieve unit thermal
stress. Voltages throughout the Boise area began to decline further. Idaho Power
Company system operators noted the declining voltages - recognized the
possibility for another voltage collapse - and immediately took the only option
available to them; shedding of Boise area load. All loads were restored, and the
system returned to normal within 1 hour.
These July 2ND and 3RD events in the Boise, Idaho area emphasize the need for
effective and sufficient dynamic Mvar reserve. If large amounts of rapidly
responsive dynamic reactive reserve had been available both incidents would
likely have resulted in no more than localized system disturbances. The July 3RD
events also illustrate how the rapid response of system operators can be the
difference between minor inconveniences and major system outages.
6.6 Short-Term or Transient Voltage Instability

6.6.1 Introduction to Short-Term or Transient Voltage Instability

This section describes short term or transient voltage instability. Transient
voltage instability occurs over a much shorter time period than the first two types
of voltage instability described. From the initial disturbance to voltage instability
typically takes less than 15 seconds. The induction motor stalling variation on
transient voltage instability is examined in this section.

6.6.2 Voltage Instability & Induction Motor Stalling

When a large induction motor is started it places a large reactive burden on the
power system. During normal operation a small amount of Mvar is required to
maintain the magnetic field in the air-gap of the motor. When an induction motor
is first started (or has stalled and is rebuilding speed) it may draw 5 to 8 times its
normal Mvar to build its magnetic field. This in-rush of reactive power typically
lasts only a few seconds but can severely depress system voltages.

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The amount of Mvar an induction motor draws from the power system is directly
related to its speed. When an induction motor is first started, it draws high current
as it accelerates from a standstill position. Once the motor reaches its operating
speed, the current draw reduces sharply.

Torque/Speed Curves
Figures 6-24 and 6-25 illustrate the relationship between motor speed and the
available accelerating torque for two types of motors. Figure 6-24 is for a fan
type motor. The three curves in Figure 6-24, labeled rated voltage, 80% voltage
and 60% voltage, represent the available torque to accelerate the motor at three
different system voltage levels. The fourth curve in Figure 6-24 is for the load
torque of the fan. This is the torque applied to the fan shaft. A fan type motor
rises towards rated speed as long as the available accelerating torque is greater
than the load torque.

Figure 6-24. Fan Load Torque/Speed Curve

As can be seen from Figure 6-24, the fan motor accelerates to near rated speed as
long as the system voltage is greater than 80% of nominal. If the system voltage
drops to 60% of nominal the fan load is greater than the available accelerating
torque. For example, if the motor is running at less than 45% of rated speed and
the system voltage is 60% of nominal, the motor never reaches its rated speed.
The motor draws large amounts of reactive current until hopefully its thermal
protection trips it off line.
Figure 6-25 contains torque/speed curves for an air-conditioner compressor. Two
available accelerating torque curves are shown along with two load torque curves.
The two load torque curves are for a hot (pressurized) compressor and a cold

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(pressure has bled-off) compressor. Notice that if a hot compressor motor slows
down below 60% of rated speed it cannot regain speed even if the rated system
voltage is available.

EPRI defines two

classes of motors;
robust and prone-
to-stall. 1F air-
conditioning
compressors are
prone-to-stall.

Figure 6-25. Air-Conditioner Compressor Load Torque/Speed Curve

Motor Stalling
Assume a severe voltage disturbance strikes a system with a heavy concentration
of induction motors. System voltage declines which causes the induction motors
to slow down. Once the system voltage starts to recover the motor load
automatically tries to pick up speed. The in-rush of Mvar to return the motors to
rated speed may be enough to trigger transient voltage instability.
The declining voltages due to the sudden increase in Mvar demand may cause
uncontrolled tripping and the rapid collapse of the area power system. This
sequence of events is classified as short-term or transient voltage instability due to
the speed of the events. The entire process typically last less than 15 seconds.
Systems with dense concentrations of 1Φ air conditioning load are most
susceptible to this type of voltage instability.

6.6.3 Example of Transient Voltage Instability

An example of transient voltage instability due to the stalling of induction motors
took place in and around the Memphis Light Gas & Water (MLG&W) power
system August 22, 1987. MLG&W was supplied with power by the Tennessee
Valley Authority (TVA). TVA is a large federal power agency that covers a five

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state area. MLG&W is a large municipal power system. Figure 6-26 is a one-line
diagram of the MLG&W system and the surrounding TVA system.

The transient
voltage collapse
was initiated by the
failure of a circuit
breaker at the
Southeast Gate
substation. This
substation is shown
in the lower left of
the figure.

Figure 6-26. TVA and MLG&W Power Systems

At 0120 Saturday morning, August 22, 1987, an air-blast circuit breaker at
Southeast Gate substation failed while performing an automatic (voltage
controlled) capacitor switching operation. The Memphis dispatcher was not
aware of the breaker failure, but noticed some unusual SCADA indications, and
was already suspicious of this type of breakers. The dispatcher called out
substation personnel to inspect the breaker. The substation inspector noticed
obvious damage to the breaker and suggested that it be taken out-of-service.
Current meters and circuit breaker targets indicated that the breaker was open so
the decision was made to use disconnects to clear the damaged breaker. At 1302
the operator began to crank open the disconnects and to his surprise all three
blades maintained arcs when fully opened. The arcs rapidly formed Φ-Φ faults
and eventually Φ-ground faults.

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There was no differential relaying on the Southeast Gate 115 kV bus. The fault
lasted for 78 cycles until it was finally cleared by various backup relays. (The
shaded breakers in Figure 6-26 illustrate where the fault was cleared.) Bus
voltages in the area depressed to as low as 60% of normal during the fault. After
the fault was cleared area voltages recovered to about 75% of normal.
The initial low voltage and the subsequent recovery to only 75% of nominal
caused many area motors to trip or stall. The tripping of area motors was
beneficial since this reduced the connected load. However, many motors simply
stalled, and as they attempted to regain speed drew huge amounts of Mvar from
the system. As was mentioned earlier, this in-rush current may be 5 to 8 times the
normal load current requirements of the motors.
Much of the motor load consisted of 1Φ air-conditioner compressors. These
motors often do not have any type of undervoltage protection to trip off-line.
Instead the motors stall which aggravates the low voltage situation. During the
disturbance, which lasted 10 to 15 seconds, large portions of compressor motor
load stalled and tried to regain speed. As the Memphis area reactive demands
increased the surrounding TVA system was called upon to supply the additional
reactive power.
The most severe impact was 70 miles to the north in the Covington, Jackson, and
A reverse zone 3 Milan areas where reactive power is supplied primarily by shunt capacitor banks.
relay is a distance
relay that is set to
The prevailing low voltage resulted in low shunt capacitor reactive output. In
look in a reverse addition, several key area lines and generators were out for maintenance. The two
direction. This is 161 kV lines from Johnsonville to South Jackson were heavily loaded with MW
done to reduce and Mvar power. Within two seconds of the initial disturbance both of these lines
false trips due to tripped due to operation of reverse zone 3 distance relays. After the loss of these
line overloads.
two lines voltage at South Jackson fell to 67% of normal.
Over the next 5 seconds, the rest of the 161 kV lines into Covington, Milan, and
South Jackson tripped due to the low voltage and the high current flows. Auto-
reclosing efforts failed throughout the system. TVA lost a total of 565 MW of
load while MLG&W lost 700 MW of load. Figure 6-27 illustrates the breakers
that tripped. The oval boxes state the MW lost and the time it took to restore the
load.
In hindsight, the lack of a differential protection scheme on the 115 kV bus at
Southeast Gate substation was critical. However, the point to emphasize from this
event is the impact of large numbers of small 1Φ air-conditioners. The combined
reactive needs of many stalled air-conditioning compressors led to this transient
voltage instability and collapse.

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Figure 6-27. Post Disturbance System Conditions

6.6.4 Voltage Collapse & Loss of Synchronism

When a section of the power system loses synchronism or goes out-of-step with
remaining portions of the power system, the power angle, δ, between the two
sections rises above 90° and moves toward 180°. Figure 6-28 illustrates the
concept of out-of-step from a voltage perspective with a simple three bus power
system. In part 6-28 (a) the power system is normal. Both sending and receiving
end bus voltages and the voltage at the midpoint are at normal levels, and the
power angle (δSR) between the two buses is well below 90° at 45°
Figure 6-28 (b) represents an abnormal condition with a power angle greater than
90°. The system is operating above its steady state stability limit. Note the
voltage at the midpoint of the power system in Figure 6-28. As the two ends of
the power system move farther apart in power angle the voltage at the midpoint
decreases. The only sources of reactive power are the ends of the system so the
midpoint voltage is dependent on end-bus support.

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This example
assumes that all
mid-point reactive
support comes from
the ends of the
system. The line
charging is also
ignored.

Figure 6-28. Voltage Collapse Due to a Loss of Synchronism

In Figure 6-28 (c), the power system has lost synchronism. The power angle has
risen to 180°. With a power angle of 180° the midpoint voltage is reduced to zero
volts. A total voltage collapse (voltage decays to zero) occurs between two areas
of the power system if the power angle between the two areas reaches 180°. As
the power angle increases from a normal level, past 90°, and on toward 180°,
power system voltages rapidly decrease. Out-of-step conditions can develop very
quickly following a major disturbance. From initial disturbance to instability may
be less than a second.
The driving force behind this voltage collapse was a loss of synchronism, not a
reactive power shortage. For this reason this type of collapse is not examined
further in this section. Chapter 7 on angle stability will expand on this concept.
6.7 Preventing Voltage Instability

6.7.1 Dynamic Reactive Reserves

Dynamic reactive reserves are automatically controlled reactive reserves that
respond rapidly to voltage deviations. Dynamic reactive reserves are typically
carried in synchronous generators, synchronous condensers, or SVCs. Manually
switched shunt capacitors and most automatically switched shunt capacitors do
not qualify as dynamic reactive reserves due to their slow response speed and
other control limitations.
To ensure an ability to respond to events that may lead to voltage instability it is
important that utilities carry sufficient dynamic reactive reserves. These dynamic
reserves should be strategically placed throughout the power system. It is
difficult to transmit reactive power so the location of the dynamic reactive
reserves is very important. The reactive reserves should be carried in the areas
they most likely are needed.

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6.7.2 Voltage Control Zones Utilities are also

careful about the
MW reserve requirements are typically carried by individual utilities with few location of MW
stipulations placed on the resources physical location. This is normally reserves. This helps
acceptable for MW reserves as it is comparatively easy to transmit active power. avoid MW transfer
problems following
Dynamic reactive power reserves are a different story. It is difficult to transmit major generation
reactive power so the locations of the dynamic reactive reserves are critical. The contingencies.
concept of voltage control zones was created to address the importance of the
location of reactive reserves. A voltage control zone is a physical section of the Some utilities do use
power system that responds as a cohesive unit to voltage deviations within that rapidly switched
shunt capacitors as
zone. For example, given a voltage deviation within a voltage control zone the a means of
reactive sources within that zone respond together to restore the zone’s voltages. preventing voltage
instability. If major
Figure 6-29 illustrates the concept of voltage control zones for a simple power area transmission
system. This particular system has been divided into four voltage control zones. lines trip, the shunt
The dynamic reactive reserves within each zone strongly respond to voltage capacitors are
deviations within that particular zone. As long as minimum levels of dynamic quickly inserted
reactive reserves are held in each zone the likelihood of voltage instability is (matter of cycles) to
help avoid voltage
minimized within each zone. instability.

Figure 6-29. Voltage Control Zones

6.7.3 Load Shedding

Assuming that sufficient reactive reserves cannot be made available the primary
means to avoid voltage instability is to shed load. The ideal load to shed is
heavily inductive load. When heavily inductive load is shed, such as
uncompensated induction motor load, both the system active and reactive power
loads are reduced.

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Manual Load Shedding

Manual load shedding may be an option if the voltage instability develops slowly.
(If the voltage instability develops rapidly a system operator may not be able to
shed load quickly enough to arrest the voltage collapse process.) If manual load
shedding is to be used to avoid voltage instability, clear operating procedures
must be made available to the system operators. These operating procedures
should:
Î Provide assistance to the system operator to help identify voltage
instability prone conditions.
Î Describe the conditions in which manual load shedding may be used.
Î Clearly identify which loads are available for shedding and which loads
should be shed for different system conditions.

Automatic Load Shedding

Several systems within NERC have installed protective relays to automatically
trip customer load to avoid voltage collapse. Undervoltage load shedding
(UVLS) systems are implemented throughout the Pacific Northwest, in the
Midwest and in several east coast systems.
UVLS systems are
A UVLS system automatically trips selected customer loads when voltage falls
similar to UFLS
systems. UVLS trips below a trigger level. The voltage normally must remain below the trigger level
based on voltage for a specified time delay before tripping is allowed. For example, several
while UFLS trips utilities have installed three stages of UVLS relays within their system. Typical
based on frequency. UVLS settings are:
Î 5% of load is tripped if voltage falls below 92% of nominal for a
minimum of 5 seconds.
Î An additional 5% of load is tripped if voltage falls below 92% of
nominal for a minimum of 8 seconds.
Î An additional 5% of load is tripped if voltage falls below 90% of
nominal for a minimum of 3.5 seconds.
Utilities may choose to activate UVLS schemes only during their voltage
instability prone times of year. For example if a utility risks voltage collapse only
during the winter heating season, UVLS relays may be enabled from November
through February and disabled otherwise. Activating only during certain periods
of the year helps to avoid false UVLS relay trips.
6.8 Role of the System Operator
This section provides information and suggestions to the system operator in
detecting and responding to a voltage collapse.

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6.8.1 Detecting Voltage Instability

An important function of the system operator is to monitor and respond to unusual
power system events before the events proceed to a point at which they cannot be
controlled. As a system operator you can prevent some types of voltage
instability if you can detect the conditions that may indicate pending voltage
instability. In general, the response of a system operator is limited to longer term
voltage instability scenarios. Transient voltage collapse occurs too rapidly for
system operator action. Classical voltage collapse that lasts for several minutes
may be impacted by a system operator’s response if actions are performed
quickly. The following power system events may indicate pending voltage
instability.
Î System voltage levels are unusually low. This may be due to heavy loads
or heavy power transfer. Voltage levels should be continuously
monitored. If a problem can be corrected before the voltages fall too far,
voltage instability may be avoided.
Î Unusual magnitudes and directions for reactive power flows. If
unusually large amounts of reactive power are flowing to one area of the
system it may point to pending voltage instability in that area.
o Prior to the August 14, 2003 blackout in the Eastern
Interconnection operators from several area utilities had noted
unusually high Mvar flow on tie-lines. Unfortunately the blackout
occurred before appropriate action could be taken.
Î Heavy reactive power generation at key area generators. If key area
generators are at their reactive power limit, they are not available if
further reactive power is required. Avoid entering a heavy load period
with low dynamic reactive power reserves.
Î ULTC adjustments fail to move the voltage. This may indicate a reactive
power shortage.

6.8.2 Responding to Voltage Instability

The best response to voltage instability is to prevent instability from occurring in
the first place. This may not always be possible. The following methods of
response are given as general guidelines. The guidelines are divided according to
our three types of voltage collapse.

Long Term Voltage Instability

Generating resources are often found in remote locations, far removed from any
major load centers. Radial power systems are constructed to connect these
economical generating plants to the major load centers. Hopefully, the power
system designers have planned for enough dynamic reactive reserves to withstand
the tremendous reactive power losses associated with heavily loaded, long radial

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power systems. The following precautions can be taken to prevent a long term
voltage collapse in a radial power system:
Î Ensure that the power plants at the sending end of the power system have
sufficient reactive power reserves to support the system and the loads.
These dynamic reserves must meet the requirements of the heaviest
possible load period for both normal and contingency conditions
Î All available reactive power sources at the receiving end, such as shunt
capacitors, should be in-service and in proper working order. (Shunt
reactors should be out-of-service.)
Î If series capacitors are available in the radial system they should be in-
service. Series capacitors lower line reactance. When series capacitors
are in-service the system’s Mvar losses decrease.
Î If voltages are low in the transmission system a conservative rule of
thumb is to avoid the use of area ULTCs. ULTC operation can impact
voltage instability in two ways. System load naturally decreases with
decreasing voltage. When an ULTC operates to raise voltage it also
increases load magnitude. In addition, when ULTCs raise low-side
voltage they often depress high side voltage. ULTC operation may
increase the chances of a voltage collapse.
Î As a last resort a system operator should consider manually dropping
load. If all possibilities to control the voltage instability are exhausted, it
is better to drop load in a controlled manner than to let the system
collapse in an uncontrolled manner. Systems may have automatic
undervoltage relay schemes installed to trip load during low voltage
periods. It is critical that these schemes are in operation during the
voltage collapse prone periods of the year.

Classical Voltage Instability

Classical voltage instability follows a system disturbance. As a result of the
disturbance there is insufficient reactive power to satisfy the demands of the
system and the customer load. The solution is simple; supply more reactive
power where it is needed. The means to achieve this solution may be very
difficult. To prevent classical voltage instability, a system operator (if time
allows) can do the following:
Î Maintain transfer limits within established guidelines. As MW transfer
increases, reactive power losses escalate. If conditions are ripe for
voltage instability consider reducing system transfers to limit reactive
power losses.
Î Ensure that all available static reactive power sources, such as shunt
capacitors, are in-service. In addition, make sure that all shunt reactors
are out-of-service.

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Î Ensure that sufficient dynamic reactive reserves exist to handle any

probable contingency. The amount of dynamic reactive reserve is
typically determined by planning and operating engineers. System
operators must ensure that these minimum amounts are actually
available.
Î Ensure that the plant operators are providing all possible reactive power.
This may mean re-dispatching generation.
Î Generating plants in the effected area that are normally not run due to
economic factors may be run to increase dynamic reactive power
reserves.
Î Shift system generation patterns to unload heavily loaded lines. This
reduces reactive power losses since these losses are a function of the
current squared.
Î Consider blocking operation of the effected area’s ULTCs to prevent
further drops in transmission voltages.
Î Request reactive power support from neighboring power systems.
Neighboring systems can raise voltage at common buses. This may help
raise voltages throughout the effected area.
Î As a last resort consider manually dropping load. (Also be sure all
automatic undervoltage load shedding schemes, if they exist, are in-
service.)

Transient Voltage Instability

Transient voltage instability is a rapid event from the perspective of a system
operator. Once the process has begun a system operator has little role in the final
outcome.
There is little a system operator can do to avoid induction motor driven voltage
instability. One suggestion is to ensure protective systems are in place and
functioning properly. However, if instability of this type does occur, restoration
can proceed quickly if the cause of the instability is quickly identified.

6.8.3 Relationship of the Types of Voltage Instability

The three types of voltage instability presented in this section are not independent
of one another. For example, many of the events that occur during long-term
voltage instability also occur during classical voltage instability. In addition, one
type can progress into another. For instance, long-term voltage instability could
turn into transient voltage instability as time progresses and events occur more
rapidly.

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Figure 6-30. Time Frames for Voltage Instability

Figure 6-30 is provided to relate the time frames for the three different types of
voltage instability. Note that different characteristics of the system are involved
with each type of instability. For example, to understand transient voltage
instability it is necessary to understand how induction motors behave. To
understand long term voltage instability it is necessary to understand what is
meant by a loss of load diversity.

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6.9 Summary of Voltage Stability

6.9.1 Introduction to Voltage Collapse & Voltage Stability

Î This chapter described an extreme class of voltage deviation called a
voltage collapse. As utility power systems are pushed to transfer more
and more power, the likelihood of voltage instability occurring becomes
greater.

6.9.2 Voltage Stability & Instability Definitions

Î Nominal load is the active power the customer load draws if it is
operated at its nominal voltage and frequency. The actual load may be
different than the nominal load.
Î Voltage stability is the ability of a power system to maintain voltage so
that when nominal load is increased the MW transferred to that load will
increase.

6.9.3 Voltage Collapse Definition

Î Voltage collapse is a probable result of a period of voltage instability.

6.9.4 Voltage Stability Versus Angle Stability

Î Voltage stability is related to the behavior of customer loads. Angle
stability is related to generators magnetic bonds.

6.9.5 Long-Term Voltage Instability

Î Long-term voltage instability may take several minutes to several hours
to occur.

6.9.6 Classical Voltage Instability

Î Classical voltage instability may take from 1 to 5 minutes following a
disturbance to occur.

6.9.7 Short-term or Transient Voltage Instability

Î Short-term or transient voltage instability is a rapid event occurring in
less than 15 seconds following the initial disturbance.

6.9.8 Introduction to Long-Term Voltage Instability

Î In long-term voltage instability slowly developing changes to the power
system occur that eventually lead to a shortage of Mvar and declining
voltages.

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6.9.9 Radial Power Systems

Î A radial power system is one in which generation and load areas are
separated by a transmission path.

6.9.10 Use of the P-V Curve

Î P-V curves illustrate that as MW transfer increases the voltage at the
receiving bus slowly decreases.
Î The knee of the P-V curve is the boundary between voltage stability and
voltage instability.
Î The knee of the P-V curve is the point at which the system runs out of
usable reactive reserves. Operation near the knee of the P-V curve
should be avoided.

6.9.11 Conditions for a Long-Term Voltage Instability

Î For long-term voltage instability to occur MW and Mvar flows on the
system must be heavy.

6.9.12 Long-Term Voltage Instability Process

Î ULTCs normally draw Mvar from the high side to support the low side.
The amount of high side voltage reduction depends on how much
additional Mvar can be obtained from sending end sources.
Î A failure to obtain required Mvar results in a voltage decline. This
reduction in voltage reduces the Mvar output of shunt capacitor banks
and line charging. This further reduces the system voltages. If load
continues to increase, system voltage decay further, eventually reaching
the knee of the P-V curve. Once the system passes over the knee, voltage
and power transfer could collapse at any moment.

6.9.13 Role of Tap Changing Equipment

Î When high side Mvar reserves are depleted, the action of ULTCs hastens
the beginning of voltage instability.
Î Allow an upstream ULTC to adjust taps before the downstream ULTC
starts its tap movement. This helps avoid load overshoot.

6.9.14 Tap Changing and Load Magnitude

Î The effects of tap changers are dependent on the type of load on the low-
side of the transformer.
Î In general, during conditions that may lead to a voltage collapse, tap
changers that supply non-motor load should not be operated. It is better
to let the voltage drop. You may want to use tap changers to raise
voltage in heavily industrialized areas of the system.

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6.9.15 Example of Long-Term Voltage Instability

Î An actual example of a long-term voltage collapse was illustrated by the
Tokyo voltage collapse of July 23, 1987.

6.9.16 Introduction to Classical Voltage Instability

Î Classical voltage instability occurs following a system disturbance when
there is not enough Mvar available to meet the needs of the system and
the loads.

6.9.17 Loss of Load Diversity

Î Power system load is constantly changing. When a majority of loads are
running at the same time the condition is known as a “loss of load
diversity”. A loss of load diversity leads to an increase in the total
system load level.

6.9.18 Simulation of Classical Voltage Instability

Î A simple power system is used to step through a scenario for classical
voltage instability.

6.9.19 Response of Generation

Î The generator Mvar response can both increase and decrease the chances
for voltage instability.

6.9.20 Phases of Classical Voltage Instability

Î There are often two phases to classical voltage instability. Voltages
stabilize during phase 1 at a low value but the system does not collapse.
Phase 2 is the period in which the system actually collapses. As a loss of
load diversity develops and generators automatically run-back their Mvar
outputs, the system collapses.

6.9.21 Introduction to the V-Q Curve

Î V-Q curves are a plot of the amount of Mvar that must be inserted at a
critical bus to maintain different voltage levels.

6.9.22 Usage of the V-Q Curve

Î V-Q curves are used to determine the Mvar margin from collapse for
various transmission contingencies.

6.9.23 Combining P-V & V-Q Curves

Î P-V and V-Q curves are used in combination to identify active and
reactive power margins from voltage instability.

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6.9.24 Example of a Classical Voltage Collapse

Î An actual example of a classical voltage collapse was illustrated with the
Western Interconnection collapse of July 2, 1996.

6.9.25 Introduction to Short-Term or Transient Voltage Instability

Î A transient voltage collapse occurs over a much shorter time period than
our first two types of voltage collapse. From the initial disturbance to
voltage collapse is typically less than 15 seconds.

6.9.26 Voltage Stability & Induction Motor Stalling

Î Induction motors may stall following an extended period (many cycles to
seconds) of extreme (60 to 70% of nominal) low voltage. As the voltage
recovers, the induction motors try to regain speed. Air-conditioner
compressors are difficult to return to speed once stalled. Their high
Mvar draw may prevent a voltage recovery and lead to voltage
instability.

6.9.27 Example of Transient Voltage Collapse

Î An actual example of a transient voltage collapse was illustrated with the
MLG&W voltage collapse of August 22, 1987.
6.9.28 Voltage Collapse & Loss of Synchronism
Î A rapid voltage collapse occurs between two areas of the power system if
the areas pull out-of-step with one another.

6.9.29 Dynamic Reactive Reserves

Î Dynamic reactive reserves are automatically controlled Mvar reserves
that respond rapidly to voltage deviations. To ensure an ability to
respond to events that may lead to voltage instability, it is important that
utilities carry sufficient dynamic reactive reserves.

6.9.30 Voltage Control Zones

Î It is difficult to transmit Mvar so the locations of dynamic reactive
reserves are critical. A voltage control zone is a physical section of the
power system that responds as a cohesive unit to voltage deviations
within that zone. Minimum levels of dynamic reactive reserves should
be maintained within each voltage control zone.

6.9.31 Load Shedding

Î Assuming that sufficient reactive reserves cannot be made available, the
primary means to avoid voltage instability is to shed load.

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Î A UVLS system automatically trip selected customer loads when voltage

falls below a trigger level. The voltage normally must remain below the
trigger level for a specified time delay before tripping is allowed.

6.9.32 Detecting Voltage Instability

Î The following events may indicate pending voltage instability.
— System voltage levels are unusually low
— Unusual magnitudes and directions for Mvar flows
— Heavy Mvar generation at key area generators
— ULTC adjustments fail to move the voltage

6.9.33 Responding to Voltage Instability

Î The following precautions can be taken to prevent voltage instability:
— Maintain transfer limits within established guidelines
— Ensure that available static Mvar sources are in-service
— Ensure that sufficient dynamic reactive reserves exist
— Shift system generation patterns to unload heavily loaded lines
— Request Mvar support from neighboring systems
— Be wary of using ULTCs
— Ensure appropriate UVLS schemes are in-service
— As a last resort consider manually dropping load
Î To avoid induction motor stalling voltage instability ensure protective
systems are in place and functioning properly.

6.9.34 Relationship of the Types of Voltage Instability

Î The three types of voltage instability presented in this chapter are not
independent of one another.

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6.10 Voltage Stability Questions

1. The nominal load is:

A. Equal to the rated load

B. Dependent on the actual voltage and frequency
C. Dependent on the scheduled voltage and frequency
D. Equal to the actual load

2. A period of voltage instability always results in a voltage collapse.

A. True
B. False

3. The critical voltage and critical MW transfer are located at the:

A. Knee of the V-Q curve

B. Knee of the P-V curve
C. Origin of the V-Q curve
D. Origin of the P-V curve

4. During voltage instability prone conditions, tap changing to support

secondary voltage should generally NOT be used if the secondary load is
formed by:

A. Induction motors
B. Motor type load
C. Nominal load
D. Non-motor type load

5. P-V curves indicate the __________ margin from voltage instability while
V-Q curves indicate the __________ margin from voltage instability.

A. Mvar / MW
B. MW/ Mvar
C. MW / current
D. Power / Mvar

6. UVLS differs from UFLS in that:

A. The tripping frequencies are different

B. The tap changing points are different
C. UVLS is based on voltage while UFLS is based on frequency
D. UVLS is based on frequency while UFLS is based on voltage

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7. In which type of voltage instability does a key element outage trigger the
voltage instability?

A. Oscillation Voltage Instability

B. Classical Voltage Instability
C. Transient Voltage Instability
D. Long Term Voltage Instability

8. A P-V curve relates:

A. The Mvar transferred across a system to the voltage at the

receiving end of the system
B. The MW transferred across a system to the voltage at the receiving
end of the system
C. The MW transferred across a system to the voltage at the sending
end of the system
D. The Mvar transferred across a system to the voltage at the sending
end of the system

9. In a radial power system, the addition of shunt capacitors at the receiving

end of the system tends to:

A. Decrease the curvature of the P-V curve

B. Flatten the P-V curve and increase the critical voltage
C. Increase the curvature of the P-V curve
D. Flatten the P-V curve and decrease the critical voltage

10. In which type of voltage instability does a simultaneous stalling of large

amounts of induction motor load trigger the voltage instability?

A. Oscillation Voltage Instability

B. Classical Voltage Instability
C. Transient Voltage Instability
D. Long Term Voltage Instability

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6.11 Voltage Stability References

1. Power System Voltage Stability⎯A text by Mr. Carson W. Taylor. Published
in 1994 by McGraw Hill under the sponsorship of EPRI.
Î The best single reference found for voltage stability and voltage collapse.
The author is an experienced utility engineer which is evident in his
writing style.
2. T. Ohno and S. Imai. The 1987 Tokyo Blackout⎯IEEE Paper #1-4244-0178-
X -2006.
Î The Tokyo long-term voltage stability incident presented in this chapter is
described in greater detail in this paper.
3. Cascading Voltage Collapse in West Tennessee August 22, 1987⎯Paper
written by Mr. Gary C. Bullock of Tennessee Valley Authority. Presented at
the Georgia Institute of Technology Protective Relaying Conference, May,
1990.
Î The MLG&W transient voltage collapse description is largely based on
this paper.
4. Voltage Stability of Power Systems: Concepts, Analytical Tools and Industry
Experience⎯IEEE report #90-TH-0358-2-PWR.
Î Engineering oriented reports that cover many facets of voltage stability
and collapse.
5. Survey of the Voltage Collapse Phenomenon⎯NERC report published in
August 1991.
Î A NERC task force prepared this report. Includes selected papers on the
subject of voltage collapse and stability.
6. System Protection and Voltage Stability⎯IEEE report #93-TH-0596-7-PWR.
Î An in-depth examination of voltage stability related protective relaying.
Includes papers on UVLS.

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ANGLE STABILITY

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ANGLE STABILITY

SECTION OVERVIEWS
7.1 Introduction to Angle Stability
Angle stability is related to the phase angle separation between power system
buses.
7.2 Definition of Angle Stability
In an angle stable system the torque and power angles are controllable. In an
angle unstable power system angles and power flows are out of control.
7.3 Active Power Transfer and the Power Angle Curve
The power angle curve is used to determine the angle at which the mechanical
input to the power system is equal to the electrical power transferred out of the
generator.
7.4 Types of Angle Stability
Angle instability can occur in steady state, transient, or oscillatory environments.
7.5 Steady State Stability/Instability
Steady state angle instability develops gradually over time without any sudden
disturbance.
7.6 Transient Stability/Instability
Transient instability arises rapidly, in the first few seconds after a disturbance.
7.7 Oscillatory Stability/Instability
Oscillatory angle instability is characterized by power and voltage oscillations.
7.8 Out-of-Step Protection
Out-of-step protection is provided by protective relays that measure the apparent
impedance and the time it takes for the impedance to change.
7.9 Angle Instability Example
An example of angle instability is presented that occurred in the summer of 1998
in the upper mid-west power system.
7.10 Introduction to the Swing Equation
A brief introduction to the mathematical equation that describes the motion of a
generator’s rotor.

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7.11 WAMS and WACS

An introduction to the Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS) and the Wide
Area Control System (WACS).
7.12 Role of the System Operator
The system operator can avoid angle stability problems by adhering to their
system’s operating guidelines.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

7.1 Introduction to Angle Stability............................................................. 7-1

7.1.1 Angle & Voltage Stability ............................................................ 7-1
7.2 Definition of Angle Stability................................................................. 7-1
7.2.1 Changing Torque & Power Angles ............................................. 7-2
7.2.2 Out-of-Step/Loss of Synchronism .............................................. 7-2
7.2.3 Angle Stability & Generator Speed............................................. 7-4
7.2.4 Out-of-Step From a Voltage Perspective.................................... 7-5
7.2.5 Relative Nature of Angle Stability ............................................... 7-6
7.2.6 Rotor Dynamics .......................................................................... 7-7
7.3 Active Power & the Power-Angle Curve............................................. 7-9
7.3.1 Review of Active Power Transfer Equation ................................ 7-9
7.3.2 Review of Power-Angle Curves................................................ 7-10
7.3.3 Maximum Angle........................................................................ 7-12
7.4 Types of Angle Stability.................................................................... 7-12
7.4.1 Angle Stability Classifications................................................... 7-12
7.4.2 Introduction to Angle Stability Classifications ........................... 7-13
7.5 Steady State Stability/Instability ....................................................... 7-16
7.5.1 Process of Steady State Instability ........................................... 7-16
7.5.2 Example of Steady State Instability .......................................... 7-18
7.6 Transient Stability/Instability............................................................. 7-20
7.6.1 Process of Transient Stability ................................................... 7-20
7.6.2 Process of Transient Instability................................................. 7-24
7.6.3 Transient Stability Following a Fault......................................... 7-26
7.6.4 Further Observations with Power-Angle Curves ...................... 7-29
7.7 Oscillatory Stability/Instability ........................................................... 7-31
7.7.1 Process of Oscillatory Stability ................................................. 7-32
7.7.2 Process of Oscillatory Instability............................................... 7-35
7.8 Out-of-Step Protection...................................................................... 7-37
7.8.1 Purpose of Out-of-Step Protection ........................................... 7-37
7.8.2 Review of Three-Zone Stepped Distance Protection ............... 7-37
7.8.3 Out-of-Step Protection.............................................................. 7-39
7.9 Angle Instability Example ................................................................. 7-41

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7.10 Introduction to the Swing Equation ...................................................7-47

7.10.1 Equation for Accelerating Torque .............................................7-47
7.10.2 Equation for Accelerating Power...............................................7-49
7.10.3 The Swing Equation..................................................................7-50
7.11 Synchrophasor Measurements.........................................................7-51
7.11.1 Concept of a Synchrophasor ....................................................7-51
7.11.2 The Global Positioning System.................................................7-51
7.11.3 Phasor Measurement Units ......................................................7-52
7.11.4 The Usage of Synchrophasors .................................................7-53
7.12 Role of the System Operator ............................................................7-56
7.12.1 Enforce System Operating Guidelines......................................7-56
7.12.2 Additional Actions to Maintain Angle Stability ...........................7-56
7.13 Summary of Angle Stability...............................................................7-58
7.13.1 Angle & Voltage Stability...........................................................7-58
7.13.2 Changing Torque & Power Angles............................................7-58
7.13.3 Out-of-Step/Loss of Synchronism .............................................7-58
7.13.4 Angle Stability & Generator Speed ...........................................7-58
7.13.5 Out-of-Step From a Voltage Perspective ..................................7-58
7.13.6 Relative Nature of Angle Stability .............................................7-58
7.13.7 Rotor Dynamics ........................................................................7-59
7.13.8 Review of Active Power Transfer Equation...............................7-59
7.13.9 Review of Power-Angle Curves ................................................7-59
7.13.10 Maximum Angle Spread ...........................................................7-59
7.13.11 Angle Stability Classifications ...................................................7-59
7.13.12 Introduction to Angle Stability Classifications ...........................7-59
7.13.13 Process of Steady State Stability..............................................7-60
7.13.14 Example of Steady State Instability ..........................................7-60
7.13.15 Process of Transient Stability ...................................................7-60
7.13.16 Process of Transient Instability .................................................7-60
7.13.17 Transient Stability Following a Fault .........................................7-60
7.13.18 Further Observations with Power-Angle Curves.......................7-60
7.13.19 Process of Oscillatory Stability..................................................7-60
7.13.20 Process of Oscillatory Instability ...............................................7-61
7.13.21 Purpose of Out-of-Step Protection............................................7-61

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7.13.22 Review of Three-Zone Stepped Distance Protection ............... 7-61

7.13.23 Out-of-Step Protection.............................................................. 7-61
7.13.24 Angle Instability Example ......................................................... 7-61
7.13.25 Equation for Accelerating Torque ............................................. 7-61
7.13.26 Equation for Accelerating Power .............................................. 7-62
7.13.27 The Swing Equation ................................................................. 7-62
7.13.28 Concept of a Synchrophasor .................................................... 7-62
7.13.29 The Global Positioning System ................................................ 7-62
7.13.30 Phasor Measurement Units ...................................................... 7-62
7.13.31 The Usage of Synchrophasors ................................................. 7-62
7.13.32 Enforce System Operating Guidelines ..................................... 7-62
7.13.33 Additional Actions to Maintain Angle Stability........................... 7-63
7.14 Angle Stability Questions ................................................................. 7-64
7.15 Angle Stability References ............................................................... 7-66

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 7-1. Stability: Voltage and Angle.......................................................... 7-1

Figure 7-2. Out-of-Step Generator Closing..................................................... 7-3
Figure 7-3. Out-of-Step from a Voltage Perspective....................................... 7-6
Figure 7-4. Relative Nature of Angle Instability............................................... 7-7
Figure 7-5. Rotor Torques............................................................................... 7-8
Figure 7-6. The Power-Angle Curve ............................................................. 7-10
Figure 7-7. Accelerating and Decelerating on a Power-Angle Curve............ 7-11
Figure 7-8. Maximum Possible Angle ........................................................... 7-12
Figure 7-9. Types of Stability/Instability ........................................................ 7-14
Figure 7-10. Steady State Instability ............................................................... 7-16
Figure 7-11. Power-Circle Diagram & Steady State Instability........................ 7-18
Figure 7-12. Manual Excitation and Steady State Instability........................... 7-19
Figure 7-13. Power System for Transient Stability & Instability ...................... 7-20
Figure 7-14. Power-Angle Curves for 1,000 MW Generator Loading ............. 7-21
Figure 7-15. Strip Chart Equivalent of Figure 7-11 ......................................... 7-24
Figure 7-16. Power Angle Curve for Transient Instability ............................... 7-25
Figure 7-17. Transient Stability and a Fault .................................................... 7-27
Figure 7-18. Extended Power-Angle Curve .................................................... 7-28
Figure 7-19. Fast Valving in Steam Units ....................................................... 7-30
Figure 7-20. The BPA Braking Resistor.......................................................... 7-31
Figure 7-21. Power System for Oscillatory Stability ........................................ 7-32
Figure 7-22. Power-Angle Curve for Oscillatory Stability ................................ 7-33
Figure 7-23. Illustrating Oscillations on a Power-Angle Curve........................ 7-34
Figure 7-24. MW Plot Illustration of Oscillatory Stability ................................. 7-35
Figure 7-25. Power-Angle Curve for Oscillatory Instability.............................. 7-36
Figure 7-26. MW Plot Illustration of Oscillatory Instability ............................... 7-37
Figure 7-27. R-X Diagram for Three Zone Impedance Protection .................. 7-38
Figure 7-28. Out-of-Step Relay Characteristic................................................ 7-40
Figure 7-29. Sammis-Star 345 kV Transmission Line R-X Diagram............... 7-41
Figure 7-30. Twin Cities Area Map ................................................................. 7-43
Figure 7-31. Island Formations ....................................................................... 7-45
Figure 7-32. Island Frequencies ..................................................................... 7-46
Figure 7-33. Out-of-Step Voltage Oscillations ................................................ 7-47
Figure 7-34. Concept of a Synchrophasor ...................................................... 7-51
Figure 7-35. The GPS Constellation ............................................................... 7-52

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Figure 7-36. North American PMU Locations..................................................7-53

Figure 7-37. The WAMS Concept ...................................................................7-54

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LIST OF EQUATION

Equation 7-1. Relative Acceleration Angle Calculation..................................... 7-4

Equation 7-2. 1% Acceleration Angle Calculation............................................. 7-4
Equation 7-3. Equation for Generator Torque................................................. 7-48
Equation 7-4. Relationship Between Rotor and Torque Angles...................... 7-48
Equation 7-5. Accelerating Torque in Terms of Torque Angle ........................ 7-49
Equation 7-6. Accelerating Power in Terms of Torque Angle ......................... 7-49
Equation 7-7. Relationship Between “M” & “H” Values ................................... 7-50
Equation 7-8. Accelerating Power in Terms of Torque Angle ......................... 7-50

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7.1 Introduction to Angle Stability

7.1.1 Angle & Voltage Stability

Figure 7-1 illustrates a simple 345 kV power system. The voltage magnitudes and
angles are listed for each bus. Voltage is the key to the overall stability of a Angle stability
was introduced in
power system. In Chapter 6 the concept of voltage stability was explained. Chapter 3.
Voltage stability is related to the magnitude of the system voltages and reactive
power reserves. This chapter describes the concept of angle stability. Angle
stability is related to the angular separation between points in the power system.

In a stable power
system voltage
magnitudes and
angle differences
have acceptable
magnitudes and
are controllable.

Figure 7-1. Stability: Voltage and Angle

The angular separation of the voltages (power and torque angles) in Figure 7-1 is
small, ranging from 5° to 15°. This is typical for a high voltage transmission
system. When a system is angle unstable, angle differences grow to larger values.
For example, angle differences may exceed 90°. System operators lose control of
both MW and Mvar flows in an angle unstable system.
7.2 Definition of Angle Stability
When a power system is angle stable it has:
Î Sustained generator torque angles of less than 90°. Typically the torque
angles are less than 20°.
Î Sustained power angles of less than 90°. Typically the power angles
between connected buses are less than 10°.

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 Angle Stability

The torque and power angles may temporarily rise above 90° but only for short
(fraction of a second) periods of time. A system is angle unstable when system
operators lose their ability to control angles and power flows. Torque and power
angles grow beyond 90°, up to 180° and larger.

7.2.1 Changing Torque & Power Angles

Chapter 2 described how rotating magnetic fields are intentionally created in
generators. The 3Φ currents that flow in the power system create the rotating
magnetic field of the system. When generators are in-step with the power system,
the generator’s magnetic field rotates at the same speed as the system’s field. The
angular separation of the two fields is the torque angle of the generator. When a
generator goes out-of-step, the two magnetic fields must have rotated at a slightly
different speed for a period of time.
Torque and power angles are changed by accelerating one section of the power
system with respect to another section. For example, to change the torque angle
of a generator it is necessary to slightly increase the speed of the generator with
respect to the system. As long as a speed difference exists, the torque angle is
changing. If the generator is running faster than the system, the torque angle is
increasing. If the generator is running slower than the system, the torque angle is
decreasing.
Power angles in the system change in the same manner as torque angles. Power
angles change when there is relative acceleration. If two sections of a power
system somehow experience relative acceleration, the power angle between the
two areas will change.
When major transmission lines open it is sometimes difficult for a system
operator to reclose the open transmission line circuit breakers. The synchronizing
relays connected to the line’s circuit breakers may block a reclosing attempt due
When trying to
visualize the out-of-
to an excessive power angle across the circuit breaker. The system operator may
step concept, one then adjust area generation levels to allow reclosing. What is occurring when the
can think of the generation levels are adjusted is relative acceleration. Generation is either raised
system frequency as or lowered to slow down or speed up one section of the system with respect to the
the cadence to other. This action reduces the power angle across the circuit breaker and
which an entire
interconnected
hopefully allows line reclosing.
power system
marches. When 7.2.2 Out-of-Step/Loss of Synchronism
parts of the
interconnection There are many terms used to indicate that a system is angle unstable. Loss of
march at a slightly synchronism, slipping poles, twist-out, and out-of-step are a few of the more
faster or slower common terms. All of these terms mean the same thing. When the system is
cadence out-of-step, the magnetic forces that normally bind a system together are no
(frequency), those
parts will eventually longer sufficient. Our interconnected AC power system is a synchronous system
be out-of-step with that relies on a relatively constant system frequency. When a section of the
the rest of the system goes out-of-step with the remainder, this common frequency bond is lost.
interconnection.

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Consider the voltage at the terminals of a generator with a two-pole (north and
south) cylindrical rotor. The rotor is spinning at 3600 rpm, which is equivalent to
60 revolutions per second. The terminal voltage of this generator reaches its
maximum and minimum peak values once during each revolution. For
synchronous power system operation, all of the generators in the interconnection
must hit their maximum and minimum voltage values within very small time
differences of one another.
Figure 7-2 illustrates two units at a power plant. Assume unit “A” is
synchronized (paralleled) to the system while unit “B” is about to be
synchronized. As illustrated, unit “B” will be 180° out-of-phase with the system
when its circuit breaker is closed. Unit “B’s” magnetic field will not match
cleanly with the power system’s rotating field. If a synchronizing attempt is
made, there could be several consequences. For instance, the synchronizing
attempt may be aborted, the unit may rapidly adjust its magnetic field alignment
or the unit could be damaged by the attempt to close out of synchronism.

This scenario
should not
happen in
normal system
operation
because
generator
synchronization
procedures exist
to prevent this
type of error.

Figure 7-2. Out-of-Step Generator Closing

Visualize a generator that is operating in-step with the power system. The torque
angle of this generator must be sustained at a value less than 90°. Assume a
metering device (a lap counter) is installed that counts the number of revolutions
(or laps) of the rotating magnetic fields of the stator and rotor. The meter would
indicate that even though the rotor field is always slightly ahead of the stator field
(due to the torque angle) the fields are always be on the same lap.
Recall from Chapter 3 that when the torque angle is less than 90°, a magnetic
force exists that attempts to realign the stator and rotor fields. This synchronizing
force is holding the stator and rotor fields on the same lap. If for some reason, the
generator attempts to sustain a torque angle greater than 90°, the magnetic
attraction weakens. The weakening of the magnetic attraction allows the rotor
and stator fields to lap one another thus entering an out-of-step condition.

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 Angle Stability

7.2.3 Angle Stability & Generator Speed

If sections of an interconnected power system continually operate at even slightly
different frequencies the power system suffers. When two points on the power
system sustain operation at different frequencies the power angle between the two
points eventually increases past 90° and moves on toward 180° and larger angles.
A typical rotor speed for a steam/turbine generator is 3600 rpm. The magnetic
fields of the stator and rotor also rotate at 3600 rpm. The torque angle is the
angular difference between the rotor field and the field created about the stator. If
both fields are rotating at the same speed the torque angle remains constant. In
order to increase the torque angle, the rotor and stator fields must accelerate with
respect to one another.
For a machine that normally rotates at 3600 rpm, a relative acceleration of one
Under normal
circumstances the
rpm corresponds to a 6°/sec increase in torque angle. (See the calculation in
speed of the rotor Equation 7-1.) For example, a 36° increase in torque angle is achieved by
eventually returns to accelerating the rotor to 3601 rpm for 6 seconds, or by accelerating the rotor to
the nominal 3600 3606 rpm for 1 second.
rpm.

Revolutions 360 o 1 Minute 6o

3601 × × =
Minute Revolution 60 Seconds Second
Equation 7-1. Relative Acceleration Angle Calculation
An example demonstrates how critical it is to maintain a constant generator rotor
speed. Assume that a generator connected to a large interconnection experiences
a sudden 1% increase in rotor speed. Further assume this speed increase lasts for
one second. Assume that the rotor of this machine was initially spinning at 3600
rpm. If the interconnected system frequency remains at 60 HZ the generator’s
torque angle advances 216° in the one-second period. This machine will lose
synchronism and go out-of-step. Equation 7-2 contains the calculation for this
large angle change.

Revolutions 1 360 o 1 Minute

3600 × × × × 1 Second = 216o
Minute 100 Revolution 60 Seconds
Equation 7-2. 1% Acceleration Angle Calculation
All the components of the power system must operate at the same average
(synchronous) speed or frequency. Some speed deviation (relative acceleration)
is allowed but it cannot be large nor can it last long. A speed change of less than
1% of nominal to a generator’s rotor may lead to serious consequences. When
generators operate at large torque angles, they risk going out-of-step. Many
Section 7.8 will generators have protective relays to detect out-of-step conditions and quickly trip
describe out-of- the generator to prevent damage. The transmission system may also have
step protection.
protective relays to detect and respond to out-of-step conditions.

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 Angle Stability

7.2.4 Out-of-Step From a Voltage Perspective

When power system generators go out-of-step the torque angles pass through 90°,
180°, 270°, and 360° relative to the rest of the interconnected system. The cycle
repeats until the generator that is out-of-step is, hopefully, tripped by protective
relays. Each time two connected points in the system pass through an angle of
180° the system experiences a point with zero voltage. The transmission system
between the two points behaves as if it sees a staggered 3Φ fault.
Figure 7-3 illustrates out-of-step from a voltage perspective. In Figure 7-3(a) a
generator is sending MW out to the system with a total angle spread (torque and
power angles) of 45°. The voltages at the generator (VG) and receiving end bus
(VR) are initially both acceptable. Note the mid-point bus voltage (VM). The
mid-point bus voltage magnitude is entirely dependent on the voltages at the
generator and receiving ends of the system. A phasor diagram is used to estimate
the mid-point bus voltage magnitude. Connect a strait line between the ends of
the VG and VR phasor and the mid-point bus voltage magnitude lies mid-way
along this line. This is illustrated in Figure 7-3(a).
In Figure 7-3(a) the mid-point bus voltage is acceptable. In Figure 7-3(b) the
mid-point bus voltage has started to decline. As the angular separation between
the generator and the receiving bus grows, the mid-point bus voltage magnitude
declines. In Figure 7-3(c) the angle has risen all the way to 180°. The mid-point
bus voltage has declined to zero volts. As far as the power system is concerned
the mid-point bus has experienced a staggered 3Φ fault due to the 180° angle.
During an out-of-step condition power system angles rapidly change across a full
360° range. The system voltage and power flows vary widely. System equipment
may be damaged due to high power flows, low voltages, and abnormal frequency.

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 Angle Stability

The mid-point bus

must not have any
local reactive
support for this
phasor diagram
method to work.

Figure 7-3. Out-of-Step from a Voltage Perspective

7.2.5 Relative Nature of Angle Stability

Angle stability is a relative measure. A generator cannot be labeled angle stable
or angle unstable unless you compare it to some reference. For example, when
describing a generator’s torque angle, the rotor and stator’s respective rotating
magnetic fields are compared. The concept of a generator torque angle means
nothing without a reference to compare the generator’s rotating magnetic field to.
A system that is angle stable can become angle unstable only after a period of
relative acceleration. One part of the system must accelerate with respect to
another part for the torque and/or power angles to grow and the system to become
unstable.
Assume the angle stability of a simple power system is being studied. The system
consists of a generator tied to a load bus. Both systems must have rotating mass
before angle stability can be a concern. If the load has no rotating mass there can
never be any relative acceleration. Whatever frequency the generator runs at is
then, by default, the frequency of the entire power system. The system may be
damaged due to abnormal frequency operation, but it will not go out-of-step.
Two examples further illustrate the relative nature of angle stability. Figure 7-
4(a) is a simple power system. A generator feeds into the system to supply the
load. Note the load is all of a resistive type. Resistive type load has no rotating
mass. Assume the generator is feeding MW to the resistive load. The frequency
of this system is totally dependent on the generator. If the generator speed varies,
the frequency of the system varies directly with it. Angle instability cannot occur
in this system. For angle instability there must be relative acceleration. The

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 Angle Stability

single generator determines the speed of rotation of this entire system so there can
never be any relative acceleration.

Resistive type load

may include
electric heaters
and incandescent
light bulbs.

Figure 7-4. Relative Nature of Angle Instability

In Figure 7-4(b), the resistive load has been replaced with motor load. Motor load
is a rotating type load. Rotating load has stored energy or inertia. The load area
therefore has a rotating magnetic field and significant inertia. The magnetic field
of the generator can now accelerate or decelerate with respect to the load area.
The angle difference between the two fields can grow and the system can enter an
angle unstable condition.

7.2.6 Rotor Dynamics

As you may suspect by now, angle stability is very much dependent on the
behavior of the system’s generators. Angle stability is actually dependent on all
spinning mass including both generators and motors. As a system operator, you
have more control over the generators. Important concepts related to a
generator’s rotation are examined in this section.
The motion of a generator’s rotor is influenced by two opposing forces (generator
power losses are ignored). These two forces are the mechanical torque applied by The prime
mover may be a
the prime mover (TM), and the opposing electrical torque developed as a result of water turbine, a
the electrical power output of the machine (TE). These two opposing torques are steam turbine,
illustrated in Figure 7-5. The accelerating torque (TA) on the rotor is the etc.
difference between TM and TE or:

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 Angle Stability

TA = TM − TE
Where:
TA = Accelerating Torque
TM = Mechanical Input Torque
TE = Electrical Output Torque

Figure 7-5. Rotor Torques

For purposes of An accelerating torque causes the rotor speed to vary. If TA is positive, the rotor
this Chapter, a speed increases above synchronous speed. If TA is negative, the rotor speed
generator’s rotor decreases below synchronous speed.
includes
everything that Since power is directly proportional to torque, power can be substituted for torque
rotates. This in the previous equation to yield:
includes the
turbine. PA = PM − PE

Where:
PA = Accelerating Power
PM = Mechanical Input Power
PE = Electrical Output Power

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 Angle Stability

This equation is a power balance equation for the rotor. Whatever mechanical
power is input to the rotor should come out as electrical power to the system. If
what goes in does not match what comes out then an accelerating term (PA) exists.
When the mechanical power (PM) input to the generator exceeds the electrical
power output (PE), the rotor accelerates and in that way stores the excess energy.
When the mechanical power input to the generator is less than electrical power
output, the generator draws the difference from its stored rotor energy, and
decelerates.
For a generator’s torque angle to change there must be accelerating power.
Accelerating power is obtained by either varying the mechanical power input or
the electrical power output. When a fault occurs near a generator the electrical
power output is sharply reduced. This causes the generator rotor to accelerate and
its torque angle to increase. If the mechanical power input to a generator is
suddenly reduced, the generator rotor decelerates reducing the unit’s torque angle.
The importance of the concept of accelerating power will become evident as the
types of angle stability are explored. The power-angle curve is a useful tool for
examining the impact of accelerating power on a generator’s angle stability.
7.3 Active Power & the Power-Angle Curve
This section reviews the use of the active power transfer equation and expands on
the use of the power-angle curve.

7.3.1 Review of Active Power Transfer Equation

Recall from Chapter 3 that the active power (MW) flow between any two points is
strongly dependent upon the torque or power angles. The torque angle is used
when calculating the power transfer from a generator to the system. The power
angle is used when calculating the power transfer between two locations in the
transmission system. Whether using the power angle or the torque angle, the MW
transfer is calculated using the same equation:

VS × VR
PS = × sinδ
XL

The [(VS – VR)/XL] portion is a relatively constant value and is called PMAX.
PMAX is the largest possible MW transfer between two locations. The MW
transfer can only reach PMAX if the angle spread is 90°. The amount of PMAX
actually transferred between the two points is dependent on the sine of the power
angle δ.

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Angle Stability

7.3.2 Review of Power-Angle Curves

Figure 7-6 is a plot of the active power transfer equation. This plot is called the
power-angle curve. The power-angle curve is a plot of the MW transferred
between two buses as the angle between the buses (δ) is varied. The operating
point (MW & δ) always lies on the power-angle curve. The power-angle curve
graphically illustrates that the maximum continuous MW transfer between any
two strong buses occurs when the angle between these same two buses is 90°.
The mechanical power input line is the horizontal line through the power-angle
curve. This line represents the amount of mechanical power input to the
generation connected to the sending end. The mechanical power input line may
cross the power-angle curve at any point. Figure 7-6 illustrates the mechanical
power input line crossing at the top (90° point) of the power-angle curve.

Figure 7-6. The Power-Angle Curve

The mechanical power input line is a critical element on a power-angle curve.
Each mechanical power input line intersects the power-angle curve in two
locations. One of these intersections is a stable operating point and one is
unstable. The operating point is stable if the angle is less than 90°. The operating
point is unstable if the angle is greater than 90°.

Acceleration & Deceleration

The intersection of the mechanical power input line and the power-angle curve
yields the power system’s current operating point. In Figure 7-6, the intersection
is at the maximum electrical power output or PMAX. The angle at this point is 90°.
Any further increase in mechanical power input cause the mechanical power input
line to rise above the top of the curve. More mechanical power is then coming
into the generator than can be transferred across the system. The difference
accelerates the generator and causes the angle difference to grow even larger. As

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 Angle Stability

the angle grows above 90° the MW transfer further shrinks. This causes the
generator to accelerate even faster and the system to go unstable.
Figure 7-7 contains another illustration of a power-angle curve. The power
system operates at the intersection of the mechanical power input line and the
power-angle curve. The angle is approximately 35° and the MW transfer (PT) is
100 MW. Assume the angle and MW are holding steady at 35° and 100 MW.
The mechanical power input to the generator then equals the MW output. There
is no accelerating energy. This is a desired point of operation.

The operating point

(MW & d) always
lies on the power-
angle curve. If
operating on the
curve portion above
the mechanical
power input line the
generator is
decelerating. If
operating on the
curve section below
the mechanical
power input line the
generator is
accelerating.

Figure 7-7. Accelerating and Decelerating on a Power-Angle Curve

Assume the mechanical power input stays constant while the angle rises above
35°. As the angle increases, the MW transfer increases. More MW is transferred
out of the generator than mechanical power is brought in. The difference is
automatically drawn from the stored energy in the rotor. This causes the rotor to
decelerate. Anytime the point of operation is above the mechanical power input
line, the generator is forced to decelerate.
Assume the mechanical power input stays constant while the angle falls below
35°. As the angle decreases, the MW transfer decreases. More power is now
brought into the generator than is transferred out. The difference is automatically
stored in the rotor. This causes the rotor to accelerate. Anytime the point of
operation is below the mechanical power input line, the generator is forced to
accelerate.
The angle can only change if there is relative acceleration or deceleration. When
the system operates above or below its mechanical power input line, the angle
must be changing. The next several sections of this text describe how the angle is
impacted by various system events.

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 Angle Stability

The simple power systems used to illustrate points in this text always operate on
their power-angle curves. The operating point along the curve may be above, at,
or below the mechanical power input line and still be a stable operating point.
The important consideration is what the angle difference is at the time. If the
angle is greater than 90° and the system is operating below the mechanical power
input line, the situation is hopeless. The generator’s rotor is forced to accelerate
and the generator pulls out-of-step with the remaining power system.
The next sections examine three general classifications of angle stability. Power-
angle curves are used to illustrate all three angle stability classifications.

7.3.3 Maximum Angle

This text has repeatedly stated that the maximum MW transfer between two
Remember that an strong buses occurs at an angle of 90°. There are many strong buses in the system
angle of +270° is so what is the maximum angle between any two locations in an interconnected
the same as an
angle of -90°. system? The theoretical maximum angle spread is 180°.
Consider the three-bus power system in Figure 7-8. Assume that each of the three
buses is very strong with unlimited Mvar support. In other words, these buses
hold their voltage as MW transfer levels vary. In theory, an angle difference of
90° between two adjoining busses can occur. The maximum possible angle
across this three bus system is therefore 180°.

Figure 7-8. Maximum Possible Angle

In practice, power system buses do not have unlimited reactive support. The
largest angle spreads in the interconnected systems of NERC are approximately
120°. There are many strong buses in the NERC systems and the angle spread
between adjoining buses is typically very small, perhaps 5° to 15°.
7.4 Types of Angle Stability
Even though this
presentation of 7.4.1 Angle Stability Classifications
angle stability is
divided into three The analysis of power system angle stability is a study of the dynamic
classifications, performance of the power system. The term dynamic performance refers to the
keep in mind that changing values of power flows, voltages, angles, and frequency that follow large
angle stability is and small system disturbances. For purposes of this text, angle stability is divided
one all- into three classifications: steady state, transient, and oscillatory. The three
encompassing
topic. classifications are for ease of understanding the phenomena involved.

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 Angle Stability

Î In the steady state stability scenario no significant system disturbances

are taking place. System parameters such as voltage, angles, frequency,
and power flows may be changing but the changes are small and occur
gradually.
Î The transient stability scenario is one where a sudden, large change takes
place within the power system. This sudden change could be the loss of
a major generator or a severe system fault.
Î The oscillatory stability scenario is a constantly changing environment.
Voltage, frequency, angles, and power flows may be changing or
oscillating. The changes may be large and may occur rapidly. An
oscillatory situation can follow a transient situation as the system
oscillates following a disturbance. An oscillatory environment can also
develop without a disturbance when power system oscillations build due
to other causes.
These three classifications (steady state, transient, and oscillatory) are each used
in this chapter to describe important concepts of angle stability.

7.4.2 Introduction to Angle Stability Classifications

Steady State Stability / Instability

When steady state
The study of steady state stability begins with a normal system. Steadily stability limits are
increasing MW transfer and angle growth eventually leads to steady state studied we assume
instability. No large triggering disturbance need occur. The power system is that a generator can
hold its terminal
simply gradually pushed beyond its means to transfer MW. voltage and the
Figure 7-9(a) illustrates steady state stability and instability. When a system is impact of generator
excitation systems is
steady state stable the angle is relatively steady. If the angle is changing, it is ignored.
changing slowly. The magnitude of the angle is less than 90°. When a system is
steady state unstable it is pushed beyond its ability to transfer MW. The angle
gradually rises until it exceeds 90° and the system enters an unstable condition.
Movement from a steady state stable condition to an unstable condition may take
hours. Steady state instability is typically not a rapidly developing phenomenon.

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 Angle Stability

Figure 7-9. Types of Stability/Instability

The MW levels at which steady state instability occurs are normally very large, so
large that a power system typically encounter many other limits (voltage, thermal,
etc.) before steady state instability transfer levels are reached. It is rare that a
system has to restrict its MW transfers due to steady state instability concerns.

Transient Stability / Instability

The transient stability or instability of a power system is determined by how the
system responds to a severe disturbance. For example, can a power system
survive if a 3Φ fault occurs near the high side bus of the largest generating station
in the system? A system is transiently stable if it can survive the initial
disturbance. A system is transiently unstable if it cannot survive the event.
While transient
stability is often Figure 7-9(b) illustrates transient stability and instability. For the transiently
determined by the stable system a large disturbance suddenly occurs. The angle difference starts to
first swing, it may increase but reaches a peak and then starts to decline. The system has survived
also be determined the initial disturbance. Transient stability is sometimes called first swing stability
by subsequent
swings. as the instability often occurs during the first angle swing.

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 Angle Stability

In the right of Figure 7-9(b) the system is exposed to a more severe disturbance.
This time the system does not recover from the disturbance. The angle grows and
continues to grow until the system is unstable. Following a severe disturbance, a
system may become transiently unstable very rapidly. The time lapse from initial
disturbance to instability is typically less than a few seconds.
Many power systems restrict their MW transfers due to transient stability
concerns. In general those power systems with long transmission lines and
remote generation are most susceptible to transient instability. Power systems
that are most concerned with the possibility of transient instability include:
Any power system
Î The far western portion of the Eastern Interconnection can be made
susceptible to
• The Dakotas, Western Kansas, Western Nebraska, etc transient instability
Î Most areas of the Western Interconnection if it is weakened
enough. Remove
Î Most of the Canadian systems enough lines from
even a strong
Î Most small, weakly interconnected systems such as those found in system and it will
Alaska eventually be
subject to transient
Oscillatory Stability / Instability instability.

Oscillatory stability is similar to steady state stability in that no severe disturbance

is required to initiate oscillatory instability. Oscillatory stability or instability is
characterized by the magnitude and duration of power system oscillations.
Oscillations to voltage, frequency, angle, and power flows can be triggered by
many different events. Generator control systems are often involved. For
example, a poorly tuned excitation system may cause MW and Mvar to oscillate.
These oscillations could grow so large that a system becomes oscillatory unstable.
Oscillatory instability may start as a harmless low magnitude power oscillation.
Eventually the oscillation could grow so large that the system starts to unravel.
Transmission lines and generators may trip due to the oscillations. Oscillatory
instability may take hours to develop or it may occur within a few seconds
following a disturbance. Assume a power system recovers from a severe
disturbance. It is transiently stable. However, the system could gradually enter
into a period of severe oscillations and become oscillatory unstable.
With the introduction of many complex control systems in the modern utility This Chapter
environment, the occurrence of instances of oscillatory instability may become introduces
oscillatory
more common. Oscillatory stability is important to system operators because of stability. Chapter
all the types of stability this is the one that can be most impacted. An alert system 8 “Power System
operator may be able to detect the initial signs of oscillatory instability and Oscillations”
prevent a severe system disturbance. Figure 7-9(c) illustrates oscillatory stability expands on the
and instability. examination of
oscillatory
stability.

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Angle Stability

7.5 Steady State Stability/Instability

This section describes steady state stability and instability and presents several
illustrated examples.
The steady state environment is characterized by a system that is operating
normally. No sudden changes to generation or load are occurring, and the system
is not experiencing any oscillations. Figure 7-10 illustrates a simple system with
its corresponding power-angle curve. This is a 345 kV system with a
transmission path impedance of 100 Ω therefore PMAX is 1,190 MW.
Figure 7-10 follows on the next page.

Figure 7-10. Steady State Instability

7.5.1 Process of Steady State Instability

The system is initially operating with a mechanical power input equal to level #1
as illustrated in Figure 7-10. The angle is 15° and the MW transfer from the
sending to the receiving end is 310 MW. The system is steady state stable at this
operating point.
Assume the receiving end load is growing. More mechanical power must be input
to the generator to serve this growing load. Mechanical power input rises to level
#2. The new angle is 30° and the MW transfer is 595 MW. The system’s
operating point is now more stressed but well within steady state stability
boundaries.

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 Angle Stability

The receiving end load grows further. Mechanical power input rises to level #3.
The angle rises to 50° and MW transfer to 910 MW. This system is now highly
stressed. The MW loading is likely close, or possibly exceeding, the thermal limit
of the transmission path. The angle is less than 90° so the system is still steady
state stable.
Receiving end load grows even further. The mechanical power input rises to level
#4. The system is now at its steady state stability limit. The MW transfer is 1,190
and the angle 90°. If any disturbance occurs, even a small one, this system could
go unstable.
Assume the load grows further by a small amount. The mechanical power input
is raised to level #5 to meet the new load. The mechanical power input is now
greater than the electrical power the system can possibly transfer. More
mechanical power is coming in to the generator than can be transferred across the
system. The difference is stored in the generator’s rotating components. Rotor
speed rises above synchronous speed. The angle increases due to this relative
acceleration. As the angle rises above 90°, the MW transfer starts to shrink.
Even more excess energy is now stored in the rotor. The angle increases further
and the system goes unstable. This system has reached steady state angle
instability.
The above description illustrated how steady state stability is theoretically
possible, but highly improbable, in the real world. A realistic power system
would collapse long before such high MW transfer levels are reached. System
voltage limits, thermal limits, or power oscillations would likely limit the loading
on this system long before the 90° point is reached. Even though this scenario is
improbable it does illustrate the process of steady state instability. Section 7.5.2
illustrates a more likely occurrence of steady state instability.

Power-Circle Diagrams & Steady State Instability

Figure 7-11 illustrates the same process and system as Figure 7-10 but with a
power-circle diagram. Chapter 2 stated that power-circle diagrams are useful
Remember, in
graphical tools for illustrating both MW and Mvar flow. power-circle
The corresponding angles for the five levels of mechanical power input are diagrams,
positive MW and
illustrated in Figure 7-11. Note that as the angle rises towards 90°, both MW and Mvar flows are
Mvar flow increases. More MW is traveling across the line and more Mvar is defined as out of
being absorbed from the sending and receiving buses to support the transmission the sending end
line’s voltage. bus and into the
receiving end
Once the angle spread rises above 90° the MW flow starts to decline. The system bus.
is now steady state unstable. The power-circle diagram is not the best tool for
illustrating angle instability but it does give us some important information. Note
that once the angle spread exceeds 90°, MW flow reduces but Mvar continues to
increase until the angle reaches 180°. Power-circle diagrams show us that when
system angles rise to large values, MW and Mvar flows are swinging wildly.

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The power-circle
diagram in this
figure is a very
basic diagram as
we have ignored
the line resistance
and the natural
line charging.

Figure 7-11. Power-Circle Diagram & Steady State Instability

7.5.2 Example of Steady State Instability

As an example of steady state instability, assume that a generator operator has
experienced problems with a generator’s automatic voltage regulator. The
voltage regulator is switched to manual operation to avoid further trouble. When
in manual voltage regulation, a generator is no longer automatically responsive to
changes to its terminal voltage, the excitation (field) current remains constant and
the terminal voltage varies with changing system conditions.
When the switch from automatic to manual mode is made, the generator continues
to output the same amount of MW and Mvar. If system load starts to increase, the
generator’s terminal voltage slowly declines. The generator does not respond
with additional Mvar to support its declining terminal voltage. Manual excitation
holds the excitation current constant. Figure 7-12 contains a power-angle curve
that illustrates this situation. There are actually three power-angle curves shown
in Figure 7-12. The generator is initially operating at full load on the curve
labeled “initial curve”. The initial operating point is labeled “A”. The angle and
the MW transfer are both acceptable at this point.

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Note that the

Plant
Operator
could have
prevented this
disturbance if
they had
manually
changed the
field current.

Figure 7-12. Manual Excitation and Steady State Instability

Assume that the system load starts to grow. As the system load grows, system
voltages decline. Since the generator is in manual excitation the generator
terminal voltage also falls. The peak (PMAX) of the power-angle curve is
dependent on the system voltages. As the system voltages fall the PMAX value
shrinks. The generator must now operate on a new power-angle curve with a
smaller PMAX value. The reduced magnitude of PMAX forces the angle to grow
larger even though the MW transfer level has held steady. The operating point
slides from point “A” to point “B”.
As the load continues to grow, the PMAX value continues to shrink. Eventually the
peak value (PMAX) of the power-angle curve has shrunk to the point where the
mechanical power input line intersects the curve at 90°. This point is labeled “C”
in Figure 7-12. If system voltages decline any further from this point the system
reaches steady state instability.
This example, illustrates a situation where the system “backed” into a steady state
instability condition. As the system voltages are reduced, the ability of the system
to transfer power is reduced. In order to transmit the same MW, the angle had to
gradually increase. Eventually the angle exceeded the steady state stability limit
and the system was unstable.
An important point that this example illustrates is the need to keep generator
voltage regulators in automatic mode. NERC and several Regions have
Reliability Standards that mandate that system operator’s monitor generating
plants to ensure voltage regulators are in automatic mode. Plant operators may
need to place a voltage regulator in manual mode for system testing, due to

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component failure, etc. However, it is important that system operators do

everything possible to ensure as many regulators are in automatic mode as
possible. This action helps ensure adequate reactive power support and may help
avoid system instability.
7.6 Transient Stability/Instability
This section describes transient stability and instability and presents several
illustrated examples.

7.6.1 Process of Transient Stability

The transient environment is characterized by a system that undergoes a sudden,
severe disturbance. In contrast to the steady state environment where changes
occur gradually, the transient environment involves rapid changes.
Figure 7-13 illustrates the power system used to illustrate transient stability and
instability. This system has remote generation feeding through two high voltage
transmission lines into a large power system.

A remote
generator tied to
a large power
system is used to
keep our
description
simple. The large
power system is
not impacted
significantly by
what happens to
the generator or
the two-line
transmission
system.
Figure 7-13. Power System for Transient Stability & Instability
The top portion of Figure 7-14 contains the initial or pre-disturbance power
system. The remote generator is initially producing 1,000 MW. This MW is
transmitted to a large power system via two transmission lines. The large system
has 101,000 MW of load, 100,000 MW of which is fed from local generation.
A disturbance is created in this power system to study the transient stability of the
system. The circuit breakers at both ends of one of the transmission lines are
opened. From the generator perspective, once a line is opened the generator
suddenly has to transmit its mechanical power input across a much higher
impedance system. The generator must now work harder to transmit its MW
across the transmission system to the load area.
The bottom portion of Figure 7-14 contains power-angle curves for this system.
There are two curves; one for pre-disturbance conditions and one for after the line

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opens (post-disturbance). Note the pre-disturbance power-angle curve has a

higher PMAX. Once the line is opened the transmission path has sharply higher
impedance that results in a lower PMAX. Note in Figure 7-14 that the post-
disturbance curve has a significantly lower peak than the pre-disturbance curve.

Transient
stability is a
rapid event.
From the initial
disturbance to
the peak of the
angle swing is,
at most, a few
seconds.

Figure 7-14. Power-Angle Curves for 1,000 MW Generator Loading

Initially the power system is operating at point “A” in Figure 7-14. When the line
opens the operating point instantly shifts from point “A” to a position on the post-
disturbance power-angle curve at point “B”. When at point “B”, the generator
must accelerate since its mechanical power input is now greater than the electrical
power the generator can push out. As the generator accelerates it turns faster than
synchronous speed. The angle increases due to this relative acceleration and
slides from point “B” towards “C”.
When the operating point reaches “C”, the generator’s MW output is again equal
to the mechanical power input. However, the angle cannot stop increasing. The
whole time the generator operated below the mechanical power input line it was
storing energy in its rotor. The generator is now spinning faster than synchronous

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If the generator
had not slowed speed. The angle keeps increasing as long as the generator’s speed is greater than
down to synchronous speed. The generator must rid itself of the excess stored energy
synchronous before it can return to synchronous speed and stop the angle increase.
speed by the time
it reached point As the operating point rises above point “C”, the generator starts to slow down.
“F” it would have The generator slows because it is now sending out more electrical power than it is
been transiently taking in mechanical power. The generator rises above point “C” until it slows
unstable. This down to synchronous speed. This occurs at point “D” in Figure 7-14. If the
possibility is
addressed in the generator had not slowed down to synchronous speed by the time it reached point
next section. “F” it would have gone unstable.

Equal Area Criterion for Transient Stability

Immediately following the line opening the operating point shifted from point
“A” on the pre-disturbance curve to point “B” on the post-disturbance curve. This
movement represented an immediate reduction in MW transfer due to the opening
of the line. The angle then increased from “B” through “C” and on to “D”. The
angle stopped increasing at “D”. As the operating point moved, there were two
areas created bounded by the points “A-B-C” and “C-D-E”. These two areas are
shaded and labeled “1” and “2” in Figure 7-14.
The two areas represent the accelerating and decelerating periods of the generator.
Area “1” represents the accelerating period of the generator. The size of area “1”
is equivalent to the energy stored in the rotor. Area “2” represents the
decelerating period of the generator. The size of area “2” is equivalent to the
energy removed from the rotor. The operating point rose above point “C” until
area “2” was the same size as area “1”. This is called the equal area criterion for
transient stability. If area “2” is not equal to area “1” by the time point “F” is
reached, the power system enter a period of instability.
Area “1” represents the energy that is absorbed by the rotor as a result of the
reduced MW transfer across the system. This absorbed energy is what causes the
rotor to speed-up and the angle to increase. Area “2” represents the energy
released by the rotor as it decelerates due to the electrical power output exceeding
the mechanical power input. The equal area criterion basically states that the
amount of energy required to slow the rotor to synchronous speed is equal to the
amount of energy that was added to accelerate it from synchronous speed. If the
decelerate area cannot match the accelerate area, instability occurs.

Maximum Angle
Our angle stability descriptions to this point have stated that the angle difference
between any two adjoining points in the power system can never stabilize at a
value greater than 90°. Note that we have emphasized, “stabilize” at a value. The
angle can exceed 90° for short periods of time as long as its final value returns to
less than 90°. This can happen if the angle is oscillating about a point that is less
than 90°.

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Note that the angle in Figure 7-14 could have swung all the way to point “F” as
long as it did not pass through point “F”. Once the operating point has passed
point “F”, the system is unstable. Once past point “F”, the electrical power output
is again less than the mechanical power input. The angle must increase, as energy
is again stored in the rotor. As the angle is already greater than 90° when past
point “F” the only option is a further angle increase and eventual angle instability.
Figure 7-15 illustrates the same information as Figure 7-14 but in a different
format. Points “A”, “B”, “C” and “D” are labeled on Figure 7-15. These labeled
points correspond to the labeled areas on Figure 7-14. Note that once disturbed
the MW output of the generator oscillates about 1,000 MW before finally settling
down at 1,000 MW.
In this example of transient stability the MW output starts and ends at 1,000 MW.
During the oscillation the output may swing between 1,500 to 500 MW. Note the
time frames in Figure 7-15. Once the angle started to reduce from point “D”, it
indicates that the system was transiently stable. It took approximately 1 second to
determine whether this system was transiently stable or unstable.
It takes only a few seconds to determine if the angle recovers from the first
swings. However, the oscillations that follow the first few swings may last for
many more seconds. When the oscillations finally settle down or dampen, the
operating point is at “C”. The angle at point “C” is greater than the initial angle at
point “A”. This is expected since the system has lost a line and the path
impedance is now greater. For transient stability we are only concerned with the
first several swings. Oscillatory stability concerns itself with subsequent swings.

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Several points are

labeled “C” in
this figure. This is
intentional as the
operating point
swings through
point “C” several
times before
finally settling at
point “C”.

Figure 7-15. Strip Chart Equivalent of Figure 7-11

7.6.2 Process of Transient Instability

The top of Figure 7-16 is the same power system as was used in Figure 7-14 with
the exception of the loading on the system. Figure 7-14 had a loading of 1,000
MW on the remote generator. When one of the lines was opened the system
remained transiently stable. Figure 7-16 has a loading of 1,500 MW on the
remote generator. One of the two lines is again opened. The shock to the system
is greater since larger amounts of MW flow and a larger initial angle are involved.
The power-angle curve at the bottom of Figure 7-16 illustrates that the operating
point shifts from its initial location at point “A” to “B” once the line is opened.
The remote generator now has more mechanical power input than electrical power
output and must accelerate. As the generator accelerates the angle increases. The
angle keeps increasing until the generator can again return to synchronous speed.
If the generator does not return to synchronous speed by the time the operating
point reaches “F”, the system is transiently unstable.

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Since the
decelerating
area (area #2) is
smaller than the
accelerating
area (area #1)
this generator
goes out-of-step
with the larger
power system.

Figure 7-16. Power Angle Curve for Transient Instability

A close inspection of Figure 7-16 reveals that this generator goes out-of-step as
predicted by the equal area criterion. The important point to note is that area “2”
is smaller than area “1”. This means there is not enough decelerating energy to
return the generator’s rotor to synchronous speed before reaching point “F”.
Since the generator is still above synchronous speed after point “F” is reached, the
angle continues to increase. The electrical output again drops below the
mechanical power input line. This causes the generator to further accelerate and
go out-of-step.
The system illustrated in Figure 7-16 is transiently unstable. The generator never
recovered from the initial angle swing. Once the generator passed through point
“F” it accelerated at a faster and faster rate. Once the angle passes 180°, the
generator starts motoring (absorbing MW) and accelerates even faster. Generator
protection systems are sometimes designed to detect out-of-step conditions and
trip the generator before damage occurs.

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7.6.3 Transient Stability Following a Fault

The top of Figure 7-17 illustrates the same system and generation levels as Figure
7-14 but now, instead of just opening a line’s circuit breakers, a fault occurs.
With a fault occurrence there are three power-angle curves instead of two. One
curve is for the pre-fault conditions, one curve is for post-fault conditions, and
one curve is for the period of time during which the fault is applied.
While the fault is applied to the system, voltages are depressed due to the large
The fault is rush of reactive current to the fault. The depressed voltage is represented by the
cleared by the low peak (low PMAX) of the power-angle curve while the fault is applied.
transmission Immediately after the fault is applied, the operating point shifts from the pre-fault
line’s protective curve at point “A” to the fault curve at point “B”. The angle then increases along
relays.
the fault curve until the fault is cleared at point “J”.
The size of the accelerating area (area “1”) is directly related to the fault clearing
time. When the fault is cleared the operating point shifts to the post-fault curve.
The post-fault curve is smaller then the pre-fault curve because one of the
transmission lines is out-of-service. The power-angle curves of Figure 7-17
indicate that the system is transiently stable as the generator reached synchronous
speed at point “D”. The operating point then oscillates back and forth before
finally settling at point “C”.
Figure 7-17 follows on the next page.

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 Angle Stability

The faulted
system curve is
the smallest of
the three curves
as system
voltage is
depressed
during the fault.

Figure 7-17. Transient Stability and a Fault

3F Fault and an Extended Power Angle Curve

The top of Figure 7-18 again illustrates our simple power system. A 3Φ fault is
now applied at the remote generator’s high side bus. Three phase faults are
generally the most severe type of fault. While this 3Φ fault is applied, no MW
can leave the generator. All of the generator’s mechanical power input is stored
in and accelerates the rotor.
The bottom of Figure 7-18 contains an extended power angle curve. Instead of
illustrating only 180° this figure illustrates several alternations of the sine curve.
Note the size of the accelerating area (area “1”) in Figure 7-18. The decelerating
area (area “2”) is no match for the accelerating area and the generator pulls out-
of-step from the larger power system.

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Figure 7-18. Extended Power-Angle Curve

After the operating point passes through point “G” the generator becomes a
motor. While motoring the generator absorbs MW from the system, which further
accelerates the generator’s rotor. The combination of the mechanical power input
to the generator and the generator acting as a motor creates a second large
accelerating area “3”. The decelerating area “4” is again no match for the
accelerating area “3” and the generator continues its out-of-step operation.
Throughout our description of transient stability we assumed that the mechanical
power input stays constant. This is a reasonable assumption as it is very difficult
to rapidly change the mechanical power input. In Figure 7-18 note that after a
few seconds mechanical power input is slowly reduced. However, the reduction
is too little too late and the generator is unstable. In the next section several
methods for achieving rapid, and effective reductions in mechanical power input
are described.

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7.6.4 Further Observations with Power-Angle Curves

Benefits of High Speed Reclosing

Several additional concepts can be illustrated on a power-angle curve. One
concept is the benefit of high-speed reclosing following faults. Assume that the
fault in Figure 7-17 was a line-to-ground fault. Further assume that the faulted
transmission line was equipped with high speed reclosing. If this reclosing had
been successful, instead of shifting from the faulted conditions power-angle curve
to the post-fault curve, the system would have shifted back to the larger pre-fault
curve with two lines in service.
With two lines available to draw MW out of the generator the chances of
remaining stable are greatly increased. If high speed reclosing had been
successfully used, area “1” in Figure 7-17 would be slightly smaller. Area #2
would not need to be as large and, if required, area #2 would have more room to
grow. The maximum angle growth (point “D”) would therefore not be as large.
A risk of high speed reclosing is the chance of closing back into the fault and
ending up worse off than just letting the line trip. The effect of closing back into
the fault as seen in Figure 7-17 would be a much larger area “1” with the distance
from points “B” to “J” being greater. As we now know, the larger area “1” is, the
higher the risk of instability.

Need for High Speed Protective Relaying

Power-angle curves also illustrate the need for high-speed protective relays in the
transmission system. The faster the fault is cleared, the smaller the accelerating
area. The smaller the accelerating area, the less the angle grows and the better the
chances to remain angle stable.

Use of Fast Valving

Earlier sections have stated that it is difficult to make rapid changes to the
mechanical power input. While it may be difficult to accomplish, this type of
action could be well worth the effort. Note the position of the mechanical power
input line in Figure 7-18. If following a disturbance, a rapid movement
downward could be made to the position of this line, the accelerating area would
be reduced and the decelerating area increased. A rapid adjustment to mechanical
power input could save a system from transient instability.
While many
Steam turbine/generators may use a process called “fast valving” to achieve a steam units have
rapid reduction in mechanical power input. Figure 7-19 illustrates the fast valving the ability to use
process. The steam flows to the intermediate and low-pressure turbine stages fast valving, few
through the intercept valve. A fast valving system is designed to rapidly shut the actually
intercept valve when the generator is at risk of transient instability. When the implement the
scheme due to
intercept valve is quickly shut possibly two-thirds of the generator’s mechanical the possible
power input is suddenly removed. This action greatly reduces the accelerating harmful impact
energy in the system and possibly avoids instability. to the boiler.

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Following a
severe
disturbance it
may take ½
second to shut the
intercept valve.
The valve then
remains closed
for a few seconds.
Ideally no steam
is vented and the
generator is
rapidly brought
back to initial
loading.

Figure 7-19. Fast Valving in Steam Units

Hydro units cannot utilize fast valving but a hydro-based system can employ a
process with a similar purpose. Braking resistors are sometimes installed in
hydro-based systems. Braking resistors are large resistive loads. The braking
resistor control logic monitors system parameters to determine if the local power
system is accelerating. If all the conditions are met, the braking resistor is placed
in-service. The braking resistor remains in-service for only a short time, perhaps
20 cycles. While it is in-service the braking resistor slows the system down. This
deceleration may be sufficient to avoid instability.
British Columbia
Hydro also has a
Figure 7-20 is a picture of the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) braking
braking resistor resistor. This large brake (rated 230 kV & 1,400 MW) is located in the Pacific
installed adjacent Northwest. The brake is inserted if the Pacific Northwest power system
to their northern accelerates with respect to the rest of the Western Interconnection. While inserted
most hydro the brake slows down the Pacific Northwest system and helps reduce the angle
generation.
growth.

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The three towers

in the picture form
the braking
resistor. The
towers contain
approximately 10
miles of ½ inch
stainless-steel
wire stretching
from the towers to
ground. These
wires form the
brake’s
resistance. 230 kV
transmission lines
connect the towers
to the power
system via circuit
breakers. When
the brake is
needed to stop
acceleration, the
circuit breakers
are closed and the
brake is placed in-
service for ½
second
Figure 7-20. The BPA Braking Resistor

Generator Dropping
An additional option for rapidly reducing the power system’s accelerating energy
is to quickly trip generation. Generator dropping refers to the intentional tripping
of generating units. Generators may be tripped to avoid an accelerating condition
that could lead to instability.
NERC utilities drop both steam and hydro generation. However the dropping of
hydro generation has definite advantages, as it is often simple and rapid process to
re-synchronize a hydro unit. In contrast, there are many events that could occur
which could delay the re-synchronizing of a steam unit.
7.7 Oscillatory Stability/Instability
This section describes oscillatory stability and instability and presents several The causes, effects,
illustrated examples. The oscillatory environment is characterized by a system and control of the
oscillations that
that is constantly changing. MW, Mvar, voltage magnitudes, angles, and
accompany
frequency may be oscillating. oscillatory stability
and instability are
The study of oscillatory stability is similar to steady state stability in that no
further addressed
severe triggering event is required. A system may enter into a period of Chapter 8.
oscillatory instability as the result of a minor disturbance such as a line switching
operation. Oscillatory instability may be a slowly developing event. A system
may begin a period of oscillations that last for several seconds, minutes, or even

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hours. These oscillations do not always result in oscillatory instability.

Oscillatory instability occurs when the oscillations grow so large that the system
becomes unstable. Transmission lines and generators may trip as a result of the
oscillations. In many instances the oscillations may die out as unexplained as the
origins that first created them.
An important ingredient in any study of oscillatory stability is the role of control
systems. For example, the actions of generator governor and excitation systems
are important in the study of a system’s oscillatory stability. The control systems
may be the cause of the oscillations and, as described in Chapter 8, can also be
used to control the oscillations.

7.7.1 Process of Oscillatory Stability

Figure 7-21 contains a diagram of a power system used to illustrate oscillatory
stability and instability. This system has a generator feeding through two high
voltage transmission lines to a large power system. The receiving power system
is so large that anything done to our remote generator does not impact the large
system’s voltage or frequency.

Figure 7-21. Power System for Oscillatory Stability

Initially the remote generator’s output splits between the two transmission lines.
Assume line #1 is opened. No fault has occurred; the line is simply switched out
for maintenance. The power-angle curve of Figure 7-22 illustrates how the MW
flow and angle vary after line #1 is opened. Initially the system is operating on
the pre-outage curve at point “A”. As a result of the opening of line #2 the
operating point shifts downward to the post-outage curve at point “B”. The
mechanical power input is greater than the MW output at point “B”. The
generator accelerates and the angle increases. The operating point slides up to
point “C”.
At point “C” the generator’s mechanical power input and the electrical power
output are matched. There is no additional energy being stored in the rotor at
point “C”. However, the whole time the power system operated below the
mechanical power input line, energy was stored in the rotor. The energy stored
must be removed before the angle can stop increasing.

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Figure 7-22. Power-Angle Curve for Oscillatory Stability

The excess rotor energy is removed by increasing the MW output to a point above
the mechanical power input line. The operating point slides along the power-
angle curve up to point “D”. By the time the operating point reaches “D”, the
generator is back to synchronous speed. All the energy that was stored in the
rotor is now removed and the angle stops increasing.
When transient stability was examined our only concern was whether the system
recovered from the first few swings. Figure 7-22 indicates that this system is
transiently stable. With oscillatory stability we are not concerned about the first
few swings but rather with subsequent swings.
At point “D” the generator has rid itself of excess rotor energy. The MW output
is still greater than the mechanical power input. This deficiency in input power is
drawn from the rotor. This causes the generator speed to slow below synchronous
speed. The angle starts to decrease as the operating point slides back towards
point “C” and on towards “B”.
As the power
The oscillation between points “B” and “D” continue until system losses dampen oscillates back and
the swing. “Dampen” means that as the system oscillates about point “C” energy forth in the system,
is expended due to natural system energy losses. Eventually enough energy is lost the current also
oscillates. Energy
that the oscillations stop and the system settles at a new operating point (point losses are created
“C”). This system is oscillatory stable. Note that the new operating point (“C”) is as the current
at a greater angle than the original operating point (“A”). Figure 7-23 illustrates oscillates through
how the operating point oscillates back and forth between points “B” and “D” and the system’s
finally settles at “C”. The time period for the oscillations may last from several resistance.
seconds to several minutes.

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The oscillations
are shown in this
manner for
illustration only.
Actually all the
movement
between “B” and
“D” is along the
power-angle
curve.

Figure 7-23. Illustrating Oscillations on a Power-Angle Curve

Note that the generator is spinning faster than synchronous speed as it moves
from point “B” to “D”. The generator is spinning slower than synchronous speed
as it moves from point “D” to “B”. The generator is at synchronous speed when it
is exactly at points “D” or “B” and when it finally settles at point “C”.
When the operating point finally settles at point “C”, mechanical input is equal to
MW output and the generator is spinning at synchronous speed.
Figure 7-24 contains the same data as Figure 7-22 but in a MW plot format. Note
how the power oscillations are initially large but gradually dampen. The labeled
points on Figure 7-24 correspond to the same points on Figures 7-22 and 7-23.

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Figure 7-24. MW Plot Illustration of Oscillatory Stability

7.7.2 Process of Oscillatory Instability

The power system illustrated in Figure 7-21 is also used to describe oscillatory
instability. The system is initially transmitting 500 MW across a two-line
transmission system to a large power system. The power-angle curve is provided
in Figure 7-25. The initial operating point is point “A”. Line #2 opens and the
operating point immediately drops to point “B1”.
At “B1” the mechanical power input is greater than the electrical power output so
the operating point slides up towards point “C”. The generator is spinning faster
than synchronous speed at “C” so the operating point continues on up to point
“D1”. At “D1” the generator has returned to synchronous speed but the MW
output is now greater than the mechanical power input. The generator must now
decelerate which forces the operating point to slide back through “C” and back
towards “B1”.
Excitation systems
If our system was oscillatory stable the operating point would continue to oscillate are one possible
between points “B1” and “D1”. Each successive oscillation smaller (due to losses) cause of power
system oscillations.
until the operating point eventually settled at point “C”. However, assume
Chapter 8 expands
another factor now enters into the process. For example, perhaps this generator’s on excitation
excitation control system is not functioning as desired. This particular generator’s system problems
excitation system is a modern high power, high-speed system. The excitation and describes
system is configured to control the generator’s voltage to within a target several other
causes of
bandwidth.
oscillations.

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Figure 7-25. Power-Angle Curve for Oscillatory Instability

As the power oscillates back and forth from the generator to the system, the
generator’s voltage is also oscillating. The excitation system attempts to control
this voltage but instead of helping the situation the exciter actually causes
problems. The excitation system makes its voltage adjustments at the wrong time.
Instead of reducing the magnitude of the oscillations the excitation system causes
the oscillations to grow in magnitude.
Return to Figure 7-25. Assume the generator has completed its first swing from
“B1” to “D1” and is now swinging back towards “B1”. Naturally occurring power
losses (damping) are expected to halt the angle change short of “B1” and send the
operating point back towards “D1”. However, our excitation system amplifies the
oscillation and causes the operating point to swing beyond “B1” to “B2”.
From “B2” the operating point reverses itself (as expected) and swings past “D1”
to “D2”. Succeeding oscillations grow larger. From “D2” the oscillation swings
back to “B3” and then back to “D3”. From “D3” the swing is back to “B4”. Note
that once the operating point swings past “B5”, the generator becomes a motor.
This adds more energy to the oscillation. Finally the operating point swings past
the mechanical power input line to “D6”.
At “D6” the generator is oscillatory unstable. The oscillations have grown so
large that the operating point has swung past the critical point (the mechanical
power input line) and instability has resulted.
Figure 7-26 contains a MW plot presenting the same data as is in Figure 7-25.
Compare this MW plot with the oscillatory stable system illustrated in Figure 7-
24. In Figure 7-26 the power oscillations do not dampen but rather grow in

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magnitude. Finally the power oscillations grow so large that protective relays in
the system are forced to operate.

Note the unusual

shape of the MW
oscillations at
points D4 and D5.
The MW flow
reaches its
maximum value at
90°. As the angle
increases past 90°
MW flow reduces.
If the angle reduces
from a value
greater than 90°
back towards 90°
the MW flow again
starts to increase.
The movement past
90° and subsequent
return to 90°
causes the unusual
shape of these
power flow
oscillations.

Figure 7-26. MW Plot Illustration of Oscillatory Instability

7.8 Out-of-Step Protection
This section contains an introduction to the protective relays used to detect out-of-
step conditions.

7.8.1 Purpose of Out-of-Step Protection

Out-of-step protective relays are designed to protect the power system from the Out-of-step harmful
harmful effects of out-of-step operation. Out-of-step protection may be installed effects include high
power flows,
on key transmission lines or in generating stations. When two large power
oscillating voltages,
systems are interconnected with a relatively weak transmission path, the weak frequency
connecting path is a good candidate for out-of-step protection. Many generators oscillations, and
are also equipped with out-of-step protective relays. high torques on
rotating equipment
shafts.
7.8.2 Review of Three-Zone Stepped Distance Protection
Figure 7-27 contains a zone-of-protection diagram of three-zone stepped distance
transmission line protection and an “R-X” diagram for the same protection
scheme. The “R-X” diagram in the bottom of Figure 7-27 is for a three-zone
impedance package installed at bus “A”. These impedance relays are set to
provide primary and backup protection for lines “A-B” and “B-C”. If a fault were
to occur within the impedance relay’s protective zone, the relays would pick-up

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(activate) and, once the applicable timers elapsed, trip the circuit breaker at bus
“A”. Stepped distance protection schemes are very common but they do have a
weakness that exposes them to false tripping during power system disturbances

Figure 7-27. R-X Diagram for Three Zone Impedance Protection

Note in Figure 7-27 how the zone #3 relay operating characteristic covers all of
line “A-B” and most of line “B-C”. This means the zone #3 relay is providing
back-up protection for both lines. The zone #3 impedance relay at bus “A”
monitors the ratio of the voltage to current. This ratio (V/I) is called the apparent
impedance. If the relay’s measured voltage falls or the measured current rises
such that the apparent impedance falls within the circular operating characteristic
of the relay, and the zone #3 timer elapses, the relay activates. Zone #3 relays are
set more sensitive than the other zones because they have to detect faults farther

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out in the transmission system. If unusually high power flows and low voltages
were to occur in the power system, not due to a fault condition, zone #3 relays
would likely be the most sensitive to false trips.
Any power flow value can be converted from a MW and Mvar format to an
equivalent impedance. The formula for the conversion between power flow and
impedance is:

V2
ZAPP = R + jX =
P − jQ

If the MW and Mvar flow values are known, the power and voltage values can be
converted to an equivalent impedance. Assume that the power flow on the
protected line in Figure 7-27 is 200 MW and 50 Mvar. This flow is out of bus
“A” and into the protected line. If these flow numbers are converted to an
equivalent impedance, the impedance value might plot on the “R-X” diagram as
point “1”. Note that this point is not within the zone #3 relay operating
characteristic so the relay does not activate for this flow level.
Assume that a system disturbance occurs that creates large power flows and low
voltages in the area of bus “A”. (There is no fault.). The power flow out of bus
“A” to the fault changes immediately to 250 MW and 500 Mvar. This flow is
plotted as point “2” in Figure 7-27. Note that this apparent impedance activates
the relay. If the apparent impedance stays at point “2” long enough for the zone
#3 timer to activate the relay trips the circuit breaker at Bus “A”.

7.8.3 Out-of-Step Protection

When out-of-step conditions occur, power flows swing wildly. MW and Mvar
flow levels may get very large and also change directions. When the flow levels
rise to high magnitudes zone #3 impedance relays may falsely assume that a fault
has occurred. Critical transmission lines may trip which further weakens the
system and enhances the chances for system collapse.
Out-of-step protective relays are designed to distinguish between a true fault and
out-of-step conditions. Figure 7-28 illustrates a possible out-of-step protective
relay. Out-of-step relays are typically impedance relays with additional features.
Assume flow levels are such that the normal operating point is as labeled in
Figure 7-28. If a fault were to occur on the line section that contains this
impedance relay, the apparent impedance would rapidly move to within the relay
operating characteristic. The important point is that the movement of the apparent
impedance is very rapid following a fault.
If an out-of-step condition developed between the two ends of the system in
Figure 7-28 the apparent impedance would also change. The time for the
apparent impedance to move within the relay operating characteristic would be
considerably longer that for a fault condition. It may take several cycles for the
apparent impedance to move from the normal operating point to within the
operating characteristic circle.

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By measuring how long it takes for the apparent impedance to change one could
tell if the impedance change was due to a fault or out-of-step condition. This is
how out-of-step relays operate, by measuring how fast the apparent impedance
changes.
Note the out-of-step tripping line in Figure 7-28. As the impedance changes it
first crosses the operating characteristic at point “A”. By measuring the time
difference as the impedance locus moves from point “A” to “B” the relay decides
if a fault or out-of-step condition has occurred.

Figure 7-28. Out-of-Step Relay Characteristic

Out-of-step relays can be designed to be either tripping or blocking relays. Out-
of-step blocking relays prevent a relay operation if an out-of-step condition
occurs. Out-of-step tripping relays ensure relays activate during out-of-step
conditions. Both types of relays are used to design an out-of-step protection
program that trips only those lines the utility wants to trip and prevents (blocks)
The August 14, the tripping of others.
2003 disturbance
was the largest Figure 7-29 contains a plot of an actual R-X diagram for an Eastern
disturbance ever in Interconnection 345 kV transmission line. The line represented is the Sammis-
the NERC power Star 345 kV in the Ohio area power system. This line was the forth 345 kV line
systems both in to trip during the power system disturbance of 8/14/2003. Prior to the disturbance
terms of the amount
of load lost and the
events the zone #3 impedance relay at Sammis monitored an apparent impedance
number of illustrated as point #1 in Figure 7-29. After three successive area 345 kV lines
customers tripped due to tree contact the flows on Sammis-Star had changed so much that
impacted. the apparent impedance changed to point #2 in Figure 7-29. The zone #3 timer

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elapsed and the Sammis-Star 345 kV line tripped. This event triggered the
cascading outage in the Eastern Interconnection that eventually lead to the loss of
70,000 MW and impacted 70,000,000 people.
Figure 7-29 follows on the next page.

Figure 7-29. Sammis-Star 345 kV Transmission Line R-X Diagram

7.9 Angle Instability Example
During the early morning hours of June 25th, 1998 the power system in the upper
mid-west system was operating with heavy power transfers out of the area east
towards Chicago and south towards Kansas City and Saint Louis. The sum of the
loading on the three 345 kV lines connecting east and south from the Twin Cities
of Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota was approximately 1,575 MW. 1,575
MW was near the operating security limit for this transfer path. This transfer path
was called the Twin Cities Export or the TCEX. Figure 7-30 contains a simple
map which illustrates the physical location of the three 345 kV lines that formed
the TCEX.

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Angle Stability

At 01:34 CDT a west to east moving thunderstorm initiated a single line-to-

ground fault on the Prairie Island to Byron 345 kV line (line #1 in Figure 7-30).
This line is one of the three lines that form the TCEX and connects the Twin
Cities south into Iowa and eventually to the Saint Louis area. The line was
carrying approximately 640 MW at the time of the fault. While the fault was only
temporary, a large power angle (approximately 42°) across the line’s open circuit
breaker prevented the system operator from reclosing the line. The 42° power
angle exceeded the line’s synch-check relay setting of 40°.

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Figure 7-30. Twin Cities Area Map

To return the tripped line to service, system operators ordered reductions in the
TCEX scheduled power flow. The reductions in TCEX schedules were intended
to reduce the power angle and allow the open circuit breaker to close. While this
schedule adjustment and reclosing effort was in progress the King-Eau Claire
345kV line (line #2 in Figure 7-30) tripped from another single line-to-ground
fault at 02:18 CDT. This line is also part of the TCEX transfer path and connects

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the Twin Cities east and eventually to the Chicago area. This line is typically the
most heavily loaded of the three 345 kV lines that form the TCEX. At the time of
the trip the King-Eau Claire 345 kV line was loaded at approximately 1,050 MW
and the TCEX flow was approximately 1,000 MW.
Shortly after the loss of the second 345 kV line critical lower voltage
subtransmission lines began to trip due to the overloads caused by the outages of
the two 345 kV TCEX lines. At 02:21 CDT cascade tripping of the remaining ties
(including the last 345 kV line of the TCEX) between the upper mid-west and the
rest of the Eastern Interconnection occurred. The islanded area initially consisted
of large portions of Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and
Wisconsin in the U.S. and the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and
Saskatchewan.
In terms of the amount of load loss (approximately 1,000 MW) this disturbance
was not that severe. However, two very interesting events occurred during this
disturbance that make it a valuable learning tool.
The initial island was quite large and included several states and provinces.
Shortly after the initial island formation, two HVDC lines connecting the western
and eastern portions of the island tripped. The HVDC line tripping caused
cascading AC line tripping and the initial island broke into two separate islands.
Figure 7-31 illustrates the boundaries of the initial and subsequent islands.

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Ontario also
suffered during this
disturbance. The
entire western
portion of the
province was
blacked out.

Figure 7-31. Island Formations

Figure 7-32 is an illustration of the frequencies during the disturbance. Note in
the figure that initially the entire island frequency rose to about 61 HZ. Then
several minutes after the initial disturbance the initial island breaks into two
islands. The initial island frequency rapidly settles back close to 60 HZ while the
subsequent island frequency rises almost to 62 HZ and it takes about ½ hour
before it is back to 60 HZ.
When the initial island broke into two pieces, the eastern and northern portions
automatically closed back in to the rest of the Eastern Interconnection. A 115 kV
line (point A in Figure 7-31) had an automatic synchronizer installed in its circuit
breaker. Twelve seconds after the breakup of the initial island into two pieces,
this automatic synchronizer was able to close the 115 kV circuit breaker and the
Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Wisconsin and eastern Minnesota portions of the initial

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island were reconnected to the Eastern Interconnection. The North and South
Dakota portions of the island were not reconnected until approximately ½ hour
later.

Figure 7-32. Island Frequencies

Figure 7-33 is a plot of a 138 kV voltage in the area of point B in Figure 7-31.
Note the oscillations in this voltage plot. There are two oscillations present in the
plot. One oscillation is at approximately 1.5 HZ and the second, slower
The two islands oscillation, is at 0.15 HZ. This plots voltage data was taken immediately after the
remained connected
initial island broke into two separate islands. There was an out-of-step blocking
through the 115 kV
line even though their relay on a 115 kV line in the area of point B. This relay prevented the 115 kV
frequencies were line from tripping during an out-of-step event. The plot in Figure 7-33 is actually
different by 1.5 HZ. showing the slip frequency between the subsequent island and the rest of the
Eastern Interconnection. The slip frequency is 1.5 HZ.
The second lower frequency (0.15 HZ) is due to the weak nature of the power
system during this disturbance. These low frequency oscillations are described in
Chapter 8 of this text. These low frequency oscillations are the main reason for
the installation of power system stabilizers (PSS).

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Figure 7-33. Out-of-Step Voltage Oscillations

7.10 Introduction to the Swing Equation
The key to the stability of a power system is the torque angles of the generators.
When a power system loses its magnetic bounds, or goes unstable, it is the
generators that lose synchronism with one another. Unfortunately, the power
transfer equations developed and described in this text are not accurate enough to
solve angle stability problems for complex, multi-generator, interconnected power
systems. The tools used to determine actual power system stability limits rely on
complex mathematical relationships that are introduced in this section.

7.10.1 Equation for Accelerating Torque

The equation contained in Equation 7-3 is for the accelerating torque (TACC) that
the rotating components of a generator experience when subjected to a
disturbance. The variables used in the equation are briefly described below the
equation. “J” is the moment of inertia of the generator rotating components. The
moment of inertia of a generator is a measure of the generator’s resistance to a
change in its rotational velocity. θM is the angular displacement of the rotor with
respect to a stationary axis. Note that this angle is not the same as the torque
angle. This angle is sometimes called the rotor angle. θM is constantly changing
as the rotor spins. The second derivative symbol ( d 2 dt 2 ) is a mathematical
symbol used to denote how a quantity, such as the rotor angle, changes with time.
The quantity TMech – TElec is the difference between the input torque (from the
prime mover) and the electrical output torque (from the current flow to the
system).

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d 2θ M
TAcc =J× = TMech − TElec
dt 2
Where:
TAcc is accelerating torque of the generator
J is the moment of inertia of the rotating mass
θ M is the angular displacement of the generator's rotor
d2
is a math symbol for second derivative
dt 2
TMech is the mechanical input torque
TElec is the electrical output torque
Equation 7-3. Equation for Generator Torque
In normal conditions TAcc is zero and the rotor is spinning at constant speed. To
relate this complex equation to our earlier work with the power angle (δ) the
equations of Equation 7-4 are presented.

θ M = ω St + δ M

d 2θ M d 2δ M
=
dt 2 dt 2
Where:
θ M is the angular displacement of the rotor
ω S is the synchronous angular speed of the rotor
δ M is the torque angle
Equation 7-4. Relationship Between Rotor and Torque Angles
The rotor angle θM is constantly changing. The torque angle δM is the angular
separation between the rotor and power system’s magnetic fields. The top
equation in Equation 7-4 simply states that although the rotor angle (θM) is
constantly moving the torque angle (δM) is fixed as long as the machine continues
to rotate at synchronous speed (ωS).
The second equation in Equation 7-4 illustrates the relationship between the
torque (δM) and rotor angles (θM) as they vary with time.
If the equations in Equations 7-3 and 7-4 are combined the result is as shown in
Equation 7-5.

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d 2δ M
J× = TAcc
dt 2
Where:
TAcc is the accelerating torque
J is the moment of inertia of the rotating mass
δ M is the torque angle
d2
is a math symbol for second derivative
dt 2
Equation 7-5. Accelerating Torque in Terms of Torque Angle

7.10.2 Equation for Accelerating Power

The equation in Equation 7-5 is in terms of Torque. Power is equal to angular
velocity (ωM) times torque or PM = TM × ω M . If we substitute the relationship
between torque and power into Equation 7-5 we arrive at Equation 7-6.

d 2δ M
J × ωM × = PAcc
dt 2
Where:
PAcc is the accelerating power
J is the moment of inertia of the rotating mass
ω M is the angular velocity of the rotor
δ M is the torque angle of the generator
d2
is a math symbol for second derivative
dt 2
J × ω M = M = Inertial Constant
Equation 7-6. Accelerating Power in Terms of Torque Angle
The value J × ω M is referred to as “M” and is called the inertial constant of the
generator. The value “M” is rarely used in practice. A more common variation
on “M” is the “H constant”. The “H constant” is related to “M” as shown in
Equation 7-7.

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1
× M × ωS
H= 2
SMach
Where:
H is the H constant
M is the inertia constant of the generator
ω S is synchronous speed of the generator
SMach is the 3Φ rating of the machine
Equation 7-7. Relationship Between “M” & “H” Values
Think of the “H constant” as a measurement of the energy stored in the machine
as a function of the MVA size of the machine. For example, assume two
machines have the same H constant. Even if one machine is twice the size of the
other, on an MVA to MVA comparison the machines have the same stored
energy. The larger the H constant for a machine, the more stored energy on a per-
MVA basis.

7.10.3 The Swing Equation

If the H constant of Equation 7-7 is substituted into the equation of Equation 7-6
the result is shown in Equation 7-8.

2×H d 2δ
× = PAcc
ωS dt 2
Where:
PAcc is the accelerating power
H is the H constant of the generator
ω S is the synchronous speed of the machine
δ is the torque angle
d2
is a math symbol for second derivative
dt 2
Equation 7-8. Accelerating Power in Terms of Torque Angle
The equation in Equation 7-8 is called the swing equation. This equation relates
how the torque angle of the machine varies when the generator experiences
periods of accelerating power.
The mathematics used in this series of equations is beyond the scope of this text.
This derivation of the swing equation is provided only as a reminder of the
complex dynamics of generator rotation.

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7.11 Synchrophasor Measurements

Major changes are currently in progress related to how the North American power
system is operated. This section examines the usage of synchronized phasor
measurements to enhance both the monitoring and control of the power system.

7.11.1 Concept of a Synchrophasor

Recall the introduction to vectors and phasors in section 2 of this Tutorial.
Vectors are quantities with both magnitude and direction. Phasors are vectors that
rotate at a frequency. The power system’s voltage and current sine waves are
phasors as they have a magnitude component, a directional component and rotate
at 60 Hz.
A synchrophasor is a phasor that is time-stamped or synchronized. For example,
voltage values could be measured at two separate locations in the power system.
Each voltage measurement is time stamped via an accurate time standard. The
two voltage phasors are now synchrophasors as they are phasors that are time
synchronized. Figure 7-34 illustrates the concept of a synchrophasor. Note in
Figure 7-34 that the global positioning system or GPS is used to provide an
accurate time signal.

Figure 7-34. Concept of a Synchrophasor

7.11.2 The Global Positioning System

The GPS is a sophisticated navigation system developed by the U.S. Department
of Defense. Figure 7-35 illustrates the GPS satellite arrangement. Twenty-four
satellites, all time synchronized using highly accurate atomic clocks, orbit the
earth at an altitude of approximately 12,600 miles. These satellites can be used
for both location determination and time synchronization. The time

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synchronization capability is especially important to the synchrophasor concept as

it is used to compare data gathered from many locations in a power system and
ensures the data is compared at exactly the same time or that the data is time
synchronized.

The clocks on board

each GPS satellite are
accurate within 1.0
microsecond or 0
.000001 seconds of
each other.

Figure 7-35. The GPS Constellation

7.11.3 Phasor Measurement Units

When a utility
purchases a modern A phasor measurement unit (PMU) is an electronic device that is installed in
solid-state substations and generating stations. The PMU gathers data; time stamps the data,
protection package, and transmits the synchrophasor data via high-speed communications to data
PMU functionality collection points. At a minimum, each PMU gathers synchrophasor (voltage
may be included in
and/or current) and frequency measurements for one or more of the three phases.
the protective device
package. A PMU may collect additional data (perhaps 50 different inputs) and/or perform
other functions, such as protective relaying, metering, or fault recording.
Compare the PMU PMUs sample data at high speed, typically 30 to 60 samples per second. Each
sampling rate of 30 PMU measurement is time-stamped using the GPS, so measurements taken by
to 60 times per
PMUs in different locations or in different utility service areas are synchronized.
second to a typical
SCADA sampling The synchronization process ensures synchrophasor measurements can be
rate of once every combined to provide a comprehensive view of an entire Interconnection.
four seconds. Monitoring and analysis of the PMU measurements allows system operators to
identify changes in power system conditions, including system disturbances, to
enhance system reliability.

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Figure 7-36 illustrates the locations of PMUs in the North American power
system as of April 2009. Note that several of the PMUs in Figure 7-37 are
installed but have not yet been connected to a data network via high-speed
telecommunication systems. Over the next few years many more PMUs are
scheduled for installation.

Figure 7-36 notes

the location of five
of the data
aggregators. The
data aggregators
are also called
super phasor data
concentrators or
SPDC.

Figure 7-36. North American PMU Locations

7.11.4 The Usage of Synchrophasors

Synchrophasor data can be used for a wide variety of applications that maintain
and improve system reliability. Synchrophasor data usage options include:
Wide-Area Monitoring System
High-speed, real-time synchrophasor data is used to provide wide-area visibility
to System Operators, especially to Reliability Coordinators. System Operators are
able to monitor their entire Interconnection in real-time. This monitoring concept
is referred to as WAMS for wide area monitoring system. In WAMS,
synchrophasor data is collected from PMUs located throughout the
Interconnection. The data gathered is time synchronized as the PMUs are in
communication with multiple GPS satellites. The PMU’s data is collected and
sent to the phasor measurement data concentrator (PDC) of the host utility. The
data from each utility’s PDC is then transferred to centralized data aggregators
that combine the data from many utility PDCs. The wide-area data is fed into

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processing applications that allow System Operators to better evaluate current

system conditions, see early evidence of changing system conditions and rapidly
identity and locate emerging system problems. Figure 7-37 illustrates WAMS.

Figure 7-37. The WAMS Concept

The investigation into the 2003 Eastern Interconnection blackout recommended
that synchrophasor data systems be installed across North America. The authors
of the disturbance report commented that had WAMS type equipment been in
operation, the August 14, 2003 blackout initial conditions could have been
identified quickly, evaluated, and mitigated without the subsequent system
collapse and loss of 70,000 MW of load. WAMS is currently in use for wide-area
analysis in parts of the Eastern, Western and ERCOT Interconnections of North
America and several other locations throughout the world
Real-Time System Operations & WACS
Several utilities are working to incorporate synchrophasor data into their state
estimation tools. The synchrophasor data is timelier and more accurate than the
data obtained from SCADA. An increase in the accuracy of a utility’s state
estimation and contingency analysis tools leads directly to a more efficient and
reliable power system.
Synchrophasor data are being used by individual utilities to assist with real-time
power system operations. In the California power system, synchrophasor data is
used to guide the voltage control actions of static var compensators. Utilities in
the Pacific Northwest use synchrophasor data as inputs for the automated control

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actions of special protection systems (SPS) that help ensure real-time angle
stability.
Many North American utilities face challenges integrating variable generation Recall the
description of
such as wind turbines. Several of these utilities are looking at synchrophasor data oscillatory
to better monitor real-time variable generation and integrate these resources instability in Section
economically while protecting system reliability. 8. Synchrophasor
data is proving to be
When synchrophasor data is used to drive power system control actions the very valuable for
concept is referred to as a wide area control system or WACS. Future WACS both monitoring and
applications will both extend the transfer capability of the power system while damping power
further enhancing reliability. A challenge is to balance the speed and computing system oscillations.
power of WACS with the knowledge and experience of the System Operators.
Power System Planning
Power system planners use computer simulation tools to study power system
events. The power system’s generators, transmission lines, loads etc., are all
modeled in these software simulation tools. Simulations are performed to study
both dynamic and static power system conditions. The results of the power system
simulations are used to determine operating security limits.
The more accurate the computer models, the greater the accuracy of the operating
security limits. Synchrophasor data is valuable for benchmarking simulation
models. For example, given the occurrence of a system disturbance, the
synchrophasor data is used to judge the accuracy of the computer simulations
(both static and dynamic) and improve the modeling techniques used for power
system equipment.
Disturbance Analysis
Synchrophasor data is valuable for analysis of power system disturbances. PMUs
collect and store high volumes of high-speed, time-synchronized data related to
conditions throughout the Interconnection. PMU data can be gathered quickly
following a disturbance and analyzed to determine the sequence of events and
what caused the disturbance. Highly accurate simulations can be developed
following the disturbance and system operators can “replay” the event to evaluate
their response.
Smart Grid Concept
The smart grid concept combines distributed power system sensors and high- The Smart Grid is a
speed communications/controls with distributed computing technology to coordinated effort
by North American
optimize the efficiency, reliability, and safety of electricity production, delivery governments and
and use. utilities to improve
the efficiency and
At the bulk power level, synchrophasor methods are an ideal technology to reliability of the
implement smart grid concepts. Synchrophasor systems collect, distribute, and North American
analyze critical data and convert the data into real-time information that power system.
improves or “smartens” the grid.

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7.12 Role of the System Operator

A system operator’s role in avoiding angle instability is important but often
limited. Angle stability is not like voltage control in which a system operator may
have the luxury of time to correct a voltage deviation. Angle instability can
develop very rapidly, before an operator has a chance to respond. This section
states some actions that a system operator can take to assist with maintaining
angle stability.

7.12.1 Enforce System Operating Guidelines

The most important role a system operator can perform to maintain angle stability
is to operate the power system within the published operating guidelines for their
particular system. These operating guidelines always address power transfer
limits for major transmission paths. Depending on the power system, the transfer
limits may or may not be based on angle stability considerations.
Engineering support personnel do not use power-angle curves to determine angle
stability related power transfer limits. The interconnected power systems are
much too complicated for these simple graphical tools. Engineers use computer
simulations of power systems to determine stability limits and system transfer
capabilities. These computer software tools are collectively called angle stability
programs.
Angle stability computer studies are a simulation of the power system’s response
to disturbances. For example, engineers may study the system’s response to a 3Φ
Where possible, fault on the high side bus of the largest system generator. The study results are
stability programs usually more conservative than the actual system response. Many experienced
are validated by system operators voice their complaints about leaving too much transfer
comparing their capability unused. The problem is that the computer simulations do not
predicted results completely represent the actual power system. If errors are going to be made,
to actual system
disturbances. they should be made on the conservative side. This is why conservative operating
limits are often used.

7.12.2 Additional Actions to Maintain Angle Stability

Other actions available to a system operator to assist with maintaining angle
stability include:
Î Maintaining system voltage levels as high as possible (within safe
voltage limits). The higher the voltages on the system, the less the
required angle to transmit a given amount of MW. The lower the initial
angle, the more likely the system survives a severe disturbance.
Î Maintaining the system impedance as low as possible. The lower the
system impedance, the lower the required angle to transmit a given
amount of MW. Keeping all transmission lines in service and (when
available) inserting series capacitors lowers system impedance and
reduces the needed angle.

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Î Ensure that generator voltage regulators are operated in automatic mode.

Strong system voltages help avoid angle instability. When disturbances
occur, system voltage is impacted. Generators can respond with
additional reactive power if their voltage regulators are in automatic
mode. This reactive support could be the difference between angle
stability and instability.
Pilot schemes were
Î Ensure that high-speed protective relay systems are in-service as introduced in
intended. If faults occur within the transmission system it is important Chapter 2. Pilot
that these faults be cleared as soon as possible. The longer the faults schemes are
persist, the greater the accelerating energy and the more likely that transmission line
protection schemes
instability results. System operators should pay special attention to pilot that rely on
protective schemes. When protective relay telecommunication systems telecommunication
are removed from service, critical system protection may be between the line’s
compromised. terminals.

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7.13 Summary of Angle Stability

7.13.1 Angle & Voltage Stability

Î Voltage is the key to the overall stability of a power system. Voltage
stability is related to the magnitude of the system voltages. Angle
stability is related to the angular separation between points in the power
system.

7.13.2 Changing Torque & Power Angles

Î When a power system is angle stable it has sustained torque and power
angles of less than 90°. The torque and power angles may temporarily
rise above 90° but only for short periods of time.
Î When a generator is in-step with the power system its rotating magnetic
field rotates at the same speed as the system’s field. When a generator is
out-of-step, its magnetic field must have rotated at a different speed than
the system.
Î Torque and power angles are changed by accelerating one section of the
power system with respect to another section. If a generator is running
faster than synchronous speed, its torque angle is increasing. If a
generator is running slower than synchronous speed, its torque angle is
decreasing.

7.13.3 Out-of-Step/Loss of Synchronism

Î There are many terms used to indicate that a system is angle unstable.
Loss of synchronism, slipping poles, and out-of-step are a few of the
more common terms.

7.13.4 Angle Stability & Generator Speed

Î When two points on the power system sustain operation at different
frequencies the angle between the two points will eventually increase
past 90° and move on toward 180° and even larger angles.

7.13.5 Out-of-Step From a Voltage Perspective

Î Each time two connected points in the power system pass through an
angle spread of 180°, the system will experience a point with zero
voltage. The transmission system between the two points will behave as
if it sees a 3Φ fault.

7.13.6 Relative Nature of Angle Stability

Î A system that is angle stable can become angle unstable only after a
period of relative acceleration. One part of the system must accelerate

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with respect to another part for the angle spread to grow and the system
to become unstable.

7.13.7 Rotor Dynamics

Î When the mechanical power input to the rotor exceeds the MW output,
the rotor will store the excess energy and accelerate. When the power
input to the rotor is less than the MW output, the generator will draw the
difference from stored energy and decelerate.

7.13.8 Review of Active Power Transfer Equation

Î Whether using the power angle or the torque angle, the active power
transfer is calculated using the same active power transfer equation:
VS × VR
PS = sin δ
X

7.13.9 Review of Power-Angle Curves

Î The power-angle curve is a plot of the MW transferred between two
buses as the angle spread is varied. The operating point (MW & δ) will
always lie on the power-angle curve.

7.13.10 Maximum Angle Spread

Î The theoretical maximum system angle spread is 180°. The largest angle
spreads across the interconnected systems of NERC are approximately
120°.

7.13.11 Angle Stability Classifications

Î There are three environments in which angle stability can be viewed:
steady state, transient, and oscillatory.

7.13.12 Introduction to Angle Stability Classifications

Î For steady state instability to occur, the power system is gradually
pushed beyond its means to transfer electrical power. No large
disturbance needs to occur.
Î Transient stability is the study of whether a power system can survive
following a severe disturbance.
Î Oscillatory stability is the study of whether a power system can survive
periods of oscillations.

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7.13.13 Process of Steady State Stability

Î The process of steady state stability was described and illustrated using
power-angle curves and power-circle diagrams.

7.13.14 Example of Steady State Instability

Î An example of steady state instability was illustrated. A generator’s
voltage regulator was placed in manual mode. The system backed into a
condition of steady state instability as voltage declined.

7.13.15 Process of Transient Stability

Î The process of transient stability was described and illustrated using
power-angle curves.
Î The equal area criterion states that the amount of energy required to slow
the rotor to synchronous speed is equal to the amount of energy that was
added to accelerate it from synchronous speed. If the decelerate area
cannot match the accelerate area instability will occur.

7.13.16 Process of Transient Instability

Î The process of transient instability was described and illustrated using
power-angle curves.
Î The initial system loading level is key to transient stability. The more
stressed the system is initially, the greater the chances for transient
instability following a disturbance.

7.13.17 Transient Stability Following a Fault

Î How long a fault is applied is critical to transient stability. The faster the
fault is cleared, the greater the chances of avoiding angle instability.

7.13.18 Further Observations with Power-Angle Curves

Î High speed reclosing may enhance or detract from transient stability
depending on if the reclosing effort is successful.
Î Steam generators may use a process called fast valving to achieve a rapid
reduction in mechanical power input.
Î Braking resistors are large resistive loads. While in-service a braking
resistor slows the system down.

7.13.19 Process of Oscillatory Stability

Î The process of oscillatory stability was described and illustrated using
power-angle curves and simulated power flow strip charts.

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7.13.20 Process of Oscillatory Instability

Î The process of oscillatory instability was described and illustrated using
power-angle curves and simulated power flow strip charts.
Î Excitation systems are a key factor in the process of oscillatory
instability.

7.13.21 Purpose of Out-of-Step Protection

Î Out-of-step protective relays are designed to protect the power system
from the harmful effects of out-of-step operation. Out-of-step protection
may be installed on key transmission lines or in generating stations.

7.13.22 Review of Three-Zone Stepped Distance Protection

Î Stepped distance protection schemes are very common but they do have a
weakness that exposes them to false tripping during power system
disturbances.
Î Any power flow value can be converted from a MW and Mvar format to
an equivalent impedance. The formula for the conversion between power
flow and voltage to impedance is:

V2
ZAPP = R + jX =
P − jQ

7.13.23 Out-of-Step Protection

Î Out-of-step protective relays are designed to distinguish between a true
fault and out-of-step conditions.
Î The movement of the apparent impedance is very rapid following a fault.
The movement of the apparent impedance is much slower during an O-O-
S event. Out-of-step relays operate by measuring how fast the apparent
impedance changes.
Î Out-of-step relays can be designed to be either tripping or blocking relays.
Out-of-step blocking relays prevent a relay operation if an out-of-step
condition occurs. Out-of-step tripping relays ensure relays activate during
out-of-step conditions.

7.13.24 Angle Instability Example

Î An angle instability example that occurred June 25, 1998 in the upper
mid-west was described.

7.13.25 Equation for Accelerating Torque

Î An equation was presented for the accelerating torque on a generator shaft.

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7.13.26 Equation for Accelerating Power

Î An equation was developed for the accelerating power on a generator
shaft.

7.13.27 The Swing Equation

Î The Swing Equation was developed

7.13.28 Concept of a Synchrophasor

Î A synchrophasor is a phasor that is time-stamped or synchronized.

7.13.29 The Global Positioning System

Î The GPS is a sophisticated navigation system developed by the U.S.
Department of Defense.
Î Twenty-four satellites, all time synchronized using highly accurate atomic
clocks, orbit the earth at an altitude of approximately 12,600 miles.
Î These satellites can be used for both location determination and time
synchronization.

7.13.30 Phasor Measurement Units

Î A PMU is an electronic device that is installed in substations and
generating stations.
Î The PMU gathers data; time stamps the data, and transmits the
synchrophasor data via high-speed communications to data collection
points.
Î PMUs sample data at high speed, typically 30 to 60 samples per second.

7.13.31 The Usage of Synchrophasors

Î Synchrophasor data can be used for a wide variety of applications that
maintain and improve system reliability. Synchrophasor data usage
options include:
− Wide Area Monitoring System (WAMS)
− Wide Area Power System Visualization
− Real-Time System Operations
− Wide Area Control System (WACS)
− Power System Planning
− Disturbance Analysis
− Smart Grid

7.13.32 Enforce System Operating Guidelines

Î The most important role a system operator can perform to maintain angle
stability is to operate the power system within the published operating
guidelines for their particular system.

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7.13.33 Additional Actions to Maintain Angle Stability

Î Other actions available to a system operator to assist with maintaining
angle stability include:
— Maintaining system voltage levels as high as possible
— Maintaining the system impedance as low as possible
— Ensuring that generator voltage regulators are in automatic mode
— Ensuring that high speed protective relay systems are in-service

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7.14 Angle Stability Questions

1. The loss of the magnetic bonds that bind together the elements of a power
system is known as:

A. Angle stability
B. Loss of synchronism
C. Out-of-step
D. All of the above

2. If a 2-pole generator’s rotor is spinning at 3601 RPM while the generator

is connected to a 60 HZ system, how fast is the generator’s torque angle
changing?

A. 3 degrees per second

B. 0 degrees per second
C. 9 degrees per second
D. 6 degrees per second

3. Neglecting losses, the difference between a generator’s mechanical power

input and electrical power output is called:

A. Relative power
B. Synchronizing power
C. Stability power
D. Accelerating power

4. Match a type of angle instability from the left column with a unique
definition from the right column:

1. Steady state instability A. Rapidly developing event

2. Transient instability B. Excitation systems are common cause
3. Oscillatory instability C. Slowly developing event

5. According to the equal area criterion for transient stability:

A. The torque angle must never exceed 90 degrees

B. The accelerating area must exceed the decelerating area
C. The decelerating area must at least match the accelerating area
D. None of the above

6. A generator is angle unstable whenever its torque angle exceeds 90

degrees.

A. True
B. False

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7. High speed transmission protection is a benefit to angle stability because:

A. Fault duration is reduced

B. Accelerating time is reduced
C. Angle spread is reduced
D. All of the above

8. The primary difference between an out-of-step event and a fault is:

A. Out-of-step events are detected by distance relays while faults are

not
B. Faults are detected by distance relays while out-of-step events are
not
C. The location at which the low voltage occurs
D. The speed at which the apparent impedance changes

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Unfortunately 7.15 Angle Stability References

most of the
available
1. Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book⎯A text by the
references for Westinghouse Electric Co. (Now published and owned by ABB Power
angle stability Systems, Inc.) Copyright 1964, fourth edition.
tend to be very
theoretical and Î This is the most complete reference available on power systems theory
not well suited to and operation although somewhat out-of-date. Chapter 13 addresses angle
a system operator stability including the use of power-angle curves.
audience.
2. Power System Analysis⎯A revision of the text by Mr. William Stevenson.
Revision authors were the late Mr. Stevenson and Mr. John Grainger. Text
was published by McGraw-Hill in 1994..
Î An excellent text that while engineering oriented may still be useful to
system operators. Chapter 16 addresses angle stability.
3. Power System Control and Stability⎯A text by Mr. A.A. Fouad and Mr. P.M.
Anderson. Text was published by Iowa State University Press in 1977.
Î This text contains a wealth of information on angle stability. The reading
level is engineering oriented and the text is likely not suitable for a system
operator audience.
4. Power System Stability⎯A three volume set of texts by Mr. Edward W.
Kimbark. These texts were originally published in the 1950s.
Î Volume #3 was a useful reference in the preparation of this chapter.
5. Electric Energy Systems Theory⎯A text by Mr. Olle I. Elgerd. Published by
McGraw-Hill in 1982.
Î This text was valuable in the preparation of this chapter. Chapters 4 and
12 are useful for understanding the basic angle stability concept.
6. Northern MAPP/Northwester Ontario Disturbance June 25,
1998⎯Disturbance report by MAPP written September 2, 1998.
Î Excellent disturbance report. Clearly written with many insights into
how a power system reacts in a disturbance.
7. The North American Synchrophasor Initiative website. NASPI.org.
Î This website contains a wide variety of information on the
synchrophasor initiative. A short paper from this website titled
“Synchrophasor System Benefits Fact Sheet” was used in the
development of section 7.11.

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POWER OSCILLATIONS

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POWER OSCILLATIONS

SECTION OVERVIEWS
8.1 Introduction to Power Oscillations
Low frequency power oscillations may be triggered by many events in the power
system. Most oscillations are damped by the system, but undamped oscillations
can lead to system collapse.
8.2 Power Oscillations on a Sample System
Oscillations develop as a result of rotor acceleration and/or deceleration following
a change in the MW output of a generator.
8.3 Natural Frequency of Oscillation
Low frequency inter-area oscillations are less damped than higher frequency local
area oscillations and are more likely to cause power system problems.
8.4 Oscillations and Excitation Systems
PSS or power system stabilizers are used to correct the harmful effects of fast
excitation systems and help reduce system oscillations. PSS usage is mandatory
in some operating regions.
8.5 Additional Causes of Oscillations
Large cyclic loads, incorrect governor droop settings, HVDC systems, and
generator pole slipping may lead to power oscillations.
8.6 Role of the System Operator
Power system oscillations are difficult to monitor. To prevent oscillations, the
system operator should hold power transfers within established limits and
maintain strong system voltages and adequate reactive reserve margins.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

8.1 Introduction to Power Oscillations ...................................................... 8-1

8.1.1 Definition of Oscillations ............................................................. 8-2
8.1.2 Triggering Events ....................................................................... 8-2
8.1.3 Mechanical Analogy for Oscillations........................................... 8-3
8.1.4 Typical Oscillation Frequencies.................................................. 8-4
8.1.5 Oscillation Envelopes ................................................................. 8-5
8.1.6 Oscillation Damping.................................................................... 8-6
8.1.7 Oscillation Classifications ........................................................... 8-7
8.2 Power Oscillations on a Sample System.......................................... 8-10
8.2.1 Changes to Power, Speed, and Angle ..................................... 8-10
8.2.2 Feedback Loop for Power, Speed, and Angle.......................... 8-11
8.2.3 Comparison of Power, Speed, and Angle ................................ 8-12
8.2.4 Summary of the Power Oscillation Process ............................. 8-14
8.3 Natural Frequency of Oscillation ...................................................... 8-15
8.3.1 Natural Frequency Analogy ...................................................... 8-15
8.3.2 Factors that Impact the Natural Frequency .............................. 8-16
8.3.3 Oscillation Frequency Effect on Damping ................................ 8-17
8.3.4 Modes of Oscillation ................................................................. 8-18
8.4 Oscillations & Excitation Systems .................................................... 8-22
8.4.1 Operation of an Excitation System ........................................... 8-22
8.4.2 Modern Excitation Systems ...................................................... 8-23
8.4.3 Benefits of Fast, Powerful Excitation ........................................ 8-24
8.4.4 Excitation Systems and Oscillatory Stability............................. 8-24
8.4.5 Power System Stabilizers (PSS) .............................................. 8-25
8.5 Additional Causes of Oscillations ..................................................... 8-26
8.5.1 Cyclic Loads ............................................................................. 8-27
8.5.2 Governor Control System ......................................................... 8-27
8.5.3 HVDC Systems ........................................................................ 8-28
8.5.4 Generator Pole Slipping ........................................................... 8-29
8.6 Role of the System Operator............................................................ 8-31
8.6.1 Detecting Oscillations ............................................................... 8-31

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8.6.2 Responding to Oscillations ......................................................8-32

8.7 Summary of Power Oscillations.......................................................8-33
8.7.1 Definition of Oscillations...........................................................8-33
8.7.2 Triggering Events.....................................................................8-33
8.7.3 Mechanical Analogy for Oscillations ........................................8-33
8.7.4 Typical Oscillation Frequencies ...............................................8-33
8.7.5 Oscillation Envelopes...............................................................8-33
8.7.6 Oscillation Damping .................................................................8-33
8.7.7 Oscillation Classifications ........................................................8-33
8.7.8 Changes to Power, Speed, and Angle.....................................8-34
8.7.9 Feedback Loop for Power, Speed, and Angle .........................8-34
8.7.10 Comparison of Power, Speed, and Angle................................8-34
8.7.11 Summary of the Power Oscillation Process.............................8-34
8.7.12 Natural Frequency Analogy .....................................................8-34
8.7.13 Factors that Impact the Natural Frequency..............................8-34
8.7.14 Oscillation Frequency Effect on Damping................................8-35
8.7.15 Modes of Oscillation.................................................................8-35
8.7.16 Operation of an Excitation System...........................................8-35
8.7.17 Modern Excitation Systems .....................................................8-35
8.7.18 Benefits of Fast, Powerful Excitation .......................................8-35
8.7.19 Excitation Systems and Oscillatory Stability ............................8-35
8.7.20 Power System Stabilizers ........................................................8-36
8.7.21 Cyclic Loads.............................................................................8-36
8.7.22 Governor Control Systems.......................................................8-36
8.7.23 HVDC Systems ........................................................................8-36
8.7.24 Generator Pole Slipping...........................................................8-36
8.7.25 Detecting Oscillations ..............................................................8-36
8.7.26 Responding to Oscillations ......................................................8-36
8.8 Power Oscillations Questions ..........................................................8-37
8.9 Power Oscillations References........................................................8-39

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 8-1. Rubber Band – Weight Analogy ...................................................8-1

Figure 8-2. Rubber Band – Weight Analogy ...................................................8-3
Figure 8-3. Three-Phase Power Flow on a Strip-Chart...................................8-5
Figure 8-4. Current Oscillation Envelope ........................................................8-6
Figure 8-5. Normal (Positively) Damped Power Oscillations ..........................8-8
Figure 8-6. Sustained (Undamped) Power Oscillations ..................................8-9
Figure 8-7. Negatively Damped Power Oscillations......................................8-10
Figure 8-8. Loss of a Line to Start an Oscillation ..........................................8-10
Figure 8-9. Feedback Loop for Power, Speed & Angle ................................8-12
Figure 8-10. Plots of Power Output, Angle Spread & Rotor Speed ................8-14
Figure 8-11. Steps in a Generator Oscillation.................................................8-15
Figure 8-12. High & Low Frequency Oscillations ............................................8-18
Figure 8-13. Inter-Area Mode of Oscillation ....................................................8-19
Figure 8-14. Intra-Area Mode of Oscillation ....................................................8-20
Figure 8-15. Local Mode of Oscillation ...........................................................8-20
Figure 8-16. Intra-Plant Mode of Oscillation ...................................................8-21
Figure 8-17. Comparison of Local and Inter-Area Mode Oscillations .............8-22
Figure 8-18. Generator Excitation System Block Diagram .............................8-23
Figure 8-19. Exciter Output Effect on Oscillations ..........................................8-25
Figure 8-20. Power Oscillations With and Without PSS In-Service ................8-26
Figure 8-21. Oscillations Due to Disabling Transient Droop ...........................8-28
Figure 8-22. Oscillations Caused by Misoperating HVDC Controls ................8-29
Figure 8-23. Generator Increasing Angle........................................................8-30
Figure 8-24. Out-of-Step Conditions ...............................................................8-31

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8.1 Introduction to Power Oscillations

This chapter describes the causes, effects, and methods of controlling low
frequency power system oscillations. Any disturbance to the system - even
minor - leads to the system’s generators oscillating about their eventual operating
point. Oscillations occur when load changes, when lines are switched, when
generators trip, and when faults occur. Oscillations may also be triggered by
generator controls, such as the excitation or governor control systems.
An oscillating power system can be visualized with the help of an equivalent
system. Figure 8-1 is the mechanical equivalent of a power system. The weights
represent generators while the rubber bands represent transmission lines. The
more massive the rotating components of the generator, the larger the weight.
The higher the voltage (and greater the capacity) of the transmission line, the
thicker the rubber band.

Figure 8-1. Rubber Band – Weight Analogy

Damping refers to
A disturbance to the power system is equivalent to tugging on one of the weights the ability of the
(generators) or cutting one of the rubber bands (transmission lines) in Figure 8-1. power system to
reduce the
Once a weight is tugged or a rubber band cut, the entire system enters into a oscillation
period of rhythmic oscillations. The oscillations last until the damping effects of amplitude.
the power system reduce their magnitude to harmless, unnoticeable levels. Damping consists
of energy losses
Oscillations are hardly an unusual event. The power system naturally enters (I2R) and several
periods of oscillation as it continually adjusts to new operating conditions. other factors.
Typically the amplitude of the oscillations is small and their lifetime short. When Damping is
the amplitude of the oscillations becomes large or the oscillations are sustained a described in
greater detail in
response may be required. A system operator may have the opportunity to Section 8.1.6.
respond and eliminate harmful oscillations or, less desirably, power system relays
may activate to trip system elements. In Chapter 7, three types of angle stability
were described. Oscillatory stability was one of the three types. Growing or large
sustained oscillations are a symptom of oscillatory instability.
The focus of this Chapter is on the oscillatory behavior of the power system. The
means by which low frequency oscillations occur, how they are controlled, and
the role of the system operator in responding to these oscillations is explored.

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8.1.1 Definition of Oscillations

Apparent The power system normally oscillates at a frequency of 60 HZ. This 60 HZ

impedance is the oscillation of the voltage and current is expected and desired in an AC power
ratio of voltage to system. When unwanted oscillations occur it is not only the MW and Mvar that
current (Z=V/I) that oscillate. Voltage, current, frequency, and apparent impedance also oscillate at
distance
(impedance) relays
frequencies other than 60 HZ. This type of oscillation may be damaging to the
measure. power system. When the terms oscillating, ringing, beating, or swinging are used,
these terms are referring to these unwanted oscillations.
All oscillations are triggered by a change to system equipment status or to system
conditions. For example, a change in load, a fault, or a control system (excitation,
governor, etc.) adjustment can trigger an oscillation. The power system’s
generating units respond to the system change and drive the system into
oscillations in an attempt to find new operating points. The movement of the
system’s generators is typically the driving force behind oscillations.
When considering the composition of an electric power system it is
understandable that oscillations occur. A power system contains several types of
energy storage mediums. Energy is stored in the rotating mass of system
equipment. Energy is stored in the electric fields of capacitors and the magnetic
fields of inductors. When the storage balance is disturbed, oscillations occur.
In Chapters 2 and 7 the need for relative acceleration to change a generator’s
torque angle and increase its MW output was emphasized. Energy is added to the
generator’s rotating mass to increase its speed of rotation above synchronous
speed. This rotational energy storage increase results in a torque angle change
and an increase to MW output. Before the generator can settle down to its new
operating point the energy used to increase its speed must be removed. An
oscillation follows as the extra stored energy is gradually removed and the
generator settles down to its new operating point.
Any time MW flow changes, the power system’s generators adjust their operating
points. These adjustments result in oscillations. The oscillations may be small -
such as the oscillations caused by normal load changes - or may be large, such as
the oscillations caused by the loss of a major generating unit. When a small or
large system disturbance occurs, the system’s generators respond by varying
power outputs. Typically, all the system’s generators eventually settle at new
operating points. When all the units have settled at new operating points the units
are in equilibrium and the oscillation has dissipated.

8.1.2 Triggering Events

Oscillations require some initiating or triggering event to start. The event may
HVDC systems are not be noticeable. For example, a gradual increase in system load level may
described in trigger an oscillation. Power system equipment, such as large motors or high
Chapter 10. voltage direct current (HVDC) systems may trigger an oscillation. The size
of the triggering event usually has an impact on the resultant oscillation.

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For example, if a large generator trips, one typically would expect larger power
oscillations than if a small, lightly loaded transmission line trips. Note how the
preceding statement is qualified with the word “typically”. At times even a minor
event, such as the addition of a small load, may trigger an oscillation. This
oscillation may then grow in size until the system is forced to respond with
generator trips, line trips, etc.

8.1.3 Mechanical Analogy for Oscillations

Our equivalent mechanical system for viewing oscillations is enhanced and
repeated in Figure 8-2. In this equivalent system the rotating mass of the system
generators is represented by weights. The heavier the weight, the greater the
inertia of the generator. As you recall from Chapter 4, the inertia of a generator is
a property of the generator that resists changes to its speed of rotation. In general,
the larger the generator, the greater its inertial energy. Large generators with high
inertia do not change speed easily, which is good for normal frequency control.
Once a steady 60 HZ frequency is established, the large generators assist the
system in maintaining a 60 HZ frequency.

The infinite bus

represents a
large power
system in which
the voltage and
frequency do not
change.

Figure 8-2. Rubber Band – Weight Analogy

The rubber bands represent the transmission line’s inductive reactance. (The
transmission line’s resistance is ignored in this section.) The infinite bus at the
top of Figure 8-2 represents a very large power system to which our smaller
system is connected. Nothing we do within our small system noticeably affects
this infinitely large power system. An infinite bus maintains a constant voltage
and a constant 60 HZ frequency.
Disturbing the power system is equivalent to tugging on a weight in the
equivalent power system of Figure 8-2. If you pull on weight “D” and then
release, weight “D” oscillates. In addition, all the other weights attached to the
entire rubber band system oscillate. Disturbing the generator represented by
weight “D” disturbs the entire system. This is also true in the interconnected
power system. When one generator starts oscillating it likely causes other system

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generators to start oscillating. (The magnitude of the oscillations depends on

several factors including the strength of the power system.) Eventually the
oscillations die out as system losses and other damping effects reduce the
oscillation’s amplitude.
Several other points can be illustrated with the equivalent system of Figure 8-2:
Î If you pull on weight “A” it oscillates. Weight “B” also oscillates but not
as much as weight “A”. Weights “C”, “D” “E”, and “F” oscillate even
less than weights “A” and “B”. The farther away a weight is from the
initial disturbance, the less it normally oscillates. This is typical in a real
power system. Generally, the closer (in electrical distance or ohms) to
the disturbance, the greater the oscillations experienced.
Î Weights “E” and “F” represent two generators. Weight “F” is larger than
weight “E” so it has a larger inertia and, most likely, is a larger generator.
If weights “E” and “F” are pulled on with the same force it is easier to
start weight “E” oscillating. It takes a greater tug to get the larger weight
“F” moving. However, once weight “F” starts moving it is difficult to
stop it. The larger the inertia of the generator the harder it is to start
oscillating. However, once you initiate oscillations in a large generator it
typically sustains the oscillations for a longer period of time than the
small generator.
Î Small generators may start oscillating easily but typically have little
effect on the power system. Larger generators are more difficult to start
to oscillate but once started, may trigger oscillations so large that the
entire system suffers.
Î If you tug on weight “A”, it causes a larger oscillation than if you tug on
weight “E”. Both generators may be the same size but weight “A” is
connected to a thinner set of rubber bands. The weaker the system the
generator is tied to, the larger the oscillations that result following a
disturbance. In addition, if a large enough oscillation is started in weight
“A” it could break the weak rubber bands used to connect it to the
system. This is equivalent to a generator going out-of-step.
Î If any of the rubber bands in Figure 8-2 are cut oscillations begin. This is
equivalent to tripping a transmission line. The thicker the rubber band
that is cut the greater the ensuing oscillations. The location of the rubber
Oscillations can band is also important. For example, cutting one of the large rubber
also occur at much bands that connect to weights “E” or “F” has a significant impact.
higher frequencies
than 3 HZ, such as
from 30 to 50 HZ. A 8.1.4 Typical Oscillation Frequencies
type of higher
frequency When oscillations appear on the power system, they are typically at much lower
oscillation called frequencies than the standard 60 HZ power system frequency. Typical
sub-synchronous oscillations may vary from three cycles per minute (0.05 HZ) to 180 cycles per
resonance (SSR) is minute (3 HZ). The frequency of the oscillation depends on what portions of the
described in system are oscillating. For example, the most noticeable power flow oscillations
Chapter 9.

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on a major 500 kV line may have a frequency of 0.3 HZ (18 cycles per minute),
while oscillations confined to a single generating unit may be in the neighborhood
of 2 HZ or 120 cycles per minute.

8.1.5 Oscillation Envelopes

Three-phase power flow oscillations are easy to visualize as normal power flows
are relatively constant values. Figure 8-3 contains a section of a strip-chart that
illustrates how 3Φ power flows might typically vary across an hour. Note that
this strip-chart does not show the complete power oscillation but only the end-
points of many oscillations. If the time resolution was smaller, a strip-chart could
show the actual power oscillations. For example, if the power oscillation had a 1
HZ frequency, the strip chart would need to record an entire cycle of oscillation
each second. Most control center strip-charts are not capable of this fine a time
resolution.
Oscillations in voltage and current values are not as simple to view as power flow
oscillations. Voltage and current are already oscillating at the 60 HZ power
system frequency. When an additional oscillation (at a lower frequency) appears
in a voltage or current waveform, the two oscillations are combined with one
another.

The time scale for

this strip-chart is
not fine enough to
show the actual
power oscillations.
Only the end-points
of many oscillations
are recorded.

Figure 8-3. Three-Phase Power Flow on a Strip-Chart

Figure 8-4 illustrates how 60 HZ oscillations and unwanted low frequency
oscillations combine. Figure 8-4(a) is a normal 60 HZ waveform for the system
current. Figure 8-4(b) is a low frequency power oscillation that was caused by
some disturbance. Figure 8-4(c) illustrates the impact of the low frequency power
oscillation on the 60 HZ current waveform. This is how the system current would
appear in an oscillograph.

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Figure 8-4 follows on the next page.

Note how the power

oscillation forms an
invisible boundary
for the current wave
to oscillate within.
The boundary is
referred to as the
oscillation
envelope. The
frequency of the
envelope is the same
as the frequency of
the power
oscillation.

Figure 8-4. Current Oscillation Envelope

Note that in Figure 8-4 the current magnitude changes with the oscillating power
flow level. The current magnitude must increase when the power flow oscillation
represents an increase in power and decrease when the power oscillation
decreases. The shape of the power flow oscillation forms an envelope about the
current wave. The current oscillates within new boundaries defined by this
oscillation envelope. You can determine the frequency of the power oscillation
from the frequency of the current (or voltage) oscillation envelope.

8.1.6 Oscillation Damping

Damping refers to the ability of the power system and its equipment to reduce the
amplitude of oscillations. Damping can be either positive or negative. When
damping is positive the amplitude of the oscillation is reduced. When damping is
negative the amplitude of the oscillation is increased.
Ideally the power system always provides positive damping and reduces the
amplitude of system oscillations. Unfortunately, at times the damping is negative,
and the oscillations grow. This could eventually lead to oscillatory instability.
Major sources of damping include:

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Î The load/frequency relationship (first described in Chapter 4) normally

provides positive system damping. As you recall the load/frequency
relationship is the dependency of the load magnitude on system
frequency. As frequency rises, the load magnitude rises which tends to
oppose the frequency rise and provide positive damping.
Î The natural energy losses in the system provide positive damping as
current flows through the system resistance. Any time resistance exists,
I2R losses occur. These losses tend to remove energy from the
oscillation and dampen the amplitude.
Î Frictional losses within rotating machinery (motors and generators)
provide damping as the speed of the machine varies with the power
oscillation. Frictional losses reduce the amplitude of the oscillation.
Amortisseur
Î Generators are often equipped with an extra set of windings called windings are also
“amortisseur” windings. Amortisseur windings are conducting bars called damper
windings.
embedded in the magnetic poles of the generator’s rotor. When a Amortisseur is a
generator experiences oscillations, currents are induced in the French word which
amortisseur windings. The induced currents create torques, which tend loosely translates to
to reduce the amplitude of the oscillations that caused the torque in the “killer”.
first place. Amortisseur
windings kill
Î Even if a generator does not have amortisseur windings it may exhibit an oscillations!
amortisseur effect. Oscillations induce currents in the rotor iron, which
create torques that oppose the oscillations.
Î Excitation systems can be a source of either positive or negative Section 8.4 of this
damping. The negative damping can occur due to an excitation system Chapter expands on
changing the generator voltage in such a manner that an oscillation’s the role of an
excitation system in
amplitude is increased. Power system stabilizers (PSS) are additional providing both
equipment added to an excitation system to enhance its ability to provide positive and
positive damping. negative damping.

8.1.7 Oscillation Classifications

Using the types of damping as our criteria for classifying oscillations, oscillations
are separated into three categories; normal or positively damped, sustained or
undamped, and negatively damped.

Normal (Positively Damped) Oscillations

Oscillations may occur due to routine events on the power system. Load changes,
generator trips, or switching actions may cause oscillations in power flow,
voltage, current, and frequency. For example, if a 345 kV line is switched out for
routine maintenance, the power that was flowing on the line redistributes to other
area lines. This redistribution of power flow causes temporary oscillations in
power flows of neighboring generators and transmission lines.

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The power system typically has no difficulty providing sufficient positive

damping to quickly reduce the amplitude of these oscillations. The routine,
positively damped oscillations are classified as normal oscillations. Figure 8-5
illustrates what positively damped oscillations would look like on a strip-chart
with a high resolution (seconds) time scale.

Normal oscillations
are always
occurring. The
power system
provides enough
positive damping to
quickly reduce their
amplitude to
harmless values.

Figure 8-5. Normal (Positively) Damped Power Oscillations

Normal oscillations are temporary events and typically die out after several
seconds. Normal oscillations may appear to be constant due to the dynamic
nature of the power system. Something is always happening within the power
system to cause normal (a few MW) power flow oscillations.

Sustained (Undamped) Oscillations

Sustained oscillations are oscillations that appear on the power system and sustain
themselves. The cause of normal and sustained oscillations may be the same.
The difference is that a normal oscillation eventually disappears (positively
damped), while a sustained oscillation does not go away (undamped) without
corrective action. Sustained oscillations are undamped oscillations. The
oscillations are not growing, but neither are the oscillations shrinking.
Sustained oscillations can be harmful if they have large enough amplitude. Even
small amplitude sustained oscillations can be dangerous under the right
circumstances. For example, several sustained oscillations, each with a separate
cause or source, may appear on the power system at the same time. Taken
individually, they do not harm the power system but, collectively, may cause a
great deal of trouble. Figure 8-6 illustrates a sustained or undamped oscillation.

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Sustained
oscillations are
neither positively
nor negatively
damped. They are
undamped.

Figure 8-6. Sustained (Undamped) Power Oscillations

Negatively Damped Oscillations

Negatively damped oscillations are the most damaging type of oscillation. If an
oscillation appears and then gradually grows in magnitude, it is negatively
damped. A negatively damped oscillation may initially appear as a normal or
sustained oscillation. As time passes, the oscillation may grow in size until it
reaches an amplitude that the power system can no longer withstand.
For example, a normal power flow oscillation of a few MW may exist on a high
voltage tie-line. The system operator may notice it but pay no particular attention.
Eventually, the oscillation grows to 20 or 30 MW. The system operator may
grow concerned and attempt to find the cause and begin corrective action. If left
unchecked the oscillation could grow to 100, 200, 300 MW, or even larger.
Protective relay systems may then be forced to trip lines or generators to protect
system equipment. This type of growing, large magnitude oscillation can be very
harmful to the power system. Figure 8-7 illustrates a negatively damped
oscillation.
Figure 8-7 follows on the next page.

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The power system is

not damping these
oscillations. Rather,
something is
causing the
oscillation’s
amplitude to grow.
These oscillations
are negatively
damped.

Figure 8-7. Negatively Damped Power Oscillations

8.2 Power Oscillations on a Sample System
While this is a Figure 8-8 illustrates a simple power system consisting of one generator
substantial shock to connected to a much larger power system. Initially, the generator is feeding
the system, the power to the larger system over two transmission lines. Assume that one of the
shock is not so great lines is suddenly opened. When the line is opened it causes a substantial shock to
as to risk transient the system. Suddenly the generator has lost one-half of its transmission path.
instability.
This disturbance is used to step through the response of the generator to this event
and the creation of an oscillation.

Figure 8-8. Loss of a Line to Start an Oscillation

8.2.1 Changes to Power, Speed, and Angle

Since it is rotating
at 3600 RPM and Assume that before the line tripped, the generator was rotating at a constant speed
feeding into a 60 of 3600 RPM or at synchronous speed. The large rotating mass of the generator’s
HZ system, this
turbine/rotor attempts to maintain this speed. However, the loss of line #2 forces
must be a two-pole
generator. an immediate reduction in MW output from the generator since the generator is
now connected to a much weaker transmission system. The MW that the

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generator cannot transmit to the system must be absorbed by the generator’s

rotating mass.

Change to Power Output

Recall the MW transfer equation:

VG × VL
PG − L = × sin δ G − L
XG − L

The loss of line #2 immediately increases the reactance (XG-L) of the system. An
inspection of the above equation tells us that the increase in reactance forces an
immediate decrease in the generator’s MW output (PG-L).

Change to Rotor Speed

The generator’s sudden MW output decrease creates an imbalance between the
generator’s mechanical power input and electrical power output. The difference
between the power input and output becomes the generator’s accelerating power.
Accelerating power is stored in the spinning mass (rotor & turbine) of the
generator. The increase in stored energy causes the speed of the generator to rise
above synchronous speed (60 HZ).

Change to Voltage Phase Angle

The generator is now rotating faster than synchronous speed. A condition of
relative acceleration exists. Recall from Chapter 7 that relative acceleration is
required for a change in the voltage phase angle. The angle between the generator
and the large system starts to increase.
The increase in the phase angle forces an increase to the generator’s MW output.
This reduces the accelerating power and slows down the turbine/rotor. This
forces another change to the phase angle. An oscillation has begun.

8.2.2 Feedback Loop for Power, Speed, and Angle

Figure 8-9 summarizes the relationship between the generator’s MW output, the
generator’s speed, and the voltage phase angle. The relationships are presented in
terms of a “feedback loop”. Feedback loop means that initial changes to the
generator’s MW output are fed back to determine another cycle of changes to
speed, phase angle, and MW output. The concept is described as follows:
At point “A” in Figure 8-9, the generator’s mechanical power input is compared
to its electrical power output. If the mechanical power input is greater than the
electrical power output an accelerating condition exists. The turbine/rotor speed
then increases above the synchronous speed. If the electrical power output is
greater than the mechanical power input a deceleration condition exists. The
turbine/rotor speed then decreases below the synchronous speed.

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It takes time for an

oscillation to
proceed. Movement
around this loop is
not instantaneous.

Figure 8-9. Feedback Loop for Power, Speed & Angle

At point “B” relative acceleration is analyzed. If the generator is running faster
than synchronous speed the phase angle increases. If the generator is running
slower than synchronous speed the phase angle decreases.
At point “C” a power-angle curve is used to illustrate changes to electrical power
output. If the angle is increasing, the operating point moves up the curve and
increases the MW output. If the angle is decreasing the operating point moves
down the curve and decreases the MW output.
At point “D” the change in MW output is “fed back” and adjusts the original
comparison of mechanical power input and electrical power output. A new
comparison between input and output determines the conditions for the next
oscillation cycle. The process repeats itself again and again until damping
reduces the amplitude of the oscillation. Oscillations are occurring with each loop
around Figure 8-9. The oscillations do not stop until the mechanical power input
equals the electrical power output with the generator running at synchronous
speed.

8.2.3 Comparison of Power, Speed, and Angle

Initially, the MW output from the generator drops sharply and the generator starts
to accelerate. As the generator speed rises above synchronous speed the phase
angle increases and the MW output increases.

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Once a generator’s speed has risen due to an increase in stored energy, it is

difficult to return the unit to synchronous speed. The generator continues to spin
faster than synchronous speed and increase the angle until the MW output actually
exceeds the output of the generator before transmission line #2 opened.
Figure 8-10 contains plots of power output, angle spread, and turbine/rotor speed
for the system in Figure 8-8 as it oscillates as a result of the loss of line #2. The
time frame from T0 to T7 is 1.75 seconds. The figure assumes that the mechanical
power input to the generator remains constant during this entire period.
From the graphs of Figure 8-10 it is easy to see that the MW output plot is in-
phase with the phase angle plot. When the angle is increasing, the MW output is
increasing. When the angle is decreasing, the MW output is decreasing. At
points T1, T3, T5, and T7, the MW output is equal to the output level prior to
losing line #2. These four points are at the mid-point of the output power swing
from maximum to minimum and coincide with maximum and minimum
turbine/rotor speed levels.
Note that at points T2, T4, and T6, the turbine/rotor is again matched to
synchronous speed. The points at which the turbine/rotor is at synchronous speed
correspond to the positive and negative peaks of the MW output and phase angle
plots.
Figure 8-10 follows on the next page.

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From Figure 8-10

you can determine
that the oscillation
frequency is
approximately 1.0
HZ.

Figure 8-10. Plots of Power Output, Angle Spread & Rotor Speed
There are many other interesting comparisons that can be made between the plots
in Figure 8-10. Take a few minutes to study these plots to determine further
relationships between power output, phase angle and generator speed. For
instance, note in Figure 8-10 that the phase angle can only increase if the
turbine/rotor speed is greater than synchronous speed.

8.2.4 Summary of the Power Oscillation Process

Figure 8-11 is provided to summarize the steps that may lead to a power system
oscillation. These steps are very general in nature but are representative of how
most generator oscillations develop.

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 Power Oscillations

• A change takes place in the power system.

The turbine/rotors of the system generators change speed (from
• synchronous speed) in response to the system change.
The speed change to the turbine/rotors leads to a change in voltage phase
• angle.
When the phase angles change, the MW outputs of the generators
• change.
When the MW outputs of the system generators change, the
• turbine/rotors change speed again. An oscillation has begun.
The generators oscillate about an operating point until system positive
• damping (hopefully) reduces the amplitude of the oscillations.
Figure 8-11. Steps in a Generator Oscillation
8.3 Natural Frequency of Oscillation
In the rubber band/weight analogy of Figures 8-1 and 8-2, a weight’s (generator)
oscillation was triggered by tugging on the weight and releasing it. The weight
oscillated against the rubber band (transmission) system at a certain frequency.
The frequency of the oscillation was dependent on the size (mass) of the weight
and the strength of the rubber bands in the system. The frequency at which each
weight oscillates is called the weight’s natural frequency of oscillation. Each
weight has its own natural frequency of oscillation. The natural frequency varies
with changing system conditions.

8.3.1 Natural Frequency Analogy

For a visualization of a natural frequency of oscillation consider a simple, 20 foot
long, arched bridge crossing a small stream. A person walks across the bridge
and it behaves properly, appearing well constructed. Then a second (taller)
person walks across the bridge with a longer stride length. This longer stride
length happens to be just the right repetitive force to excite the natural frequency
of the bridge. The bridge enters a period of noticeable oscillations which last for
several seconds.
The concept of a natural frequency of oscillation applies to any mechanical device
including large bridges. When excited by the right stimulus, large bridges could The public was
enter a period of oscillations the frequency of which is the natural frequency of fascinated with the
the bridge. oscillating
Tacoma Narrows
A classic example of the possibly destructive effects of a natural frequency of Bridge.
oscillation occurred in 1940. The Tacoma Narrows Bridge connected the “Galloping
Olympia peninsula with the mainland of the state of Washington. The suspension Gertie”, as it was
known, became a
bridge was more than a mile long and built with a very thin roadway. Even while
short-lived tourist
the bridge was under construction the builders knew it was susceptible to attraction.
oscillations. One day the bridge was exposed to the right stimulus (approximately
a 40 MPH wind) and the bridge failed. Large oscillations developed in the

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bridge’s roadbed and eventually these oscillations toppled the bridge into the
water below.

8.3.2 Factors that Impact the Natural Frequency

Every generator on the power system has a natural frequency of oscillation. This
frequency is dependent on the inertia of the generator, the strength of the power
system to which the generator is attached, and the generator’s power output level.
A generator’s inertia is constant but the transmission system’s strength and the
generator’s output level are variable. A generator’s natural frequency of
oscillation varies with the changing strength of the transmission system and the
changing loading of the generator. A typical range for a generator’s natural
frequency of oscillation is from 0.75 to 3.0 HZ.

Effect of Inertia on Natural Frequency

The inertia of a generator is dependent on its physical size and geometry. A
generator with a large diameter, heavy turbine/rotor assembly has a large inertia.
The smaller the diameter and lighter the turbine/rotor, the lower the inertia of the
unit. To compare the inertia of two generators you should compare inertias on a
“per unit” basis. You are then comparing the inertias per MVA of unit capacity.
In general, hydro units have greater per-unit inertia than steam units.
The greater the inertia of a generator, the lower its natural frequency of
oscillation. For example, assume a power system has two 500 MW units: one is a
coal unit, and the other a hydro unit. The hydro unit typically has a higher inertia.
A hydro unit oscillates, when disturbed, at a lower natural frequency of oscillation
than the coal unit. For example, the coal unit may oscillate at 1.5 HZ while the
hydro unit may oscillate at 0.8 HZ.

Effect of System Strength on Natural Frequency

The strength of a transmission system is a function of the number and size of the
lines in the system and the power loading on these lines. If a system is composed
of many high voltage lines that are lightly loaded it is a strong transmission
system. If a system is composed of only a few low voltage lines that are heavily
loaded it is a weak transmission system. Most transmission systems are
somewhere between these two extremes.
When a generator is disturbed it oscillates at a higher frequency if it is connected
to a strong transmission system. The generator oscillates at a lower frequency if it
is connected to a weak transmission system.

Effect of Generator Output Level on Natural Frequency

The output level (MW and Mvar) of a generator also affects its natural frequency
of oscillation. In general, as the loading of the generator increases its natural
frequency of oscillation reduces. Assuming the generator and system voltages
stay constant, the loading level of the generator can be related to its torque angle.

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As the generator’s torque angle rises toward 90° its natural frequency of
oscillation reduces.

8.3.3 Oscillation Frequency Effect on Damping

The power system naturally tries to reduce the amplitude of power system
oscillations. It does this by removing energy from the oscillations. For example,
if a power oscillation occurs you could visualize it as an exchange of power
between two points on the system. When power flows, I2R losses occur. These
energy losses help to reduce the amplitude of the oscillation. In other words, the
losses dampen the oscillation. The higher the frequency of the oscillation, the
more positive damping the power system provides. High frequency (greater than
1.0 HZ) oscillations are damped or reduced in amplitude more rapidly than low
frequency (less than 1.0 HZ) oscillations.
As power system operators, you do not want any oscillations. However, it is
better to have high frequency oscillations than low frequency. The power system
can naturally dampen high frequency oscillations. Low frequency oscillations
may exist for a long time. Low frequency oscillations could become sustained
(undamped) oscillations. Worse yet, the oscillations could grow in size
(negatively damped) until system operators or protective relay systems are forced
to respond and trip elements.
Because of the differences in naturally occurring power system damping, low
frequency oscillations are more damaging to the power system than high
frequency oscillations. To summarize the occurrence of high and low frequency
oscillations two general scenarios are stated:
Î Low frequency oscillations occur when high inertia generators are
operating with large torque angles and are tied to weak transmission
systems.
Î High frequency oscillations occur when low inertia generators are
operating with small torque angles and are tied to strong transmission
systems.
With respect to the operation of the power system, the oscillations that cause
problems are the low frequency ones. Figure 8-12 summarizes the factors that
could cause harmful system oscillations.

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Figure 8-12. High & Low Frequency Oscillations

8.3.4 Modes of Oscillation

It was stated previously that individual generators typically oscillate at
frequencies varying from 0.75 HZ to 3.0 HZ. A power system is composed
of many generators and many transmission lines. When the effects of all the
different system components are accounted for, the range of typical system
oscillations extends from approximately 0.05 HZ to 3.0 HZ.
The frequencies above 1.0 HZ are relatively high frequency oscillations and are
normally well damped by the power system. The frequencies below 1.0 HZ are
relatively low frequency oscillations. These are the frequencies that may cause
system problems. Low frequency oscillations may be undamped or negatively
damped.

Since several At any one time there may be several distinct oscillations occurring within a
different frequency power system. Different frequency oscillations may occur simultaneously.
oscillations can The situation is similar to mechanical systems, such as in an automobile. For
occur at the same example, as a car increases its speed, different frequency oscillations may be
time it may be triggered. At one speed the car may violently shake while at a higher or lower
difficult to pick out
one specific speed this shaking stops. At a different speed some other mode of oscillation
frequency of may be triggered.
oscillation.
To simplify our description of the frequencies at which the power system
oscillates, the typical frequencies of oscillation (0.05 to 3.0 HZ) are divided
into four modes of oscillations. Each mode covers a range of frequencies.
This section describes each of the four modes of oscillation:
Î Inter-Area Mode (0.05 to 0.5 HZ)
Î Intra-Area Mode (0.4 to 1.0 HZ)
Î Local Mode (0.8 to 2.0 HZ)
Î Intra-Plant Mode (1.5 to 3.0 HZ)

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Inter-Area Mode of Oscillations

Oscillation frequencies from 0.05 to 0.5 HZ are called the inter-area mode of
oscillation. These low frequency oscillations are formed when entire power
systems oscillate with respect to other power systems. The oscillations cause the
two power systems to exchange power in a cyclical fashion at a frequency
typically ranging from 0.05 to 0.5 HZ. Inter-area mode oscillations are dangerous
as the power system is not adept at providing natural damping for low frequency
oscillations. Figure 8-13 illustrates inter-area mode oscillations.

Figure 8-13. Inter-Area Mode of Oscillation

An example of the occurrence of the inter-area mode of oscillations is the Pacific Even today
Northwest oscillating against Northern California. These two large power oscillations occur
on these 500 kV
systems are connected with a relatively weak transmission path (Pacific AC 500 lines. A typical
kV Intertie). In the late 1960’s and early 1970’s inter-area mode oscillations were frequency is ¼
very noticeable on the transmission lines connecting these two systems. These HZ.
oscillations had a frequency of approximately 1/3 HZ.
Anytime two large power systems are interconnected via a relatively weak
transmission path, those systems are at risk of inter-area mode oscillations.
Experience has shown that in order to safely interconnect two large systems, the
connecting lines should, at a minimum, have a capacity of at least 10% of the
smaller system. For example, assume we wanted to interconnect the Western and
Eastern Interconnections. To assure a reliable tie, the connecting lines should be
rated at approximately 18,000 MW.

Intra-Area Mode of Oscillations

Oscillation frequencies from 0.4 to 1.0 HZ are called the intra-area mode of
oscillation. These low frequency oscillations are formed within power systems
when pockets of generation oscillate with respect to one another. The mode is
different from the inter-area mode in that the oscillations are internal to a large

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power system and not between two distinct power systems. This mode is a low
frequency oscillation and is not well damped. Figure 8-14 illustrates intra-area
oscillations.

When a group of
generators oscillate
together the group
is referred to as
“coherent”
generators. A
coherent group acts
as if it is one large
generator.

Figure 8-14. Intra-Area Mode of Oscillation

Local Mode
Oscillation frequencies from 0.8 to 2.0 HZ are called the local mode of
oscillation. In this mode of oscillation each generator oscillates with respect to
the rest of the power system. When a generator is tied to a large power system via
a long radial line, it is especially susceptible to local mode oscillations. The local
mode is a high frequency oscillation and is usually well damped by the power
system. Figure 8-15 illustrates local mode oscillations.

The local mode

frequency is that
generator’s natural
frequency of
oscillation.

Figure 8-15. Local Mode of Oscillation

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Intra-Plant Mode
Intra-plant mode oscillations range from 1.5 to 3.0 HZ. In multi-unit stations, the
generators may oscillate with respect to neighboring units. These high frequency
oscillations are called intra-plant oscillations. Intra-plant oscillations are well
damped and usually do not cause any problems. Figure 8-16 illustrates intra-plant
mode oscillations.

Note that as a
progression was
made from the inter-
area mode to the
intra-plant mode the
oscillation
frequency increased
while the amount of
oscillating inertia
decreased. This is
expected as the
natural frequency of
oscillation increases
with decreasing
inertia.

Figure 8-16. Intra-Plant Mode of Oscillation

The intra-plant and local modes of oscillation are both high frequency
oscillations. The power system is normally capable of damping these oscillations.
However, the inter-area and intra-area modes are low frequency oscillations.
Once these oscillations start, they may either sustain themselves or grow larger.
Assume that system events have led to the simultaneous presence of both local
mode and inter-area mode power flow oscillations. Figure 8-17 plots and
compares these two power flow oscillations. Note that the higher frequency local
mode damps out rapidly. The lower frequency inter-area mode sustains itself.
The inter-area mode oscillations are the oscillations that should most concern
system operators.
Equipment has been designed to assist with damping low frequency oscillations.
The next section describes the use of a type of this equipment called a power
system stabilizer or PSS.

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By counting the
cycles and noting
the time lapse, the
frequency of this
local mode can be
calculated as
approximately 1.0
HZ. The inter-area
mode as 0.17 HZ.

Figure 8-17. Comparison of Local and Inter-Area Mode

Oscillations
8.4 Oscillations & Excitation Systems
This section describes causes of power system oscillations by examining the role
of generator excitation systems. Excitation systems can both cause oscillations
and be used to dampen oscillations.

8.4.1 Operation of an Excitation System

A block diagram for a generator’s excitation system is illustrated in Figure 8-18.
Excitation systems are composed of two major components, the voltage regulator
and the exciter. The voltage regulator can be set in a manual or automatic mode.
When in manual mode, the voltage regulator maintains an operator chosen
excitation current level. When in automatic mode, the voltage regulator attempts
to automatically maintain a terminal voltage (VT) output level.
An automatic voltage regulator (AVR) monitors the generator’s output voltage
(VOUT) and compares this voltage to a plant operator selected set-point. If the
actual output voltage is lower than this set-point, the AVR sends a correction
signal to the exciter to increase the generator excitation. This raises the
generator’s terminal (VT) voltage and high-side voltage (VOUT). If the voltage
measured by the AVR is high, the AVR sends a correction signal to the exciter to
lower the excitation level and the output and terminal voltages.
The exciter is the source of the DC power used to turn a generator’s rotor into an
electromagnet. The exciter receives directions from the regulator on what amount

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of DC current to send to the rotor field winding. The combination of the AVR
and exciter maintains a constant terminal voltage and allows the generator
operators to choose (within capability limits) the voltage at which the generator
operates.

The purpose of the

PSS input is stated
shortly.

Figure 8-18. Generator Excitation System Block Diagram

8.4.2 Modern Excitation Systems

Excitation systems have been in use since the first synchronous machines were
built. These early excitation systems were very slow to operate. It would take
several seconds from the time the AVR first detected a low voltage until the time
the excitation system boosted the generator’s field voltage. Early exciters were
also low power. If large changes in a generator’s terminal voltage were desired,
the excitation system could not offer much help. Older types of exciters were
simply too weak to force a substantial change to a generator’s terminal voltage.
Modern excitation systems, which are both fast and powerful are installed in The older excitation
many of the generators in the interconnected power systems. A modern high systems were
electro-mechanical
initial response (HIR) excitation system can force a change in a generator’s
designs. Modern
field voltage in less than 1/100 of a second. Modern exciters are also very systems use solid
powerful. A typical generator rated field voltage may be 400 to 600 volts. A state electronic
modern excitation system may be capable, for short periods of time, of forcing components.
the generator field voltage to eight or more times this rated value in an
emergency.

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8.4.3 Benefits of Fast, Powerful Excitation

Modern excitation systems, that are both fast and powerful, are installed on many
of the generators in the interconnected power systems. These excitation systems
help improve several areas of system operation including:
Î Extending steady state stability limits. The MW transfer equation states
that the MW transfer between two locations is partially dependent upon
the voltages at the receiving and sending ends. Fast, powerful excitation
systems can increase voltage levels and ensure that voltage is highest
when needed. For example, if the phase angle rises to a high value, a
powerful excitation system can be used to ensure voltages stay high thus
limiting any further increase to the phase angle. If voltages were allowed
to decline, the phase angle would increase and the system could go
unstable.
Î Extending transient stability limits. Transient stability is determined
within the first few swings of the disturbance. Fast excitation systems
can rapidly change generator field voltages during these first few swings.
This rapid action helps reduce angle growth and maintain transient
stability.

8.4.4 Excitation Systems and Oscillatory Stability

Fast, powerful excitation systems may help the power system by extending steady
state and transient stability limits but they may also cause their share of trouble.
Normal load changes cause generator power output levels to vary. Minor
generator power oscillations occur due to these load changes. Fast excitation
systems may try to make corrections to voltages during these routine power
oscillations. If the voltage adjustment made by the excitation system occurs at the
wrong time, the excitation system may increase, rather than decrease, the
amplitude of the oscillations. Fast excitation systems can contribute to the
amplitude of oscillations and possibly cause oscillatory instability.
Figure 8-19 illustrates how a fast excitation system can increase the amplitude of
a power oscillation. Figure 8-19(a) is a plot of a power oscillation. Figure 8-
19(b) is the excitation system’s voltage output in response to this power
oscillation. If the excitation system forces the output voltage higher when the
power oscillation is also high, the combined effect is to increase the amplitude of
the oscillation.
Figure 8-19(c) is the desired method of eliminating a power oscillation with a fast
excitation system. In Figure 8-19(c) the excitation system voltage output has the
desired phase relationship with the power oscillation. When the excitation system
voltage output has the proper phase with respect to the system oscillation the
excitation system helps reduce the magnitude of the power oscillation. When the
excitation system has the wrong phase relationship, it may increase the oscillation
amplitude.

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Note the flat-top

appearance to the
excitation system
voltage output. This
is an indication that
the excitation
system is repeatedly
reaching its output
limits. The flat-top
nature of the exciter
output is called a
“limit cycle”.

Figure 8-19. Exciter Output Effect on Oscillations

8.4.5 Power System Stabilizers (PSS)

Power system stabilizers, or PSS, are designed to correct the phase error present
in fast excitation systems. PSS typically monitor the system frequency or MW
output at the generator terminals. Based on the changes the PSS detects in system
frequency or MW, a voltage signal is input to the automatic voltage regulator.
The automatic voltage regulator compares the PSS voltage signal, the monitored
voltage, and the set-point voltage to calculate an error signal to send to the exciter.
The PSS portion of the voltage regulator’s input helps ensure that any adjustment
the excitation system makes to generator voltage (based on the voltage regulator’s
error signal) is done in a manner that helps reduce system oscillations. The PSS
ensures that the excitation system voltage output has the correct phase
relationship with the oscillation it is trying to eliminate. (Figure 8-18 illustrates
where the PSS signal is input to the automatic voltage regulator.)
The power system can naturally damp most higher frequency (above 1.0 HZ) PSS may also be
oscillations. The power system may require assistance with damping some low tuned to provide
frequency oscillations. PSS are tuned to correct an excitation system’s response positive damping
to low frequency oscillations. A PSS is typically set to detect oscillations in the at frequencies
inter-area or intra-area modes (approximately 0.05 to 1.0 HZ). If these frequency different than the
inter or intra-area
modes are present, the PSS sends corrective voltage signals to the automatic modes.
voltage regulator. If the oscillations are outside of the PSS’s tuned range, the PSS
does not send any corrective signals.
Without a PSS, fast excitation systems may cause system oscillations to sustain
themselves or to grow in magnitude. With PSS installed, fast excitation systems
can perform their job of increasing steady state and transient stability limits and
also help eliminate oscillations. This may prevent oscillatory instability.

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Figure 8-20 illustrates the effect a PSS can have on reducing low frequency
(approximately 1.0 HZ in Figure 8-20) power system oscillations.
PSS can also be
used for local The WECC and the MRO Regions have operating requirements that mandate the
oscillatory stability use of PSS. All units with fast excitation systems must be equipped with well-
concerns. These tuned PSS in these Regions. It is important that a large number of units have
PSS are typically
operational PSS. A 1000 MW generator with a properly tuned PSS may only
designed and tuned
to deliver a contribute one to two MW of damping. This small amount of damping from an
substantial amount individual unit is not enough damping to make much of a difference. PSS are
of damping. typically installed in the majority of generating units in the problem area. The
Several units in the combined effect of many PSS has a significant impact in damping oscillations.
PJM system are
equipped with PSS
to address local
oscillatory stability
concerns.

Figure 8-20. Power Oscillations With and Without PSS In-Service

8.5 Additional Causes of Oscillations
Chapter 9 describes Power system oscillations are started when changes, such as the loss of an
oscillations related
to resonance
element or a load adjustment, are made to the power system. In addition, certain
including characteristics or equipment in the power system can either cause or effect power
ferroresonance and system oscillations. Generator excitation system effects on oscillations were
sub-synchronous described in Section 8.4. This section describes the effects of additional
resonance. characteristics and equipment including:
Î Cyclic Loads
Î Governor Control Systems
Î HVDC Systems
Î Generator Pole Slipping

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8.5.1 Cyclic Loads

Power system load constantly changes. Most of the time, the changes are small
when compared to the total system load. At times, however, major loads may be
added and removed in a cyclic nature. From a power system perspective these
cyclic loads are similar to power oscillations. Large cyclic loads are especially
dangerous if connected to weak transmission systems.
Examples of cyclic loads are arc furnaces and coal mine drag lines. Coal mine
drag lines are coal digging systems that use extremely large scoop shovels. Drag
lines change from absorbing MW during their coal digging and hoisting period to
a generating mode during the coal dumping portion of their load cycle. From a
system perspective the drag line appears to be a cyclic load with a very low
frequency (perhaps 0.02 HZ). In general, the impacts of large cyclic loads can be
minimized by providing dedicated feeders from the main transmission system.

8.5.2 Governor Control System

Generator governor control systems arrest frequency deviations. Depending on Chapter 4
the size of the detected frequency change, the governor adjusts the working fluid provided details
on the operation
(water, steam, etc.) input to the turbine/generator. Governors have droop settings of governor
to allow generators to share and respond to load changes in proportion to their control systems.
size.
If the droops are set incorrectly, generators could compete for load changes. The
result is power oscillations as the system’s generators fight each other to make
load changes. For example, assume that an isolated system with several
generators operates all governors with 0% droop. When load changes occur,
every generator tries to respond. The result is an oversupply of generation. Next,
every generator cuts generation. Power and frequency oscillations result as the
system’s generators repeatedly increase then decrease generation levels.

Transient Droop The transient droop

feature may be used
We stated in Chapter 4 that hydro units are often equipped with two types of in any type of unit
droop function; permanent droop and transient droop. The transient droop is a that is susceptible to
short term (a few seconds) droop function that is used to prevent damage to water governor induced
oscillations. If a
intake (penstock) structures and to avoid generator power oscillations. The unit can be operated
transient droop function is used to intentionally limit, for a brief period of time, in an isochronous
the response of a unit to frequency deviations. control mode it most
likely has a
Hydro units are typically the best responding units a utility operates. The initial transient droop
response from a hydro unit must, however, overcome a natural time delay due to feature or the
the inertia of the intake water supply. (It is difficult to rapidly change the flow of functional
a large mass of water.) For example, assume a hydro unit’s governor requests a equivalent.
MW increase. There is a time delay before that MW can actually be delivered.
In the meantime the governor requests more MW. Eventually all the MW is
delivered, which is more than the governor intended due to the time delays of the

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initial response. The governor now requests a MW decrease; an oscillation may

develop as the unit attempts to follow these cyclic governor commands.
This type of governor induced oscillation occurred in the Pacific Northwest in the
early 1960’s. Figure 8-21 is a strip-chart of the system frequency from this
period. Note the large frequency oscillations in the figure. It was the practice
during this period that once large hydro units were synchronized and carrying
load their transient droop features were disabled. The large frequency oscillations
are due to several large hydro units adjusting their MW outputs as they search
(hunt) for an operating point.

This strip-chart
automatically
switched to a finer
resolution time
scale when the
oscillations grew
in amplitude.

Figure 8-21. Oscillations Due to Disabling Transient Droop

8.5.3 HVDC Systems

Chapter 10 HVDC (high voltage direct current) systems can cause frequency and power
describes the oscillations. The power converters at the ends of an HVDC transmission line
components and convert power between AC and DC. The HVDC control system’s operation must
operation of be coordinated with AC system generation levels to ensure the HVDC does not
HVDC systems.
cause AC system frequency disturbances.

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For example, assume an HVDC control system is functioning improperly. The

HVDC converter is absorbing power from the AC system in an unexpected and
undesired manner. The AC system generation is not coordinated with the power
absorbed by the HVDC converter. Figure 8-22 illustrates the kind of frequency
oscillations that could occur due to a misoperating HVDC control system.

Figure 8-22. Oscillations Caused by Misoperating HVDC Controls

HVDC Modulation
HVDC systems can also be used to dampen AC system power oscillations. The HVDC systems
power that flows in an HVDC system is removed from the AC system at the within the MRO
rectifier end of the HVDC. Assume that a low frequency oscillation is occurring Region are used to
in the AC system. If power could be removed from the AC and input to the dampen AC power
HVDC at the proper frequency, the AC system oscillation could be dampened or oscillations in
much the same
modulated. HVDC modulation systems remove AC system energy in such a manner as PSS.
manner as to dampen AC system oscillations. Several of the HVDC systems in
use within NERC use forms of HVDC modulation.

8.5.4 Generator Pole Slipping

Power transfer from a generator is dependent on the voltage phase angle between
the generator and the system. A generator transmits the maximum amount of
MW to the system when the angle is 90°. Figure 8-23 is a sketch of a generator’s
stator and rotor illustrating changes to the voltage phase angle. When the angle is
0° the MW output from the generator is zero. When the angle is 90° the MW
output is at a maximum. If the angle goes beyond 90° the generator may lose
control of its torque angle and enter an unstable condition.

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Figure 8-23. Generator Increasing Angle

Note how the MW If the MW output of a generator is less than its mechanical power input and the
and Mvar power
oscillations are
torque angle is greater than 90°, there may be too little strength in the magnetic
almost 180° out- bond that holds the rotor in-step with the stator. The torque angle could rise
of-phase with one above 90° and on towards 180°. At a torque angle of 180° system voltages are
another. The two very low and Mvar output from the generator very high. The rotor spins out of
flows are out-of- control with the rotor field poles slipping past the stator windings. This condition
phase because the
MW flow is based is called slipping poles.
on the sine of the
When a generator slips poles it alternately sends power (both MW and Mvar) out
torque angle while
the Mvar flow is to the system and absorbs it from the system. This creates a very large angle and
based on the power oscillation. Figure 8-24 illustrates pole slipping in a generator. This
cosine of the particular plot is for a generating station that lost synchronism with the
torque angle. interconnection. Note the plot lasts for 14 seconds. The generator loses its
magnetic bound at approximately 08:41:20.

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Figure 8-24. Out-of-Step Conditions

8.6 Role of the System Operator
Individual systems
A system operator may from time to time detect oscillations in the power system. will know the best
Most oscillations are damped by the system with no need for system operator way to respond to
their specific
response. However, some oscillations may sustain themselves or grow in
operating problems.
magnitude until a system operator response is needed. This section describes This section is
methods of detecting oscillations and offers suggestions on how to respond. meant only as a
general guideline.
8.6.1 Detecting Oscillations
During the normal monitoring duties of a system operator oscillations may be
detected. For example, a strip-chart recorder or SCADA indication may signal
the presence of oscillations. Most oscillations are difficult to monitor on a typical
control center’s equipment due to the slow (several second) sampling rates often
used to gather data. For example, an oscillation may only be detected as an
unexplained “hash” on a strip-chart. Many modern control centers have specially
designed monitoring equipment that is fast enough and accurate enough to record
the actual oscillations.
To start an oscillation, a triggering event is required. However, the triggering
event may not be noticed. The triggering event may be so small, such as a minor
load change or a control system action, that it goes completely unnoticed. These
types of oscillations are the most difficult to detect. In contrast, if a severe
disturbance happens in the power system some degree of oscillations is assured
while the power system attempts to establish a new operating point.

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8.6.2 Responding to Oscillations

The typical case is that a system operator does not become aware of oscillations
unless a severe disturbance occurs or the oscillations reach large enough
amplitudes to register on strip-chart recorders. Once a system operator
determines that oscillations are present, the following guidelines are offered:
Î The most effective tool to preventing and controlling oscillations is to
hold power transfers within established limits as contained in system
operating guidelines. A weak power system (excessive transfer or
elements out-of-service makes any system weak) is more susceptible to
oscillations than a strong power system. A proven way to dampen
oscillations is to strengthen the power system.
A system operator can strengthen a power system by either returning
elements to service or reducing power transfers. If lines are out-of-
service, the system operator should return the lines to service as soon as
possible. If series capacitors are out-of-service a system operator should
consider returning the capacitors to service. Adjusting system generation
patterns may be an option (though possibly a costly one) for reducing
power transfers. Shedding load is an option that all system operators are
empowered to use but typically only after less drastic options are
attempted.
Î Maintaining high system voltages also strengthens the system as it allows
a reduction in phase angle. Generator voltage regulators should be in
automatic mode to ensure dynamic reactive support when needed.
Î System operators should ensure that all available PSS are in-service as
intended. PSS are designed to dampen low frequency oscillations, and
system transfer limits may be dependent on maintaining PSS in-service.
Î If oscillations are strongest in the area of a particular generator consider
reducing load on that generator or increasing the excitation current. If
the oscillations persist and could lead to serious trouble consider tripping
the offending generator. A system operator must often rely on power
plant operators for early detection of generator oscillations. The staff at
the plant is often the first to know if their plant is oscillating.
Î If oscillations are strongest in the area of a particular load, the load may
be the problem. Is it a cyclic load? Are large motor loads causing the
area power system to oscillate? A system operator may have to trip a
load to rid the system of these type oscillations.

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8.7 Summary of Power Oscillations

8.7.1 Definition of Oscillations

Î Energy is stored in the rotating mass of system equipment, in the electric
fields of capacitors, and the magnetic fields of inductors. When the
storage balance is disturbed, oscillations occur.

8.7.2 Triggering Events

Î Oscillations require some initiating or triggering event to start. This
event may not be noticeable.

8.7.3 Mechanical Analogy for Oscillations

Î Small generators may start oscillating easily but typically have little
impact on the power system. For larger generators, it is difficult to
initiate oscillations, but once started may trigger oscillations so large that
entire power systems suffer.

8.7.4 Typical Oscillation Frequencies

Î Typical oscillations may vary from three cycles per minute (0.05 HZ) to
180 cycles per minute (3.0 HZ). The frequency of the oscillation
depends on what caused the oscillation and what portions of the system
are oscillating.

8.7.5 Oscillation Envelopes

Î The frequency of the power oscillation can be determined from the
frequency of the oscillation envelope.

8.7.6 Oscillation Damping

Î Damping refers to the ability of the power system and its equipment to
reduce the amplitude of oscillations. Damping can be either positive or
negative. When damping is positive, the amplitude of oscillations is
reduced. When damping is negative, the amplitude of the oscillations is
increased.
Î Major sources of damping include the load/frequency relationship,
transmission losses, generator losses, amortisseur windings, and
excitation systems.

8.7.7 Oscillation Classifications

Î Positively damped oscillations are temporary events and typically die out
after several seconds.
Î Undamped oscillations are oscillations that appear on the power system
and sustain themselves.

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Î Negatively damped oscillations are the most damaging type of

oscillation. If an oscillation appears and then gradually grows in
magnitude it is negatively damped.

8.7.8 Changes to Power, Speed, and Angle

Î When a power system is disturbed, adjustments occur to power flows,
generator speeds, and angle. The changes to each (power flow, speed,
and angle) impact one another.

8.7.9 Feedback Loop for Power, Speed, and Angle

Î Changes to a generator’s accelerating power lead to turbine/rotor
acceleration or deceleration. Acceleration or deceleration leads to
changes in angle and power flow. Power flow changes lead to
accelerating power changes. The process repeats itself.

8.7.10 Comparison of Power, Speed, and Angle

Î Graphs of a generator’s power output, voltage phase angle, and
turbine/rotor speed were presented. The three graphs shared a common
time scale and contain useful information for understanding the
oscillation process.

8.7.11 Summary of the Power Oscillation Process

Î The power oscillation process can be summarized in a six step process.

8.7.12 Natural Frequency Analogy

Î Every mechanical or electrical system has a natural frequency of
oscillation.

8.7.13 Factors that Impact the Natural Frequency

Î Every generator on the power system has a natural frequency of
oscillation. The frequency is dependent on the inertia of the generator,
the strength of the power system to which the generator is attached, and
the generator’s power output level. A typical range for generator natural
frequencies of oscillation is from 0.75 to 3.0 HZ.
Î The greater the inertia of a generator, the lower the generator’s natural
frequency of oscillation.
Î A generator’s natural frequency of oscillation increases with increasing
transmission system strength.
Î A generator’s natural frequency of oscillation decreases as the
generator’s MW loading increases.

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8.7.14 Oscillation Frequency Effect on Damping

Î The higher the frequency of the oscillation the more positive damping the
system can provide. Low frequency oscillations (< 1.0 HZ) are typically
not well damped by the power system.
Î Low frequency oscillations generally occur when high inertia generators
are operating with large torque angles and are tied to weak transmission
systems.
Î High frequency oscillations generally occur when low inertia generators
are operating with small torque angles and are tied to strong transmission
systems.

8.7.15 Modes of Oscillation

Î Oscillations are divided into four modes.
1. Inter-Area Mode (0.05 to 0.5 HZ)
2. Intra-Area Mode (0.4 to 1.0 HZ)
3. Local Mode (0.8 to 2.0 HZ)
4. Intra-Plant Mode (1.5 to 3.0 HZ)

8.7.16 Operation of an Excitation System

Î The automatic voltage regulator inputs a signal representative of the
generator’s output voltage and compares it to a set-point value. The
resultant error signal is used to determine the required level of generator
excitation current.

8.7.17 Modern Excitation Systems

Î Older excitation systems were slow and low power. Modern exciters are
typically faster and more powerful.

8.7.18 Benefits of Fast, Powerful Excitation

Î Modern exciters have helped extend steady state and transient stability
limits.

8.7.19 Excitation Systems and Oscillatory Stability

Î Fast, powerful excitation systems can contribute to the amplitude of
power oscillations and possibly cause oscillatory instability.
Î When the exciter output has the proper phase with respect to the system
oscillation, the excitation system helps reduce power oscillations. When
the excitation system has the wrong phase relationship, it may increase
the oscillation amplitude.

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8.7.20 Power System Stabilizers

Î Power system stabilizers, or PSS, are designed to correct the phase error
present in fast excitation systems. PSS are tuned to correct an excitation
systems response to low frequency oscillations. A PSS is typically set to
detect oscillations in the inter-area or intra-area modes (approximately
0.05 to 1.0 HZ).

8.7.21 Cyclic Loads

Î Major loads may be added and removed in a cyclic nature. From a
power system perspective, these cyclic loads are similar to power
oscillations.

8.7.22 Governor Control Systems

Î If governor droops are set at 0%, generators could compete for load
changes. The result would be power oscillations as the system’s
generators fight each other to make load changes.
Î Transient droop is a short-term (a few seconds) droop function that is
used to prevent unit oscillations following governor directed power
output changes.

8.7.23 HVDC Systems

Î HVDC systems can cause frequency and power oscillations. An HVDC
control system’s operation must be coordinated with AC system
generation levels to ensure the HVDC does not cause AC system
frequency disturbances.
Î HVDC systems can also be used to dampen AC system power
oscillations. HVDC modulation systems remove AC system energy in
such a manner as to dampen AC system oscillations.

8.7.24 Generator Pole Slipping

Î When a generator slips poles it alternately sends power out to the system
and absorbs power from the system. This creates large angle and power
oscillations. Utilities often employ protective relays to trip the generator
if pole-slipping occurs.

8.7.25 Detecting Oscillations

Î Oscillations are difficult to monitor on typical control center equipment
due to the slow (several second) sampling rates used to gather data.

8.7.26 Responding to Oscillations

Î The most effective tool to preventing and controlling oscillations is to
hold power transfers within established limits.

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8.8 Power Oscillations Questions

1. Typical power oscillation frequencies vary from:

A. 0.001 HZ to .0001 HZ
B. 100 HZ to 80 HZ
C. 60 HZ to 30 HZ
D. 0.05 HZ to 3.0 HZ

2. Amortisseur windings are:

A. Extra windings in a transformer’s magnetic core

B. Conducting bars embedded in the magnetic poles of a rotor
C. A type of hydro generator stator winding
D. A type of circuit breaker tripping coil typically used in SF6
breakers

3. Which of the following will tend to increase a generator’s natural

frequency of oscillation?

A. Strong transmission system

B. Higher inertia
C. Weak transmission system
D. High power output

4. Which mode of power oscillations typically appears on the major tie-lines

that connect large power systems?

A. Intra-area mode
B. Inter-area mode
C. Intra-plant mode
D. Local mode

5. High speed excitation systems tend to extend _____ stability limits but
may lead to _____ instability.

A. Transient / steady state

B. Oscillatory / transient
C. Steady state / transient
D. Transient / oscillatory

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6. Which of the following are used to dampen power system oscillations?

A. HVDC modulation
B. Amortisseur windings
C. PSS
D. All of the above
7. Which type of power oscillations are of most concern?

A. Negatively damped
B. Damped
C. Undamped
D. Positively damped

8. Which of the following will tend to decrease a generator’s natural

frequency of oscillation?
1. Higher inertia
2. Weak transmission system
3. High power output
4. Strong transmission system

A. 2 and 4
B. 1 and 2
C. 4
D. 1, 2, and 3

9. Which mode of power oscillations does every generator participate in?

A. Intra-plant mode
B. Inter-area mode
C. Intra-area mode
D. Local mode

10. On August 10, 1996, large 0.224 HZ power oscillations were measured in
the Western Interconnection’s Pacific AC Intertie 500 kV lines. These
oscillations were:

A. Intra-area mode
B. Local mode
C. Inter-plant mode
D. Inter-area mode

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8.9 Power Oscillations References

The author consulted several textbooks during the preparation of this chapter.
Unfortunately, none of the texts are suitable for a system operator audience. The
first reference listed is, in the author’s opinion, the most readable. Hopefully, the
material in this chapter has answered questions about power oscillations. If
further information is desired consult your utility’s engineering staff.
1. Power System Control and Stability⎯A text by Mr. A.A. Fouad and Mr. P.M.
Anderson. Text was published by Iowa State University Press in 1977.
Î This text addresses oscillatory stability and power oscillations. The text is
very engineering oriented and likely not suited for system operators.
2. The Control of Prime Mover Speed⎯Part three of a series of three reports
written by the staff of the Woodward Governor Company of Fort Collins, CO,
Woodward Bulletin #25031A.
Î This well written paper describes the problems encountered when
alternators are paralleled. An easily understood description of a
generator’s natural frequency of oscillation is included.
3. System Frequency Stability in the Pacific Northwest⎯AIEE paper that
appeared in “Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems”, Number 64,
February 1963.
Î This paper was the reference for Figure 8-21.
4. WSCC Abbreviated Disturbance Report for the Intermountain Power Project
at 2310 Pacific Standard Time on March 6, 1987⎯Report prepared by Los
Angeles Department of Water and Power, December 1987.
Î This report was the reference for Figure 8-22.
5. Determination of Synchronous Machine Stability Study Constants⎯EPRI
report EL-1424, June 1980.
Î This report was the reference for Figure 8-24.

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9
ADDITIONAL TOPICS

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 Additional Topics

ADDITIONAL TOPICS

SECTION OVERVIEWS
9.1 Additional Topics
Introduction to the varied topics addressed in this section.
9.2 Harmonics
Harmonics are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. For example, the
3rd harmonic is 180 HZ.
9.3 Resonance
When electrical circuits resonate, high currents and voltages can develop and
cause system damage.
9.4 Subsynchronous Resonance
Subsynchronous resonance arises due to an interaction between the power system
and the natural mechanical oscillations of a steam turbine/generator.
9.5 Ferroresonance
Ferroresonance is a resonance condition due to a tuning between an electrical
circuit’s capacitance and iron-core inductance.
9.6 Geomagnetic Disturbances
Geomagnetic disturbances (GMD) can lead to geomagnetic induced currents
(GIC) that enter the power system through ground connections. These currents
can lead to thermal damage in power transformers.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

9.1 Additional Topics ............................................................................... 9-1

9.1.1 Introduction to Additional Topics ............................................... 9-1
9.2 Harmonics ......................................................................................... 9-1
9.2.1 Introduction to Harmonics ......................................................... 9-1
9.2.2 Description of Harmonics .......................................................... 9-1
9.2.3 Harmonic Content ..................................................................... 9-5
9.2.4 Sources of Harmonics ............................................................... 9-5
9.2.5 Flow of Harmonic Current.......................................................... 9-8
9.2.6 Effects of Harmonics ................................................................. 9-9
9.2.7 Control of Harmonics............................................................... 9-11
9.3 Resonance ...................................................................................... 9-14
9.3.1 Introduction to Resonance ...................................................... 9-14
9.3.2 Series Resonance ................................................................... 9-15
9.3.3 Parallel Resonance ................................................................. 9-19
9.4 Subsynchronous Resonance .......................................................... 9-22
9.4.1 Introduction to Subsynchronous Resonance........................... 9-22
9.4.2 SSR and Series Capacitors..................................................... 9-22
9.4.3 Resonance Frequency ............................................................ 9-23
9.4.4 Definition of Subsynchronous Resonance............................... 9-23
9.4.5 Components of System Current .............................................. 9-24
9.4.6 Generator Modes of Oscillation ............................................... 9-25
9.4.7 Forms of SSR .......................................................................... 9-26
9.4.8 When is SSR a Concern? ....................................................... 9-29
9.4.9 SSR Example .......................................................................... 9-30
9.4.10 Preventing SSR ....................................................................... 9-32
9.5 Ferroresonance ............................................................................... 9-32
9.5.1 Introduction to Ferroresonance ............................................... 9-32
9.5.2 Definition of Ferroresonance ................................................... 9-33
9.5.3 Distribution Ferroresonance .................................................... 9-34
9.5.4 Ferroresonance in a Transmission Substation ........................ 9-39
9.6 Geomagnetic Disturbances ............................................................. 9-44

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9.6.1 Introduction to Geomagnetic Disturbances..............................9-44

9.6.2 Sunspots..................................................................................9-46
9.6.3 The Solar Wind ........................................................................9-47
9.6.4 ESPs & GICs ...........................................................................9-48
9.6.5 Factors that Influence the Impact of GMDs .............................9-50
9.6.6 GIC Entry to the Power System...............................................9-53
9.6.7 Impact of GMDs.......................................................................9-57
9.6.8 Controlling the Impact of GMDs...............................................9-63
9.6.9 Hydro Quebec GMD Incident...................................................9-66
9.6.10 Role of the System Operator ...................................................9-69
9.7 Summary of Additional Topics.........................................................9-71
9.7.1 Introduction to Additional Topics..............................................9-71
9.7.2 Introduction to Harmonics........................................................9-71
9.7.3 Description of Harmonics.........................................................9-71
9.7.4 Harmonic Content....................................................................9-71
9.7.5 Sources of Harmonics .............................................................9-71
9.7.6 Flow of Harmonic Current........................................................9-71
9.7.7 Effects of Harmonics................................................................9-71
9.7.8 Control of Harmonics ...............................................................9-72
9.7.9 Introduction to Resonance.......................................................9-72
9.7.10 Series Resonance ...................................................................9-72
9.7.11 Parallel Resonance..................................................................9-72
9.7.12 Introduction to Subsynchronous Resonance ...........................9-72
9.7.13 SSR and Series Capacitors .....................................................9-72
9.7.14 Resonance Frequency.............................................................9-72
9.7.15 Definition of Subsynchronous Resonance...............................9-73
9.7.16 Components of System Current ..............................................9-73
9.7.17 Generator Modes of Oscillation ...............................................9-73
9.7.18 Forms of SSR ..........................................................................9-73
9.7.19 When Is SSR a Concern?........................................................9-73
9.7.20 SSR Example ..........................................................................9-73
9.7.21 Preventing SSR .......................................................................9-74
9.7.22 Introduction to Ferroresonance................................................9-74
9.7.23 Definition of Ferroresonance ...................................................9-74

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9.7.24 Distribution Ferroresonance .................................................... 9-74

9.7.25 Ferroresonance in a Transmission Substation ........................ 9-74
9.7.26 Introduction to Geomagnetic Disturbances ............................. 9-74
9.7.27 Sunspots ................................................................................. 9-74
9.7.28 The Solar Wind........................................................................ 9-74
9.7.29 ESPs & GICs ........................................................................... 9-74
9.7.30 Factors that Influence the Impact of GMDs ............................. 9-75
9.7.31 GIC Entry to the Power System............................................... 9-75
9.7.32 Impact of GMDs ...................................................................... 9-75
9.7.33 Controlling the Impact of GMDs .............................................. 9-75
9.7.34 Hydro Quebec GMD Incident .................................................. 9-75
9.7.35 Role of the System Operator ................................................... 9-75
9.8 Additional Topics Questions............................................................ 9-76
9.9 Additional Topics References.......................................................... 9-78

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 9-1. The Ideal 60 HZ Wave...................................................................9-2

Figure 9-2. Voltage Wave with Harmonic Content...........................................9-3
Figure 9-3. Summation of Fundamental with Harmonic...................................9-4
TH TH TH TH TH TH RD
Figure 9-4. Sum of Fundamental, 5 , 7 , 11 , 13 , 17 , 19 , 23 ,
TH
& 25 ..........................................................................................................9-4
Figure 9-5. Static Var Compensator (SVC) One-Line Diagram .......................9-7
Figure 9-6. PC Current Waveform ...................................................................9-8
Figure 9-7. Flow of Harmonic Current..............................................................9-9
Figure 9-8. Autotransformer with Delta Tertiary .............................................9-12
Figure 9-9. Simple Harmonic Filter ................................................................9-13
Figure 9-10. Sample Tuning of a Filter ............................................................9-13
Figure 9-11. Series Resonance .......................................................................9-15
Figure 9-12. Series Resonance by Varying Frequency ...................................9-16
Figure 9-13. Series Capacitors Usage and Photo ...........................................9-18
Figure 9-14. Voltages During Series Resonance.............................................9-19
Figure 9-15. Parallel Resonance .....................................................................9-20
Figure 9-16. HVDC Converter Simplified One-Line .........................................9-21
Figure 9-17. 50% Series Compensation ..........................................................9-22
Figure 9-18. Turbine/Generator Shaft Modes ..................................................9-25
Figure 9-19. SSR Scenario I – Torsional Interaction .......................................9-27
Figure 9-20. SSR Scenario II – Transient Torques ..........................................9-28
Figure 9-21. SSR Scenario III – Induction Generator Effect ............................9-29
Figure 9-22. Mojave SSR Case Study .............................................................9-31
Figure 9-23. Distribution System Ferroresonance ...........................................9-34
Figure 9-24. Series Resonance Circuit ............................................................9-35
Figure 9-25. One-Line for Distribution Ferroresonance ...................................9-36
Figure 9-26. Electrical Circuit With Phase “C” Closed .....................................9-37
Figure 9-27. Electrical Circuit With Phases “B” & “C” Closed ..........................9-38
Figure 9-28. Methods of Preventing Distribution Ferroresonance ...................9-39
Figure 9-29. One-Line for Transmission System Ferroresonance ...................9-40
Figure 9-30. One-Line for Transmission System Ferroresonance ...................9-41
Figure 9-31. Equivalent One-Line of Figure 9-29.............................................9-42
Figure 9-32. Ferroresonance Voltage Waveform.............................................9-43
Figure 9-33. Resistor in a Delta Connected Secondary...................................9-44
Figure 9-34. Photograph of the Northern Lights ..............................................9-45
Figure 9-35. Monthly Sunspot Count 1900 – Present......................................9-46

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Figure 9-36. Solar Wind and Earth Currents ................................................... 9-47

Figure 9-37. Creation of Earth Surface Potentials........................................... 9-49
Figure 9-38. Geomagnetic Induced Currents .................................................. 9-50
Figure 9-39. Igneous Rock Locations in North America .................................. 9-52
Figure 9-40. Flow of GIC ................................................................................. 9-54
Figure 9-41. GIC Entry to Power System ........................................................ 9-55
Figure 9-42. Summary of GIC Creation and Entry to Power System .............. 9-56
Figure 9-43. Transformer Saturation Curve..................................................... 9-58
Figure 9-44. Excitation Current During Normal & Saturated Operations......... 9-59
Figure 9-45. Transformer Susceptibility to GIC Induced Saturation ................ 9-60
Figure 9-46. Use of Neutral Blocking Capacitors ............................................ 9-63
Figure 9-47. Connection Diagram for Neutral Blocking Capacitor................... 9-64
Figure 9-48. Summary of K & A Indices .......................................................... 9-66
Figure 9-49. Hydro Quebec GMD Incident ...................................................... 9-68

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9.1 Additional Topics

9.1.1 Introduction to Additional Topics

This chapter addresses three related subjects: harmonics, resonance and
geomagnetic disturbances.

Harmonics
Harmonics are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. The fundamental
frequency of North American power systems is 60 HZ. The second harmonic is
therefore 120 HZ, the third 180 HZ, etc. A system operator may think all power
system voltages and currents are 60 HZ but in practice the voltage and current are
formed of the fundamental frequency plus various harmonics. Modern power
systems cannot avoid harmonics but utilities strive to control the amounts of
harmonics.

Resonance
A possible result of harmonics is a condition called “resonance”. During
resonance, power system voltages and currents can reach very high magnitudes.
The magnitudes can grow so large that power system equipment, such as
transformers, can be destroyed. This chapter will concentrate on two resonance
phenomena: ferroresonance and subsynchronous resonance.

Geomagnetic Disturbances
Geomagnetic disturbances (GMD) are solar induced disturbances to the earth’s
magnetic field. GMDs can damage power systems by causing low frequency
currents to flow in the grounded neutrals of power system equipment. GMDs are
related to harmonics and resonance in that the low frequency currents may
saturate transformers. A saturated transformer is a source of harmonics. Once
harmonics exist, resonance effects may follow.
9.2 Harmonics

9.2.1 Introduction to Harmonics

An oscilloscope is
Electric power systems in North America are designed to produce and transmit an electronic
60 HZ power. However, if a voltage or current waveform were viewed on an instrument that
oscilloscope the waveform may not be a perfect 60 HZ wave. The waveform will displays voltage and
normally have some harmonic content. current waveforms.

9.2.2 Description of Harmonics

North American power systems operate with a 60 HZ power system frequency.
The designers of the electric generators used to produce the 60 HZ power are
largely responsible for ensuring that the voltage and current sine waves produced
are 60 HZ waves. In ideal conditions a voltage or current wave is as illustrated in

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Figure 9-1. The generators must turn at just the right speed, the generator
components such as the stator and rotor must have a specific shape and fit
together perfectly, and the stator and field coils must be located in just the
right positions to produce the 60 HZ voltage and current values expected.

Figure 9-1. The Ideal 60 HZ Wave

Fundamental Frequency
The ideal 60 HZ wave is called the fundamental wave or the fundamental
component. As illustrated in Figure 9-1 the fundamental wave is a sine wave
that repeats itself 60 times per second. The positive and negative ½ cycles of the
wave are identical.
The electrical equipment used in industrial processes often counts on the
repetitive nature of the fundamental wave. For example, an electronic device may
produce timing signals based on the expected zero crossings of the fundamental
wave. The voltage or current should cross zero every 0.0083 seconds for a 60 HZ
wave. If the wave does not cross zero every ½ cycle or 0.0083 seconds, the
electrical equipment may malfunction.
The power system is not a perfect world and the 60 HZ power system is, in
reality, not composed of pure 60 HZ waves. There are always some additional
frequency components mixed in with the fundamental component. Figure 9-2
illustrates a voltage wave that might occur in a heavily industrialized area. Notice
that the waveform in Figure 9-2 is not a pure sine wave but has jagged edges and
may not cross zero at the expected time. In addition to the fundamental
component, this wave contains frequency components of other than 60 HZ.
These additional components are called the harmonic components.

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Figure 9-2. Voltage Wave with Harmonic Content

Fourier Analysis
Methods have been developed to study and quantify the harmonic content of Fourier was a 19th
century
repeating waveforms. These methods, called Fourier analysis, assign harmonic mathematician who
numbers or harmonic orders to the different frequency components. For example, helped develop the
if there is a 120 HZ component mixed in with the fundamental component, this science of frequency
component is called the 2ND harmonic. analysis.

The 2nd title refers to the fact that the component’s frequency is a multiple of two
(x2) of the fundamental frequency of 60 HZ. Harmonic components of any
integer multiple of the fundamental frequency can exist. For example, the 3RD
harmonic (180 HZ) is very common but the 25TH harmonic (1,500 HZ) or the
47TH harmonic (2,820 HZ) may also exist.
Figure 9-3 illustrates the impact of harmonic components on the shape of a
voltage or current wave. Figure 9-3(a) is a perfect 60 HZ fundamental wave.
Figure 9-3(b) is a large 3rd harmonic (180 HZ) component that was somehow
injected into the power system. Figure 9-3(c) is what is actually viewed on an
oscilloscope when the fundamental frequency and the 3RD harmonic are
combined. Notice how the addition of this large 3RD harmonic component
has made the resultant wave assume almost a square wave shape.

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Notice that the 3RD

harmonic is added
“in-phase” with the
fundamental. If the
3RD harmonic wave
had been shifted 90°
an entirely different
wave shape would
have resulted from
the summation.

Figure 9-3. Summation of Fundamental with Harmonic

Engineers experienced in harmonic analysis can often look at a voltage or current
waveform and rapidly estimate the frequency, magnitude, and phase relationship
of the harmonic components contained in the wave. There may be several
harmonic components mixed into a wave. For example, a wave shape similar to
Figure 9-4 is the result of the summation of the fundamental, 5TH, 7TH, 11TH, 13TH,
17TH, 19TH, 23RD and 25TH harmonics.

TH TH TH TH TH TH RD
Figure 9-4. Sum of Fundamental, 5 , 7 , 11 , 13 , 17 , 19 , 23 , &
TH
25

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9.2.3 Harmonic Content The THD for

voltage is often
A factor called the total harmonic distortion (THD) is used to quantify the
called the
harmonic content of a given voltage or current wave. The THD is given as a harmonic factor
percentage figure. THD is a measure of the magnitude of all the harmonic for voltage or HFV
components present in the wave as compared to the magnitude of the fundamental while the THD for
component. current is often
called the
The THD is calculated by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of all harmonic factor
the amplitudes of the harmonic components and then dividing this value by the for current or HFI.
amplitude of the fundamental component. A THD of 5% for a voltage wave
means that the harmonic content is 5% of the fundamental component. Allowable
harmonic contents will depend on where the THD is measured and the type of
equipment exposed to the harmonics. A 5% harmonic content is a high harmonic
content and values exceeding 10% would likely be intolerable.
A study of the theory of harmonics yields upper limits to the possible magnitudes The harmonic
of each of the harmonic orders from each harmonic source. In other words, there source is the
equipment that
is a limit to the amount of harmonic content that each harmonic source can produces or
contribute to the system. This is not a limit to the total amount of harmonics in creates the
the power system as the harmonic content can come from multiple sources. harmonics.
For example, the maximum possible value of the 3RD harmonic contributed from
each source is limited to 1/3 of the fundamental component from that source.
The maximum possible value of the 5TH harmonic contributed from each source
is limited to 1/5 of the fundamental. As the harmonic order rises, the possible
maximum value it can reach - as a percentage of the fundamental - reduces.
This does not mean we can simply ignore the higher order harmonics. For
example, the 25TH harmonic’s magnitude may be limited to 1/25 of the
fundamental’s magnitude but its frequency of oscillation happens to fall within
the voice range. The presence of the 25TH harmonic can be very disruptive to
nearby telecommunication systems. In addition, multiple harmonic sources may
raise the magnitude of the 25TH harmonic to high levels.

9.2.4 Sources of Harmonics

There are many sources of harmonics on the power system. The generators
themselves are not immune. Generator designers strive to produce the purest 60
HZ voltage wave but no design is perfect. There will always be some harmonic
content to the voltages produced by generators. However, for practical purposes,
the voltages developed by the large utility generators can be considered perfect 60
HZ waves. The major sources of harmonics in the power system are utility
equipment and customer loads.

Utility Equipment as Sources of Harmonics

In general, any utility equipment that changes the shape of the system’s voltage
and current sine waves is a source of harmonics. Transformers, power (AC to

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DC) converters, and thyrister-based devices are included in utility equipment

harmonic sources.

Transformers
Transformers are a common source of the 2ND harmonic when the transformer is
first energized. When a transformer is energized, a large current in-rush occurs to
magnetize the transformer’s core. This reactive in-rush current will have a high
concentration of 2ND harmonic current. This harmonic content is short lived.
Transformer Transformers are even more important as harmonic sources when they are
saturation was saturated. A transformer can saturate when it is exposed to voltages above its
introduced in design rating. When saturated, a transformer’s magnetic field spreads from the
Chapter 5 and is
further described in central core area of the transformer. The magnetizing current drawn from the
Section 9.6.7. system to support the spread of the magnetic field also grows. The magnetizing
current is very high in harmonics. Saturated transformers are sources of odd
harmonics such as the 3RD, 5TH, etc.

Power Converters
Another common utility source of harmonics is the power converters used to
convert between AC and DC. These converters function by passing only a
portion of the incoming voltage waveform to produce either an AC or DC output.
For example, consider the conversion of an incoming AC voltage to a DC voltage.
The peaks of the incoming phases of the AC voltage positive and negative
waveforms are clipped off via high speed switching equipment to produce
relatively constant positive and negative DC voltages. The AC waveforms that
remain on the AC side of the conversion process are no longer pure 60 HZ waves
but are now combinations of many harmonic components. The harmonics exist
on the AC side due to the selective clipping of the waveform’s peak values.
The harmonic content of the AC side of AC/DC converters has been analyzed and
is well understood. Depending on the type of converter used, the AC side may
have high concentrations of the 5TH, 7TH, 11TH, 13TH, 17TH, 19TH, 23RD, 25TH, etc.
harmonics.
Chapter 10 will
describe the The possible harm that harmonics can cause has not yet been described, but
construction and severe consequences can result. It is best to minimize the amount of harmonics
operation of high
voltage DC (HVDC) if this is possible. HVDC (high voltage DC) converters are always equipped with
systems including filters that are designed to absorb the expected harmonics created in the power
harmonic creation system.
and harmonic
filtering. Thyrister Based Equipment

Thyristers were A type of utility equipment that is often a strong source of harmonics is the class
introduced in of equipment that is controlled via high powered solid-state switches called
Chapter 2 while thyristers. Thyrister based equipment is capable of very rapid switching actions.
SVCs were
described in
Chapter 5.

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Figure 9-5 contains a one-line diagram of a static var compensator or SVC. SVCs
are rapidly adjustable sources or sinks of reactive power. SVCs use thyristers to
quickly adjust the reactive power the SVC is taking from or inserting into the
power system.

Figure 9-5. Static Var Compensator (SVC) One-Line Diagram

Note that the capacitors in Figure 9-5 are thyrister switched capacitors (TSC)
while the reactors are thyrister-controlled reactors (TCR). Thyrister switching is
similar to a circuit breaker’s operation and does not produce harmonics. Thyrister
control involves the continuous control of the magnitude of the current allowed to
pass through the reactor. Thyrister control is a strong source of harmonics. Note
the harmonic filters illustrated in the left side of Figure 9-5. These filters are
designed to absorb the harmonic currents produced by the thyrister-controlled
reactors.

Customer Load as Source of Harmonics

Non-linear customer loads are sources of harmonics. If a 60 HZ sinusoidal
voltage is applied to a load from which the load draws a non-sinusoidal current,
the load is a non-linear load. Examples of non-linear loads include:
Î Discharge lighting such as florescent and mercury arc lighting are
sources of harmonics, especially the 3RD harmonic. Discharge lighting
produces small arcs, which, in combination with the light’s ballast,
results in harmonics.

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Î Arc furnaces and arc welders, which have a changing load characteristic
during each ½ cycle. These type loads produces harmonics.
Î Rotating machinery will produce harmonics if the phase coils are not
sufficiently symmetrical. In addition, the machine’s stator iron may
saturate which leads to harmonic production.
Î Industrial static power converters that use thyristers to control the speed
and torque of AC and DC motors. Industrial power converters produce
harmonics in much the same manner that utility HVDC converters
produce harmonics.
Î Electronic equipment powered via switch mode power supplies. Switch
mode power supplies are economical power supplies used in most
modern electronic equipment. This type of load draws current for only a
portion of each ½ cycle thereby producing harmonics. Figure 9-6
illustrates the current waveform for a typical personnel computer (PC).
Figure 9-6(a) illustrates the current the PC draws when energized by a 60
Hz voltage. Note the current only flows for a portion of the voltage
cycle. Figure 9-6(b) illustrates how the PC current wave can be
illustrated as a summation of the fundamental, 3RD and 5TH harmonics.
Note that if a more accurate result was desired more harmonic orders
would be included in the summation (7TH, 9TH, etc).

Figure 9-6. PC Current Waveform

9.2.5 Flow of Harmonic Current

Figure 9-7 illustrates how harmonic currents can be produced by a utility’s
equipment or customer load and flow into the power system. The figure consists
of a source of harmonics, a tie to the utility system, an additional load, and power
factor correction shunt capacitors.
Assume that the thyrister-controlled load is a large steel plant that uses DC
motors. This load is a source of harmonics as far as the utility is concerned.
Think of the load as a harmonic current generator. The harmonic currents, IH,
will flow into the connected power system. The harmonic currents will distribute,
like any other current, according to the path of least impedance.

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Figure 9-7. Flow of Harmonic Current

For example, some portion of IH will flow towards the other customer loads and
the utility system (IH2), while some portion will flow into the shunt capacitor (IH1).
In subsequent sections of this chapter the damage that can be caused by harmonic
currents will be described. The harmonic currents that flow into the capacitor
may cause the capacitor’s protective relays to function while the harmonic
currents that flow into other customer loads or the utility system may result in
thermal damage to equipment.

9.2.6 Effects of Harmonics

The impact of harmonics on the power system depends on the harmonics’ relative
magnitude and the type of equipment exposed to the harmonics. If the equipment
is relatively unaffected by harmonics, it follows that the harmonic content can be
very large and cause little damage. For example, heating equipment such as
residential resistive heating or industrial ovens is normally not impacted by
harmonics. However, other types of equipment may be damaged by harmonics.

Rotating Equipment
Rotating equipment such as motors and generators are very susceptible to Section 9.4 will
harmonics. Different order harmonics will have different effects. In general, the describe an extreme
harmonics will induce current flows in areas of the rotating equipment that are not example of this
torque creation
designed for current flow. Overheating could then result. The harmonics can also called SSR or
create torques or forces in the rotating equipment shafts, which may lead to subsynchronous
cracking and eventually failure of the shaft. resonance.

The 5TH and 11TH harmonics are especially important with respect to rotating
equipment. When 3Φ motors are exposed to 5TH or 11TH harmonic voltages a
magnetic field is automatically created that attempts to rotate the motor in its
reverse direction. This reverse torque can damage the motor shaft and cause
thermal damage.

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Transformers
Transformers are susceptible to harmonics due to the overheating that may occur.
As the frequency of the harmonic rises, its impact on overheating rises. High
frequency harmonics increase the intensity and spread of the magnetic field and
induce currents in areas that are not designed for currents. These induced currents
lead to overheating. An audible sign of harmonic content in a transformer is the
loud buzzing sound that often accompanies the harmonics.
Transformers may also be exposed to high harmonic overvoltages. These
overvoltages are likely due to a resonance condition developing between the
transformer and a local capacitance. Voltages can rapidly rise to 20 or 30% above
nominal values and lead to saturation with accompanying transformer loss of life
or even internal faults within the transformer.

Shunt Capacitors
As you may recall from Chapter 2, the capacitive reactance, XC, in ohms is equal
1
to: X C = . What is important in this equation is the frequency term in the
2πfC
denominator. The higher the frequency the shunt capacitor is exposed to, the
lower its capacitive reactance (in ohms). Currents with high frequency (high
harmonic orders) are drawn to the grounded shunt capacitors in the system since
the capacitor presents a low impedance path to these currents. This can (and has
often done so) lead to false tripping of capacitor banks when high order
harmonics are present.
For example, certain system conditions (such as geomagnetic storms) may create
an abundance of harmonics. The high frequency harmonics seek out the local
grounded capacitor banks. The capacitor’s protective relaying may falsely
assume the sudden in-rush of current is due to a fault and trip the capacitor.
Individual capacitor cans are often protected with fuses. High harmonic currents
can blow these fuses and lead to tripping of the capacitor bank.

Protective Relaying
Protective relays may misoperate due to harmonic currents and voltages. Both
electro-mechanical and solid-state relays are impacted. Electro-mechanical relays
may respond to the harmonic voltages and current in the same manner that they
respond to the fundamental component. For example, a high harmonic current
magnitude may cause enough disk rotation in an induction disk overcurrent relay
to activate a trip circuit even though a high fundamental fault current does not
exist. Solid-state relays may respond to transient values of voltage and current.
Often the harmonic components are large but short lived. A solid-state relay may
act quickly enough to falsely trip for a very rapid harmonic transient.
Manufacturers have designed versions of solid-state and electro-mechanical relays
to be less susceptible to harmonics. However, not all the relays in the power
system are equipped with these features. One relay that is typically equipped with

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“harmonic restraint” circuitry is the differential relay for a large power

transformer. As mentioned earlier, when a transformer is first energized the in-
rush current includes a large 2ND harmonic component. Power transformer
differential relays are often designed to recognize and prevent false tripping due
to the 2ND harmonic component of the in-rush current.

Telecommunications Equipment
A common result of harmonics is interference with the local telephone systems.
When harmonic currents and voltages exist they produce electric and magnetic
fields of a like harmonic frequency. These fields can induce voltages and currents
in neighboring telephone equipment. The unwanted fields can easily disrupt
telephone communications causing problems for both the telephone company and
the local telephone system users. Low frequency harmonics (for example the 5TH)
do not significantly impact telephone systems. Higher frequency harmonics (for
example the 25TH) are often troublesome as their frequency of oscillation is within
the audio frequency range that is used by telephone systems.
Proper shielding of telephone equipment and/or filtering of utility power supplies
can reduce the effects of harmonic interference between electric and telephone
systems. However, shielding and filtering are expensive and not used unless
required.

Additional Effects of Harmonics

The effects of harmonics are widespread, only a few possibilities have been
described. Other effects of harmonics include:
Î Interference with power line carrier (PLC) telecommunication systems
Î Metering errors
Î Interference with generator excitation systems

9.2.7 Control of Harmonics

There are many methods used to control the spread of harmonics and reduce their
impact. For example, telecommunications equipment is often shielded to prevent
interference by harmonically induced electric and magnetic fields. This section
describes two types of harmonic control methods. The first method is the use of
delta connected tertiary windings and the second method is the use of harmonic
filtering.

Delta Connected Tertiary Windings

Delta connected windings on 3Φ transformers have a unique property that enables
a delta winding to make a large contribution to system harmonic control. Delta
connected windings will naturally absorb the “triplen” harmonics. The triplen
harmonics are odd multiples of the 3RD harmonic (the 3RD, 9TH, 15TH, etc). Recall
from Chapter 2 that the system’s 3Φ voltages and currents are normally 120° out-

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of-phase with one another. In contrast, triplen harmonic voltages and currents are
in-phase with one another. When three in-phase currents flow in a delta
connected winding, the currents are essentially trapped within the delta as
illustrated in Figure 9-8.
Figure 9-8 illustrates an autotransformer with a delta connected tertiary winding.
The delta connected winding will trap the triplen harmonics and prevent them
from impacting the power system. The 3RD harmonic is the major concern since
as the harmonic order increases its impact on the power system generally
diminishes.

The triplen
harmonic currents
add in the neutral of
a wye connected
load. This can lead
to thermal failure of
the neutral wire.

Figure 9-8. Autotransformer with Delta Tertiary

Harmonic Filtering
A simple harmonic filter is illustrated in Figure 9-9. This particular filter is a
series combination of an inductor, capacitor, and resistor. Variations of this filter
can be connected in parallel or in shunt to the power system. The filter will be
tuned to present a low impedance to whatever frequency harmonic the utility
wants to remove from the power system. The tuning can be accomplished by
varying the size of the inductor or capacitor but is normally done by adjusting the
capacitor size.

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Figure 9-9. Simple Harmonic Filter

A series circuit consisting of an inductor and a capacitor can be tuned to choose
the frequency at which the circuit has a minimum impedance. The frequency for
minimum impedance is called the resonance frequency. An example of the
application of this type filter will clarify its use. Figure 9-10 is a simple one-line
diagram of an HVDC converter. Assume the converter is a source of 11TH and
13TH harmonics.

Remember that
capacitance is
measured in farads
and inductance in
henrys.

Figure 9-10. Sample Tuning of a Filter

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Two series filters are illustrated in Figure 9-10. Assume that both filters have a
0.2 Henry (fixed size) inductor. The equation for the resonance frequency that
was given in Figure 9-9 is used to determine the capacitance, C, values required
for each filter. One filter’s “C” value would be chosen to achieve resonance at the
11TH (660 HZ) harmonic and the other filter’s “C” value chosen to achieve
resonance at the 13TH (780 HZ) harmonic. Both calculated “C” values are listed
in Figure 9-10.
Once capacitors with the required “C” values are installed, the filters will be
operational. Now anytime the 11TH or 13TH harmonics appear in this system, the
filters will absorb these currents since the filters present a very low impedance
path to currents of these frequencies. Filters of this type of design are very
common in HVDC converter stations. HVDC converters naturally produce
harmonics so filters are used to absorb the harmonics from the power system
before they can cause any damage.
9.3 Resonance

9.3.1 Introduction to Resonance

Perhaps the simplest way to visualize the concept of resonance is to think in terms
of a musical analogy. When a musical instrument is being tuned, the sound
produced by a known source is compared to the sound of the instrument that is
being tuned. The goal of tuning a musical instrument is to match the frequency of
oscillation of a known source to the frequency of oscillation of the instrument that
is being tuned.
For example, to tune a guitar’s strings, one could first use a piano to sound an
accurate “b” note. The “b” string of the guitar is then plucked. If the guitar is
tuned properly, the “b” string of the guitar will vibrate at the same frequency as
the piano’s “b” note. When the two musical sources produce sound at the same
frequency, they are in resonance or resonant with one another. The goal of
musical tuning is to achieve resonance with a known frequency source.
With musical resonance, you can hear or feel the resonance condition. For
example, in our musical analogy, if the two “b” note sources are tuned properly,
the two sounds will appear to add to one another and produce one unique sound at
a clear distinct frequency. If the two sources are out of tune, the sounds will
interfere with one another and their combination appears garbled.
Electrical resonance is similar to musical resonance in that electrical circuit
elements are somehow adjusted so they are tuned to one another. However,
instead of notes from guitar strings and pianos, the circuit’s capacitive and
inductive elements are tuned to one another. When an electrical circuit resonates,
high currents and voltages can develop.
Electrical resonance is often used to achieve desired results. For example, when a
radio station is tuned-in, a resonant condition at the desired station frequency is
intentionally created. This section will address the undesirable results of creating
resonance in the power system. Power system resonance can lead to high

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currents, which may cause thermal damage to system equipment, and to high
voltages, which may saturate transformers and lead to insulation failures.
In more technical terms, electrical resonance occurs when the capacitive reactance Transmission
owners may
of a circuit matches or is tuned to the inductive reactance of the circuit. When the choose to install
capacitive reactance is tuned to the inductive reactance the two reactances will series capacitors
compensate one another. The capacitive reactance is composed of capacitive in their high
circuit elements, which may include line charging and series and shunt capacitors. voltage
The inductive reactance is composed of the inductive circuit elements, which may transmission lines
to increase the
include the line reactance, transformer reactance, and series and shunt reactors. line’s MW
There are two general types of resonance: series resonance and parallel resonance. transfer
capability.
9.3.2 Series Resonance
Figure 9-11 is used to describe series resonance. The figure illustrates a high
voltage transmission line section. The transmission line has inductive reactance,
XL, and resistance, RL. There is also a series capacitor, XC, installed in the line.
Series resonance will occur in the system of Figure 9-11 if, at some specific
frequency, the inductive reactance of the transmission line is fully compensated
by the line’s capacitive reactance or when the magnitude of XL equals XC. At
series resonance the total circuit impedance is reduced to the series resistance or Note that when the
magnitude of XL
RL value. The circuit of Figure 9-11 would present the low resonance impedance equals XC they
(the RL value) to currents near the resonance frequency. Currents of frequencies cancel one
other than the resonance frequency would see a higher impedance. This is an another as they
important point to remember. The resonant condition applies to currents close to are 90° out-of-
the resonant frequency. Currents at other frequencies would see higher circuit phase.
impedance values.
A series resonant condition can be achieved using two possible methods: either
by adjusting the frequency of the system, or by changing the size of the system’s
series capacitance or reactance.

Figure 9-11. Series Resonance

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Series Resonance by Changing the Frequency

As stated earlier, at series resonance the magnitude of XL equals XC. By studying
the reactance equations for XL and XC one can deduce that changing the system
frequency to a value where XL equals XC can create a series resonant condition.
This will occur at a frequency of fR, or at the resonant frequency. Figure 9-12
illustrates how a frequency adjustment can be used to produce series resonance.
If a power source with a frequency of fR was inserted into the circuit of Figure 9-
12, the circuit impedance would reduce to RL, as XL and XC equal one another.
For example, assume that the XL and XC values in Figure 9-12 are such that the
resonance frequency, fR, is equal to 180 HZ. Assume the current flowing in this
circuit has two components, one with the fundamental or 60 HZ frequency and
one with the 3RD harmonic or 180 HZ frequency. The fundamental frequency
current would see the normal 60 HZ circuit impedance. This higher impedance
will include both reactance and resistance. The 3RD harmonic currents will only
see the resistance since the capacitive and inductive reactance values are equal to
one another at this frequency.
Figure 9-12 follows on the next page.

Figure 9-12. Series Resonance by Varying Frequency

Series Resonance by Changing the Reactance

The second method that can be used to create a series resonant condition is
accomplished by varying the size of the series inductive and capacitive elements
in the system. At series resonance XL equals XC. If the size of the XL or XC
values is adjusted until they are equal in magnitude, a series resonant condition is
produced.

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Section 9.2.7 of this chapter described the use of filters to provide low impedance
paths to harmonic currents. These filters were intentional creations of series
resonant conditions. The capacitive and inductive parts of the series filter are
chosen to achieve resonance at whatever harmonic frequency the designer wants
the filter to absorb energy from the power system. For example, the filters
described in Figure 9-10 were designed to absorb currents with 11TH and 13TH
order frequencies. Anytime currents of these frequencies appear in the area of the
filter they are absorbed by the filters and their energy dissipated as heat via the
filter resistance.

Use of Series Capacitors

A series capacitor was illustrated in Figure 9-12. Utilities may choose to install a
series capacitor as a means of increasing a transmission line’s MW transfer
capability. (This is in contrast to the use of shunt capacitors, which are installed
for voltage control.) A series capacitor works by compensating for a portion of a
transmission line’s natural inductive reactance.
Consider the transmission line section of Figure 9-13(a). This 100 mile long 345
kV line has a resistance of 6Ω and an inductive reactance of 60Ω. (Both of these
impedance values are functions of the size of conductor and the line’s design.)
The MW transfer capability of the line would increase if the line’s impedance
were reduced. The largest part of the line’s impedance is the inductive reactance
at 60Ω. If a series capacitor is added to this line, the capacitive reactance of the
series capacitor subtracts directly from the line’s inductive reactance. For
example, in Figure 9-13(b) a 30Ω series capacitor is added to the line. The sum
of the 60Ω inductive reactance and 30Ω series capacitor is a net reactance of 30Ω.
This line’s effective impedance after installation of the series capacitor is
illustrated in Figure 9-13(c). The addition of the series capacitor has reduced the
reactance of the line by 50%. Power engineers would say this line is 50% series
compensated. More MW can now flow over the line increasing the line’s MW
transfer capability.

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Figure 9-13. Series Capacitors Usage and Photo

If 60Ω of series capacitance had been inserted in this line a 60 HZ series resonant
condition would have been intentionally created. Normal 60 HZ power would
then have only the circuit’s resistance (RL) to limit the current flow. This would
maximize the power transfer of the line. Unfortunately, in the real world 100%
series compensation likely cannot be used. Severe consequences may result.
Among the consequences is a phenomenon called subsynchronous resonance
(SSR), which is described in Section 9.4.
Before we leave series resonance, two important points are emphasized:
Î At series resonance the circuit impedance is at a minimum and equal to
the circuit resistance. The normal inductive reactance of the circuit is
compensated by the circuit’s series capacitive reactance. The low
impedance of the series resonant condition applies to currents at and/or
near the series resonant frequency. The series resonance frequency can
be any frequency value including the fundamental.
Î The impedances of the inductive and capacitive elements cancel one
another during series resonance. However, remember that these reactive
elements are still in the power system.

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Assume that the inductive element is a 345/138 kV autotransformer and the

capacitive element a series capacitor as illustrated in Figure 9-14. During series
resonance, fundamental and resonance frequency currents flow through both the
inductive and capacitive elements. Both currents result in voltage rises across the
capacitor and voltage drops across the transformer. The rises and drops cancel
one another out so an observer will not detect these voltage changes at the ends of
the circuit. However, the internal circuit elements, especially the transformer, are
exposed to the summation of the fundamental and resonance voltages and may be
damaged by the resultant high voltages.

A delta connected
tertiary is normally
installed in an
autotransformer to
assist with
harmonic control
and help prevent
resonance
problems.

Figure 9-14. Voltages During Series Resonance

When a series resonance condition exists, the elements in the resonance circuit
can be exposed to voltages that are much higher than the source voltage.

9.3.3 Parallel Resonance

Parallel resonance is similar to series resonance but occurs when the capacitive
and inductive elements are in parallel and their impedances are equal in
magnitude. Figure 9-15 illustrates parallel resonance. The figure contains an
autotransformer and a shunt capacitor bank connected in parallel (assume both are
tied to the same bus). This circuit can enter into parallel resonance by either
inputting resonant frequency energy or by changing the size of the capacitive
and/or inductive elements. A common method of creating a parallel resonance
condition is by injecting energy into the system at the resonance frequency.

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Figure 9-15. Parallel Resonance

If energy at the resonant frequency were somehow injected into the circuit of
Figure 9-14 it would result in parallel resonance. The XL and XC values would
then cancel. At parallel resonance the incoming current would “see” very high
impedance that is almost purely resistive and possibly equal to many times the
circuit’s resistance value. The total current that passes through the circuit would
be at a minimum. The reactive branches (the capacitor and transformer) are still
in the circuit even though their impedances canceled. These two branches would
exchange large amounts of reactive current as illustrated in Figure 9-15.
Even though the total current flowing through the circuit is at a minimum, the
current that circulates internally between the parallel capacitance and inductance
can reach very high magnitudes. This large circulating current creates voltage
drops across the transformer and capacitor. The voltages may reach high enough
magnitudes to damage equipment, especially transformers.

Parallel Resonance in HVDC Converters

The parallel resonance condition is likely to occur in high voltage direct current
Chapter 10 includes (HVDC) converter stations. HVDC converters produce harmonics that can excite
a description of the parallel resonance if the proper XL and XC values exist in the area of the HVDC.
construction and
For example, consider the simplified one-line diagram of Figure 9-16. The
operation of HVDC
systems. transformer supplies AC power to the HVDC converter station. HVDC
converters are heavy users of reactive power. The reactive power is supplied
from shunt capacitors connected in parallel to the AC power transformer.
(Assume the filters are initially out-of-service.)

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Figure 9-16. HVDC Converter Simplified One-Line

Assume that this is the type of converter that produces 5TH (300 HZ), 7TH (420
HZ), 11TH (660 HZ), 13TH (780 HZ), 17TH (1,020 HZ), 19TH (1,140HZ), 23RD
(1,380 HZ), and 25TH (1,500 HZ) harmonic currents. These harmonic currents
flow from the converter into the parallel combination of the transformer and
capacitor. Further assume that the “R-L-C” circuit has values of inductance and
capacitance such that the parallel resonance frequency is very close to the 11TH
harmonic. These 11TH harmonic currents would excite parallel resonance in the
circuit.
A large 11TH harmonic current would circulate between the inductive and
capacitive branches. Large 11TH harmonic voltages may then develop across the
transformer and capacitor. These large voltages are in addition to the normal
circuit fundamental frequency voltages. The combination of normal fundamental
frequency voltage and current and high 11TH harmonic voltage and current could:
Î Thermally damage the transformer and capacitor
Î Blow capacitor fuses
Î Overexcite and damage the transformer
Î Lead to insulation failure in the capacitor
Î Interfere with telecommunication systems
Î Interfere with protection systems
Unfortunately, most HVDC converter stations have a transformer to connect to
the AC power system and shunt capacitors to supply reactive power. These are
just the ingredients needed for parallel resonance. To avoid parallel resonance,
HVDC converters are equipped with filters to absorb the harmonic currents that
could give rise to parallel resonance. Two filters are illustrated in Figure 9-16.

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One of these filters could be tuned to absorb 11TH harmonic current. In an actual
HVDC station the utility would analyze the converter to determine just what
harmonics are created. Individual filters would be tuned to absorb the most
critical harmonic frequencies and then a special type of filter called a high pass or
HP filter would be tuned to absorb all the higher order harmonics.
9.4 Subsynchronous Resonance

9.4.1 Introduction to Subsynchronous Resonance

As you recall from Section 9.3, series resonance occurs when the magnitude of
the series inductive reactance of the circuit is equal to the series capacitive
reactance. Subsynchronous resonance or SSR is similar to series resonance and
occurs due to an interaction between a power system’s generators and a nearby
high voltage transmission system. This section will review series resonance as it
relates to SSR and then explore the topic of SSR.

9.4.2 SSR and Series Capacitors

Figure 9-17 illustrates a simple power system that consists of a steam generator
tied to a load through a 345 kV transmission path. The utility that operates this
system has determined that a series capacitor is required to increase the MW
transfer capability of the transmission path. The size of the series capacitor
installed will depend on how much of the normal line reactance the utility wishes
to compensate. For example, if the utility chooses to reduce the line reactance by
50% they would install 50% series compensation. If the utility chooses to cancel
60% of the line’s reactance they would install 60% compensation. Figure 9-17
illustrates 50% compensation.

Note the inductive

reactance has an
angle of -90°.
Therefore the two
reactances subtract
directly from one
another for a total
of 50Ω at +90°.

Figure 9-17. 50% Series Compensation

The lower the system reactance, the more MW that can be transmitted across the
transmission line. In theory, a utility could completely eliminate the line’s
reactance and maximize MW transfer capability by adding enough series
capacitors to completely compensate the line’s inductive reactance. This would
be referred to as 100% compensation. In practice, however, this is not practical.

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The amount of series compensation used is limited by several restrictions. A first The use of series
restriction is that series capacitors cause a voltage rise as inductive (lagging) capacitors also
current passes through the capacitor. This limits the amount of series capacitance complicates
to the tolerable voltage rise at the series capacitor’s physical location. A second power system
protection.
limitation to the use of series capacitors is that the probability of SSR problems
increases with the increasing amount of series capacitance.

9.4.3 Resonance Frequency

When series capacitors are added to the power system the frequency at which
series resonance occurs is changed. In Section 9.2 a simple formula for
calculating the resonance frequency was introduced. This formula is repeated and
expanded below:
1 XC
fR = = 60 ×
2π LC XL

This formula tells us that the frequency at which series resonance occurs (fR) is
dependent on the ratio of the series capacitive (XC) and series inductive reactance
(XL). For example, if the series capacitive reactance is 2Ω and the series
inductive reactance is 400Ω,the series resonance frequency can be calculated
from the above formula to be approximately 4.2 HZ.
Normally, the high voltage transmission system is primarily an inductive power
system. The series impedance is primarily composed of inductive reactance (XL).
The ratio of XC to XL is very small so the series resonance frequency is well
below 60 HZ. When the series resonance frequency is this low it normally does
not cause any significant problems. When a utility inserts series capacitors and
increases the series XC value the series resonance frequency will raise. If enough
series capacitors are added to the system to raise the series resonant frequency to a
value in the neighborhood of 10 to 50 HZ, SSR problems can occur.

9.4.4 Definition of Subsynchronous Resonance

The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) defines
subsynchronous resonance (SSR) as follows:
“Subsynchronous resonance (SSR) is an electric power system condition
where the electric network exchanges energy with a turbine/generator at
one or more of the natural frequencies of the combined system below the
synchronous frequency of the system.”
Every transmission system has a series resonance frequency. Turbine generators
used within the electric system also have natural frequencies of oscillation. When
the turbine/generator’s natural frequencies of oscillation are close to the series
resonance frequencies of the transmission network the generator is attached to,
severe forces can develop within the turbine/generator shaft. These forces can
damage the shaft and lead to considerable generator damage. The term

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subsynchronous resonance, or SSR, is the name given to this possibly damaging

interaction between the turbine/generator and the power system.

9.4.5 Components of System Current

When a disturbance The current that flows in a power system is always composed of several
occurs, such as a frequency components. The several components include the primary current,
transmission line which is a 60 HZ current, and currents whose frequencies depend on the
trip, oscillations are
triggered at the
impedances (the L and C values) of the local power system. Disturbances to the
power system’s power system create current flows at these natural or resonant system frequencies.
natural frequencies These additional current components collectively represent a non-60 HZ content
of oscillation. to the power system current. The non-60 HZ current component magnitudes are
usually quite small when compared to the 60 HZ component.
The currents flowing in the power system are also flowing in the generator stator
windings and affect the current flow in the generator rotor windings. For
example, when 60 HZ currents flow in the power system these same 60 HZ
currents flow in the generator stator windings. Recall that the rotors of the
generators are rotating at synchronous speed. The 60 HZ currents flowing in the
generator stator windings induce current flows in the rotor. However, rotor
currents induced by 60 HZ stator currents would not be AC currents but rather DC
currents.
DC currents are induced in the rotor because the rotor is spinning at the same
electrical speed (synchronous) as the stator currents. This is the normal mode of
operation of a synchronous generator; DC currents flow in the rotor while 60 HZ
AC currents flow in the stator.
The non-60 HZ currents that flow in the generator stators also induce current in
The two induced the generator rotors. The non-60 HZ currents are not at synchronous speed so the
rotor currents are
called currents induced in generator rotors are not DC currents. Each non-60 HZ stator
complimentary current will induce two rotor current components. One rotor current component
currents. has a frequency equal to 60 plus the stator non-60 HZ current frequency. The
other rotor current component has a frequency that is equal to 60 minus the
frequency of the non-60 HZ stator current. For example, if a 40 HZ stator current
is flowing a 60-40 or 20 HZ current and 60+40 or 100 HZ current will flow in the
rotor.
Generator rotors are not designed to carry AC currents such as the 20 HZ and 100
HZ currents just described. The high frequency currents are not as significant as
the subsynchronous currents and these high frequency currents are ignored.
However, the subsynchronous (below 60 HZ) currents that flow in the rotor may
initiate a response from the generator and power system that causes the original
stator non-60 HZ current component to grow in magnitude. The subsynchronous
currents in the rotor and in the system may grow large enough to damage the
generator.

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9.4.6 Generator Modes of Oscillation

Chapter 8 of this Tutorial described how generators are prone to oscillate at their
natural mode of oscillation. The natural mode of the generator refers to the
tendency of a generator to enter into periods of oscillations at this natural
frequency. The natural mode of a generator is dependent on its inertia, speed of
rotation, power output level, and the system to which it is attached. There are also
mechanical modes of oscillation within a turbine/generator. These mechanical
modes of oscillation refer to the tendencies of sections of the turbine/generator
shaft to oscillate with respect to other sections of the shaft and with respect to the
electrical system to which the generator is attached.
Figure 9-18 illustrates a simple turbine/generator shaft. In a steam generator the
high and low-pressure turbines, generator rotor, and exciter are often connected to
a common shaft. Each of these shaft sections has different weights and diameters
so each section has a different inertia. Since the various shaft sections have
different inertias, different natural oscillating frequencies are expected for each
section of the shaft.
The box at the bottom of Figure 9-18 contains a listing of the natural modes or
frequencies at which this particular turbine/generator shaft is prone to oscillate.
When manufacturers build steam turbine/generators they tell the purchaser what
the natural frequencies or modes are of the shaft. When the manufacturer informs
the purchaser of the shaft modes they are warning the purchaser that they should
not expose this turbine/generator shaft to power system currents at frequencies
close to any of the natural modes of oscillation. If the turbine/generator shaft is
exposed to these frequency currents, the shaft could be excited and the resulting
forces could damage the shaft or attached shaft elements.

Figure 9-18. Turbine/Generator Shaft Modes

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Exciting a Turbine/Generator Natural Mode

SSR occurs when the frequency of the currents that are flowing in the generator
rotor are close to one of the natural modes of the turbine/generator shaft. As an
illustration of SSR, the following paragraphs step through an SSR scenario for the
turbine/generator of Figure 9-18.
Assume that a large bank of series capacitors has been switched in-service at a
The local power
system’s inductance location close to the turbine/generator of Figure 9-18. Further assume that the
and capacitance correct amount of series capacitors was switched to induce a power oscillation in
was such that the the local system of 26.0 HZ. This 26 HZ subsynchronous current also flows in
resonant frequency the generator’s stator winding. The 26 HZ stator currents will induce 34 HZ rotor
is 26 HZ. currents (since 60 - 26 = 34). The 34 HZ rotor current could excite mode 4 of the
turbine/generator in Figure 9-18.
Sections of the shaft would then oscillate at a frequency of 34 HZ. The shaft
oscillations induce more 26 HZ stator currents, which in turn will increase the
rotor 34 HZ currents. The cycle repeats itself with the shaft oscillations and
subsynchronous current magnitudes growing. The turbine/generator shaft and
the power system have entered into an exchange of energy. This leads to large
subsynchronous power oscillations and repeated twisting of the turbine/generator
shaft. If enough force is concentrated on the shaft it could lead to severe thermal
damage to shaft components and lengthy repair outages for the generator.
The likelihood or impact of an SSR condition depends on the specific
turbine/generator and the local power system to which the unit is attached. Some
turbine/generators and power systems are constructed in such a manner that they
are not susceptible to SSR even when one of the shaft modes has been excited.
This type of power system exhibits a high degree of damping. If SSR currents
were to appear in this system, the turbine/generator and local power system
combine to quickly reduce the current magnitudes. However, not all power
systems are this fortunate. Many turbine/generators have been identified as
being susceptible to SSR.
SSR problems, such as described above, have occurred within the North
American power system. In the early1970s, Southern California Edison’s
Mohave units experienced damaging SSR events on two separate occasions.
Mojave station is composed of two coal-fired steam units that are connected to
the Western Interconnection via series compensated 500 kV lines. The generator
shafts were damaged and subsequently repaired and returned to service after
lengthy outages. The units are now protected from the affects of SSR by
protection systems and operating guidelines as described later in this section.
A detailed description of the Mohave SSR incident is included in Section 9.4.9.

9.4.7 Forms of SSR

To this point we have described SSR as if the only possibility for occurrence is by
the series resonant frequency of the local power system exciting a natural mode of
the turbine/generator shaft. Actually this is only one of three possible SSR

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scenarios. All three scenarios for an SSR occurrence are similar but there are
important differences. The three scenarios are described below.

SSR Scenario I – Torsional Interaction

This is the classic type of SSR that was described earlier in this chapter.
Normally, this type of SSR event is initiated by a system disturbance. For
example, a section of a series capacitor bank is switched in-service that creates a
power oscillation. If a local generator’s induced rotor current frequency is close
to a natural mode of the turbine/generator’s shaft, large oscillations in power and
severe forces on the turbine/generator shaft could occur. Figure 9-19 illustrates
this type of SSR.

The 26 HZ stator
currents will induce
34 HZ rotor
currents. This will
excite mode #4 of
the
turbine/generator
shaft.

Figure 9-19. SSR Scenario I – Torsional Interaction

One method to prevent this type of SSR is to avoid any system conditions that
could lead to power oscillations at a frequency that initiates the SSR. Utilities
that are susceptible to this type of SSR study their system to determine what
system conditions could lead to SSR. For example, the utility must know what
the limits are to the use of series capacitors. Operating procedures to prevent this
form of SSR may forbid any switching on local transmission lines if the current
system operating mode is in a particular state.

SSR Scenario II – Transient Torques

If series capacitors
This type of an SSR is similar to the torsional interaction mode described above had not been
but is initiated by a severe system disturbance. When a severe disturbance installed, the fault
occurs (for example, a fault) large currents flow from the system generators. If current would
series capacitors are installed in the area of the fault, the fault current tends to steadily decay
oscillate at the local series resonant frequency of the system. The natural modes without oscillations.
of nearby turbine/generator shafts may be excited if the modes are close to the
frequency of the oscillating fault current.

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The forces on the generator shafts do not build up slowly as in SSR Scenario I,
but appear suddenly in direct proportion to the amount of fault current from the
generator. Shaft damage may quickly follow the disturbance. Figure 9-20
illustrates this type of SSR.

Figure 9-20. SSR Scenario II – Transient Torques

SSR Scenario III – Induction Generator Effect

The first two scenarios for SSR are similar. The third scenario is different in
that it does not depend on exciting a turbine/generator shaft’s natural modes.
One difference between an induction generator and a synchronous generator is
that a synchronous generator’s rotor turns at synchronous speed. In contrast, an
induction generator’s rotor is designed to turn slightly faster than synchronous
speed.
A synchronous generator could be made to appear as if it were an induction
generator if the synchronous generator’s rotor were somehow rotated faster than
synchronous speed. This is exactly what happens when subsynchronous currents
flow in the power system. The rotor of the synchronous generator appears to be
turning faster than the frequency of the subsynchronous currents that are flowing
in the generator’s stator.
The subsynchronous currents that flow in the stator induce complementary
(subsynchronous frequency ±60 HZ) currents in the rotor. These rotor currents
may in-turn induce a greater subsynchronous current into the stator. The
induction generator effect is actually an amplifier effect. When the rotor appears
to be spinning faster than the stator, the rotor may amplify the subsynchronous
stator currents.

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Another way of describing the rotor’s amplifier effect is to say that the rotor If a rotor has a
resistance appears negative to the subsynchronous currents. If the negative negative resistance
to subsynchronous
rotor resistance overcomes the positive resistance of the power system to
currents it is
which the generator is attached, the subsynchronous currents will grow larger equivalent to the
and larger until the generator must be tripped. Figure 9-21 summarizes the rotor acting as an
induction generator scenario for SSR. The induction generator effect is amplifier to these
typically not as severe a scenario for SSR as when a shaft’s natural mode is currents.
excited.

RR is the per-phase
rotor resistance.
RS is the per-phase
system resistance.
IS is the per-phase
system current.

Figure 9-21. SSR Scenario III – Induction Generator Effect

9.4.8 When is SSR a Concern?

SSR is not a common condition but it can occur for many different combinations
of system elements and operating conditions. Fortunately for a system operator, it
is usually up to the system planners and designers to design the power system to
avoid most scenarios for SSR.
Due to the design
A system operator should be concerned about SSR if their power system has of their respective
steam turbine/generators that are connected to long, high voltage series power systems,
compensated lines. (An important limitation to SSR is that it is only a concern western utilities
(especially those in
with steam units; hydro units and CTs are usually not susceptible to SSR.) In Arizona, New
these types of system configurations, a system operator’s switching actions could Mexico, and
trigger SSR. Nevada) are
typically more
As stated previously, the series resonance frequency that gives rise to the susceptible to SSR
subsynchronous currents that produce SSR is dependent upon the series than eastern
capacitive and inductive reactance of the power system. Anytime a transmission utilities.
line is switched in- or out-of-service or a series capacitor is switched in or out, the
series resonance frequency is changed.

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If a power system has generating units that are susceptible to SSR, the system
designers should have studied the characteristics of the generators and
transmission system to determine when SSR could occur. Operating guidelines
should then be prepared (in consultation with system operations) to avoid the
conditions that may lead to SSR.
For example, several western utilities have system operating guidelines that forbid
switching of specific high voltage lines when system conditions are within certain
limits. Many utilities with series capacitors limit the amount of series capacitors
or the amount of series compensation, which can be used at a time. This avoids
raising the series resonance frequency to levels that could induce SSR.
The likelihood of SSR occurring is also a function of the loading on the local
turbine/generators. SSR is more likely to occur when generating units are lightly
loaded and their natural damping action reduced.

9.4.9 SSR Example

This incident was
the first widely Southern California Edison (SCE) operated the coal fired Mojave power station in
reported incident of Nevada. Two incidents of SSR occurred at the Mojave plant in the early 1970’s.
SSR so the team that
analyzed the
Figure 9-22 is a one-line diagram that illustrates the major transmission in the
incident was area of the Mojave station in the early 1970’s. Note the series capacitors in the
exploring unknown 500 kV lines.
territory.
For both incidents (one in 1970 and the other in 1971) only one Mojave generator
was in-service with a light load of approximately 300 MW. The opening of the
Mojave-El Dorado line triggered both incidents. After the line was opened at the
remote terminal (El Dorado), the plant operators observed flickering lights in the
Mojave control room. Excitation voltage and current levels and the unit MW
output remained steady. After a few minutes plant operators noticed a vibration
in the control room floor. The plant’s first indication that something was
seriously wrong was the generator’s field ammeter movement from a normal
excitation current of 1,220 amps to a full-scale reading of over 4,000 amps.
Alarms for excessive vibration, field ground, and negative sequence current were
then received. A manual shutdown of the plant was immediately initiated.
Subsequent study of the incident revealed the following:
Î A 30.5 HZ component to the system current was noticeable on
As a result of these oscillographs of both incidents.
SSR incidents both
generator shafts Î Couplings between various parts of the turbine/generator shaft
were removed for (turbine to generator, generator to exciter, etc.) were damaged.
extensive
maintenance. The
Î The slip-rings (for providing excitation current) and the generator shaft in
units were out-of- the area of the slip-rings had sustained major heat related damage
service for several (sections of the shaft steel had melted).
months at
substantial cost to
the utility.

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Figure 9-22. Mojave SSR Case Study

Subsequent study identified this event as an incident of SSR due to an interaction
between a turbine/generator shaft natural mode and a resonant frequency of the
local power system. When the Mojave-El Dorado 500 kV was opened the series
capacitors in the Mojave-Lugo 500 kV line were charged due to a sudden increase
in current flow. The local power system entered a resonant oscillation (30.5 HZ)
after Mojave-El Dorado was opened as the system’s series capacitors exchanged
energy with the system’s natural inductance.
The transmission system oscillation frequency of 30.5 HZ induced a Mojave
generator rotor oscillation of 29.5 HZ. A natural mode of the turbine/generator
shaft (30.1 HZ) was close enough to 29.5 HZ for the turbine/generator to join in
an exchange of energy with the local power system. The exchange of energy
grew so large that substantial forces were applied to the turbine/generator shaft.
These forces led to excessive heat build up in the area in which the slip-rings
attach to the generator shaft. The forces also caused the plant vibration and the
damage to the coupling points between various elements of the shaft.

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Filtering devices were eventually installed at the Mojave station to detect the
presence of subsynchronous oscillations and trigger remedial actions. Various
methods of preventing and/or responding to SSR events are briefly described in
the next section.

9.4.10 Preventing SSR

There are several methods in use by utilities throughout NERC to prevent SSR.
What follows is a brief summary of these methods:
Î As mentioned earlier, many utilities that have series capacitors limit the
amount of series compensation. For example, a line near a steam
generator may have enough series capacitors to compensate 75% of the
line’s reactance. The utility operating guides may specify that no more
than 50% of the series compensation can be in-service at any one time.
This is done to avoid conditions that may lead to SSR.
Î Power systems may be equipped with filters that are designed to limit the
flow of subsynchronous currents. Common locations for these filters
include between the generator and its step-up bank or parallel to a local
series capacitor installation. The filters are basically parallel “RLC”
circuits that will present high impedance to the subsynchronous currents
the filter is designed to limit.
Î Modifications can be made to generator excitation systems to limit the
occurrence of subsynchronous oscillations. These modifications involve
a sensing circuit to detect subsynchronous oscillations and rapid
adjustments to unit excitation to dampen the detected oscillations.
Î Protective relays may be installed in turbine/generators that detect
subsynchronous currents over a specified magnitude or that monitor the
turbine/generator shaft for speed variations that indicate SSR oscillations.
The generator could either be tripped or an alarm could sound.
Î Thyrister switched devices may be used to rapidly change the effective
impedance of a circuit and thus change the resonance frequency. The
goal is to move the resonance frequency to a value that will not initiate
SSR in local generators. A variation of this method was eventually used
to solve the SSR problems at the Mojave station in the western United
States. Thyrister switched series capacitors can also be used to rapidly
adjust the amount of series compensation and prevent growing SSR
The term Ferro oscillations.
is derived from
the Latin word
9.5 Ferroresonance
Ferrum for iron.
Ferroresonance 9.5.1 Introduction to Ferroresonance
is a resonance
condition Ferroresonance is an overcurrent and overvoltage condition that is a result of
involving an either series or parallel resonance. The most common ferroresonance circuit in
iron-core power systems is a series resonance condition, which is used to describe
inductance. ferroresonance in this section. As in any series resonance circuit, ferroresonance

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involves a tuning between the circuit’s capacitance and inductance. However, the
inductance must be of a particular type for ferroresonance to occur, a type called
an “iron-core” inductance. Transformers (both power and instrument) are
common examples of iron-core inductances. An iron-core inductance has the
unique property that its inductance will vary depending on whether its magnetic
field is saturated.
Two scenarios of ferroresonance are examined: one in a distribution system and The concept of
one in a transmission substation. This does not mean that there are only two power system
ferroresonance possibilities. These two ferroresonance scenarios are simply ferroresonance
was first
typical and offer a varied picture of this interesting phenomenon. The section identified in the
describes the cause of ferroresonance for each of the examples given and methods 1920’s.
of avoiding its occurrence.

9.5.2 Definition of Ferroresonance

In the series resonant circuits described earlier a resonant condition was achieved
by either varying the source frequency or adjusting the size of the reactive
elements. Whatever method was used, resonance was achieved at only one
frequency per circuit configuration. This is not the case with ferroresonance as
the iron-core inductance of the transformer changes with the applied voltage.
The frequency at which ferroresonance occurs will vary even during the
ferroresonance condition itself.
If a high enough magnitude voltage is applied to an iron-core transformer, A low magnitude
overexcitation and saturation result. When the iron-core is saturated, the voltage that
transformer inductive reactance reduces sharply. As described earlier, the sustains itself
for a long period
resonance frequency is directly related to the magnitude of the inductance. (low frequency)
This means that the frequency of the ferroresonance currents and voltages will will also
vary depending on the voltage to which the transformer is exposed. saturate an iron-
core.
If a voltage or current waveform for a circuit in the midst of ferroresonance were
viewed, the waveform would typically be varying at the fundamental frequency
of 60 HZ. The waveform would not be a pure sine wave due to the presence of
a range of other frequency components that represent different resonant
frequencies.
Once a ferroresonance condition develops, high currents will oscillate in the
circuit. These high currents will result in large voltage drops across the reactive
elements of the circuit. The large voltage drops can impact circuit elements. For
example, lightning arresters may operate or fail. In extreme circumstances
transformers may be damaged. The magnitude of the overvoltage condition that
develops depends on the relative size of the capacitive and inductive reactance
and the circuit resistance.

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9.5.3 Distribution Ferroresonance

Example of Distribution System Ferroresonance

A distribution line crew is completing the installation of a 750 kVA transformer
at a shopping center. The new transformer is fed from a 2,500 foot long
underground cable that is connected to a 13.2 kV overhead line. There are
lightning arresters and fuse cut-outs at the pole. The fuse cut-outs are initially
open. One lineman is on the pole waiting to energize while another is at the
transformer waiting to check voltages. Figure 9-23 is an illustration of this
system.
When the first fuse cut-out is closed, the transformer gives off a loud hum.
Assuming it was just an unusual noise the crew closes the next cut-out. The
transformer hum grows in magnitude and the transformer is noticeably vibrating.
When the third cut-out is closed the hum and vibration stop. The voltages are
checked and appear normal. The line crew decides that “if it isn’t broke, don’t fix
it” and wraps-up the job.

Figure 9-23. Distribution System Ferroresonance

The line crew did not realize it at the time but this was an example of
ferroresonance on the distribution system. If the ferroresonance condition had
reached a greater magnitude a possible result could have been damaged lighting
arresters or a damaged transformer.

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Explanation of Distribution System Ferroresonance

Distribution ferroresonance occurs when a resonant circuit is set up in the
distribution system. Figure 9-24 is a model of the conditions that are necessary
for distribution ferroresonance. A source of voltage and current, an iron-core
inductance (for example, a transformer), a capacitance, and a ground point must
be provided. The ground point may seem obvious but it is very important. It is
necessary to complete the circuit and allow current to flow from the source.

Figure 9-24. Series Resonance Circuit

If the values of the circuit’s inductive and capacitive reactance are close to one
another ferroresonance can occur. Note that the phrase “close to one another” is
used: XT and XC do not have to be exactly equal. The rule of thumb is if the
reactance ratio (XC/XT) is anywhere from 0.1 to 10, distribution ferroresonance
problems may occur. Ferroresonance problems are more likely if the reactance
ratio is 1.0, where XC and XT are equal. If the reactance ratio is well toward 0.1
or well toward 10 the worst that could happen may only be slight overvoltages to
the transformer. However, if the reactance ratio is close to 1.0 a transformer
could be exposed to voltages up to six times the normal value.
An additional complication to the magnitude of the series inductance is the iron-
core nature of a transformer’s inductance. The steady state (normal conditions) The transformer’s
value of the transformer’s inductance may yield an XC/XT ratio that is well below inductance reduces
due to transformer
0.1. This value of reactance ratio means that the likelihood of experiencing a saturation.
ferroresonance problem is very low. However, if a sudden voltage rise occurs,
such as may happen during switching, the transformer inductance may reduce to a
low enough value that the reactance ratio rises until it is close to 1.0. At this new
reactance ratio, the possibility of damaging ferroresonance is very high.

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Figure 9-25 illustrates a 3Φ distribution system. The load is to the right of a wye-
delta transformer. The transformer is fed from the overhead system via an
underground cable. Each phase is individually switched. The dotted lines for
shunt capacitors simulate the cable’s natural capacitance, which is relatively high
in underground cables. Notice how this line charging is in shunt or parallel with
the distribution line. As long as the capacitance is in parallel, ferroresonance is
not a concern.

Figure 9-25. One-Line for Distribution Ferroresonance

Initially, all three phases are open. When all three phases are open there is no
source voltage so there can be no ferroresonance. In addition, there is no load
connected to the transformer. If load were connected to the low side of the
transformer, the probability of ferroresonance is reduced.
Figure 9-26 is a simplified sketch of the circuit in Figure 9-25 after the phase “C”
fused switch is closed. The left side of Figure 9-26 is easily derived from Figure
9-25. The right side of Figure 9-26 utilizes basic circuit theory to further simplify
the left side impedance diagram. Note how the source, portions of the
transformer (represented by XT), and portions of the cable’s shunt capacitance are
now in series. If the XC and XT values are reasonably close to one another the
reactance ratio may fall between 0.1 and 10 and ferroresonance conditions could
develop. The closer XC and XT are to one another the higher the chances of
ferroresonance and the more damage to the transformer due to high voltages.

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Figure 9-26. Electrical Circuit With Phase “C” Closed

Figure 9-27 is a simplified sketch of the circuit in Figure 9-25 with both phases
“B” & “C” closed. The right side of the figure is a simplification of the
impedance diagram on the left side. The source, transformer, and capacitance are
still in series. The magnitudes of the inductance and capacitance are different
because two phases are closed. The severity of the ferroresonance may be worse
with either one or two phases closed depending on the relative size of the XC and
XT values.
Once the third phase is closed, the possibility of ferroresonance is eliminated.
Ferroresonance can only occur if a series capacitance (the open-ended cable) is
hanging off the transformer. Once the third phase is closed, there is no series
capacitance tied to the transformer.
Typically, when a distribution system ferroresonance condition occurs it is
triggered by a switching transient such as the closing or opening of a 1Φ switch. An identical
When a switching transient occurs the distribution transformer may be exposed to switching sequence
a large overvoltage. This voltage spike can saturate the transformer and may initiate
ferroresonance on
substantially reduce its inductance. The inductance may be reduced enough to one occasion but
increase the reactance ratio to a value between 0.1 and 10 and initiate not on a second
ferroresonance. This variable nature of the iron-core transformer inductance occasion.
means that a system may not be susceptible to ferroresonance during normal
conditions but may enter into a period of ferroresonance due to a switching
transient or other abnormal event.

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Figure 9-27. Electrical Circuit With Phases “B” & “C” Closed

Preventing Distribution System Ferroresonance

There are several methods and procedures available to reduce the chances of
distribution system ferroresonance occurring. The most common methods are
briefly described below:
Î Keep the reactance ratio (XC/XT) higher than 10. If this ratio is normally
higher than 10 then the reduction in XT caused by an overvoltage
condition will only make the reactance ratio greater and ferroresonance
less likely. Typically, this is an impractical solution because the
reactance ratio is determined by system design and not by an operating
action. For example, the XC value is determined by the length, voltage,
and size of the underground cable and cannot be easily changed via
system operator actions.
Î Use 3Φ switching instead of 1Φ switching. Ferroresonance is minimized
if all phase conductors are switched rapidly. 3Φ switching avoids
hanging an energized 1Φ cable off a transformer. Again, this is usually
impractical because installing all 3Φ distribution switches would be very
expensive.
Î Instead of switching at the source end of the underground cable, switch at
the transformer end. Then by using proper switching sequences a
switchman can avoid hanging an energized, open-ended cable off the
transformer. This method may be practical in some situations.

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While energizing
Î Energize or de-energize the transformer with resistive load attached to a transformer
the secondary winding. The secondary resistive load will appear to be with load
much larger in the primary and damp out any ferroresonance condition attached
that develops. Generally, a resistive load of 10% of the transformer kVA minimizes
ferroresonance,
rating is adequate to prevent sustained ferroresonance. it also exposes
Î Use a grounded-wye winding connection for the primary winding. This the customer to
type of winding offers a parallel path to the line’s natural capacitance for a disturbance.
current flow.
Î Examples of distribution transformer connections which will reduce the
likelihood of ferroresonance occurring are:
— Grounded Wye - Grounded Wye
— Grounded Wye - Wye
— Grounded Vee - Open Delta (2Φ connections)
Figure 9-28 summarizes methods used to avoid ferroresonance in the distribution
system.

Figure 9-28. Methods of Preventing Distribution Ferroresonance

9.5.4 Ferroresonance in a Transmission Substation

Example of Transmission System Ferroresonance Corona rings are

rings of light
A short, open-ended 345 kV line is attached to a substation as illustrated in surrounding
Figure 9-29. When the switchmen at substation “A” opened the last 345 kV energized power
circuit breaker to drop line “A-B”, the switchmen at substation “B” made several system equipment.
interesting observations. The switchmen noticed that line “A-B” potential lights - The rings are due
- which should have been off - were glowing brightly. In addition, when the to the electric field
of the energized
switchmen looked at the jaws of the line switch at the open end of line “A-B” equipment.
bright corona rings were observed.

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Figure 9-29. One-Line for Transmission System Ferroresonance

Both of these observations indicated that the line must still be energized.
However, the two breakers at the source end (substation “A”) of the line were
definitely open. The potential lights and the corona rings did not disappear until
the motor operated breaker disconnects at the source end of the line were opened.
Subsequently, an inspection of substation “A” revealed that the iron-core PT for
line “A-B” had ruptured. The substation crews did not realize it at the time but
this was an example of ferroresonance in the transmission system.

Explanation of Transmission System Ferroresonance

Not all transmission substations are susceptible to ferroresonance. It depends on
the type of equipment used in the substation and how this equipment is arranged.
The key factors that led to the ferroresonance condition described above were:
Î Line A-B was very short. This produced a value of capacitance that
could result in ferroresonance. If the line was significantly longer the
capacitance value would have been incorrect to result in ferroresonance.
PTs are often Î PTs (potential transformers) with iron-cores rather than CCVTs
preferred over
(capacitively coupled voltage transformers) were used to obtain line
CCVTs as they tend
to more accurately potentials. The use of PTs provided an iron-core inductance. If CCVTs
measure voltage had been used instead, ferroresonance would not have occurred.
values.
Î The SF6 circuit breakers that are used in the substation of Figure 9-29
often incorporate multi-break contacts. Multi-break contacts separate the
circuit arc into several sections to assist with extinguishing the arc.
These circuit breakers use grading capacitors parallel to their contacts to
equalize the voltage across the contact prior to interruption. Figure 9-30
illustrates this type of circuit breaker contact. The use of this type circuit
breaker provided the capacitance required for ferroresonance.

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Figure 9-30. One-Line for Transmission System Ferroresonance

Figure 9-31 is a one-line diagram for the circuit of Figure 9-29 after the line
circuit breakers (PCB #1 & #2) are opened. The capacitive reactance of the
multi-break contacts, XCG, is shown in series with the source voltage. The
capacitive reactance value, XCS, represents the capacitance to ground of the
open-ended line plus other natural substation capacitance. The inductive
reactance value, XT, is the iron-core inductance of the PT. The R value represents
any series resistance that exists in the circuit.
The capacitive reactance values, XCG and XCS, must be near the correct size and
ratio to achieve series resonance and to properly divide the source voltage:
Î The ratio of XCG to XCS must be within a certain range to initiate
saturation of the iron-core PT. Note in Figure 9-31 that XCG and XCS
form a capacitive voltage divider circuit. Their relative magnitudes must
be such that the voltage drop across XCS is large enough to saturate the
PT.
Î The magnitude of the equivalent capacitance (formed by XCG and XCS)
must be near the magnitude of XT. The equivalent capacitance and XT
will form the capacitive and inductive legs of the series resonance circuit.

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Figure 9-31. Equivalent One-Line of Figure 9-29

When the last circuit breaker was opened the circuit of Figure 9-31 was
established. To simplify our illustration, ignore the XCS leg. The circuit is now a
simple “R-L-C” series resonant circuit. The source voltage, VSOURCE, supplies 60
HZ energy to the “R-L-C” circuit. The opening of the last breaker produced a
voltage spike that saturated the iron-core PT. The iron-core inductance reduced to
a value at which ferroresonance could occur. An oscillating current at a
resonance frequency determined by the circuit’s inductance (XT), and capacitance
(XCG) values developed in the circuit. This current resulted in an oscillating
component of voltage across the PT.

Coupled and Oscillating Components

The overvoltages that appear across the PT during a ferroresonance event can be
viewed as a summation of two separate components; a coupled component and an
oscillating component. The coupled component is that portion of the 60 HZ
source voltage which continues to provide energy to the circuit. The magnitude
of the coupled component that appears across the PT is a function of the
capacitive voltage divider circuit that was illustrated in Figure 9-31.
The oscillating component results from the series resonant circuit between XT and
XCG. The oscillating component will only sustain itself if the coupled component
provides enough energy to replace losses. Ferroresonance studies have proven
that the oscillating component will sustain itself only at certain frequencies.
These frequencies are the fundamental (60 HZ) or an even subharmonic
frequency such as 20 or 12 HZ.
Figure 9-32 is a plot of an actual 20 HZ ferroresonance event. This figure is a
plot of the voltage that appeared across a PT. Note the 20 and 60 HZ components
of the ferroresonant voltage. The 20 HZ is the oscillating component while the 60
HZ is the coupled component.

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Figure 9-32. Ferroresonance Voltage Waveform

The end result, if a sustained ferroresonance condition does occur, is possibly
large current oscillations. These large current oscillations will lead to high
voltages within the substation and force high magnitudes of current through the
PTs. Lightning arresters may operate or be damaged, protective relays may
falsely operate, insulation damage could occur, and PTs may experience thermal
damage. The PT in this example failed due to thermal overload.

Preventing Transmission System Ferroresonance

The substation described in this example of transmission system ferroresonance
was susceptible to ferroresonance due to the substation configuration and the
length of the transmission line that was open-ended. If the transmission line had
been longer or if a power transformer had been connected directly to Bus #1 of
Figure 9-29, ferroresonance may not have occurred. The longer line or presence
of a large power transformer may have changed the relationship between the
circuit’s capacitance and inductance enough to avoid ferroresonance.
If we assume that the substation design is fixed and there are no switching options
available, there is one commonly used method for reducing the impact of
ferroresonance. Utilities can add resistance to the system to dampen the
ferroresonance current oscillations. If enough resistance is added, a utility can
prevent ferroresonance entirely. There is, however, a limit to the amount of
resistance that can be safely added since adding resistance will cause losses and
could lead to thermal problems.

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Resistance could be added to the actual high voltage circuit. This method could
in theory be used to eliminate ferroresonance but it is not practical. The large
high voltage resistance would be expensive and would likely cause more
problems than it solves including thermal and system stability difficulties. A
better method is to add resistance to a PT secondary circuit.
The resistor need
only be connected in For example, the PT circuits in Figure 9-29 could be equipped with a delta-
the PT secondary connected secondary winding as illustrated in Figure 9-33. A small resistance of
when the last
several ohms would be tied in the delta secondary. This resistance would be
substation breaker
is opened. Control reflected through to the primary based on the square of the turns-ratio of the PT.
schemes are used to This method of reducing the impact of ferroresonance is commonly applied in
switch in the high voltage substations.
resistor only when
needed.

Figure 9-33. Resistor in a Delta Connected Secondary

9.6 Geomagnetic Disturbances

9.6.1 Introduction to Geomagnetic Disturbances

GMDs are also Geomagnetic disturbances (GMDs) are naturally occurring phenomena that have
called Solar caused severe operating problems for power systems. GMDs are disturbances to
Magnetic
the earth’s magnetic field that are a consequence of energy disturbances on the
disturbances or
SMDs. NERC sun. When solar (sun) disturbances occur, currents may be induced in the earth’s
prefers the usage surface. The currents can work their way into telecommunication and utility
of the term GMD. power systems. Earth surface currents are the primary utility hazard from GMDs.

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Brief History of GMDs

Throughout history there are instances where man has recorded the effects of
GMDs. The beautiful light shows that occur in northern latitudes (aurora borealis
or the northern lights) and southern latitudes (aurora australis) have long
fascinated man. These light shows are a consequence of GMDs. Figure 9-34
contains a photograph of the northern lights.

Figure 9-34. Photograph of the Northern Lights

During this hour
The first well documented instance in which GMDs disrupted utility systems long 1859
occurred in the mid-1800s when many countries in the world reported telegraph incident, Mr. G.
system misoperations. A telegraph engineer monitoring one GMD occurrence in B. Prescott, an
engineer with
1859 noted that the telegraph system continued operating even though its voltage American
source was disconnected. From the 1940s to the present electric utilities have Telegraph Co.,
reported strange happenings that were likely the result of GMDs. Initially, these noted that the
events were relatively minor problems such as blown distribution fuses or telegraph
unexplained tripping of small transformers. operated “with
the aid of celestial
Our perception of GMDs causing only minor power system problems ended in the batteries alone”.
spring of 1989. Early on the morning of March 13, 1989, a GMD occurred that
blacked out the entire Canadian province of Quebec. Over 21,000 MW of load
suffered an extended outage including the major cities of Quebec and Montreal.
(This incident is described in greater detail in Section 9.6.10.)
The GMD of March 13, 1989, served the useful purpose of alerting power system The eleven year
cycle is an
operators to the possible impact of GMDs. Utilities throughout the world have average number.
studied GMD effects. Power system design changes and operating guidelines Some cycles last
have been implemented to limit the damage caused by the unavoidable occurrence nine years and
of GMDs. some thirteen.

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9.6.2 Sunspots
The sun is 93,000,000 miles away from earth. Scientists throughout the world
still do not understand the mechanics of the sun’s operation. Scientists have for
hundreds of years observed sunspots, which appear from earth to be small dark
spots on the surface of the sun. Little is known about these sunspots except that
they indicate areas of intense solar activity.
Sunspots are indicators of several types of energy disturbances on the surface of
the sun. The types of solar disturbances include solar flares (analogous to lighting
storms on the earth) and coronal mass ejections (analogous to hurricanes on the
earth). These disturbances are solar energy storms, which eject charged particles
from the surface of the sun into the surrounding inter-planetary space. After one
to six days a portion of these charged particles will reach the earth’s outer
atmosphere.

Cyclic Sunspot Activity

Figure 9-35 is a chart of the monthly sunspot activity that has been recorded over
the last 110 years. Notice that the average monthly count of sunspots follows an
approximate eleven-year cycle. For example, in 1987 the average monthly
number of recorded sunspots was very low, approximately 10-15. Eleven years
later, 1999, the average monthly number of sunspots was much higher, over 100.
Each eleven-year sunspot cycle is given a number for record keeping purposes. In
2008 cycle #23 was completed and cycle #24 began. Utilizing newly developed
tools, scientists have predicted that cycle #24 will be unusually fierce!

Figure 9-35. Monthly Sunspot Count 1900 – Present

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9.6.3 The Solar Wind

Even during normal periods the sun is constantly pushing a stream of charged
particles (electrons and protons) towards the earth. This stream of charged
particles is called the solar wind. The solar wind is equivalent to current flow as
current flow is the movement of electron charge. When the solar wind
The circulating
approaches the earth it encounters the earth’s magnetic field. The earth’s currents above the
magnetic field channels the charged particles towards the earth’s magnetic poles. earth’s poles are
(Figure 9-36 illustrates this concept.) The charged particles of the solar wind end called
up as a current circulating in a donut shaped path about 60 miles above the poles “electrojets”.
of the earth. Scientists refer to this donut shaped flow of current as an electrojet.
Our major concern
Electrojet current magnitudes can reach into the millions of amperes. is with the impact of
Normally, the electrojets circulating above the earth’s poles are of minor GMDs on power
systems. Our
consequence. As the currents strike particles in the earth’s atmosphere, lights concentration will
are emitted which are called the aurora borealis (northern lights) and the aurora therefore be on the
australis (southern lights). The lights are attractive displays but cause no electrojet
disruption to the power system. However, when abnormally high solar storm circulating about
activity occurs, the magnitude of the solar wind may increase. The electrojet the north magnetic
pole and ignore the
current level may also increase. South Pole.
The increased electrojet current levels result in brilliant displays of the northern
lights. If the electrojets move down into more southern latitudes (which they
sometimes do) the northern lights may become visible even to people in the
southern U.S. and the Caribbean. The high magnitudes of circulating current also
significantly disrupt the earth’s magnetic field. Geomagnetic disturbances or
GMDs are the name given to these disturbances to the earth’s magnetic field. As
the electrojets circulate above the earth they induce current flows into the surface
of the earth. These induced currents are the cause of most utility system GMD
problems.

Figure 9-36. Solar Wind and Earth Currents

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Solar Activity versus GMD Occurrence

Periods of increased solar storm activity are not directly related to the strength
of the GMDs that cause disruptions to the earth’s utility systems. For example,
Figure 9-35 indicates that 1991 was a peak year for solar activity but it was not
a peak year for earth GMD activity.
Recent research has uncovered a strong link between the polarity of the solar
wind and resultant GMD activity. Scientists have determined that the solar wind
possesses its own magnetic field. If the solar wind’s magnetic field is in
alignment with the earth’s magnetic field little GMD activity occurs. However,
if the solar wind’s magnetic field is in opposition to the earth’s magnetic field,
major geomagnetic activity is likely to occur. Typically peak years of GMD
activity lag behind peak years of solar storm activity by about three years.
This does not mean that we can accurately forecast peak years of GMD activity.
Past experience has demonstrated that GMDs can occur at any time (recall the
March 13, 1989, GMD). The forecasted peak years are simply when current
scientific knowledge expects heavier GMD activity.

9.6.4 ESPs & GICs

In Section 9.6.3 solar energy disturbances were related to the occurrence of
GMDs on the earth. The means by which GMDs cause havoc within electric
power systems is via currents that are induced in the surface of the earth.
The electrojets that circulate about the north magnetic pole of the earth may
increase in magnitude and move southward when the solar wind increases in
magnitude and possesses the correct magnetic polarity. Visualize large
magnitudes of current circulating above the earth’s surface. The current
magnitudes in the electrojet are not steady but fluctuate, similar to a low
frequency AC current. The changing current magnitudes result in the creation
of a changing magnetic field. As this alternating magnetic field links the surface
of the earth it induces voltages in the earth’s surface. Figure 9-37 illustrates the
process.

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Figure 9-37. Creation of Earth Surface Potentials

Earth Surface Potentials

The voltages that are induced on the surface of the earth are called earth surface
potentials or ESPs. The magnitude of the induced voltages will depend on the
physical location on the earth. The greater ESPs will, in general, occur in
northern areas since these areas are closer to the electrojets circulating about the
earth’s north magnetic pole.
Factors such as rocky soil or the presence of bodies of water also play an
important role in the magnitude of the ESPs. The impact of location and the
geography of the earth will be described in greater detail in Section 9.6.5.

Geomagnetic Induced Currents

Since the electrojet current magnitude is continually fluctuating, different
magnitudes of ESPs will be induced in different locations on the earth. This
results in potential differences between points on the earth’s surface. The
potential differences will lead to the flow of low frequency currents
(approximately 0.01 HZ) called geomagnetic induced currents or GICs. The
amount of GIC that flows in the earth’s surface is not related to the magnitude of
a specific ESP but rather to the difference in the magnitudes of ESPs between two
locations. The larger the potential difference, the more current will flow. When
ESP values are reported they are listed as voltage differences per mile. For
example, a very severe GMD may cause ESPs of 10 volts/mile.
Assume that a GMD occurs and causes an ESP of 10 volts/mile to be developed
over a 10 mile stretch as illustrated in Figure 9-38. If the average resistance of the
earth between the two points were measured to be 0.1Ω per mile then the amount
of GIC would be 100 amps as calculated in Figure 9-38. This current flows in the
surface of the earth. As long as this current stays in the earth it is not harmful to
power systems. The trouble begins when the current somehow enters the power
system.

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Figure 9-38. Geomagnetic Induced Currents

9.6.5 Factors that Influence the Impact of GMDs

The severity of the effects of GMDs varies depending on the utility's physical
location on the earth. This section will describe how geography impacts GMDs.
If GICs only circulated in the earth’s surface there would be little impact on the
power system. Unfortunately, the GICs can enter into the power system. This
section will also describe how GICs work their way into the power system.

Role of Geography in Magnitude of ESPs & GICs

There are two primary geographical factors that affect the magnitude of the ESPs
and GICs:
Î Latitude
Î Earth resistivity
Individually these factors will impact the level of GMD effects. The factors must
be taken together to determine an area’s overall susceptibility to GMDs.

Latitude
Positions on the earth are pinpointed with latitude and longitude measurements.
Latitude indicates how far north or south a position is relative to the equator.
GMD activity is typically confined to northern latitudes since these areas are
closest to the electrojets circulating about the north magnetic pole. In general,
Canadian utilities are more impacted by GMDs than U.S. utilities. This is due to
the northern latitudes of Canadian utility service territories.

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However, latitude is not everything. A utility’s proximity to the earth’s magnetic

poles is equally important. For example, the utilities in the northeast U.S. are
strongly impacted by GMDs. This is not simply due to their northern latitudes
but to a peculiarity of the earth’s magnetic field. The North Pole of the earth’s
magnetic field is not located at the geographic North Pole but rather at the
magnetic North Pole. The magnetic North Pole location is variable and is
currently north of eastern Canada moving in a northwest direction at about 25
miles per year. The location of the magnetic North Pole creates a tilt in the
earth’s magnetic axis. This tilt places the northeastern U. S. about 600 miles
closer to the earth’s northern magnetic pole than any other area of the U.S.

Earth Resistivity
When large magnitudes of current are circulating about the earth’s surface,
changes occur to the earth’s magnetic field and ESPs are created. The magnitudes
of the ESPs that develop depend on the positions proximity to the north magnetic
pole and on the type of soil contained in the area. Soils with very low resistance
will change their ESP magnitudes very slowly. For example, a large area with a
low resistance soil may only develop an ESP of ½ volt per mile. As long as the
potential difference between two points within an area remains small the
magnitudes of the resulting GICs will remain small. Low resistance soils limit the
size of the ESP and reduce the impact of GMDs.
In contrast, high resistance soils increase the potential differences across the
earth’s surface and lead to increased magnitudes of ESP. The GICs that flow in
high resistance soils are more likely to enter the power system since they see the
power system as a more attractive current path than the high impedance earth.
Many sections of the earth are formed of rock that was the result of long ago
volcanic eruptions. Rock from volcanic origins is called igneous rock. Igneous
rock has a high resistivity. Areas of the earth that contain igneous rock will be
more prone to damaging GMD. Figure 9-39 illustrates those areas of North
America that contain igneous rock.

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Figure 9-39. Igneous Rock Locations in North America

Remember that the presence of igneous rock alone does not guarantee damaging
GMD effects. For example, as illustrated in Figure 9-39, there is a large section
of igneous rock in Mexico. Someone may (falsely) assume this area will
experience high magnitudes of GIC during a GMD. However, Mexico is so far
south that the GMD would have to be extremely powerful before any significant
GICs developed.
An additional geographic feature related to earth resistivity is the presence of
large bodies of water. Water, especially salt water, is a relatively good conductor
with a much lower resistivity than soil. As the electrojets circulate above the
oceans ESPs will be induced in the water. The ESPs may not be that large but the
GICs produced by the ESPs will be large. The GICs are large because water is a
good conductor and has low impedance.
Note the location of the large areas of igneous rock in Figure 9-39. Two large
igneous rock areas are along the east and west coasts of North America. These
igneous rock areas with high resistivity border salt water areas with large GICs.
When the GICs from the oceans approach the igneous rock coast they are
presented with a high impedance path. The GICs will search for alternative paths.
Often the alternative path is into coastal power systems.

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To conclude this brief description of the geography of GMDs; those areas of the
earth that are most prone to GMD effects are northern areas that contain igneous
rock and are bordered by large water bodies. The northeast coast of North
America fits this description well. This does not mean that only the northeast
coast will experience GMD activity. What this means is that the northeast coast
will be more likely to experience GMD activity than, for example, Iowa or Texas.
GMDs have caused problems in Minnesota even though there is no salt water in
the area. Minnesota is situated in a northern area, the earth in this region is often
igneous rock, and the area contains large bodies of water.

9.6.6 GIC Entry to the Power System

Figure 9-40 reviews how ESPs can lead to the flow of GICs in the surface of the
earth. One other set of features is also shown in Figure 9-40. Note the presence
of the grounded neutrals of power system transformers. Power system ground
points are the interconnection between the power system and the surface of the
earth. The GIC currents flowing in the earth’s surface see the power system’s
ground points as an alternative path in which to flow. If the impedance offered
by the combination of the grounded neutral and transmission line is lower than
the earth’s impedance a portion of the GIC will enter the power system.
GICs can enter the power system via any ground point. However, some of the Capacitors present
ground points will have very high impedance and very little GIC will flow high impedance to
through the point. For example, shunt capacitors present very high impedance to low frequency GICs.
GIC flow while the solidly grounded neutral of a transformer presents very low
impedance.
(Figure 9-40 follows on the next page.)

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Figure 9-40. Flow of GIC

The flow of GIC in
a delta/grounded- Figure 9-41 illustrates two types of transformers in a simple power system.
wye transformer is One of the transformers is a delta/grounded-wye while the second is an
similar to the flow autotransformer. GIC can only enter the grounded-wye leg of the delta/grounded-
of ground fault wye transformer. GIC cannot enter into the delta winding since there is no
current.
Protection
ground current path. Once the GIC enters the grounded-wye winding it will flow
engineers say a across the transmission line toward the autotransformer. The GIC can flow
delta connected anywhere in the power system in which a ground path exists.
winding blocks the
flow of the ground As an example of when the GIC current path into transformers is important, think
fault current. GIC of the step-up banks on generators. Generator step-up banks are almost always
current behaves in wound as delta on the generator side and grounded-wye on the system side. GIC
a similar manner currents flowing in the power system cannot enter into the generator system. This
to ground fault
current.
helps avoid generator related GIC effects although it does not totally isolate the
generators from GMD problems.

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Figure 9-41. GIC Entry to Power System

Figure 9-42 is a summary of GIC creation and impact on the power system. Once
in the system, GICs can cause extensive damage. The next section describes the
possible impact of GMDs.
(Figure 9-42 follows on the next page.)

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Figure 9-42. Summary of GIC Creation and Entry to Power System

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9.6.7 Impact of GMDs

When GICs flow in the earth’s surface, they enter the power system via grounded
points. GICs can cause severe operating consequences including shunt capacitor
tripping, false relay operations, and destruction of transformers. This section
briefly describes the effects of GICs on the power system.

Effects on Power Transformers

A power transformer is designed to convert a primary voltage to a secondary
voltage. The transformer performs this function via an alternating magnetic field
that is purposely designed to be confined in the core of the transformer. The
alternating magnetic field in the core links the primary winding to the secondary
winding and allows the voltage transformation. The current required to support or
excite the core’s magnetic field is called the transformer’s exciting current.
As long as the transformer operates within the normal operating region of its
saturation curve the excitation current will be low (a few amps) and the magnetic
field of the transformer will be confined to the core area. If the transformer
operates outside the normal operating area (to points “D” or “E” in Figure 9-43)
the excitation current can grow rapidly to a very large magnitude. The magnetic
field of the transformer then spreads to areas of the transformer not designed for
magnetic fields. These areas include the transformer metal tank and winding
supports.
Figure 9-43 contains a sketch of a transformer’s saturation curve. This curve
illustrates the exciting current required for the transformer’s core with different
voltages applied to the transformer. In normal use, the transformer is designed to
operate within the straight region of the curve. As the source alternating voltage
oscillates between its positive and negative peak values the transformer will slide
up and down the straight region of the saturation curve between points “B” and
“C”. The transformer oscillates within the straight region of the saturation curve
centered about point “A” in between points “B” and “C”.
When an alternating magnetic field exists around a conducting medium, currents
are induced. When the transformer’s magnetic field spreads out of the core and
into the tank, currents are induced in the tank’s metal components. These
currents, called eddy currents, cause I2R losses and can lead to high temperatures
within the transformer.
When a transformer operates outside the straight region of its saturation curve the
transformer is saturated. The danger of a saturated transformer is primarily from
the excess heat created by the stray currents flowing outside the core and the heat
generated by the high excitation current. This excess heat can lead to gas
formation in transformer oil, tank paint blistering, charred insulation, and in
extreme examples, even the melting of a transformer's copper windings.

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Figure 9-43. Transformer Saturation Curve

When a transformer saturates the excitation current rises sharply. The excitation
current is a lagging reactive current. An increase in the excitation current usage
of a transformer may be noticed as an increase in the Mvar usage of the
transformer. A badly saturated transformer may increase its Mvar usage by a
factor of 50. For example, in normal operation a 3Φ - 600 MVA transformer may
use 2 Mvar but when saturated its reactive power usage may jump to 100 Mvar.
This increase in Mvar usage can lead to system reactive power deficiencies, low
voltage problems, and a possible voltage collapse
The excitation current drawn by a saturated transformer is not a pure 60 HZ sine
wave. The excitation current is a distorted sine wave. This means that harmonics
are created in the power system. The harmonics can lead to false relay operations
and possible damage to rotating equipment and other types of customer load.
The most troublesome consequence of GMD activity is the saturation of power
transformers. GICs are DC like currents that flow in the earth’s surface. The
GICs flow up into transformers that are equipped with grounded neutrals. If the
GICs are large enough they shift the normal operating point of the transformer
from point “A” in Figure 9-43 up toward point “X”. Now as the voltage oscillates
about point “X” the transformer is saturated for most of the positive half cycle of
the voltage wave. This effect is appropriately called half-cycle saturation.
Figure 9-44 contains a plot of the excitation current that is normally drawn by a
large power transformer and the excitation current drawn during saturated

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operations. Note that normally the bank uses just a few amperes to excite its
magnetic core. During saturated operations the excitation current rises to a peak
of 300 amperes. Remember this excitation current is primarily a reactive current
so when saturated this transformer uses a large amount of Mvar.

Figure 9-44. Excitation Current During Normal & Saturated

Operations
Not all types of transformers are subject to saturation from GICs. If the
transformer does not have a grounded-wye winding, the GICs cannot get into the
transformer. In addition, different transformer core designs can be used to avoid
saturation even if the transformer is a grounded-wye. Figure 9-45 lists various
transformer designs and their likelihood of saturation due to GICs.

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Figure 9-45. Transformer Susceptibility to GIC Induced Saturation

Effects on Shunt Capacitors

In Section 9.3 the use of filters to absorb harmonics from the power system was
described. A filter is formed of a combination of capacitors, resistors, and
inductors. Filters are tuned to absorb a specific harmonic or a range of harmonic
frequencies. Shunt capacitors that are installed in the power system for voltage
control also act like filters. These capacitors are normally not tuned to any
particular frequency; rather the capacitors act like filters to any frequencies that
are well above 60 HZ. The higher the frequency of the harmonic, the lower the
impedance the capacitor presents.
Capacitor banks When high levels of GICs flow in transformer neutrals, some transformers will
may not be saturate. These transformers now serve as sources of harmonic currents. Local
grounded. Some grounded shunt capacitor banks absorb these harmonic currents. If the harmonic
capacitors are current magnitudes are large enough the capacitor’s protection could assume that
connected in a
delta. the high current levels represent abnormal conditions and trip the capacitor bank.
The tripping of shunt capacitor banks during GMDs is a common occurrence. If
the utility has sufficient reactive reserve the trips will not be significant.
However, if the utility has a deficiency of reactive reserve the loss of a large
number of shunt capacitors could be damaging. The Hydro Quebec GMD related
blackout of 1989 was triggered by the loss of SVCs. Harmonic currents in the
system led to the tripping of the grounded shunt capacitor components of the
SVCs.
Protective relay manufacturers have designed relay packages for capacitor banks
that are immune to harmonic currents. These protection packages are applied if
the utility has a good reason to believe that the false tripping of the shunt
capacitor could lead to system reliability concerns.

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Effects on Generators
Utility generators are normally connected to the power system using
delta/grounded-wye step-up transformers. This type of transformer connection
prevents GICs from entering the generator since there is no ground current path
through a delta connection. However, high levels of GIC in the step-up bank may
cause the transformer to saturate. Severe levels of transformer saturation can
damage the step-up transformer as was experienced at a northeast U.S. nuclear
plant during the intense GMD of March 1989. Saturation will also create
harmonic currents, which can work their way into the generator.
Generators are not designed to carry harmonic currents. The high frequency
currents may create magnetic field components, which spread to areas of the
generator that are not designed for the resulting current flows. Thermal damage
may result. A typical generator protection package will not detect low levels of
harmonic current. The generator could be exposed to these harmonic currents for
long periods of time without any relay protection.
In addition to thermal damage, there are two additional concerns if the generator
step-up transformer saturates and becomes a source of harmonics. When
transformers saturate 2ND and 3RD order harmonic currents are produced. The
generator may enter a condition called supersynchronous resonance. This
condition could result in damaging shaft torques.
The final concern involves a generator’s excitation system. High speed excitation
systems are designed to rapidly detect and correct variations in the generator’s
terminal voltage. A large harmonic current content will lead to harmonic voltage
variations. The voltage regulator/exciter system may falsely respond to harmonic
voltage components. This may lead to fundamental frequency voltage control
problems.

Reactive Power Reserves

When the loss of shunt capacitor banks is combined with the loss of generators
and the increased Mvar usage of transformers, a probable result is voltage control
problems. A major consequence of GMDs is voltage control problems. There is
a possibility that if a GMD occurs at the right time, voltage instability and
collapse could result. Utility operating guidelines during GMDs should address
the need to carry sufficient reactive power (especially dynamic) reserves.

Effects on Protective Relays

Protective relay systems can be impacted by high GMD activity in two general
ways. The first possibility involves relay instrument transformers and the second
possibility involves harmonics.
Protective relays use current transformers (CTs) to gather system current flow
data. GICs can saturate CTs in the same manner as power transformers. The
secondary current levels of the CTs then may not accurately represent the primary

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quantities. False relay operation could follow. With high levels of GICs the CTs
themselves may suffer thermal failures.
Protective relays are designed to monitor a quantity such as current and trip if the
quantity maintains a set level for a set period. Protective relays may respond to
harmonic components in a similar manner as they respond to fundamental
components. For example, an electro-mechanical overcurrent relay's induction
disk unit may rotate just enough due to harmonic currents that its contacts close
and a false trip occurs.
The impact of harmonics is more severe on solid-state relays. One of the
advantages of solid-state relays is their rapid response time. Solid-state relays are
fast enough that they may respond to rapidly varying harmonic voltages or
currents and falsely trip. Relay manufacturers have designed relay packages that
are relatively immune or hardened to harmonics. Utilities may choose to utilize
these relays if the possible harm to the system justifies the extra cost.

Effects on Telecommunications Systems

Some forms of telecommunication systems are susceptible to GICs. If the
telecommunication system is dependent on a wire path, the GIC currents flowing
in the ground may induce currents in the wire conductors. This can lead to a
failure of the telecommunication system or the transmittal of false information.
For example, pilot wire relay systems are often dependent on wire communication
paths. These paths could fail or transmit false information due to GICs.
Telephone systems are often dependent on wire paths. These systems could fail
due to the presence of GICs.

GICs & Modern Power Systems

Recent years have seen an intense interest in the cause, effects, and control of
GMDs. This increased interest is likely due to the realization that GMDs can
black-out an entire power system as was proven on March 13, 1989. If modern
power systems are compared to those of the past the following points can be made
that at least partially account for our increased susceptibility to GMD activity.
Î Modern power lines are much longer and built at higher voltages with
larger conductors than in the past. When ESPs are created in the earth's
surface, these longer lines cross greater potential differences and the GIC
current paths have lower impedance. Both factors lead to larger GIC
flows in the line conductors and through transformer neutrals.
Î Modern power systems are often operated with decreased reactive
reserve and system stability margins. Saturated transformers and tripped
capacitors can push a stressed power system over the edge and lead to
system separations and blackouts.
Î Modern power systems often incorporate sophisticated thyrister based
components such as HVDC systems and SVCs. These systems are often

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used to justify increased operating margins. Many of these systems

include components that are highly susceptible to GICs.
Î Modern systems use large 1Φ transformers more than in the past. 1Φ
banks are more susceptible to GICs than 3Φ banks.
Î Solid-state protective relay systems gained wide acceptance during the
1980s. These relays operate so rapidly that they may falsely trip during
the harmonic swings caused by GICs.
Î Modern power systems are highly dependent on sophisticated
telecommunication systems. Unfortunately, the telecommunication
systems themselves are highly susceptible to GMD related failures.

9.6.8 Controlling the Impact of GMDs

Methods are currently available or being planned for monitoring GMD activity.
This section will describe these methods. Several new methods for blocking the
flow of GIC currents are being evaluated by utilities. This section will also
describe GIC blocking schemes.

Blocking GICs in the Transformer Neutrals

A promising method for blocking the flow of GICs is illustrated in Figure 9-46.
The figure illustrates a path for GIC flow between a delta/grounded-wye
transformer and an autotransformer. The ESP between points “A” and “B” will
lead to a GIC circulating in the line between the transformers and also flowing
into the remainder of the system via the autotransformer secondary winding.

Figure 9-46. Use of Neutral Blocking Capacitors

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Note the series capacitors in the neutrals of the two transformers. The reactance
of a capacitor is inversely related to the frequency - the lower the frequency, the
higher the capacitive reactance. The capacitors in Figure 9-46 will block the GIC
flow since the GIC frequency is very low. These capacitors are referred to as
neutral blocking capacitors. Figure 9-47 illustrates possible connections for the
neutral blocking capacitor. The capacitors are placed in series in the neutrals of
the transformers. Neutral blocking capacitors are now installed on several utility
systems with GMD concerns.
There are difficulties associated with neutral blocking capacitor operation. One
reason for grounding transformers is to access a source of ground current during
system faults. The neutral blocking capacitors will reduce this current during
system transients. Also, the high currents associated with system transients could
lead to damaging levels of voltage across the capacitors. A combination of
operating procedures and protective devices may solve the problems with these
capacitors. The capacitors are only switched in when the probability of GICs is
high. The capacitors are also equipped with spark-gaps to short the capacitors out
if the neutral current magnitude is excessive.

Figure 9-47. Connection Diagram for Neutral Blocking Capacitor

Use of Series Capacitors

Transmission line series capacitors can also be used to block the flow of GICs.
Normally, series capacitors are used in the bulk power system to reduce the
transmission line’s inductive reactance and increase the line’s MW transfer
capability. These types of series capacitors have enough capacitive reactance
(measured in ohms) to compensate for a significant portion of the line’s natural
inductive reactance. For example, the series capacitors may provide 50% series

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compensation. Smaller size series capacitors can be used to block the flow of
GICs in transmission lines. These series capacitors would require small ohmic
values since they are not being used to cancel out the line’s reactance. The series
capacitors present high impedance to low frequency GIC and block its flow
through the transmission line. An eastern U.S. utility has installed series
capacitors for the purpose of blocking GIC.

GMD Warning Systems

Government agencies and utilities cooperate in various ways to classify GMD
activity and to distribute alerts of probable GMD activity. The primary methods
used to classify GMD activity are via distribution of indices of GMD activity.

KP and AP Indices
The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) operates
the Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC) which distributes several
measurements of solar and GMD activity. Two of these indices, Kp and Ap, are
commonly used by utilities as a measurement of the intensity of GMD activity.
The indices are both based on data gathered from Earth based equipment and data
from orbiting satellites.
Site specific “K”
The Kp index is a three-hour planet (p for planet) wide average of the magnitude and “A” indices
of the earth’s magnetic field. Measurements of Kp are taken at many observation are of more value
points from around the world. The values of Kp can range from 0 to 9. Kp values to individual
toward the low end (0-1-2) indicate little GMD activity while a value from 7 to 9 utilities as the
impact of GMDs
indicates severe GMD activity. (The March 13, 1989, GMD had Kp values varies widely
ranging from 8 to 9.) depending on
location.
The Ap index is a 24 hour planet wide average of GMD activity that is derived
from the same data used to compute the Kp index values. Ap values can range
from 0 to 400. Values toward the low end indicate low levels of GMD activity
during the past 24 hours while values toward the 400 end indicate high levels of
GMD activity during the past 24 hours. (The March 13, 1989, Hydro Quebec
disturbance had an Ap value of 248.)
The SWPC also issues GMD warnings. The GMD warnings are similar to Natural Resources
weather forecasting. The agency tries to predict the occurrence of GMD Canada provides a
similar form (to
activity. Automatic message distribution systems have been setup by SWPC and SWPC) of GMD
NERC to ensure that utilities are notified if a Kp value of 7 or greater is predicted activity notification.
to occur.
Figure 9-48 summarizes NERC guidance on the significance of the K and A
indices. NERC requires that the Reliability Coordinators establish notification
systems so they keep their Transmission Operators and Balancing Authorities
informed of actual and possible GMD activity. These requirements are stated in
the NERC Reliability Standards.

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Values of A & K Indices

GMD Activity
Quiet A < 7, usually no K-indices > 2
Unsettled 7 < A < 15, usually no K-indices > 3
Active 15 < A < 30, a few K-indices of 4
Minor geomagnetic storm 30 < A < 50, K-indices mostly 4 and 5
Major geomagnetic storm 50 < A < 100, K-indices mostly 5 and 6
Severe geomagnetic storm A > 100, some K-indices 7 or greater
Figure 9-48. Summary of K & A Indices

EPRI Sunburst 2000 System

The EPRI Sunburst 2000 system is a computer based monitoring system that is
designed to expand our knowledge of GMDs and to provide an early warning of
GMD presence. The system is designed to gather information from many
locations throughout the U.S. and Canada. The data gathered includes GIC
current levels, ESP levels, harmonic content, system reactive power consumption,
transformer temperatures, and earth magnetic field data. The data are fed
electronically to an evaluation site in the U.S. Warnings can then be sent to
participating utilities concerning the severity of detected GMD activity.

Satellites to Monitor the Solar Wind

Many advances have been made in recent years in our understanding of the GMD
process and in our ability to monitor and predict GMD activity. Several satellites
are currently in orbit and include:
Î SOHO. Acronym for the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory. This
satellite is stationed about one million miles from earth between the sun
and the earth. SOHO is used to monitor solar activity.
Î ACE. Acronym for the Advanced Composition Explorer satellite. ACE
is used to monitor the solar wind.
Î The GOES, WIND, TRACE, RHESSI and IMAGE satellites, which
also assist with solar and earth monitoring.

9.6.9 Hydro Quebec GMD Incident

On March 10, 1989, a large solar energy disturbance occurred on the surface of
the sun. Two days later spectacular displays of the northern lights were visible on
the earth. This GMD was one of the strongest ever recorded. The biggest
consequence of the GMD began at 02:45 A.M. on March 13th in the Canadian
province of Quebec.

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The Quebec Interconnection has a large concentration of hydroelectric generation

in the northern part of the system at James Bay. Collectively this generation is
referred to as the La Grande Complex. Major load areas are situated in the
southern part of the system along the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The load centers
include the major cities of Quebec and Montreal. A 600 mile long - five line -
735 kV transmission system connects La Grande generation to the Saint
Lawrence load centers. Figure 9-49 illustrates the 735 kV system in the Quebec
Interconnection.
High voltage lines of this length require massive amounts of reactive
compensation to operate. Without the reactive compensation system voltages and
power angles would be impossible to control within acceptable limits. The
reactive compensation for the 735 kV system between the La Grande Complex
and the St. Lawrence area includes seven large static var compensators (SVCs).
GIC currents that resulted from the GMD entered the power system via the
neutrals of grounded power transformers. The transformers saturated and became
strong harmonic sources. The harmonics sought out the low impedance path of
the SVC shunt capacitor legs. The capacitor protection systems activated
assuming an overload condition due to the high harmonic currents in the capacitor
neutrals. Figure 9-49 notes the tripping of seven large SVCs (items #1 through
#4) over a 1 minute period.
The 735 kV system cannot stay in-service without the SVCs. Approximately 9
seconds after the last SVC tripped the first of the 735 kV lines tripped. The other
four lines followed within a few seconds (note item #5). Over 9,500 MW of La
Grande Complex generation was dropped with the loss of the 735 kV system.
(Figure 9-49 follows on the next page.)

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Figure 9-49. Hydro Quebec GMD Incident

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Frequency and voltage throughout the Quebec Interconnection rapidly fell.

Underfrequency load shedding failed to arrest the frequency decline.
Approximately 6 seconds after the loss of the La Grande Complex Churchill Falls
generation separated (see item #6). The entire Interconnection then collapsed
within a few seconds.
Over 21,000 MW of load was lost. Nine hours after the system collapsed 17% of
the load was still out-of-service.
The effects of this massive GMD were not confined to Canada. Utilities in the
northern areas of the U.S. from the east to the west coasts reported tripped shunt
capacitor banks and false relay operations. A generator step-up transformer at a
nuclear plant in the eastern U.S. was severely damaged and had to be replaced.
Utilities as far south as South Carolina in the east and southern California in the
west reported unusual events due to this GMD. The Allegheny Power System,
which serves West Virginia and portions of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and
Virginia, had 10 of its 24 transmission level shunt capacitor installations falsely
trip during the GMD.

9.6.10 Role of the System Operator

Utilities who are susceptible to GMD activity must prepare their system operators
for the possible occurrence of GMDs. Operating guidelines must be researched,
written, and made available to operations personnel. System operator response
can be grouped into two categories; protecting system equipment and ensuring the
power system itself remains secure.

Equipment Protection Guidelines

Each utility must identify the equipment in their system that is most susceptible to
GMD damage. In general, transformers are the area of most concern. GICs will
enter the power system via transformer neutral windings. Generator step-up
transformers are especially susceptible due to the nature of their design.

Ensuring System Security

During periods in which severe GMD activity is likely, the following operating
guidelines will enable systems to better withstand GMD effects:
Î Discontinue or postpone maintenance work. Restore transmission lines
to service if at all possible.
Î Maintain system voltages within an acceptable operating range. The goal
is to avoid being trapped in a low voltage condition and to avoid severe
voltage swings.
Î Reduce loading on critical transmission lines. Recall from Chapter 5 the
large increase in reactive power usage associated with heavily loaded
transmission paths. Reducing system loading will increase reactive
reserves.

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Î Ensure that the power system’s reactive reserves are adequate. Reactive
reserves should be spread throughout the system. Sufficient dynamic
reactive reserve levels are especially important.
Î Ensure your system’s MW reserves are adequate.
Î HVDC converters are susceptible to GMD related outages. HVDC
converters are more likely to avoid GMD related trouble if initially
operating within 40% to 90% of their nominal rating.
Î Keep verbal communication channels open with neighboring utilities.
GMDs are widespread events. Be aware of what your neighbor is
experiencing and let your neighbor know about unusual events in your
system.

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9.7 Summary of Additional Topics

9.7.1 Introduction to Additional Topics

Î This chapter addressed three related subjects; harmonics, resonance, and
geomagnetic disturbances.

9.7.2 Introduction to Harmonics

Î Voltage and current waveforms normally have some harmonic content.

9.7.3 Description of Harmonics

Î The ideal 60 HZ wave is called the fundamental wave. However, a
waveform may be formed of the fundamental (60 HZ) plus the 3RD
harmonic (180 HZ), 5TH harmonic (300 HZ), etc.

9.7.4 Harmonic Content

Î A factor called the total harmonic distortion (THD) is used to quantify
the harmonic content of a given voltage or current wave. A THD of 5%
for a voltage wave means that the harmonic content is 5% of the
fundamental component.

9.7.5 Sources of Harmonics

Î The major sources of harmonics in the power system are utility
equipment and customer loads.

9.7.6 Flow of Harmonic Current

Î Harmonic currents will enter the power system and distribute according
to the path of least impedance.

9.7.7 Effects of Harmonics

Î Rotating equipment such as motors and generators are very susceptible to
harmonics.
Î Transformers are susceptible to harmonics due to the overheating that
may occur.
Î High frequency currents will be drawn to the shunt capacitors in the
system.
Î Protective relays may misoperate due to harmonic currents and voltages.

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9.7.8 Control of Harmonics

Î Delta connected transformer windings will naturally absorb the “triplen”
harmonics. The triplen harmonics are the 3RD, 9TH, 15TH, etc.
Î A harmonic filter is a combination of an inductor, capacitor and resistor
that is tuned to adjust the frequency at which it will have minimum
impedance.

9.7.9 Introduction to Resonance

Î Electrical resonance occurs when the capacitive reactance of a circuit
matches or is tuned to the inductive reactance of a circuit.

9.7.10 Series Resonance

Î Series resonance occurs if the inductive reactance of a circuit is canceled
by the circuit’s capacitive reactance or when the magnitude of XL equals
XC.
Î When a series resonance condition exists the elements in the resonance
circuit can be exposed to voltages that are much higher than the source
voltage.

9.7.11 Parallel Resonance

Î Parallel resonance is similar to series resonance but occurs when the
capacitive and inductive elements are in parallel and their impedances are
equal in magnitude.
Î At parallel resonance the incoming current would see very high
impedance that is almost purely resistive and possibly equal to many
times the circuit’s resistance value. The total current that passes through
the circuit would be at a minimum.

9.7.12 Introduction to Subsynchronous Resonance

Î Subsynchronous resonance or SSR is similar to series resonance and
occurs due to an interaction between a system’s generators and local
transmission system.

9.7.13 SSR and Series Capacitors

Î The amount of series compensation used is limited by two general
restrictions. The first restriction is voltage related and the second SSR.

9.7.14 Resonance Frequency

Î If enough series capacitors are added to the power system to raise the
series resonant frequency to a value in the neighborhood of 10 to 50 HZ,
SSR problems can occur.

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9.7.15 Definition of Subsynchronous Resonance

Î “Subsynchronous resonance (SSR) is an electric power system condition
where the electric network exchanges energy with a turbine/generator at
one or more of the natural frequencies of the combined system below the
synchronous frequency of the system."

9.7.16 Components of System Current

Î The current that flows in a power system is always composed of several
frequency components.

9.7.17 Generator Modes of Oscillation

Î A turbine/generator’s mechanical modes of oscillation refer to the
tendencies of sections of the turbine/generator shaft to oscillate with
respect to other sections of the shaft and with respect to the electrical
system to which the generator is attached.
Î SSR typically occurs when the frequency of the currents that are flowing
in the generator rotor match one of the natural modes of the
turbine/generator shaft.

9.7.18 Forms of SSR

Î There are three general scenarios for SSR.
— Scenario I is torsional interaction. Torsional interaction occurs when
a generator’s natural mode is closely matched to induced rotor
currents.
— Scenario II is transient torque. Transient torque occurs following a
severe disturbance. The oscillation frequency of the disturbance
current closely matches a shaft mode.
— Scenario III is the induction generator effect. In the induction
generator effect a synchronous generator acts as if it is an induction
generator.

9.7.19 When Is SSR a Concern?

Î A system operator should be concerned about SSR if their system has
steam turbine/generators that are connected to high voltage series
compensated lines. SSR is also more likely to occur when units are
lightly loaded.

9.7.20 SSR Example

Î The Mojave units of Southern California Edison experienced two
incidents of SSR in the early 1970s.

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9.7.21 Preventing SSR

Î Methods of preventing SSR were presented.

9.7.22 Introduction to Ferroresonance

Î Ferroresonance is an overcurrent and overvoltage condition that can be
the result of either series or parallel resonance. The inductance must be
of a particular type for ferroresonance to occur, a type called an iron-core
inductance.

9.7.23 Definition of Ferroresonance

Î Once a ferroresonance condition develops, high currents will oscillate in
the series circuit. These high currents will result in large voltage drops
across the reactive elements of the circuit.

9.7.24 Distribution Ferroresonance

Î Typically, when a distribution system ferroresonance condition occurs, it
is triggered by a switching transient such as the closing or opening of a
1Φ switch.

9.7.25 Ferroresonance in a Transmission Substation

Î Iron-core PTs are usually a necessary ingredient for transmission level
ferroresonance.
Î A method for reducing the impact of transmission system ferroresonance
is to add resistance in the secondary circuits of PTs.

9.7.26 Introduction to Geomagnetic Disturbances

Î GMDs are disturbances to the earth’s magnetic field that are a
consequence of disturbances on the sun.

9.7.27 Sunspots
Î Sunspots are indications of energy disturbances on the surface of the sun.
Peak years of sunspot activity occur approximately every 11 years.

9.7.28 The Solar Wind

Î The sun is constantly pushing a stream of charged particles toward the
earth. This stream of charged particles is called the solar wind.

9.7.29 ESPs & GICs

Î GMDs induce voltages in the earth’s surface. These voltages are called
earth surface potentials or ESPs.

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Î The ESPs lead to the flow of low frequency currents in the earth’s
surface called geomagnetic induced currents or GICs.

9.7.30 Factors that Influence the Impact of GMDs

Î Those areas of the earth that are most prone to GMD effects are northern
areas that contain igneous rock and are bordered by large salt water
bodies. The northeast coast of North America fits this description well.

9.7.31 GIC Entry to the Power System

Î GIC cannot enter into a delta winding since there is no ground current
path. GICs can enter a grounded wye winding such as is in an
autotransformer.

9.7.32 Impact of GMDs

Î The impact of GMDs on the power system was described.

9.7.33 Controlling the Impact of GMDs

Î Methods of controlling the impact of GMDs include transformer neutral
blocking capacitors and series capacitors in transmission lines.
Î The SWPC distributes two indices of GMD activity. The indices, Kp and
Ap, are used to classify the intensity of GMD activity.

9.7.34 Hydro Quebec GMD Incident

Î A GMD on March 13, 1989, was one of the largest ever recorded. The
entire Quebec Interconnection was blacked out as a result of this GMD.

9.7.35 Role of the System Operator

Î Each utility must identify the equipment in their system which is most
susceptible to GMD damage. In general, transformers are the item of
most concern.
Î During periods in which severe GMD activity is likely, the following
general operating guidelines will enable systems to better withstand
GMD effects:
— Discontinue or postpone power system maintenance work
— Maintain system voltages within an acceptable operating range
— Reduce loading on critical transmission lines
— Ensure active and reactive reserves are adequate
— Operate HVDC converters within 40% to 90% of their nominal rating
— Keep verbal communication channels open with neighboring utilities

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9.8 Additional Topics Questions

1. Delta connected three-phase transformer windings trap the:

A. Odd harmonics
B. Even harmonics
C. High order harmonics
D. Triplen harmonics

2. If the inductance is 0.001 henry and the capacitance is .000782 farad, what
is the resonance frequency?

A. 300 HZ
B. 60 HZ
C. 180 HZ
D. 240 HZ

3. All of the following are forms of SSR EXCEPT:

A. Induction generator effect

B. Transient torque
C. Parallel induction
D. Torsional interaction

4. SSR is more of a concern with hydroelectric units than with thermal units.

A. True
B. False

5. All of the following are methods of preventing distribution system

ferroresonance EXCEPT:

A. Use grounded-wye to delta transformer connections

B. Keep resistive load connected to the transformer during switching
C. Switch at the transformer end of the distribution line
D. Use three-phase switching

6. The currents that flow in the earth’s surface as a result of solar magnetic
disturbances are called:

A. Electrojets
B. Geomagnetic induced currents
C. Earth surface potentials
D. Sunspot currents

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7. The currents induced by solar magnetic disturbances enter the power

system via:

A. Series capacitors
B. Shunt capacitors
C. Transformer delta windings
D. Transformer grounded neutrals

8. In a 60 HZ system, the frequency of the 8th Harmonic is:

A. 480 HZ
B. 100 HZ
C. 200 HZ
D. 300 HZ

9. Shunt capacitor tripping can be a problem during GMD activity. Why?

A. Because high frequency GIC currents flow into the shunt

capacitors
B. Because GIC currents saturate transformers which creates high
frequency harmonics which cause the shunt capacitors to trip
C. Because GIC currents enter the power system through the
grounded neutrals of the shunt capacitors
D. Because shunt capacitors trip from high ESP

10. Assume a transmission line has a series inductive reactance of 100 ohms
and a series capacitive reactance of 50 ohms. What amount of series
capacitance (in ohms) must be added to create a series resonance
condition?

A. 100
B. 50
C. 25
D. 150

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9.9 Additional Topics References

1. Power Line Harmonic Problems – Causes and Cures⎯A short (11 page)
pamphlet published by Dranetz Technologies, Inc.
Î Excellent summary of the cause and control of power system harmonic
problems.
2. IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electric Power Systems⎯IEEE Standard #519-1992.
Î Good reference on harmonics though written for an engineering audience.
3. IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for Industrial
Plants⎯IEEE Standard #141-1986 (the Red Book).
Î Several sections in this engineering oriented text address harmonic
generation and control.
4. Electricity One-Seven⎯Revised second edition, 1992. Editor Harry Mileaf.
Publisher Hayden Books.
Î Collection of seven volumes covering basic DC and AC electricity.
Volume #4 contains an excellent description of basic series and parallel
resonance.
5. Subsynchronous Resonance in Power Systems⎯Textbook published by IEEE
Press, 1990.
Î Advanced text that deals with the analysis of SSR. There is a short
introduction to SSR in the beginning of the text that is well written and
easily understood.
6. Countermeasures to Subsynchronous Resonance Problems⎯Paper written in
1978 by representatives of southwestern U.S. utilities.
Î The paper is a summary of possible methods to avoid/control SSR.
7. Experience with 500 kV Subsynchronous Resonance and Resulting
Turbine/Generator Shaft Damage at Mojave Generating Station⎯IEEE paper
written by M. C. Hall and D. A. Hodges. Presented at IEEE 1976 Winter
meeting.
Î This paper was the primary reference for the SSR example described in
Section 9.4.9.
8. HL&P Experiences with Ferroresonance Problems on EHV
Equipment⎯Paper written by Charles W. Fromen and Don R. Sevcik.
Presented at 1981 Texas A&M University Conference for Protective Relay
Engineers.
Î Well written article on transmission ferroresonance cause and control.

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9. Ferroresonance and the Distribution System⎯Paper written in 1985 by

Donald G. Wellendorf of Southwestern Public Service.
Î Well written article on distribution system ferroresonance cause and
control.
10. Ferroresonance in High Voltage Substations⎯Paper written in 1984 by A. H.
Christesen, G. A. Poletto, and R. A. Mareachen.
Î The example of transmission system ferroresonance presented in Section
9.5.4 was based on this paper.
11. Stormy Weather in Space⎯Article written by Mr. Dave Dooling. Appeared
in June 1985 issue of IEEE Spectrum magazine.
Î Article describes current research activity related to the solar wind.
International efforts to place solar wind monitoring satellites are
described.
12. Geomagnetic Disturbance Effects on Power Systems⎯A report prepared by
the IEEE Working Group on Geomagnetic Disturbances. Report #92-SM-
511-6-PWRD.
Î Article contains a summary of many topics related to GMDs. Section 9.8
of this Chapter was largely based on this report.
13. Neutral Blocking Device Combats Currents Caused by Geomagnetic
Storms⎯Article written by Mr. John Kappenman and Mr. Scott Norr. Article
appeared in the May 1992 issue of Transmission & Distribution magazine.
Î Well written description of the use of neutral blocking capacitors.
14. Bracing for Geomagnetic Storms⎯Article written by Mr. John Kappenman
and Mr. Vernon Albertson. Appeared in the March 1990 issue of the IEEE
Spectrum magazine.
Î Excellent basic tutorial on GMD cause and effects.
15. The Fury of Space Storms⎯Article written by Mr. James L. Burch. Appeared
in the April 2001 issue of Scientific American.
16. The NOAA SWPC web site at www.swpc.noaa.gov contains useful
information and tutorials.

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EQUIPMENT

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EQUIPMENT

SECTION OVERVIEWS

10.1 HVDC Construction and Operation

High voltage direct current (HVDC) systems are used throughout the world.
There are about 22 HVDC systems in operation in North America.

10.2 Phase Shifting Transformers

Phase shifting transformers (PST) are used to control the flow of MW through a
transmission path.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

10.1 HVDC Construction and Operation ................................................... 10-1

10.1.1 Introduction to HVDC ................................................................ 10-1
10.1.2 Types of HVDC Systems........................................................... 10-4
10.1.3 Components of an HVDC System ............................................. 10-5
10.1.4 Operation of an HVDC System................................................ 10-22
10.2 PST Construction and Operation .................................................... 10-32
10.2.1 Introduction to PSTs ................................................................ 10-32
10.2.2 Construction of PSTs .............................................................. 10-34
10.2.3 Operations of PSTs ................................................................. 10-36
10.3 Summary of Equipment................................................................... 10-40
10.3.1 Introduction to HVDC Systems................................................ 10-40
10.3.2 Types of HVDC Systems......................................................... 10-40
10.3.3 Components of an HVDC System ........................................... 10-40
10.3.4 Operation of an HVDC System................................................ 10-40
10.3.5 Introduction to PSTs ................................................................ 10-41
10.3.6 Construction of PSTs .............................................................. 10-41
10.3.7 Operation of PSTs ................................................................... 10-41
10.4 Equipment Questions ...................................................................... 10-42
10.5 Equipment References.................................................................... 10-44

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 10-1. Advantages of HVDC Systems..................................................10-2

Figure 10-2. Disadvantages of HVDC Systems .............................................10-3
Figure 10-3. Types of HVDC Systems ...........................................................10-4
Figure 10-4. Components of an HVDC System .............................................10-6
Figure 10-5. Photograph of an HVDC Tower .................................................10-6
Figure 10-6. Mercury Arc Valve (MAV) ..........................................................10-7
Figure 10-7. Photograph of a Mercury Arc Valve...........................................10-9
Figure 10-8. Thyrister Symbol........................................................................10-9
Figure 10-9. Photograph of a Thyrister ........................................................10-10
Figure 10-10. Single-Phase Converter ..........................................................10-11
Figure 10-11. Waveforms for 1Φ Converter...................................................10-12
Figure 10-12. Three-Phase One-Way Converter ...........................................10-12
Figure 10-13. Waveforms for 3Φ One-Way Converter...................................10-13
Figure 10-14. Three-Phase Two-Way Converter ...........................................10-14
Figure 10-15. Waveforms for 3Φ Two-Way Converter...................................10-16
Figure 10-16. Twelve-Pulse Converter ..........................................................10-17
Figure 10-17. Comparison of 6 & 12 Pulse Converter Voltages ....................10-17
Figure 10-18. Benefits of Multi-Pulse Operation ............................................10-18
Figure 10-19. A Bipolar HVDC System..........................................................10-19
Figure 10-20. Harmonic Content of HVDC Converters ..................................10-20
Figure 10-21. Six-Pulse Converter Operation Without Gate Control .............10-23
Figure 10-22. Two-Pulse Operation Without Gate Control ............................10-24
Figure 10-23. Two-Pulse Converter Operation with Gate Control .................10-25
Figure 10-24. Six-Pulse Converter Ignition Delay Angles of 0° - 90°.............10-26
Figure 10-25. Six-Pulse Converter Ignition Delay Angles of 90° - 180°.........10-27
Figure 10-26. Phase Displacement in an HVDC Converter ...........................10-30
Figure 10-27. HVDC MW Flow Control ..........................................................10-32
Figure 10-28. Use of a PST ...........................................................................10-33
Figure 10-29. Varying Construction of a PST ................................................10-34
Figure 10-30. Phase Angles in a PST............................................................10-35
Figure 10-31. Phasor Diagram for Regulating Transformers .........................10-36
Figure 10-32. PST Operation – Part A...........................................................10-37
Figure 10-33. PST Operation – Part B...........................................................10-38
Figure 10-34. PST Operation – Part C...........................................................10-39

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10.1 HVDC Construction and Operation

High voltage direct current (HVDC) systems are used throughout the world.
There are about 22 HVDC systems in operation in North America.

10.1.1 Introduction to HVDC

HVDC systems are used to transmit energy using DC voltage and current. In an
AC system the current and voltage waves cycle between positive and negative
peaks at the system frequency. In a DC system the current and voltage
magnitudes are fixed.
In a typical HVDC system AC voltage and current are fed to the rectifier end of A rectifier converts
the HVDC where it is converted from AC to DC. The DC power is then AC to DC. An
transmitted over a DC conducting path. This path may be only a few feet long inverter converts
or it may be hundreds of miles long. At the other end of the path (called the DC to AC.
inverter) the DC voltage and current are converted back to AC values.
In the early years of electrical utilities (late 19th century), simple low voltage DC
systems were used by default as little was known about AC systems. In modern
power systems DC still has a place and under certain circumstances is used
instead of AC. The first high voltage (>100 kV) DC system was installed in
Sweden in 1954. There are now more than 90 HVDC systems in operation
throughout the world with a combined capacity in excess of 80,000 MW.
When is HVDC Used?
An HVDC system can be used to transmit power under a variety of
circumstances. The most common scenarios for which HVDC systems are
used include:
You could also
Î To connect two AC systems that operate at different frequencies or interconnect two AC
with different versions of the same frequency. HVDC systems convert systems with
AC to DC and then back to AC. An HVDC system can absorb AC completely different
frequencies. For
power from an AC system at one frequency and then feed this power into example one system
another AC system at a different frequency. For example, the four major may be 60 HZ while
North American Interconnections (Eastern, Western, ERCOT & Quebec) the other is 50 HZ.
are tied together via HVDC lines even though all operate with different Japan uses HVDC to
versions of 60 HZ. connect 50 HZ and
60 HZ sections of its
Î To transmit large blocks of power over long distances. When the costs of electrical system.
construction and operation of AC and HVDC systems are compared,
HVDC systems may be the most cost effective when the length of the
transmission path exceeds 400 to 600 miles. HVDC systems were used
as the most economic alternative (as opposed to AC) for transmission
projects on the West coast of the U.S. (Pacific HVDC Intertie), several
long lines in MRO, several long lines in the Northeast, and many other
lines throughout the world.

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Certain types of
HVDC converters Î To span long distances (more than 25 to 30 miles) underground or
are heavy users of underwater. High voltage AC cable systems are strong sources of
reactive power but reactive power. A high voltage AC cable may produce 20 to 30 Mvar
the DC transmission per mile. The charging effect of high voltage cable is so large that shunt
does not experience
reactive compensation must be used on long systems or the thermal
any significant
reactive effects. ratings of the cable are exceeded due to just the flow of charging current.
If it is not possible to shunt compensate the AC system then HVDC may
be the best option as HVDC transmission does not produce or absorb
reactive power.

Advantages of HVDC
Some advantages of HVDC systems are summarized in Figure 10-1. Each of
these advantages is briefly explained below the figure.
1. Lower Line Construction Costs
2. Lower Line Losses
3. Ability to Make Asynchronous Interconnections
4. No Power Angle Required
5. EMF Consequences Minimized
6. Complete Control of MW Transfer
7. Use for Long Underground or Submarine Crossings
8. Less Right-of-Way Required
9. Ability to Use HVDC Modulation
10. Possible Tool in Frequency Control Process
11. Possible Tool in Voltage Control Process
12. Fault Isolation Between AC and HVDC Systems
Figure 10-1. Advantages of HVDC Systems
1. HVDC transmission lines are less costly to construct than the equivalent AC
line. (However, the cost of the HVDC converters must be accounted for in
any total cost comparison.)
2. When compared to an AC transmission system with the same power transfer,
the same insulation levels, and over the same size conductors, HVDC
transmission system losses are approximately 33% lower than AC
transmission system losses.
3. HVDC systems can be used to interconnect systems that operate
asynchronously (with different frequencies). A DC interconnection often
allows different systems to share generating capacity and lower power
Generator tripping production costs.
schemes are often
used to reduce the 4. HVDC power transfer does not require a voltage phase angle (δ) across the
AC system impact conducting path. (However, if the HVDC line trips the AC power system may
following an HVDC have to absorb a power swing, which would then lead to an angle increase.)
line trip.

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5. The possible health consequences of electromagnetic fields (EMF) are a

continuing issue. The magnetic fields that surround HVDC conductors do not
alternate and are not considered health risks by most experts.
6. The operators of an HVDC system can control the amount of MW that flows
over the DC line. Adjustments and corrections to MW flow can be made in
fractions of a cycle.
7. HVDC systems can be used for long underground or submarine crossings
without the need for shunt reactive compensation.
8. Less right-of-way is required for an HVDC line than for an equivalent AC
line.
The use of HVDC
9. HVDC systems can be used to absorb the cyclic energy of low frequency modulation is
oscillations from the AC system. This process is called HVDC modulation similar to the use of
and can be used to dampen low frequency AC system power oscillations. PSS. PSS (power
system stabilizers)
10. When HVDC systems are used to tie two Interconnections together, the were described in
HVDC MW flow can be rapidly adjusted to simulate governor frequency Chapter 8.
response and to provide AGC response. This concept can be a useful tool in
the frequency control process.
11. Depending on the design of the HVDC system, the system may be able to
both produce and absorb reactive power as needed for voltage support in the
parallel AC power system. This is a powerful voltage control tool.
12. When a fault occurs on an HVDC line, the AC system is partially isolated
from the consequences of the fault. This reduces the fault’s impact.

Disadvantages of HVDC
Some disadvantages of HVDC systems are summarized in Figure 10-2. Each of
these disadvantages is briefly explained below the figure.
1. Inability to Transform Voltages
2. Difficult to Tap HVDC Lines
3. AC is Typically Less Costly for Shorter Lines
4. HVDC Converters are Complex Equipment
5. HVDC Converters are Strong Harmonic Sources
Figure 10-2. Disadvantages of HVDC Systems
1. AC transformers work via the principle of electromagnetic induction. HVDC
systems do not produce alternating magnetic fields and consequently cannot
use conventional transformers. This limits the ability of an HVDC system to
be used to interconnect with the AC system and serve customer load.
2. AC lines are easily tapped while HVDC lines are not easily tapped. The basic
problem is that AC circuit breakers interrupt at a current zero whereas there is
no current zero in a DC current. HVDC circuit breakers are still in the
development stage. While there are multi-terminal HVDC systems, each

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additional terminal requires an expensive HVDC converter and complex

control systems.
3. When a long line is built within an Interconnection, AC systems are typically
cheaper to construct until a length of 400-600 miles is reached.
4. The equipment that converts the DC to AC and AC to DC are called
converters. HVDC converters are complex pieces of equipment. The HVDC
system operators must possess special skills to operate and maintain this
equipment.
Harmonics were
described in 5. The conversion process between AC and DC and DC and AC is a strong
Chapter 9. harmonic source. Filter networks must be installed to absorb these harmonics
to avoid harmful consequences to the AC and HVDC systems.

10.1.2 Types of HVDC Systems

There are many configurations of HVDC systems. Two common HVDC
configurations are monopolar and bipolar. When HVDC systems are constructed
they may be initially operated as monopolar and eventually expanded to bipolar
operation. A bipolar system may also be operated as a monopolar system when
components are unavailable. These two types of HVDC systems are illustrated in
Figure 10-3.

The arrows within

the boxes indicate
the direct current
flow direction.
Current always
flows in only one
direction in each
HVDC system.

Figure 10-3. Types of HVDC Systems

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Monopolar
A monopolar HVDC system uses one conductor (the HVDC transmission line)
energized with a DC voltage and a return path. The return path may be the earth,
the sea, or a metallic conductor. A return path is necessary to complete the
electrical circuit and allow a current to circulate. The equipment that forms an
energized DC conductor (converter and the HVDC transmission line) is called a
“pole”. The converters shown in Figure 10-3 convert between AC and DC.

Bipolar
A bipolar system uses two DC poles. One pole is normally energized with a
positive voltage and the other with a negative voltage. Note that no current flows
in the return path unless a current imbalance exists between the two DC
conductors. The return path may again be the earth, the ocean, or a wire
conductor.

10.1.3 Components of an HVDC System

Figure 10-4 illustrates the main components of an HVDC system. This section
briefly describes the purpose and operation of each of the following components:
n HVDC Transmission Lines o Mercury Arc Valves
p Thyrister Valves q HVDC Converters
r AC Supply Transformers s HVDC Smoothing Reactors
t HVDC Filters u HVDC Electrodes
v HVDC Converters and Reactive
Power
Figure 10-4 follows on the next page.

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Figure 10-4. Components of an HVDC System

n HVDC Transmission Lines

Corona is a
luminous discharge An HVDC transmission line has a similar design as an AC transmission line.
that surrounds There are fewer conductors to an HVDC line so the support structures (towers)
portions of are not as large. A bipolar system would have two conductors, one for the
energized
positive pole and one for the negative pole. If a wire return path is used, the
equipment. Corona
rings increase the tower may also carry this conductor. HVDC lines may use shield wires to
effective equipment intercept lightning strikes. Corona rings may also be used to reduce corona
diameter and losses. Figure 10-5 contains a picture of an HVDC transmission structure. Note
reduce corona this HVDC structure supports two HVDC conductors and one wire return path.
losses.

Figure 10-5. Photograph of an HVDC Tower

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o Mercury Arc Valves

When the first HVDC systems were constructed in the mid 1950’s, mercury arc
valves or MAVs were used to convert AC to DC and DC to AC. A simple
diagram of an MAV is provided in Figure 10-6. A MAV is basically a rapid
switch that uses older “tube” based technologies. The device is called a valve
since current can be “turned-on” and allowed to flow by adjusting a control grid
voltage pulse. An MAV is designed to conduct current in only one direction. In a
later section we describe how several valves are combined to form an HVDC
converter. For now the operation of a single MAV is examined.

An MAV is a large
piece of equipment.
Each MAV may
stand 20 feet high
and be several feet
wide. An HVDC
converter will
include perhaps 14
MAVs.

Figure 10-6. Mercury Arc Valve (MAV)

The anode is the positive terminal while the cathode is the negative terminal. The
cathode contains a pool of mercury. The process by which the MAV conducts
current is described in the following steps.
1. A small area or “spot” is ionized on the surface of the cathode’s mercury pool. Ionization is a
The ignition electrode is used to create this spot by injecting a burst of bombardment by
energy. (When an MAV conducts, negatively charged electrons are emitted energy bursts to free
by this cathode spot and attracted towards the positively charged anode.) up electrons.
Ionization is similar
2. The excitation electrode is attached to an external power supply. The to charging.
excitation electrode provides a small amount of excitation current. The
excitation current draws an arc from the cathode spot. The excitation
electrodes purpose is to sustain the life of the cathode spot.

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Note that the 3. The control grid is used to either turn the valve on (conduct current) or to
control grid is
used to turn a block the valve from conducting. A positive voltage pulse of a few hundred
valve on or block volts is used to turn the valve on while a negative voltage pulse blocks valve
the valve. The conduction. It is important to understand that the control grid cannot be used
control grid is to turn a valve off once it has started conducting. The term “blocking” means
not used to turn to block the valve from conducting current.
the valve off once
the MAV has 4. The MAV will conduct current or “fire” when all of the following are true:
started
conducting. Î An electron stream exists between the cathode spot and the excitation
electrode.
Î The voltage of the anode is more positive than the cathode.
Î A positive voltage pulse is applied to the control grid.
An MAV is simply a high power, controllable switch. The MAV firing control is
accomplished via the gate pulse of voltage.
Other components of the MAV include the voltage divider and the grading
electrodes, which are used to avoid a concentration of voltage near the anode.
The steel tank contains a vacuum in which resides a mercury vapor that is the
conducting medium for the valve current. The upper portion of the valve is made
of porcelain. The operating temperature of an MAV is a critical factor. Extensive
temperature control systems are used to both heat and cool the MAV to ensure
tight operating temperature tolerances are enforced.
MAVs were used in HVDC systems from the mid 1950’s until the early 1970’s.
While some MAVs are still in-service, most modern HVDC converters use solid
state valves called thyristers. Figure 10-7 contains a picture of an MAV.
Figure 10-7 follows on the next page.

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Figure 10-7. Photograph of a Mercury Arc Valve

p Thyrister Valves
A thyrister valve is a semiconductor device (similar to a high power transistor) Thyristers were
that has replaced the MAV in modern HVDC converters. The symbol for a introduced in
Chapter 2. This
thyrister valve is illustrated in Figure 10-8. A thyrister conducts current (IA) if the
symbol is used from
anode voltage (VA) is more positive than the cathode voltage (VC) and a gate this point forward to
pulse (IG) of current is applied. refer to any type of
valve.

Figure 10-8. Thyrister Symbol

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Each individual thyrister has a voltage and current rating. Depending on the
voltage and current ratings of the HVDC converter, each valve is composed of
hundreds of thyristers and each converter composed of a dozen valves. A large
HVDC converter therefore contains thousands of thyristers. Each thyrister is
about the size of a hockey puck as illustrated in Figure 10-9.

Figure 10-9. Photograph of a Thyrister

The current generation of thyristers is very reliable. MAVs often suffered from a
phenomenon called “arc-back”. During arc-back an MAV is subjected to a high
reverse voltage that causes the MAV to break down and conduct in the wrong
direction. Thyristers are not as susceptible to arc-back.

q HVDC Converters
Several valves (MAV or thyrister) can be combined in an electrical circuit to form
a converter. Our interest in this chapter is in HVDC converters, but converters
can also be used in other processes (for example, adjustable speed motor drives).
Within the converter itself, the valves may be grouped together. A collection of
valves to perform a specific function is called a valve group. A single converter
may be composed of many valves formed into several valve groups.
A valve conducting
solely based on This section begins by describing the operation of a simple converter with a few
their anode to valves and gradually builds to a type of converter used in a typical HVDC system.
cathode voltage is a This section also begins by assuming that no gate/grid control is used. The valves
simplification. The are turned on whenever the anode voltage is more positive than the cathode. This
role of gate/grid is a simplification to ease the learning process. In a later section the role of
control is described
shortly. gate/grid control is explained.

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Single-Phase Converter
A description of HVDC converters begins with the 1Φ converter illustrated in
Figure 10-10. This simple converter accepts an AC input and converts it to a DC
output. The converter’s AC input voltages (V1 and V2) are produced from two
secondary transformer windings and each applied to a valve. Note that these two
voltages are 180° out-of-phase. The two valves (upper and lower) each conduct
when their anodes are more positive than their cathodes.

The output DC
voltage magnitude
is 64% of the peak
value of the
incoming AC
voltage for this
simple converter.

Figure 10-10. Single-Phase Converter

The converter output voltage (VConverter) is equal to whichever anode voltage (V1
Filters will be used
or V2) is more positive. Figure 10-11 illustrates the input AC voltages and the
to remove the ripple
output DC voltages. The input AC voltages (V1 and V2) are oscillating at 60 HZ from the DC
with both positive and negative half-cycles. The converter output voltage voltage. HVDC
(VConverter) is the sum of the positive half-cycles of V1 and V2. Note that VConverter filters are described
is always positive. The converter output voltage (VConverter) can be considered a later in this
DC voltage with a substantial amount of “ripple”. The average value of VConverter Chapter.
is the magnitude of the DC output voltage VDC.
When the input AC voltage V1 is the more positive, the upper valve in Figure 10-
10 conducts. Current I1 then flows at the converter output. When the input AC
voltage V2 is the more positive, the lower valve conducts. Current I2 then flows.
The DC output current is the sum of currents I1 and I2. The DC current values in
Figure 10-11 are illustrated as perfect square waves, so the sum of currents I1 and
I2 yields a constant DC current output. The constant magnitude of the DC output
current is due to the use of a large smoothing reactor connected to the converter
output terminal (see Figure 10-10). The smoothing reactors function is to keep
the DC output current constant and ripple free.

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There are two

pulses to the
converter output
voltage (VConverter)
for each complete
cycle of the AC
input voltage (V1 or
V2). This is a two-
pulse converter.

Figure 10-11. Waveforms for 1Φ Converter

Compare the AC input voltages (V1 & V2) in Figure 10-11 to the converter output
voltage, VConverter. Note that for each cycle of the input AC voltage there are two
pulses to VConverter. This converter could therefore be called a “two-pulse”
converter.

Three-Phase One-Way Converter

Figure 10-12 is an illustration of a 3Φ one-way converter. A 3Φ AC source
provides three input voltage waveforms, one waveform to each of the three
valves. Each valve (#’s 1, 2, & 3) conducts when its anode is the more positive of
the three anodes.

Figure 10-12. Three-Phase One-Way Converter

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Figure 10-13 illustrates the voltage and current waveforms for the converter of
Figure 10-12. The three AC voltage input waveforms are shown at the top of the
figure. Note that when VA is more positive than VB and VC, valve #1 conducts
and current I1 flows. Valve #2 conducts and current I2 flows when VB is highest,
and valve #3 conducts and current I3 flows when VC is highest.

The output DC
voltage magnitude
is 83% of the peak
value of the
incoming AC
voltage for this type
of converter. As the
number of pulses
increases the
conversion from AC
to DC becomes
more effective.

The output DC
current is the
summation of
currents I1, I2, and
I3. Note that a
smoothing reactor
is used to eliminate
the current ripple.

Figure 10-13. Waveforms for 3Φ One-Way Converter

The converter output voltage (VCONVERTER) is composed of equal segments of the
three incoming AC voltages. When valve #1 is conducting VCONVERTER is equal to
VA. When valve #2 is conducting VCONVERTER equals VB. When valve #3 is
conducting VCONVERTER is equal to VC. Each valve conducts for 1/3 of a cycle or
120°. The envelope of the VCONVERTER voltage is highlighted in the top of Figure
10-13.
For each cycle of incoming AC voltage there are now three pulses to the output
voltage wave (VCONVERTER). This converter is therefore a “three-pulse converter”.
The more pulses to the output voltage the closer it is to a constant DC output
voltage. The two-pulse converter of Figures 10-10 and 10-11 has a larger ripple
to its DC output voltage than the three-pulse converter of Figures 10-12 and
10-13.

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Three-Phase Two-Way Converter

A 3Φ two-way converter is illustrated in Figure 10-14. (Note that a two-way
Leo Graetz was a converter is the equivalent of two one-way converters attached back-to-back.)
German Physicist
who invented this
These types of converters are commonly called a “Graetz Bridge” circuit and are
bridge circuit. often used in HVDC converter systems. Three voltage waveforms are supplied to
the valves. The positive half of the input AC waveforms operates the upper
valves and the negative half of the waveforms operates the lower valves.

The output DC
voltage magnitude
is 166% of the peak
value of the
incoming AC
voltage for this type
of converter. The
output DC voltage
is the sum of the
upper and lower
valve group
voltages. The output
voltage for this two-
way converter is
twice the output
voltage of the one-
way converter.

Figure 10-14. Three-Phase Two-Way Converter

One valve from the upper valve group (valves # 1, 3, & 5) and one valve from the
lower valve group (valves # 2, 4, & 6) are always turned on or “firing”. The valve
with the more positive anode conducts in the upper set while the valve with the
more negative cathode conducts from the lower set. Every 1/3 cycle (120°) a
switch takes place between which valves are conducting in both the upper and
lower valve groups.
The process of
switching between The switching process between successive valves conducting is called
conducting valves commutation. Since a commutation (switch) takes place every 1/3 cycle in both
is called the upper and lower groups, the converter as a whole experiences a commutation
commutation.
When an HVDC
every 1/6 cycle or 60°. The valve firing order is from valve #1 in the upper group
converter to valve #2 in the lower group and on through valves #3, #4, #5, and #6. The
experiences a valve firing cycle continually repeats itself.
commutation
failure, it means The voltage and current waveforms for this converter are illustrated in Figure 10-
the converter 15. The output voltage for the converter (VCONVERTER) is the sum of the upper
failed to properly valve groups output voltage (VU in Figure 10-14) and the lower valve groups
switch between output voltage (VL in Figure 10-14). The upper valve groups output voltage (VU)
conducting valves.

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 Equipment

is the sum of 1/3 cycle (120°) long segments of the positive portions of the input
AC voltages (VA, VB, and VC). The lower valve groups output voltage (VL) is the
sum of 1/3 cycle (120°) long segments of the negative portions of the input AC
voltages (VA, VB, and VC).
The sum of VU and VL is the converters output voltage (VCONVERTER) prior to
smoothing. This voltage is illustrated across the top of Figure 10-15. VCONVERTER
can be viewed as a line-to-line voltage as it is measured between the positive and
negative voltages (VU and VL) of the converter outputs. To illustrate the line-to-
line nature of VCONVERTER note the point labeled “1” in Figure 10-15. The vertical
dashed line through point “1” shows that each 1/6 cycle (60°) segment of the
VCONVERTER voltage labeled VCA is formed by adding the upper valve group
output voltage at the time (+VC) to the lower valve group output voltage at the
time (-VA).
Note that for each cycle of input AC voltage there are six pulses to the converters
output voltage (VCONVERTER). This is a six-pulse converter. Many modern HVDC
systems can operate as six or twelve-pulse converters. (The next section
describes a twelve-pulse converter.)
The current waveforms for the converter are also shown at the bottom of Figure
10-15. There are ten currents illustrated, one for the total output DC current (IDC),
one for each of the six valves (I1 to I6), and the three phase currents being drawn
from the AC source (IA, IB, IC). The total DC current flow is the sum of the six
valve currents. The output DC current is at all times the sum of two valve
currents, one current from the upper valve group and one from the lower valve
group.

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 Equipment

The currents drawn

from the AC source
are not sine waves.
For example, note
that the current IA is
composed of the
current pulses
through valves #1
and #4.

Note that for each

cycle of the AC
input voltage there
are six pulses to
VCONVERTER. This is
a six-pulse
converter.

Figure 10-15. Waveforms for 3Φ Two-Way Converter

Twelve-Pulse Converter

Harmonics were
Figure 10-16 illustrates two 3Φ/two-way converters connected in series. This
described in configuration is commonly called a twelve-pulse converter. The converter output
Chapter 9. voltages contain 12 pulses for each cycle of the incoming AC voltage. The more
pulses to the converter, the smoother the DC output voltage. An additional
benefit of a higher pulse converter is that the conversion process produces fewer
harmonics.
Versions of the twelve-pulse converter are typically used in HVDC systems. This
converter type can often be operated in six-pulse mode if one of the converter
valve groups is for some reason unavailable.

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 Equipment

Six voltage wave-

forms must be
provided to the
valve groups of a
twelve-pulse
converter. The wye-
wye bank provides
three of the
waveforms and the
wye-delta bank
provides three
others. The wye-
delta waveforms
have a 30° phase
shift with respect to
the wye-wye
waveforms. The two
3? transformers can
be viewed as
providing six
waveforms, the
positive and
negative peaks each
separated from the
Figure 10-16. Twelve-Pulse Converter others by 30°.

Figure 10-17 compares the converter output voltages for six-pulse and twelve-
pulse converters. Note that the twelve-pulse converter has a smoother (less
ripple) output voltage. Figure 10-18 illustrates how the higher pulse number
converters can both produce a smoother DC output and draw more of a sine wave
of current from the AC supply. The current waves drawn from the AC system for
the two six pulse converters add to form a smoother sine wave of current supplied
by the AC power system.

Figure 10-17. Comparison of 6 & 12 Pulse Converter Voltages

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When the converter

is operating as a
rectifier, the more
pulses per cycle of
incoming AC
voltage, the
smoother the
converter output
DC voltage and the
more the AC current
input wave
resembles a sine
wave.

Figure 10-18. Benefits of Multi-Pulse Operation

Converter Voltage and Current Ratings

The highest voltage
converter is at The voltage and current ratings of any converter depend on the ratings of the
Itaipu in Brazil. individual valves and on the valves configuration. For example, consider the
Each pole of this twelve-pulse converter that was illustrated in Figure 10-16. The upper and lower
bipolar system is six pulse converters may have voltage ratings of 200 kV. The converter DC
rated 600 kV for a
output voltage rating would then be 400 kV. (Note that this converter would be
pole-to-pole voltage
of 1200 kV. China operating as a monopolar system.)
and India have
The power transfer rating of any converter depends on both the voltage and
plans for 1600 kV
systems. current ratings. For example, if a converter has a 400 kV voltage rating with a
1000 amp current rating the total MW capability is 400.
Figure 10-19 illustrates a typical set-up for an HVDC system. This HVDC is a
bipolar system. Each of the shaded boxes represents six-pulse converters with the
arrows indicating the current flow direction. The neutral return path may be an
ocean/ground path or a grounded wire path. If each of the eight six-pulse
converters has a voltage rating of 125 kV then the system has a pole-to-pole
voltage rating of 500 kV. (250 kV from each pole to the grounded neutral.) If the
current rating for the system is 1,500 amps then the rated power flow is 750 MW.

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 Equipment

Note the use of wye-

wye and wye-delta
transformers to
form four twelve
pulse converters.

Figure 10-19. A Bipolar HVDC System

r AC Supply Transformers
Transformers supply AC voltage and current to the HVDC converters. The
conversion process requires that the transformers be able to exist in a punishing A common failure
mode in HVDC
operating environment. During the commutation process in which a converter systems is failure of
switches from one valve’s “on” position to the next valve’s “on” position, one the AC supply
winding of the supply transformer is subjected to a short term, phase-to-phase transformers.
fault. The supply transformers also have a DC potential connected to one
winding. These two operating conditions combine to require special designs
for the transformers used to supply HVDC converters.
DC MW flow is controlled by adjusting the converter (inverter and rectifier)
voltages. The supply transformers must have under load tap changing (ULTC)
capability to allow voltage adjustment. The ULTC capability range may be
significantly larger than that encountered in a typical power transformer ULTC.

s HVDC Smoothing Reactors

In addition to reducing the ripple in the DC current, smoothing reactors have two
other critical roles:
Î Smoothing reactors are necessary to ensure a successful transfer
(commutation) from one valve firing to the next valve firing.
Î Smoothing reactors function as fault current limiters during a DC
system fault.

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 Equipment

t HVDC Filters
A simple way to view the process of converting from AC to DC is to visualize
the converter as clipping only the peak (negative and positive) portions of the
incoming AC voltage waveforms. These peak values are then used to create a DC
voltage. The voltage that is left on the AC side of the converter is no longer a
perfect sine wave but now has a large harmonic content. The designers of HVDC
systems have studied the characteristics of the conversion process and can predict
what harmonics are present in the AC and DC systems.
For a six-pulse converter a mathematical analysis predicts that the dominant AC
harmonics are the 5th (300 HZ) and 7th (420 HZ). The dominant DC harmonic is
the 6th. The 11th, 13th, 23rd, and 25th are also be present on the AC side and the
12th and 24th on the DC side. For a twelve-pulse converter the dominant AC
harmonics are the 11th and 13th while the dominant DC harmonic is the 12th. The
23rd, 25th, 35th, and 37th orders are also be present on the AC side and the 24th and
36th on the DC side. Higher order harmonics are also be present in both types of
converter.
Figure 10-20 lists which harmonics are present in the AC system for both six and
twelve-pulse converters. Theoretical and typical values are listed. The theoretical
column is what a mathematical analysis predicts while the typical column is what
may actually occur in practice. The numbers are stated in percent of the
fundamental (60 HZ) component. For example, for a six pulse converter the
theoretical 5th harmonic content is 20%. The 20% is of the fundamental (60 HZ)
component.
Six Pulse Twelve Pulse
Harmonic
Theoretical Typical Theoretical Typical
th
5 20% 17.5% ----- 2.6%
The harmonic 7th 14.3% 11.1% ----- 1.6%
production of a th
converter also 11 9.1% 4.5% 9.1% 4.5%
varies with the th
13 7.7% 2.9% 7.7% 2.9%
converter design, th
method of 17 5.9% 1.5% ----- 0.2%
operation, and 19 th
5.3% 1.0% ----- 0.1%
loading level. rd
23 4.3% 0.9% 4.3% 0.9%
th
25 4.0% 0.8% 4.0% 0.8%
Figure 10-20. Harmonic Content of HVDC Converters
Every HVDC converter has a substantial filtering network that is designed to
absorb the AC and DC harmonics. The filters on the AC side are designed to
absorb AC harmonics and make the AC sine wave look more like a perfect sine
wave. The filters on the DC side are designed to absorb the DC harmonics and
eliminate as much of the DC ripple as possible.

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u HVDC Electrodes
Most HVDC systems are designed to use either the earth or the ocean as their An HVDC
return path at least during a portion of their operating time. (A wire return path grounding electrode
can also be used.) To ensure a low impedance connection to earth or to the ocean may be composed of
a grounding electrode is used at each converter station. The grounding electrode 50 metallic bars,
each with a 5 inch
is similar to the grounding rods used to ground many types of electrical
diameter, driven 10
equipment, although more substantial to handle the possibly large currents and feet into the ground.
ensure a low impedance path. The grounding electrode also provides a voltage
reference for the converter.
In a bipolar system the return path carries the imbalance current. If there is no
imbalance (each pole current is identical) the return path does not carry any
current. Systems may be designed so that the return path is only used if one of the
DC poles is lost. The system can then continue operating with one pole and the
return path but at a reduced power rating.

v HVDC Converters and Reactive Power

The next section
While HVDC transmission lines operate at a constant voltage level and do not describes how
produce or use reactive power, the HVDC converters are heavy users of reactive converters absorb
power. As a rough rule of thumb for each MW of HVDC system capacity, the reactive power and
two HVDC converters (rectifier and inverter) absorb one Mvar of reactive power. how the converter
firing angle impacts
The reactive needs of the converters must be supplied from local reactive sources. the reactive power
The filters that are used to absorb AC harmonics provide some reactive power but usage.
additional shunt capacitors or synchronous condensers must often be installed.

Required AC System Strength

If the HVDC converter is tied to a weak AC electrical system, synchronous
condensers are sometimes used to provide the required reactive power. The
synchronous condensers not only supply the needed Mvar but also strengthen the
AC system. The system is strengthened because synchronous condensers back up
their reactive supply with spinning mass (inertia) and an excitation system.
The strength of an AC power system can be stated in terms of its MVA capacity
and its inertia (amount of spinning mass) relative to the HVDC system. Two
simple equations used to evaluate the relative strengths of an AC system as
compared to an HVDC system are:

Short Circuit MVA of AC System

SCR = Short Circuit Ratio =
HVDC Converter MW Rating
Total Inertia of the AC System
IR = Inertial Ratio =
HVDC Converter MW Rating

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Computer
The SCR is calculated by dividing the AC system’s fault duty by the HVDC
simulation converter’s MW capacity. The AC system’s fault duty is the amount of power
techniques are used (in MVA) that flows to an intentionally placed 3Φ fault at the HVDC system’s
to determine the connecting point to the AC system. The greater the fault duty, the stronger the
SCR. AC system.
If the SCR or the IR (inertial ratio) is less than 2 or 3, the AC system would be
considered a weak system. A common method used to strengthen a weak AC
system is to install synchronous condensers.

10.1.4 Operation of an HVDC System

This section briefly describes several important areas of HVDC system operation
including:
n Converter Operation Without and With Gate/Grid Control
o Rectifier Versus Inverter Operation
p The Effects of Commutation Overlap
q Reactive Power Usage
r Control of HVDC Power Flow

n Converter Operation without Gate/Grid Control

Figure 10-21 summarizes earlier figures used to illustrate the operation of a six-
pulse converter. The output DC voltage contains six-pulses for each cycle of
input AC voltage. In the upper valve group (valves # 1-3-5) valve #1 fires, then
#3, then #5. The switching between these three valves is solely based on which of
the three has the more positive anode voltage.
For example, assume valve #1 was initially conducting. Valve #1 stops
conducting and valve #3 starts conducting (fire) as soon as the valve #3 anode is
more positive than the valve #1 anode. This commutation process is based solely
on the relative magnitudes of the anode voltages. Valves # 1, 3, and 5 alternate
firing based on the positive cycle of voltages while valves # 2, 4, and 6 alternate
firing based on the negative cycle of the voltage. Once turned on each valve
conducts for 1/3 cycle or 120°.
For a MAV we used
the term control Converters can operate in this mode of operation (called self-commutating) but
grid, for a thyrister other, more useful, modes of operation are available. Converter operation using
we used the term gate/grid control is described in the next section.
gate. In this section
the term gate/grid
control refers to
both methods.

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In a six-pulse
converter, the
converter output
voltage is measured
between the
converter’s two
output terminals.
This voltage is
composed of 60°
long segments of the
AC source line-to-
line voltages.

Figure 10-21. Six-Pulse Converter Operation Without Gate Control

o Converter Operation with Gate/Grid Control

To illustrate gate/grid control start with the simple 1Φ converter described earlier.
Figure 10-22 illustrates this 1Φ converter. The input AC voltage and converter
output voltage waveforms are provided below the converter. These voltage
waveforms assume that gate/grid control is not being used. A commutation
(switching) between the two valves occurs as soon as one anode is more positive
than the other anode.
Note the modification to the symbol used to represent the valves in Figure 10-22.
The added line means the valve has gate/grid control. A current or a voltage pulse
delivered through the gate/grid control point is used to turn the valve on. When
using gate/grid control the valve does not automatically turn on as soon as its
anode voltage is more positive than its cathode. The anode voltage must be more
positive than the cathode and a gate/grid pulse must be applied to turn the valve
on.

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Figure 10-22. Two-Pulse Operation Without Gate Control

Figure 10-23 contains the voltage and current waveforms for our 1Φ-converter
illustrating the use of gate/grid control. Note that a gate/grid control pulse is
required to turn a valve on. Neither valve #1 or #2 turns on unless its anode
voltage is positive (with respect to cathode) and it receives a gate/grid control
pulse.

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Commutation does
not take place until
the gate/grid
control pulse is
applied. Each
successive
commutation is
delayed by the same
number of degrees.

Figure 10-23. Two-Pulse Converter Operation with Gate Control

The gate pulse can be applied when the HVDC system operator decides to apply
it. Compare the VConverter voltage plots in Figures 10-22 and 10-23 and note that
the application of the gate/grid control pulse has delayed the firing of the valve by
approximately 30°. The angle by which the valve firing is delayed is called the
ignition delay angle. The ignition delay angle is the number of degrees the valve
firing was delayed from its normal firing point. The ignition delay angle is Comparing Figure
represented by the symbol “α” (Greek letter alpha). 10-22 to 10-23 note
that an area of the
Further comparison of the converter output voltages (VConverter) in Figures 10-22 voltage is missing
and 10-23 shows that the VDC (average value of VConverter) magnitude in Figure from Figure 10-23.
This is the impact of
10-20 is smaller. The delay in the firing of the valve has reduced the magnitude gate/grid control.
of the DC voltage. In this particular converter (1Φ or two-pulse converter) if the The missing area of
delay angle were 180°, the DC voltage magnitude would be zero. voltage lowers the
average value.
The impact on the converter voltage output is the key to the use of the ignition
delay angle. DC MW power flow is similar to AC Mvar power flow. DC MW
flow is based on the voltage magnitudes at both ends of the HVDC system. DC
MW flows from the high voltage to the low voltage. The amount of DC MW
flow is directly tied to the voltage difference. By using a combination of the AC
supply transformer’s ULTCs and the converter’s ignition delay angles, HVDC
system operators can accurately control and quickly adjust the amount of HVDC
MW flow.
Figure 10-24 illustrates gate/grid control impact to the converter output voltage of
a six-pulse converter. The figure illustrates the converter output (VCONVERTER)
voltage waveform. Recall from our earlier description of a six-pulse converter

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that the output voltage is measured between the two output terminals of the
converter. A six-pulse converter’s output voltage is composed of 1/6 cycle or 60°
segments of the AC input line-to-line voltages.

Figure 10-24. Six-Pulse Converter Ignition Delay Angles of 0° - 90°

Figure 10-24(a) illustrates an ignition delay angle of 0°. With this ignition delay
angle commutation is based solely on relative voltage magnitudes. Areas “A”,
“B”, and “C” represent the magnitude of the converter output voltage at three
progressive time periods in the converter output. The converter output voltages
are at their maximum possible values for this six-pulse converter. Note that each
arc section of VCONVERTER is 1/6 cycle or 60° in length.
Figure 10-24(b) illustrates an ignition delay angle of 1/12 of a cycle or 30°.
Comparing Figures 10-24(a) to 10-24(b) note how the valve firing has been
delayed by 30°. Every subsequent valve firing is also delayed by the same angle
amount. The magnitudes of areas “A”, “B”, and “C” have been reduced which
means the converter output voltages have been correspondingly reduced in
magnitude.
Figure 10-24(c) illustrates an ignition delay angle of 60°, which further reduces
the converter output voltage. Figure 10-24(d) is for an ignition delay angle of
90°. In a six-pulse converter, an ignition delay angle of 90° leads to a zero output
voltage. Note in Figure 10-24(d) that half of areas “A”, “B”, and “C” are above

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the zero axis line and half below. The average value of the converter output
voltage is therefore zero.
The ignition delay angle’s impact on the DC output voltage magnitude of an
HVDC converter can be stated in terms of this simple equation: This simple
equation is modified
VDC−α = VDC−0 × cosα later to account for
the effects of the
This equation also predicts what happens as the ignition delay angle is raised overlap angle.
above 90° and increased towards 180°. The polarity of the converter output With an ignition
voltage reverses. Figure 10-25 illustrates ignition delay angles of 90°, 120°, 150°, delay angle of 180°
and 180°. Note how the converter output voltage is zero at 90° and then rises to the voltage is at its
its greatest possible negative value at 180°. greatest negative
magnitude but it is
meaningless, as
commutation cannot
take place with this
large a delay angle.

Figure 10-25. Six-Pulse Converter Ignition Delay Angles of 90° - 180°

As the ignition delay angle rises above 90°, the polarity of the converter output
voltage reverses. The extinction advance angle (γ) is equal to 180° minus the
ignition delay angle (α).

Ignition delay angles greater than 90° mean that the converter is operating as an
inverter instead of a rectifier. When operating as a rectifier a converter is
transmitting MW from the AC system to the DC system. When operating as an
inverter a converter is transmitting MW from the DC system to the AC system.

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The direction of the current flow cannot be switched in an HVDC system. To

change the power flow direction it is necessary to reverse the polarity of both
converter voltages. The ignition delay angle is the tool used to reverse the
converter output voltage polarity. By adjusting a converter’s ignition delay angle
a converter can be switched between operating as a rectifier and operating as an
inverter.
The ignition delay
angle (α) is an When a converter is operated as a rectifier the term ignition delay angle (α) is
operating used to state the number of degrees of ignition delay. When a converter is
characteristic of a operated as an inverter the term extinction advance angle or “γ” (Greek letter
rectifier. The
extinction advance gamma) is used. The angle gamma is equal to 180° minus the angle alpha (γ =
angle (γ) is an 180° - α).
operating
characteristic of an Typical values for the ignition delay angle (α) and the extinction advance angle
inverter. (γ) range from 15° to 25°. If either angle is too small (less than 5°) the
commutation process often fails. If either angle is too large the converter absorbs
too much reactive power from the AC system. These typical values are used to
provide a converter with enough angle adjustment range to respond to AC supply
system voltage deviations. A converter can make rapid adjustments to angle
magnitudes to control the DC system voltage level.
To summarize, the ignition delay angle is adjusted to control the magnitude of a
converter’s output voltage when it is operated as a rectifier. The extinction
advance angle is adjusted to control the magnitude of a converter’s output voltage
when it is operated as an inverter. The inverter voltage has a reversed polarity
when compared to the rectifier.
The two converters at the ends of an HVDC system must operate with the same
voltage polarity. MW flows from the high voltage to the low voltage in a DC
system. To achieve the same polarity, the rectifier and inverter end anodes and
cathodes have reversed connections. For example, if the rectifier end cathode is
connected to the HVDC line then the inverter end anode must be connected to the
HVDC line. This connection reversal ensures that both rectifier and inverter
operate with the same voltage polarity.

The Inversion Process

In the process of rectification, the converter creates a DC voltage by properly
timing the valve commutation process. Numerous valves conduct for brief
periods of time to produce the desired magnitude of DC voltage.
The inversion process is similar to rectification but has substantial differences. A
common misunderstanding is that the DC voltage at the inverter end of the HVDC
system is used to create a 3Φ AC voltage. This is incorrect, as an AC voltage
does not need to be created; the voltage is already present from the AC power
system to which the inverter connects.

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Commutation between valves during the inversion process is produced by the A strong AC source
voltages of the AC system that the inverter connects to. The extinction advance is important for
angle (γ) is adjusted to control the magnitude of the DC voltage at the inverter both the rectifier
end. Inverters require a strong AC source, as their valve commutation is and the inverter.
However, the
dependent on steady, dependable AC system voltage levels. inverter end is more
subject to operating
p The Effects of Commutation Overlap problems if the AC
source is too weak.
This chapter is intended only as an introduction to HVDC systems. Several of the
more complicated operating characteristics have been either simplified or ignored.
However, one additional concept is very important and is briefly described. This
is the concept of commutation overlap.
When valve commutation occurs, a switch is made between conducting valves.
Current flow is stopped in one valve and started in another. There is a natural
inductance in the electrical circuit in which valve commutation occurs. The
presence of inductance means that a valve’s current cannot be interrupted
instantaneously. In other words it takes time to turn off one valve and turn on
another. The net result is that during the commutation process, an overlap period
occurs in which both valves are conducting. During the overlap period, a phase-
to-phase fault exists for the time period it takes to completely stop the current in
one valve and start it in the next.
The term overlap angle is used to describe the length of the commutation overlap
period. The Greek letter “μ” (mu) symbolizes the overlap angle. A typical
overlap angle would be 15° to 25°. The overlap angle is similar to the ignition
delay angle in that it delays the valve commutation. However, the ignition delay
angle is an intentional angle while the overlap angle is a natural consequence of
inductive switching.
The overlap angle impacts the voltage produced by the converter. The following
equations account for the impact of the overlap angle (μ) on the converter output
voltage:

VDC − φ = VDC − 0 × cos φ

where:

cosφ=
(
cosα + cos α + μ )
2
These equations tell us that the converter output voltage (VDC-φ) is reduced by
both the ignition delay angle (α) and the overlap angle (μ). The overlap angle is
not controllable but the ignition delay angle is controllable. To control the DC
voltage magnitude, ignition delay angle adjustments are made with full
consideration that the overlap angle exists.

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q HVDC Reactive Power Usage

When commutation is delayed a phase angle separation is forced between the AC
The overlap angle
also impacts the system voltage and the converter current. Figure 10-26 illustrates the voltages
phase relationship and current at a converter’s AC source. When the ignition delay angle is 0° the
but this effect is AC voltage and the converter input current are in-phase with one another. When
ignored in Figure a 30° delay angle is used (see Figure 10-26(b)) the current drawn from the AC
10-26.
system lags the AC voltage by 30°. This lagging current makes a converter
appear to the AC system as a lagging power factor load.

The delay angle

forces the current to
lag behind the
voltage. As the
delay angle rises
towards 90°, the
converter becomes
more of a lagging
load.

Figure 10-26. Phase Displacement in an HVDC Converter

A converter is typically a user of reactive power. It does not matter whether the
converter is operating as a rectifier or as an inverter; the converter is still a
lagging load as far as the AC system is concerned. If a converter is operating
with a delay angle of 90°, it does not draw MW from the AC system, only Mvar.
When operating with a 90° delay angle a converter is the equivalent of a shunt
reactor.
A rule of thumb for determining the power factor of a converter is the expression:
Converter Power Factor ≈ cos α

This expression states that the power factor of an HVDC converter is

approximately equal to the cosine of the ignition delay angle.

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Note the approximate symbol (≈) in the above equation for the converter power
factor. A more exact relationship for the power factor of a converter would have
to account for the effects of the overlap angle. A power factor equation that
accounts for the ignition delay angle and the overlap angle is stated below:

cos α + cos ( α + μ )
Converter Power Factor =
2
This equation for the converter power factor tells us that the power factor is
impacted by both the ignition delay angle and the overlap angle. The greater the
ignition delay angle, the lower the power factor and the more converter Mvar
usage. The larger the overlap angle, the lower the power factor. The overlap
angle is dependent on the converter’s MW loading level. It follows that the
converter power factor is also dependent on the converter loading (MW) level. In
general, as the converter approaches its rated power level, it requires more Mvar
from the system.

Physical View of a Converter’s Reactive Power Usage

In Chapters 1 and 2 reactive power usage was explained in terms of storing
reactive power in magnetic fields. This same explanation can be used to describe
the usage of reactive power by an HVDC converter.
When commutation occurs, one valve is turned on and one valve is turned off.
The overlap angle defines the time lapse in which this valve switching process
occurs. For the length of the overlap angle, a phase-to-phase fault is occurring.
The electrical circuit during this phase-to-phase fault includes the inductance of
the AC supply transformers windings. During the commutation overlap period,
large currents flow through the transformer’s inductance, which explains the
Mvar usage of the converter.
The Mvar usage is also impacted by the ignition delay angle. Without an ignition
delay angle, the valves commutate solely based on anode and cathode voltage
levels. When commutation occurs without an ignition delay angle, the voltage
across a valve is zero at the instant of commutation. When commutation occurs
with an ignition delay angle, a large voltage difference exists across a valve when
commutation occurs. This large voltage difference leads to greater current flows
during the commutation overlap period and more Mvar usage by the converter.

r Control of HVDC Power Flow

The control of the MW flow level in an HVDC system is a complex process.
Only the basic concepts are reviewed in this final section on HVDC.
As stated earlier, HVDC MW flow is a function of the voltage magnitudes at the
ends of the HVDC system. DC MW flows from the high voltage point to the low
voltage point. The greater the separation between the terminal DC voltage
magnitudes, the more MW that flows. To control the magnitude of the DC MW
flow, the HVDC control systems manipulate the terminal voltage magnitudes.

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The primary devices for controlling the converter voltage magnitudes are the
AC supply transformer ULTCs and the converter ignition delay and extinction
advance angles. The ULTC control is a course control while the angle control is a
fine control. For rapid changes to DC MW flow levels, angle control is used.
Figure 10-27 is a simple illustration of MW flow control in an HVDC system.
MW is flowing from the rectifier end to the inverter end. The rectifier end
voltage level is maintained by adjusting ULTC tap positions and by adjusting the
ignition delay angle (α). The inverter end voltage level is maintained by
adjusting ULTC tap positions and by adjusting the extinction advance angle (γ).
Figure 10-27 follows on the next page.

Figure 10-27. HVDC MW Flow Control

10.2 PST Construction and Operation
PSTs are also Phase shifting transformers or PSTs are a tool for controlling the flow of MW.
referred to as phase PST taps are adjusted to vary the magnitude of the angle (voltage phase angle)
angle regulators or across the transformer. If the angle across a transformer can be adjusted, the MW
PARs.
flow on the conducting path that includes the PST and any parallel paths can be
controlled.

10.2.1 Introduction to PSTs

PSTs were briefly Figure 10-28 illustrates a possible use for a PST. Assume that 530 MW of MW
described in enters a bus with two possible output paths. One path is via a higher impedance
Chapter 3. overhead line while the other is a lower impedance underground line. Assume
that each line has a 300 MW thermal rating. The power flow splits according to
the relative path impedance. In this example 440 MW flows in the underground
and 90 MW in the overhead.

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The underground conductor is overloaded while the overhead conductor has spare
capacity. As a system operator you must reduce the loading on the underground
path. One option is to reduce the total system loading below 530 MW until the
underground path flow is below 300 MW. This is not a good option, as it does
not fully utilize the overhead path.
An alternative (though expensive) option is to install a PST in the underground
cable path. The voltage phase angle difference across the PST could then be
adjusted until the flow on the underground cable is reduced below 300 MW. The
MW removed from the underground path is pushed to a parallel path. In this
example the only parallel path is the overhead line. The use of the PST allows the
system operator to make full use of both the overhead and underground portions
of the power system.

Prior to the use of

the PST the angle
was 5° across both
lines. After the PST
taps were adjusted
the overhead line
has a 13.5° angle
and the
underground line
has a 3.5° angle.
The PST itself has a
10° angle.

Figure 10-28. Use of a PST

PSTs are an expensive piece of equipment. PSTs are typically not used until all
other options for MW flow control have been exhausted. A less costly alternative
to the scenario of Figure 10-28 would have been the installation of a series reactor
in the cable path.

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10.2.2 Construction of PSTs

The construction of a PST is illustrated in Figure 10-29. Three phases of the input
voltage (VA-VB-VC) are illustrated and only one phase (Va) of the output voltage.
(Only one phase of the output is shown to reduce the clutter in the figure.) The
exciting windings of the PST are energized by the three input voltages. Note that
the exciting windings are connected in a delta configuration. The voltage
connected across each coil of the exciting windings is a phase-to-phase voltage.
The exciting windings each induce a voltage in their magnetically linked series
winding.

This is one possible

design for a PST,
there are other
options.

Figure 10-29. Varying Construction of a PST

The voltage induced in each series winding is 90° out-of-phase with one of the
input voltages (VA, VB, or VC). For example, the voltage VB-C is 90° out-of-phase
with the voltage VA. Figure 10-30 illustrates the phase relationship between the
input voltages and the voltages induced in the series windings of the PST. In the
figure, the angle of the voltage VBC is determined by connecting a line from the
end of phasor VB to the end of phasor VC. Note that this line is at a 90° angle to
the input voltage VA.

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Figure 10-30. Phase Angles in a PST

The output voltage Va is equal to the input voltage VA plus a portion of the
voltage induced in the series winding. The vector diagram in Figure 10-31
illustrates this addition. A small voltage (from the series winding) is added to
each input voltage. The output voltages that result are each shifted in phase. The
amount of the phase shift depends on how large the series voltage is. The
magnitude of the series voltage that is added or subtracted is controlled by a tap
changer in the series winding.
A tap changer is used in a PST to vary the polarity and magnitude of the series
voltage. A typical PST tap changer might allow a ±30° phase shift. The tap
changer may have 32 positions. Each position is equal to a different total phase
shift value and a corresponding amount of MW flow change. (An illustration of
how a PST changes MW flow is provided in the next section.) A system operator
often has SCADA control over the PST tap position. If a change to MW flow is
desired the tap changer is adjusted to accomplish the desired change.
The term
Figure 10-31 was constructed to further illustrate the angle shift in a PST. This quadrature means
figure is also used to relate PST tap changes to conventional transformer tap at a right angle.
When a quadrature
changing for voltage magnitude control. In a PST a ± quadrature (90°) voltage voltage is added it
is added to each of the incoming phase voltages. This voltage addition changes has a 90° phase
the voltage angle. (There is also a slight change to the voltage magnitude.) difference to the
voltage it is being
added to. This is
where the symbol
“Q” derives for
reactive power. The
Mvar is in
quadrature to the
MW.

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The general label of

“regulating
transformer”
applies to both
conventional tap
changing
transformers and
phase shifting
transformers.

Figure 10-31. Phasor Diagram for Regulating Transformers

A conventional transformer tap changer also adds a component of voltage to the
incoming phase voltage. This voltage is added in ± series with the phase voltage.
Both types of transformers work on the same principal. It is the phase
relationship of the added voltage to the incoming voltage that makes one a PST
and the other a conventional load tap changer.
Note the circles surrounding the tips of the phase voltage vectors in Figure 10-31.
The figure assumes that a conventional tap changer is used to add up to a ±10%
series voltage and that a PST is used to add a quadrature voltage with up to a ±30°
phase shift. It is possible to construct such a transformer that includes tap
changing for both phase shifting and voltage magnitude adjustment. This
transformer type could adjust each phase voltage to any point within the circles of
Figure 10-31.

10.2.3 Operations of PSTs

Figures 10-32, 10-33, and 10-34 are used to illustrate how a PST controls the MW
flow in a path. In Figure 10-32 600 MW of power is splitting between two lines.
One line has a 40 Ω impedance while the other a 60 Ω impedance. This
impedance mismatch leads to 40% of the MW flow over one line and 60% over
the other. A PST is installed in the upper line and its tap position adjusted to
make the MW flow in both lines equal to 300 MW.

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Figure 10-32. PST Operation – Part A

Figure 10-32 illustrates how the MW transfer equation is used to calculate the
angle across the system (without the PST). The angle must be the same across
both lines as they have a common bus at each end. The initial angle is calculated
to be 15.8°.
In Figure 10-33, a PST is installed in the upper line. The phase angle shift
degrees from the PST are assigned the symbol “α” (alpha). The MW transfer
equation is used to calculate the required PST tap to make both line flows equal
300 MW. The angle across the bottom line is “δ”. The angle across the top line
and PST is “δ - α”. The solution of the two equations yields a value for δ of 19.9°
and a value for α of 6.8°. Note that the angle across line #1 is now 13.1° and
across line #2 19.9°. The MW flows across each line are now matched.

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Figure 10-33. PST Operation – Part B

Figure 10-34 illustrates how the impact of a PST can be viewed in terms of a
circulating MW flow. Initially this simple system had 360 MW in the upper line
and 240 MW in the lower line. The PST angle adjustment can be viewed as
having created a counterclockwise circulating flow of 60 MW. The total MW
flow in the upper line is now 360 - 60 = 300 MW and in the lower line 240 + 60 =
300 MW.
Recall from Chapter 3 the equations for MW and Mvar power flow. Both types
of power flow are dependent on the angle. MW flow was more dependent than
Mvar flow for the angle range in which power systems are typically operated.
When the PST changes the angle it changes the system’s MW flow. Mvar flow is
also impacted. In the previous example if the Mvar flows had been calculated
greater Mvar flow would be seen into line #2 once the tap change was completed.
The greater Mvar flow is required to support the increased line #2 MW flow. In
addition, the PST itself is a user of Mvar (for magnetic field) and MW (for power
losses).

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PST operation can

be viewed as
intentionally
creating a
circulating MW
flow. There is only
one power flow per
line. The circulating
component concept
illustrates how the
two line MW flows
are changed by a
PST angle
adjustment.

Figure 10-34. PST Operation – Part C

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10.3 Summary of Equipment

10.3.1 Introduction to HVDC Systems

Î HVDC systems are used to transmit energy using DC voltage and
current.

10.3.2 Types of HVDC Systems

Î A monopolar system uses one conductor energized with a DC voltage
and a return path.
Î A bipolar system uses two DC poles. One pole is energized with a
positive voltage and the other with a negative voltage. The return path
may be the earth, the ocean, or a wire conductor.

10.3.3 Components of an HVDC System

Î An HVDC transmission line has a similar design to an AC transmission
line.
Î A mercury arc valve (MAV) is a rapid switch that uses older tube based
technologies. A thyrister is a solid-state device that has replaced the
MAV in modern HVDC converters.
Î Several valves can be combined in an electrical circuit to form a
converter. There are many types of converters.
Î DC power flow magnitude is controlled by adjusting the converter
(inverter and rectifier) voltages.
Î Smoothing reactors are used to reduce the ripple in the DC output
voltages.
Î HVDC converters are equipped with filter banks to absorb the harmonics
before they can impact power system operation.
Î To ensure a low impedance connection to earth or to the ocean a
grounding electrode is available at each converter station.
Î As a rough rule of thumb for each MW of HVDC system capacity, the
two HVDC converters absorb one Mvar of reactive power.

10.3.4 Operation of an HVDC System

Î Converters can operate in a mode in which the valves turn on and off
solely based on relative voltage magnitudes (self commutation) but
gate/grid control is a more powerful and flexible mode of operation.
Î The angle by which the valve firing is delayed is called the ignition delay
angle. The ignition delay angle is represented by the symbol α.

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Î In an inverter the term extinction advance angle or γ is used instead of

the ignition delay angle. The relationship between γ and α is: γ =180°-α.
Î When commutating between valves, the inductive nature of the resulting
electrical circuit prevents instantaneous switching. The length of the
commutation overlap period is stated using the overlap angle μ.
Î The ignition delay angle’s impact on the output voltage magnitude of an
HVDC converter can be estimated in terms of this simple equation:
VDC−α = VDC−0 × cos α

Î If we ignore the effects of the overlap angle (μ), the power factor of a
converter is approximately equal to:
Converter Power Factor ≈ cos α

10.3.5 Introduction to PSTs

Î Phase shifting transformers or PSTs are a tool for controlling the MW
flow. PST taps are adjusted to vary the magnitude of the voltage phase
angle across the transformer.

10.3.6 Construction of PSTs

Î In a PST a quadrature voltage is added to each of the incoming phase
voltages. This voltage addition changes the voltage phase angle.

10.3.7 Operation of PSTs

Î PSTs can be viewed as intentionally creating a circulating MW flow.
This circulating MW flow increases the flow in one path and decreases
the flow in parallel paths.

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10.4 Equipment Questions

1. Which type of HVDC system has two conductors, one energized with a
positive voltage and one with a negative voltage?

A. Semipolar
B. Bipolar
C. Unipolar
D. Monopolar

2. Thyrister and mercury-arc are types of __________ in HVDC converters.

A. Transformers
B. Electrodes
C. Valves
D. Filters

3. A twelve-pulse converter has twelve pulses in its DC output per:

A. Commutation of the converter

B. Cycle of the HVDC converter from no load to full load
C. Change of the firing angle from 0 to 30 degrees
D. Cycle of the incoming AC voltage

4. An HVDC converter firing angle is used to:

A. Delay inversion
B. Delay commutation
C. Delay conversion
D. Delay rectification

5. A phase shifting transformer controls MW flow by:

A. Controlling the firing angle

B. Controlling the phase angle between voltage and current
C. Controlling the voltage phase angle across the transformer
D. Controlling the phase angle between current and voltage

6. The voltage added to the incoming voltage to be regulated is added in

__________ in a phase shifting transformer and added in __________ in a
voltage regulating transformer.

A. series / quadrature
B. series / series
C. quadrature / quadrature
D. quadrature / series

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7. Several HVDC systems are used to electrically connect the Eastern and
Western Interconnections of North America. Since both Interconnections
are 60 HZ systems, why would HVDC be used?

A. Because even though both Interconnection’s frequencies are

scheduled for 60 HZ, large voltage phase angles and small
frequency differences do exist.
B. Because the lines connecting the Interconnections are long enough
to justify HVDC system cost.
C. Because the lines connecting the Interconnections are short enough
for justifying the HVDC system cost.
D. Because HVDC systems are always less costly to build than an
equivalent AC system.

8. When compared to an AC transmission system with the same MW

transfer, the same insulation levels, and with the same size conductors,
HVDC transmission system losses are approximately 33% lower than AC
system losses.

A. True
B. False

9. The functions of an HVDC system smoothing reactor include all the

following EXCEPT:

A. Reducing DC ripple
B. Reducing DC fault duty
C. Assisting with the commutation process
D. Filtering the AC harmonics

10. A 200 MW HVDC system is installed next to a 138 kV AC substation.

The three-phase fault duty of the 138 kV must be at least _____ MVA.

A. 67-100
B. 101-201
C. 400-600
D. 1000 or greater

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10.5 Equipment References

1. Power System Stability and Control⎯A volume in the EPRI Power System
Engineering Series. Written by Mr. Prabha Kundur and published by
McGraw-Hill in 1994.
Î Contains a well written chapter on HVDC systems. This text was the
primary reference for the HVDC material in this Chapter.
2. Electrical Power System⎯Textbook written by Mr. Mohamed E. El-Hawary.
Published by IEEE Press, 1995.
Î An advanced text that includes a chapter on HVDC systems.
3. Electric Energy Systems Theory – An Introduction⎯Textbook written by Mr.
Olle I. Elgerd. Published by McGraw-Hill in 1982.
Î This entire text is excellent reading. Chapter 5, Power Transformers, was
especially useful in developing the PST material in this Chapter.

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POWER SYSTEM RESTORATION

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POWER SYSTEM RESTORATION

SECTION OVERVIEWS
11.1 Introduction to Power System Restoration
An introduction to the theory of power system restoration and the methods used
to restore a power system.
11.2 Voltage Control and System Restoration
An explanation of voltage control theory and practice during power system
restoration.
11.3 Frequency Control and System Restoration
An explanation of frequency control theory and practice during power system
restoration.
11.4 Equipment Issues Related to System Restoration
A description of the unique equipment issues that may be encountered during
power system restoration conditions.
11.5 Protective Relay Issues Related to System Restoration
A description of the unique protective relay issues that may be encountered during
power system restoration conditions.
11.6 Synchronizing and System Restoration
An explanation of the synchronizing issues that may be encountered during power
system restoration conditions.
11.7 Lessons Learned from Actual System Restorations
A summary of lessons learned from restoration events that have occurred in
North American power systems.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

11.1 Introduction to Power System Restoration ...................................... 11-1

11.1.1 Definition of a Restoration Condition ....................................... 11-1
11.1.2 Causes of System Shutdowns................................................. 11-2
11.1.3 Overview of Key Technical Restoration Issues ....................... 11-9
11.1.4 Restoration Planning ............................................................. 11-12
11.2 Voltage Control and System Restoration ...................................... 11-20
11.2.1 Voltage Control as a Local Issue........................................... 11-20
11.2.2 Review of Voltage Related Restoration Theory..................... 11-21
11.2.3 Voltage Control in Restoration Conditions............................. 11-25
11.2.4 Operation of the System at Reduced Voltage ....................... 11-29
11.2.5 Voltage Based Automatic Load Shedding ............................. 11-30
11.3 Frequency Control and System Restoration ................................. 11-30
11.3.1 Frequency Control as an Interconnection Issue .................... 11-30
11.3.2 Maintaining Frequency during Restoration Conditions.......... 11-32
11.3.3 Usage of Governors to Control Frequency............................ 11-35
11.3.4 AGC and System Restoration ............................................... 11-39
11.3.5 Connecting Islands ................................................................ 11-41
11.3.6 Cold Load Pick-Up Concerns ................................................ 11-41
11.3.7 Maintaining Operating Reserves during Restoration
Conditions ............................................................................................. 11-45
11.3.8 Load Curtailment ................................................................... 11-47
11.4 Equipment Issues Related to System Restoration ........................ 11-50
11.4.1 Substation Stored Energy...................................................... 11-50
11.4.2 Pipe-Type Cable Systems ..................................................... 11-52
11.4.3 Lightning Arresters ................................................................ 11-54
11.4.4 Transformers ......................................................................... 11-55
11.4.5 Circuit Breakers and Restoration Conditions......................... 11-59
11.4.6 Telecommunication Systems and SCADA ............................ 11-61
11.4.7 Generators and Power System Restoration .......................... 11-62

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11.4.8 Usage of Emergency Generators ..........................................11-69

11.5 Protective Relay Issues Related to System Restoration ...............11-71
11.5.1 Restoration Conditions and Protective Relaying....................11-71
11.5.2 System-Wide Protective Relay Issues ...................................11-73
11.5.3 Transmission Line Protection.................................................11-79
11.5.4 Generator Relays...................................................................11-83
11.6 Synchronizing and System Restoration.........................................11-87
11.6.1 Review of Synchronizing Theory ...........................................11-87
11.6.2 Synchronizing Equipment ......................................................11-88
11.6.3 Synchronizing Examples........................................................11-90
11.6.4 Guidelines for Synchronizing Islanded Systems....................11-91
11.7 Lessons Learned From Actual System Restorations.....................11-93
11.7.1 Problems with Backup Power Sources ..................................11-93
11.7.2 Problems with Black-Start Capable Generators ....................11-93
11.7.3 Problems with Circuit Breakers..............................................11-93
11.7.4 Problems with Telecommunications ......................................11-93
11.7.5 Problems with Computers......................................................11-93
11.7.6 Problems with DC Control Circuitry and Interlock Schemes..11-94
11.7.7 Problems with the Frequency Control Process......................11-94
11.7.8 Problems with the EMS Man-Machine Interface (MMI) .........11-94
11.7.9 Problems with Protective Relays ...........................................11-94
11.7.10 Problems with Special Protection Systems (SPS).................11-95
11.7.11 Problems with Transmission System Design ........................11-95
11.7.12 Problems Encountered During System Operations...............11-95
11.7.13 Problems with System Operator Training..............................11-95
11.7.14 Problems with the Voltage Control Process ..........................11-95
11.8 Summary of Power System Restoration........................................11-96
11.8.1 Definition of a Restoration Condition .....................................11-96
11.8.2 Causes of System Shutdowns ...............................................11-96
11.8.3 Overview of Key Technical Restoration Issues......................11-96
11.8.4 Restoration Planning..............................................................11-97
11.8.5 Voltage Control as a Local Issue ...........................................11-97
11.8.6 Review of Voltage Related Restoration Theory .....................11-97
11.8.7 Voltage Control in Restoration Conditions .............................11-97

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11.8.8 Operation of the System at Reduced Voltage ....................... 11-98

11.8.9 Voltage Based Automatic Load Shedding ............................. 11-98
11.8.10 Frequency Control as an Interconnection Issue .................... 11-98
11.8.11 Maintaining Frequency During Restoration Conditions ......... 11-98
11.8.12 Usage of Governors to Control Frequency............................ 11-98
11.8.13 AGC and System Restoration ............................................... 11-99
11.8.14 Connecting Islands................................................................ 11-99
11.8.15 Cold Load Pick-Up Concerns ................................................ 11-99
11.8.16 Maintaining Operating Reserves During Restoration
Conditions 11-99
11.8.17 Load Curtailment ................................................................... 11-99
11.8.18 Substation Stored Energy ................................................... 11-100
11.8.19 Pipe-Type Cable Systems................................................... 11-100
11.8.20 Lightning Arresters .............................................................. 11-100
11.8.21 Transformers ....................................................................... 11-100
11.8.22 Circuit Breakers and Restoration Conditions ...................... 11-100
11.8.23 Telecommunication Systems and SCADA .......................... 11-100
11.8.24 Generators and Power System Restoration........................ 11-101
11.8.25 Usage of Emergency Generators........................................ 11-101
11.8.26 Restoration Conditions and Protective Relaying ................. 11-101
11.8.27 System-Wide Protective Relay Issues ................................ 11-101
11.8.28 Transmission Line Protection .............................................. 11-102
11.8.29 Generator Relays ................................................................ 11-102
11.8.30 Review of Synchronizing Theory......................................... 11-102
11.8.31 Synchronizing Equipment.................................................... 11-103
11.8.32 Synchronizing Examples ..................................................... 11-103
11.8.33 Guidelines for Synchronizing Islanded Systems ................. 11-103
11.8.34 Lessons Learned from Actual System Restorations ........... 11-103
11.9 Power System Restoration Questions......................................... 11-104
11.10 Power System Restoration References ...................................... 11-107

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 11-1. Three Types of Restoration Condition ......................................11-2

Figure 11-2. Concept of Angle Instability Using a Phasor Diagram ..............11-3
Figure 11-3. Michigan and Ontario Out-of-Step Condition ............................11-4
Figure 11-4. Voltage Stability MW & Mvar Margins.......................................11-6
Figure 11-5. Ice Accumulation on Transmission Conductor..........................11-7
Figure 11-6. Summary of GMD Cause and Impact .......................................11-8
Figure 11-7. Phases of the Restoration Process.........................................11-15
Figure 11-8. Substation and Individual Feeder Restoration Priority ............11-19
Figure 11-9. Ferranti Effect Open-End Percent Voltage Rise .....................11-21
Figure 11-10. Diagram of a Generator’s Excitation Control System ..............11-23
Figure 11-11. Reactive Capability Curve .......................................................11-24
Figure 11-12. ULTC Usage in Normal and Restoration Conditions ...............11-28
Figure 11-13. Plot of a Frequency Disturbance .............................................11-31
Figure 11-14. Steam Turbine Frequency Operating Limits ............................11-33
Figure 11-15. 300 MW Unit with 5% Droop Responding to Frequency Drop.11-36
Figure 11-16. Isochronous Governor Response to Frequency Drop .............11-38
Figure 11-17. Tie-Line Frequency Bias Control ACE Calculation ..................11-40
Figure 11-18. Illustration of Cold-Load Pick-Up .............................................11-44
Figure 11-19. UFLS Illustration ......................................................................11-49
Figure 11-20. Pipe-Type Cable Design..........................................................11-53
Figure 11-21. Pipe-Type Cable Photograph ..................................................11-53
Figure 11-22. Transformer In-Rush Current ..................................................11-56
Figure 11-23. Energizing Back-to-Back Transformers ...................................11-57
Figure 11-24. Transformer Over-Excitation ...................................................11-58
Figure 11-25. DC Control Schematic for a CB...............................................11-60
Figure 11-26. Steam Turbine Abnormal Frequency Limits ............................11-66
Figure 11-27. Reduced Fault Current Levels.................................................11-73
Figure 11-28. Operation of a UFLS Scheme .................................................11-74
Figure 11-29. CB Closing DC Control Logic Circuitry ....................................11-77
Figure 11-30. Use of a Fault Detector in a Distance Scheme........................11-80
Figure 11-31. Imbalanced Phase Conductors and Transposition ..................11-84
Figure 11-32. Large Standing Power Angle...................................................11-87
Figure 11-33. A Synch Panel .........................................................................11-89
Figure 11-34. Synchronizing Two Islanded Systems .....................................11-90
Figure 11-35. Establishing the Second Transmission Link ............................11-91

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11.1 Introduction to Power System Restoration

A system operator may seldom encounter power system restoration conditions in
the course of their careers. However, all system operators must be capable of
operating the power system properly under the unique circumstances of a system
restoration. This chapter provides background information and an explanation of
the system restoration process. Many of the topics presented in this chapter were
introduced in earlier chapters of this text. This chapter addresses these topics
from a restoration perspective.
This chapter describes the issues involved in system restoration and the typical
approaches utilized during a power system restoration. This material is intended NERC mandates
to be generic; this material is not intended to be specific to any individual system. that every
Each and every transmission system operator must develop their own restoration transmission system
operator develop its
plans that detail their unique restoration issues. own specific
11.1.1 Definition of a Restoration Condition restoration plan.

Power systems occasionally experience the failure of individual elements.

Typically, although some operating security limit violations may occur, the
remainder of the power system stays intact following the loss of individual
elements. Common events of this nature are not considered a restoration
condition.
In some instances, a disturbance may result in large portions of the power system
collapsing, losing both voltage and frequency. Following these type disturbances,
the power system must be restored to an energized and interconnected state.
Under these conditions a power system restoration condition exists.
Restoration conditions span a broad range of circumstances. In actual practice, a
major system disturbance typically creates a variety of restoration conditions for
the power systems involved. The various restoration conditions are categorized
into three main groups. The three groups are illustrated in Figure 11-1 and
described as follows:

Total System Blackout

A total system blackout is a post-disturbance condition in which the entire power
system of a particular entity is de-energized. In a total system blackout all pre-
disturbance on-line generating units have tripped off-line.

Partial System Blackout

A partial blackout is a post-disturbance condition in which a portion of the power
system of a particular entity is de-energized. The loss of a single substation or
single generating station is normally not referred to as a partial blackout. In a
partial blackout, portions of the power system remain energized.

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 Power System Restoration

Islanded System
An islanded power system occurs when, following a disturbance; pockets of
generation remain operational but isolated from the remainder of the power
system. Typically some portion of the initial customer load is still served in the
isolated, islanded system.

Figure 11-1. Three Types of Restoration Condition

11.1.2 Causes of System Shutdowns
Designing and
operating to Power systems are designed and operated to withstand the single most severe
withstand the contingency. The single most severe contingency typically leads to the loss of
occurrence of the
single most severe
single elements and occasionally the loss of multiple elements. When equipment
contingency is failures and system disturbances occur, system protection and control equipment
called “N-1” normally responds to disconnect faulted equipment and take appropriate remedial
operations, where action to preserve the power system. As a result of design and operating
“N-1” means standards that are currently in place, power system shutdowns occur infrequently.
Normal minus 1.
This section provides an explanation of some of the factors that can cause power
system shutdowns.

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Angle Instability
Chapter 7 described the issues involved in maintaining angle stability and the
causes of angle instability. (Figure 11-2 illustrates the concept of angle instability
using a phasor diagram to simulate the uncontrolled growth of the voltage phase
angle.) Normally power system angle stability limits are clearly identified and the
appropriate operating procedures are in place to ensure angle stability limits are
not exceeded. However, given a necessary sequence of events angle instability
can occur, resulting in major system disturbances possibly including: generator
tripping, system separation, and system shutdown.

Figure 11-2. Concept of Angle Instability Using a Phasor Diagram

Figure 11-3 contains a plot of the voltage, MW flow, and Mvar flow from the The August 14,
230 kV transmission system that connects Michigan (Detroit area) to Ontario, 2003 outage was the
Canada. This plot indicates that Michigan pulled out-of-step with Ontario on largest loss of load
August 14, 2003. The system lost synchronism only after many high voltage ever in the NERC
power systems.
transmission lines in Ohio and Michigan had first tripped. Note how the MW
flow swings from approximately 3,800 from Ontario to Michigan to 2,000 from
Michigan to Ontario in a one second period from 16:10:39 to 16:10:40.

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Figure 11-3. Michigan and Ontario Out-of-Step Condition

The MW transfer equation was first developed in Chapter 3 and was stated as:

VS × VR
PS− R = sin δ S− R
X S− R
Recall that PMAX is
equal to the product This equation tells us that the potential for angle instability increases as
of the voltages
divided by the
impedance increases and system voltages decline. As the quantity PMAX
impedance. decreases, the angle required for a given MW transfer increases.
Unusual system configurations, such as substation bus outages, can increase
system impedance and/or reduce voltages. The outage of transmission lines and
transformers can also increase system impedance and/or reduce voltage. Normal
operating procedures may not ensure angle stability given the occurrence of
maintenance or forced outage conditions.
For a generator to maintain synchronism with the power system, the machine’s
field winding must receive adequate DC excitation current under all operating
conditions. When a generator’s voltage regulator is placed in a manual mode, the
Recall from Chapter ability of the generator to remain angle stable is reduced, especially if a system
8 that a PSS is used fault occurs. Improperly adjusted voltage regulators and the voltage regulator’s
to dampen power associated power system stabilizer (PSS) can also contribute to angle instability.
system oscillations.
Removal of high-speed protection schemes from service results in generator
acceleration for a longer period of time during fault conditions. Likewise removal
of high-speed transmission line reclosing schemes lengthens the time before
system impedance is reduced following a disturbance, increasing the potential for
angle instability. Transmission line synch-check relays may be set so narrowly
that they prevent the prompt reclosing of critical equipment following a system
disturbance thereby increasing the potential for angle instability.

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Equipment Overload
The overload of equipment can result in the equipment’s failure or tripping via
protective relaying. Equipment overloads normally occur when the system is
already stressed as the result of the prior removal from service of key facilities or
during high load conditions. The failure or tripping of overloaded equipment
under stressed system conditions can lead to a power system shutdown.

Switching Errors
The switching process involves the safe and orderly removal or rearrangement of
power system equipment. Most switching is done in the substation. Switching
errors may result in the removal from service of important load serving facilities.
Switching errors can also create system faults (due to the switching process itself
or due to the unintentional grounding of energized equipment) resulting in the
removal of facilities from service by protective relaying. Switching errors can
create overloads on the remaining system equipment.

Cascading Outages
Once an overloaded facility in a system either fails or is removed from service by
protective relaying, the load the facility was initially carrying moves to other
system facilities. As a result of this redistribution of load, other system facilities
may become overloaded. These overloaded facilities may in turn either fail or be
removed from service by protective relaying. This repeated, uncontrolled cycle of
overload and equipment failure/removal from service is called a cascading outage.
When very large disturbances occur cascading failure is usually part of the event.

Generator Overload
Generators that overload may be damaged while in-service or trip due to
protective relaying prior to any damage occurring. When evaluating a generator
overload, both MW and Mvar loading are monitored as both power values
determine the generator’s MVA loading. The potential for generator damage is
increased if operation is at an abnormal frequency (high or low) or at an excessive
voltage. The loss of significant generation under stressed system conditions may
precipitate a system shutdown. In many disturbances the generator’s Mvar
response is the cause of the generator overload. The system needs the Mvar to
support depressed voltages but the generator can be damaged if it exceeds its
MVA limits.

Voltage Instability
Chapter 6 explained
Voltage collapse is a phenomenon that can result in a system shutdown the concept and
and/or system separation, placing the system in a restoration condition. described the
Figure 11-4 reviews the concept of voltage stability from the point of view process of voltage
of maintaining adequate MW and Mvar margins from the possible point of instability.
voltage collapse.

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Figure 11-4. Voltage Stability MW & Mvar Margins

Natural Phenomena
Power systems are designed to withstand the majority of the anticipated natural
phenomena that occur in a particular area. However, severe natural phenomena
can exceed design standards and system failures and shutdowns sometimes
occur. Some types of natural phenomena are so severe that it would be nearly
impossible⎯and certainly not cost effective⎯to design the system to withstand
such events.

Weather
Severe ice storms are one example of weather having the capability of shutting
down a power system. For example, from January 5 to the 10, 1998 a series
of ice storms hit the northeastern portion of North America. The ice storms
resulted in the accumulation of large amounts of ice on power system equipment
(Figure 11-5 illustrates the ice loading on a transmission line conductor in
Quebec.) and led to the failure of facilities ranging from 765 kV transmission
to low voltage distribution from the weight of the ice.
Although numerous transmission facilities failed, the bulk transmission system
remained largely intact. Customer outages were due primarily to the failure of
distribution facilities.

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Figure 11-5. Ice Accumulation on Transmission Conductor

Service to 1.4 million customers (which totaled approximately 8,500 MW of load)
was lost in Quebec, Canada. A portion of northern New York was operated as an
island for half a day and then for three subsequent days via a single tie-line to an
adjacent system.
Many transmission and distribution facilities were totally destroyed. Hundreds
of utility crews from local and neighboring power systems worked for weeks
assisting in the system restoration.

Earthquake
A severe earthquake can result in major and widespread damage to power
system facilities. Substation equipment in particular may be severely damaged.
Electromechanical relays may trip facilities falsely due to vibration from the
earthquake. For example, on October 17, 1989 a severe earthquake hit
California’s San Francisco Bay area. This earthquake (magnitude 7.1 on the
Richter scale) resulted in major damage to several key substations and the
immediate trip of a major generating unit.
Substation buses, circuit breakers, and transformer bushings were damaged.
The loss of key facilities resulted in the creation of an island in the San Francisco
area with a large generation to load imbalance. The imbalance caused a rapid
frequency decline. Generation within the island tripped and the island blacked
out within a few minutes.
Service was lost to 1.4 million customers, which amounted to approximately
4,150 MW of load. Service was restored to all but 70,000 customers within
48 hours.

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GMDs
Minor geo-magnetic disturbances (GMDs) occur on a regular basis as was stated
in Chapter 9. Figure 11-6 summarizes the cause of GMDs and their impact on the
power system. The major harm from GMDs results from low frequency GICs
(geomagnetic induced currents) entering the power system via the transformer
grounded neutrals. These currents can be so large that the transformers are
damaged and severe harmonics are produced.

Figure 11-6. Summary of GMD Cause and Impact

GMDs were
described in Severe GMD events, which can simultaneously affect numerous power systems,
Chapter 9. The have the potential of causing a system shutdown/separation. For example, on
Hydro Quebec
GMD event is also
March 13, 1989, a major GMD event occurred. This GMD created a widespread
presented as an disturbance in North America including the blackout of the Hydro Quebec system
example of GMDs and damage to generator step-up transformers at an eastern U.S. generating
in Chapter 9. station.
The tripping of seven SVCs within the Hydro Quebec system resulted in an
inability to control the transmission system. Transmission lines and generators
tripped resulting in a blackout of the system. Facilities damaged in the system
included transformers, surge arrestors, and a shunt reactor. Three electrical
islands were formed in the course of the disturbance. Power was restored to most
customers over the course of a nine-hour period.
The step-up transformer for a large nuclear unit was damaged from core magnetic
saturation during this GMD. The saturation occurred due to geomagnetic induced
currents (GICs) driving the step-up transformer into half-cycle saturation.

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Fires
Major fires can burn across key power system right-of-ways severing critical
transmission paths. The 500 kV transmission system in California has been
compromised several times in recent years due to grass fires in the right-of-way.
The system may not be able to withstand such an event especially if the situation
develops rapidly.

Additional System Shutdown Causes

Sabotage
Intentional damage or the sabotage of power system facilities can result in power
system failures/separations.

Control Systems
The inappropriate operation of system protection and control systems may cause
power system failures and separations. Equipment can trip when it should not
have been removed from service. Equipment that should be automatically
returned to service may not return due to control system failure or inappropriate
design and/or settings. Equipment may not be removed from service as promptly
or effectively as desired. For example, circuit breaker failure protection schemes
may fail to operate.

Right-of-Way Maintenance
A heavily loaded transmission line can sag into trees that have grown too tall
within the line’s right-of-way. The resulting line-to-ground fault trips the
transmission line. This type of event can be very serious as other transmission
elements in the system may be heavily loaded and could be impacted by the
sudden line loss. A cascading outage and partial or total system shutdown is
possible.
For example, two major outages that occurred in the WECC on July 2nd and
August 10th of 1996 can both be traced to insufficient tree trimming practices.
Major lines were lost due to tree contact starting a chain of events during both
disturbances that eventually blacked-out parts of the WECC and caused the entire
Western Interconnection to split into multiple islands.
11.1.3 Overview of Key Technical Restoration Issues
Operation of the power system in restoration conditions differs significantly from
normal system operation. Standard day-to-day operating practices are frequently
incorrect or inappropriate in restoration conditions. There are a number of unique
technical issues that should be considered in the course of restoration. This
section identifies some of the technical issues that warrant special consideration
during restoration conditions.

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Voltage Issues
The energizing of transmission lines and the switching of reactive equipment
under normal system conditions typically produces only modest incremental
changes to system voltages and reactive flows. Under restoration conditions, the
control of system voltages is often a very delicate control process. The switching
of a single element can create a runaway voltage condition, potentially resulting
in equipment damage and system shutdown.
Chapter 5 described
several runaway A runaway voltage condition occurs when available voltage and reactive control
voltage conditions capabilities are fully committed. This control capability deficiency can result in
including self- system voltages and transmission line Mvar production spiraling higher and
excitation of a
higher in a runaway condition. As each new transmission system element is
generator.
Runaway voltage switched in service, on-line generation must be able to absorb the new Mvar
conditions are more produced by the element while simultaneously maintaining voltages within
likely in a acceptable limits. Additionally the ULTC’s that are set in an automatic control
restoration mode may produce unacceptable high side voltage conditions. Voltage control
condition. issues during restoration conditions are further explored in Section 11.2.

Frequency Issues
The frequency in a large interconnected power system is normally very stable.
The tripping of generation and/or switching of customer load in a large
interconnected system usually have only a small impact on system frequency.
In contrast, during restoration conditions the control of frequency can be highly
challenging. With few generating units on-line, the pick-up of load can have a
significant impact on frequency. The load pick-up from the energization of only
a single distribution feeder can result in unacceptable frequency deviations,
potentially resulting in a system shutdown. The tripping of a generator in a
restoration condition may also result in unacceptable frequency and shutdown.
The planning for sufficient operating reserve levels and the recognition of the
dynamic frequency capabilities of available generators must be sufficiently
studied. Frequency control issues during restoration conditions are further
explored in Section 11.3.

Equipment Issues
There are many restoration issues involving power system equipment and the
control systems that support the operation of the power system. Equipment
related restoration problems range from the operation of substation equipment to
control center functions to telecommunication systems. Equipment may have
been damaged due to the initial disturbance or be damaged in the course of the
system shutdown. The loss of station service power immediately effects the
operation of some equipment (for example, the motors for ULTCs may not be
available due to loss of substation station service).

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Equipment impacts increase as the duration of the restoration event increases

because stored energy sources (for example, substation batteries) eventually
deplete. The need for some equipment functions may not be noticed until the
restoration condition has persisted for several hours. As time passes, the cooling
of the metal in some types of recently de-energized equipment (for example,
generator turbines) can evolve into a serious problem.
The operation of backup systems and equipment may require the dispatch of
personnel to remote sites. Moving the required personnel to remote sites may
take longer than normal in restoration conditions.

Protective Relaying and Control Issues

There are numerous issues that arise in a restoration condition with respect to
system protection and control equipment. For example, reduced fault current
levels during restoration conditions may result in protective relays failing to
detect and clear faults.
Substation and generator control system logic may compromise the ability of a
system operator to implement a desired restoration strategy. For example, DC
control logic circuitry may not permit a circuit breaker (CB) to close under certain
circumstances. In addition, the operation of some special purpose protection and
control schemes may be inappropriate for restoration conditions.

Power System Dynamic Issues

A power system in restoration conditions has increased exposure to a variety of
system dynamics issues. A power system in the early stages of restoration likely
experiences repeated disturbances as equipment is energized and load is picked-
up with reduced levels of on-line generation.

Angle Stability
Maintaining angle stability is a concern as weak systems are tied together and
generation is delivered to loads via weak transmission paths. During restoration
conditions, generating units are typically leading (absorbing Mvar) which results
in a relatively weak magnetic bound. Generators that are not in automatic voltage
regulator control may further aggravate any potential angle stability problem, as
the generators may not provide adequate voltage support.
On the plus side, in most instances the lower MW flows in the early stages of
restoration tend to keep torque and power angles small. Each system should be
evaluated for its susceptibility to angle stability problems during restoration
conditions and the appropriate operating procedures established.

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Resonance
The lightly loaded power systems that exist during restoration conditions have
high inductive reactance and significant natural capacitance. Large power
transformers must be energized at some point in the early stages of the restoration
process. This combination of factors is favorable for the initiation of a resonant
condition. Each system should be evaluated for its susceptibility to resonance
problems under restoration conditions and appropriate operating procedures
established.
Voltage levels may be very high during restoration conditions. High voltage can
cause power transformers to saturate. Saturated transformers increase the power
system’s harmonic content. High harmonic levels can trigger ferroresonance and
result in tripping or damage to important equipment.

Switching Surges
A power system in restoration conditions is lightly loaded and exposed to the
energization of large power transformers. Under these circumstances switching
surges (rapid increases in voltage and current) can create transient over voltages
(TOVs) that can potentially damage power system equipment. Each system
should be evaluated with respect to switching surges and their impact on system
equipment under restoration conditions. Appropriate operating procedures should
be established for controlling switching surge voltages.
11.1.4 Restoration Planning
The restoration of a power system is not only complex from a technical
perspective; the restoration process is also complex from an organizational
perspective. A restoration process involves the coordinated efforts of a large
number of personnel. The careful planning for a possible restoration condition is
critical to the success of any restoration effort.
Restoration planning has two aspects. The first aspect is the planning that must
Although a correct
restoration strategy be conducted well in advance of an actual restoration condition. The second
for a power system aspect is the real-time fine-tuning of the plan that is necessary for the successful
may appear to be management of a restoration condition.
obvious, careful
evaluation Each power system is unique and each must be studied to determine the best
frequently reveals approach for system restoration. Restoration planning should consider a full
serious deficiencies range of reasonable scenarios. The capabilities and limitations of generating units
in the intended
under restoration conditions must be carefully evaluated. Restoration approaches
restoration plan. It
may be impossible should be analyzed on a step-by-step basis. As each step is evaluated, potential
to implement a problems are considered, and appropriate solutions determined.
planned approach
due to unidentified The advance planning process frequently uncovers problems that would hinder
restoration the restoration. The modification of control systems, reconfiguration of power
problems. system elements, and the addition of new equipment are possible results of
thorough advance restoration planning.

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The restoration plan must coordinate with the restoration plans of other power
systems in the Interconnection. The Reliability Coordinator for the area to be
restored must be knowledgeable of all its member’s systems restoration plans.
Each power system’s operators should be knowledgeable of the restoration plans
of its neighbors and of their Reliability Coordinator.
A well documented restoration plan must be developed for each power system.
This restoration plan should describe alternate approaches for recovery from a
restoration condition. Key attributes of a well designed restoration plan include:
Î An organized approach to the restoration
Î Clear and concise documentation of the restoration strategy
Î Identification of all notification and organizational issues
Î Logistics planning
Î Explanation of key technical issues
Î Detailed plans for the reporting and dissemination of information
Î Methods for the tabulation of key restoration information
System operators must be competent in the application of their system’s
restoration plan. Restoration procedure drills must be conducted to familiarize
system operators with the procedures and to uncover any unexpected problems
associated with the restoration plan. Identified problems must be resolved and
appropriate changes made to the restoration plan.
Power systems and their support equipment and organization are constantly in
flux. Restoration plans must be periodically reviewed and updated to incorporate
necessary changes.

Goals of System Restoration

The various aspects of the restoration planning process are described in this
section. The general goals of a system restoration are:
Î A quick and accurate assessment of current power system conditions
Î The safe shutdown of generating facilities and avoidance of damage to
equipment
Î A prompt but secure restoration of generating resources and the restoration
of the minimum required transmission system, including the necessary
load to stabilize the system
Î The restoration of customer load in accordance with the load priority

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Assessment
It may seem obvious that a system operator is able to easily identify a system
shutdown condition. However, during an emergency condition the extent of an
outage may not be easily recognized, as the available information may be suspect.
For example, an observation that all power flows and voltages at a particular
substation are zero could easily be perceived as a SCADA problem. System
separations may not be obvious in many instances.
In order to quickly and reliably confirm that a restoration condition exists,
appropriate procedures and SCADA displays must be available for use by the
system operator. These procedures and displays must provide an accurate
evaluation of the restoration condition. Voice communications to selected
generating stations, neighboring power systems, and the appropriate Reliability
Coordinator are typically part of this evaluation process. A system operator needs
to clearly understand the conditions in which a restoration condition exists in their
unique power system.

Organization and Mobilization

Once a system operator determines that a restoration condition exists, the
restoration conditions must be promptly communicated to others both inside
and outside the system operator’s organization. To ensure that the necessary
communications occur in a restoration condition, each restoration plan should
contain a communications plan. The communication plan identifies the personnel
to be notified (and their backups), the information to be conveyed, and the
specific method to be used in communicating with the party (for example, their
telephone number). The communications plan also addresses how entities
external to the organization are kept informed.
Once appropriate personnel have been notified that a restoration condition exists,
a mobilization plan is implemented. The mobilization plan directs the various
entities throughout the organization on their specific roles with respect to
mobilization. The personnel to activate and where to send these personnel are
typical items included in a mobilization plan. The mobilization plan makes it
possible to quickly and efficiently direct personnel to their proper locations. The
mobilization plan reduces the occurrence of unnecessary communications in an
emergency situation.

Phases of the Restoration Process

The actual restoration process can be broken down into three distinct phases. The
three phases of the restoration process are described in this section and illustrated
in Figure 11-7.

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Figure 11-7. Phases of the Restoration Process

Phase 1: Assessment
The first phase of the restoration process consists of a detailed assessment
of the state of the power system. An initial, rapid assessment has already been
completed to determine if a restoration condition exists. The purpose of this
phase is a more detailed assessment to determine an appropriate strategy for the
restoration of the power system. Normally this assessment guides the system
operator in selecting which of the restoration strategies contained in the system
restoration plan is most appropriate under the specific circumstances.

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The assessment phase includes the following activities:

Î Determine the status of all generating units.
Generating units - On-line? Tripped off-line? Initially off-line?
that are normally
operated remotely - Which units are available or unavailable for service?
may require
personnel on-site - When will the unit be available for startup? Immediate? Within
to perform key how many minutes? Hours? Days?
functions in
restoration - Which black-start units available to be started?
conditions.
Î Determine the status of neighboring power systems and tie-lines
Î Request information on the status of the neighboring power systems from
the Reliability Coordinator
Î What⎯if any⎯system load is still being served?
Î If portions of the system are still energized, are frequency, voltage, and
equipment loadings within acceptable limits?
Î Identify the boundaries of any islanded systems
Î Perform a facility damage assessment and review any available damage
reports
Î Gather information to help determine the cause of the disturbance
The system operator utilizes SCADA displays and electronic and voice
communications with internal and external personnel to obtain data for the
restoration assessment.

Phase II: Preparation of Subsystems

Prior to the restoration of the power system it is first necessary to take several
preliminary steps.
Î If any generation has remained on-line:
- The voltage and frequency of currently on-line generators is
adjusted to within acceptable limits
- AGC control often automatically trips to manual or may need to be
placed in manual
o Any power system overloads should be quickly addressed
so that all equipment is operating within accepted limits
o Appropriate levels of operating reserve should be
established as soon as possible
Î For generators that have recently tripped:
- Establish, if possible, a source of on-site power for each generators
auxiliary loads

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- Ensure that the generator has safely shut down. A list of items to
check for each generator should be included in the generator’s
restoration plan.
- Review any generator alarms for relevant information
- Determine if the generator is available for restart
Î For generators with black-start capability:
- Review any generator alarms for relevant information Generating unit
governor control
- Check that the generator is available for restart pressures may
bleed down over
- Start any necessary on-site emergency generation for the time on some
generator’s auxiliary equipment units, making the
unit unavailable
- Prepare the generator for black-start for immediate
Î For generating units that were not in-service: restart.

- Review any generator alarms for relevant information

- Check the availability of the generator for startup
- Start any on-site emergency generation
Î Check substation alarms for relevant information
Î At any currently de-energized substations:
- Protection schemes that would automatically close CBs and
switches (for example, automatic reclosing schemes) should be
disabled
- Verify that distribution feeder CBs are opened
- Verify that any de-energized tie-line CBs are opened
- Verify that de-energized capacitor and reactor CBs are opened
- Verify that de-energized underground cable CBs are opened
Î Verify that other transmission line and transformer CBs are opened in
accordance with the restoration plan
Cable and bus
- Check underground cable oil, nitrogen, and SF6 pressure pressures should
alarms and actual pressure levels be monitored as
pressure may
- Check SF6 bus alarms and pressures continue to drop
as equipment
- Check other critical equipment parameters cools down.
Î Dispatch field personnel as necessary

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Phase III: Establishment of Target Systems

An effective way to manage the initial restoration effort is to establish a series of
target systems for restoration. Using a target system approach, the restoration
process is broken down into a manageable and more easily understood set of
tasks. The target system concept enables a more flexible approach to the
restoration process.
A target system should consist of a significant restoration accomplishment such as
a black-start unit and transmission to energize a second generator. The restoration
plan should include target systems and alternatives that have been thoroughly
Cranking power is studied and are considered the best approach for a particular system.
the MW delivered to In the case of a complete system shutdown, the first target system may include the
the next generator
to be started. The establishment of a transmission system backbone, which is energized from a
MW is termed black-start unit, to provide cranking power for the next generator to be restarted.
cranking power as it A second target system could expand the restored system to other generating
is typically used to units. A third target system could expand the restored system to include the re-
turn or crank large energizing of high priority substations. An additional target system may restore
motors.
service to an urban area. The final target system may energize any remaining
substations or complete a transmission system loop.
The target systems for an initially islanded system would include a target system
that permits synchronizing the system and the establishment of tie-lines to the
main body of the power system. Additional target systems are then established to
re-energize any remaining portions of the system that were de-energized in the
disturbance.
Actual conditions and generator availability are used to select the target systems
to be implemented. The restoration plan normally contains detailed procedures
for establishing each target system. In some restoration situations, the restoration
condition may require the system operator to develop a target system at the time
of the restoration condition. In the case of most system shutdowns⎯where
widespread damage to the power system has not occurred⎯the target systems
contained in a restoration plan should expedite the restoration process. The use of
the target systems contained in a restoration plan helps to avoid unanticipated
restoration difficulties, as the restoration plans can be carefully studied and
verified in advance of actual usage.

Restoration Priorities
Each system must carefully consider its load restoration priorities. Guidelines
pertaining to load restoration priorities should be contained in the restoration plan.
Public and employee safety, health and welfare, and system reliability are obvious
considerations when selecting priority customer loads. Priority customer loads
are often determined in consultation with the appropriate emergency management
organizations. Community impact, contractual obligations, and regulatory
requirements are frequently factored into customer load priority guidelines.

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Substation Restoration Priorities

It is often helpful to establish restoration priorities for key substations and
distribution feeder circuits. Using this approach, restoration priorities are
established on a substation by substation basis and on a distribution feeder-by-
feeder basis. For example, a particular substation may be energized based on its
overall priority and then once energized, the individual distribution feeders at the
substation are energized based on their relative feeder priority with respect to
feeders at other energized substations. Figure 11-8 illustrates this well organized
approach to restoration. Substations “A” and “D” of Figure 11-8 are designated
high priority and energized first. Then feeders #1 and #3 in substation “A” and
feeder #2 in substation “D” are energized as these are designated as high priority
feeders.
When establishing substation priorities, it may be appropriate to establish several
priority groups (for example: high, medium, and low). Establishing substation
priorities helps to determine the content of the target systems described in
previous paragraphs.
Strict adherence to the substation priority ranking may not always be possible.
In the process of energizing higher priority substations, lower priority substations
may lie in the selected transmission path and must be energized before they are
needed.

Figure 11-8. Substation and Individual Feeder Restoration Priority

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Load Restoration Priorities

The initial restoration of load is normally not accomplished on a customer load
priority basis. Initially load is restored based on the technical needs of the power
system. Initial load restoration is focused on providing load to on-line generators,
dampening voltage transients, and consuming excess Mvar. The loads restored
are selected based on size, ability to be quickly switched, and their location in the
energized system.

Industry guidelines
Higher priority customer loads are energized once system conditions are such that
for power system they can be accommodated. Care must be taken to ensure that in the haste to
restoration restore high priority loads, the energized system is not placed in jeopardy of
recommend that the another shutdown. As the restoration process progresses, additional loads are
load block restored picked up based on their relative priority. As more substations are energized,
during the initial
stages of restoration
larger blocks of load can be safely picked-up by on-line generating units.
be limited to no Frequently a gradual transition occurs from picking up load based on technical
more than 5% of the needs to picking up load based on load priority. (There may be a need to strip
total synchronized some of the load from heavily loaded feeders before they can be restored to
generation. service.) Eventually customer loads are picked up based exclusively on load
priority.
11.2 Voltage Control and System Restoration
Control of system voltage levels and the reactive balance is very important
during a system restoration condition. A restoration conditions power system is
This section builds
extremely sensitive and responds differently then during normal operating
on the voltage conditions. Extreme care must be exercised as system voltage can rapidly move
control material either high or low, well outside of acceptable limits. This section describes
that was presented various issues involved when controlling voltages and maintaining Mvar balance
in Chapter 5. during the restoration process.
11.2.1 Voltage Control as a Local Issue
Recall from Chapter 5 that transmission lines and transformers use Mvar when
current flows through the equipment. This Mvar usage can also be thought of as
Mvar losses. The behavior of the transmission system is such that in order to
maintain an acceptable system voltage profile, Mvar support must be provided
locally to compensate for the Mvar usage of the particular area of the system. The
Mvar usage of transmission lines and transformers is proportional to the square of
the current flow. This means that in a heavily loaded power system, the Mvar
usage can be very high. To support heavily loaded transmission systems,
sufficient Mvar resources must be strategically positioned to respond when
needed.
In restoration conditions, transmission lines and transformers are often initially
loaded at very low levels. The initial voltage control concern is therefore high
voltage. Sufficient Mvar absorption capability must be located close to the areas
where the higher voltages are expected to occur. Under certain circumstances,
equipment that provides a large amount of Mvar (such as long high voltage

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transmission lines) may have its restoration delayed until the system is
strong enough to energize the equipment without losing control of voltage.
11.2.2 Review of Voltage Related Restoration Theory
Chapter 5 described the fundamentals of system voltage and reactive power
control. Several of the topics from Chapter 5 have particular importance in
restoration conditions and are reviewed and expanded in this section.

Review of Ferranti Rise

Ferranti Rise refers to the voltage rise that occurs across an energized but
open-ended transmission line. The elevated open-end voltage levels can cause
equipment damage (for example, transformers can be damaged due to over-
excitation). The percent of voltage rise is a function of line length as illustrated
in Figure 11-9. Figure 11-9 emphasizes that the Ferranti effect can be very
significant if the open-ended line is long. During normal conditions, the sending-
end voltage magnitude remains acceptable when a transmission line is open-
ended. The sending-end voltage is acceptable because a normal conditions power
system has low impedance and sufficient Mvar control equipment available for
usage.

Figure 11-9. Ferranti Effect Open-End Percent Voltage Rise

A weak bus is a bus
with few lines
In restoration conditions, Ferranti Rise is a more serious concern. A line and/or generators
attached to it. A
energized from a weak sending-end bus can result in the sending-end voltage
weak bus has low
rising substantially. The Ferranti rise effect is then a percentage rise on an levels of fault
already high sending-end voltage magnitude. The higher voltage levels also current when a fault
results in more Mvar production by the open-ended line. The overall effect is occurs. A power
even higher levels of Mvar production and voltage magnitude. If the available system has weak
buses in the initial
on-line generation is unable to absorb the increased Mvar, a run away voltage
stages of system
condition may develop. restoration.

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An additional concern with Ferranti rise is that the elevated voltages heighten the
potential for ferroresonance and switching surge problems as explained in the
next section.

Review of Resonance
Ferroresonance was During a system restoration condition, the potential for ferroresonance is greatly
described and increased. System voltage can quickly rise, possibly driving a transformer into
illustrated in
Chapter 9.
saturation, which, as was explained in Chapter 9, is a part of the ferroresonance
mechanism.
The initiation of a resonant condition is also possible due to capacitive and
inductive combinations at harmonics of the power system frequency. The
presence of harmonics during transformer energization may trigger this type of
resonance.
In normal conditions, customer load dampens switching surges and harmonics
and reduces the potential for resonance. However, during restoration conditions
there may be little or no load on the system, and hence reduced load damping.
The potential for resonance must be evaluated well ahead of any restoration
events and recommendations for minimizing resonance possibilities included in
the restoration plan.

Switching Surges and Temporary Over-Voltages (TOVs)

When devices (CBs, transformers, etc) are switched in and out-of-service, sudden
changes occur in the power system. These sudden changes to voltage and current
are called switching surges. When a switching surge occurs, the power system is
exposed to a wave like effect as the switching surge voltage propagates through
the area power system. The propagating surge voltage can add to the steady-state
power system voltage, creating transient over-voltages (TOVs) conditions. A
TOV voltage can easily exceed 160% of the normal system steady-state voltage
level.
In normal conditions, customer load and power losses quickly (within a few
cycles) dampen the switching surge. In a restoration condition, with little or no
customer load, TOVs can persist for an extended time due to the lack of adequate
damping. Sensitive over-voltage protective devices may operate due to the
TOVs. The effects of TOVs on equipment can be severe. Transformers can be
damaged due to over-excitation. Zinc-oxide lightning arresters are particularly
sensitive to TOV and subject to thermal failure if the TOV magnitude is great
enough.
The failure mode of equipment after exposure to TOVs is thermal. Therefore, the
effects of TOVs are cumulative. For example, a zinc-oxide lightning arrester may
be able to withstand exposure to a TOV produced by a transformer energization.
However, if the same lightning arrester is exposed to an additional similar TOV
when a second transformer is energized, the lightning arrester may fail. Repeated

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exposure eventually breaks down the equipment so that a relatively mild TOV
results in significant damage.
The possibility of equipment damage from TOVs is enhanced if the steady-state
system voltage is high. TOVs are a transient over-voltage that is compounded on
top of the steady-state voltage. If the steady-state voltage is high, applying a TOV
on top of it increases the risk. Some power systems intentionally energize their
system at a lower steady-state voltage (for example, 90% of normal) to reduce the
risks of damage from TOVs.
TOVs are a relatively common problem in power system restoration. A system’s
exposure to TOV related damage during restoration conditions should be
identified and evaluated by conducting a switching surge study of the intended
restoration approach. The system restoration plan should reflect the results of the
switching surge studies and include methods to avoid TOV equipment damage.

Review of Generator Reactive Capability

Chapter 5 described the use of generators to control system voltage. A
generator’s automatic voltage regulator is normally in-service and adjustments to
system voltage are made by raising and lowering the voltage regulators set-point.
Figure 11-10 illustrates the usage of a voltage regulator to automatically control
the output voltage of the generator.

Figure 11-10. Diagram of a Generator’s Excitation Control System

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The physical capabilities of a generator limit the extent to which it can control
system voltage without sustaining thermal related damage. Figure 11-11 contains
a reactive capability curve for a 100 MVA generator. In theory, the generator can
operate at various combinations of MW and Mvar loading as long as the MVA of
the combination is within the limits of the capability curve.

Figure 11-11. Reactive Capability Curve

Thermal generators typically require a large assortment of auxiliary equipment to

support the generation process. (For example, feedwater pumps, coal mills, etc.)
This equipment is connected to the station service (auxiliary) bus of the generator.
The auxiliary bus voltage must be controlled within acceptable limits to satisfy
the equipments voltage limitations. Since the generator operating voltage impacts
the auxiliary bus voltage, the auxiliary equipment acceptable voltage range can
severely limit the ability of generator to operate at the extremes of its Mvar
absorption and production capability.
The Mvar capability of a generator is often further restricted by voltage regulator
controls and protective relay settings. An understanding of the actual (as opposed
to theoretical) Mvar capability of a generator is critical in a system restoration
condition. Failure to identify the actual Mvar capability of a generator can result
in unexpected generator tripping and/or runaway voltage conditions.

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As a generator is operated more deeply into the leading region of its Mvar
capability, a limit is eventually reached beyond which generator stability could be
in jeopardy. Loss-of-field (LOF) protective relays are installed and set to trip the
generator before it enters an unstable operating area.
The generator’s voltage regulator typically includes a minimum excitation limiter
(MEL) or an under-excited reactive ampere limiter (URAL). The MEL or URAL
alarms the operator and possibly blocks movement into a dangerous operating
area. The MEL/URAL is typically set to ensure that the generator does not move
so far into the leading area that the LOF relay operates and trip the unit. The
intended coordination between the MEL/URAL and the LOF protection may not
be adequate under restoration conditions and false tripping of an LOF relay is
possible.
A generator’s automatic voltage regulator is typically designed so that the
generator’s field current is adjusted to keep the Mvar operating point above
the URAL/MEL set point. During normal operating conditions, once the
URAL/MEL limit is reached, the generator automatically stops further movement
into the leading area and maintains the URAL/MEL dictated minimum Mvar
loading. Under normal operating conditions, available system voltage control
equipment and other available generators would assume control of the system
voltage.
Under restoration conditions, there may be one or only a few generators
connected to the system. Under these circumstances the available generators must
absorb all of the new Mvar as transmission facilities are energized. If the Mvar
produced by the newly energized transmission lines exceeds the generator’s
ability to absorb Mvar due to the generator’s URAL/MEL settings, the
URAL/MEL typically starts increasing the generator’s field current.
The increase in field current would normally reduce the amount of Mvar absorbed
by the generator. However, under an islanded situation increasing the field
current further increases the area voltage and increases the Mvar produced by the
transmission system. This forces the generators to absorb more Mvar rather than
less. This series of events can create an out-of-control situation. Eventually the
rising system voltage could cause the generator to trip.
When a generator’s voltage regulator is out-of-service, field current control is
done manually. If field current is reduced too low during manual voltage
regulator control, the generator could trip via its LOF relay, as there would
not be any automatic movement to raise the field current.
11.2.3 Voltage Control in Restoration Conditions
There are three key objectives with respect to voltage control during restoration
conditions:

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1. Absorb Mvar as required

2. Maintain all voltages within acceptable limits
3. Minimize the impact of TOVs from switching surges⎯and the
potential for ferroresonance⎯by reducing voltage levels as required
During the initial stages of restoration, with few generators on-line, absorbing the
Mvar generated from transmission facilities is a critical issue to manage. As
stated in the previous section, on-line generators must not be forced to absorb so
much Mvar that they trip via LOF relays. A generator trip under highly stressed
restoration conditions often results in a system shutdown.
During the early stages of restoration, it is often difficult to maintain all system
voltages within acceptable limits. The tap settings of fixed-tap transformers are
normally set for normal, loaded system conditions. The tap settings of a
transformer may not be appropriate for the unloaded system conditions that are
encountered in a restoration condition. The natural voltage rise on unloaded lines
and cables may also further restrict the ability of a system operator to maintain
acceptable voltages.
The high probability of switching surge induced TOVs and the potential for
ferroresonance may necessitate operation at reduced voltage levels (possibly 90 to
95% of normal) during the early stages of restoration. During this critical period,
little or no energized customer load results in reduced damping forces. The
energization of large power transformers from a weak power system results in
frequent switching surges that may initiate numerous TOV events. Overlaying
these TOVs on a reduced steady-state voltage can reduce the damage from the
TOVs.

Usage of Shunt Capacitors

During the early stages of restoration, shunt capacitors are normally not used.
Typically, absorbing the Mvar created by the energized transmission lines is a key
issue and any additional Mvar from shunt capacitors only makes the situation
worse. In some cases, the inappropriate switching of a shunt capacitor might
cause the tripping of generators due to LOF relay operation. There may also be
resonance scenarios that restrict the usage of shunt capacitors in a weak power
system. Shunt capacitors should normally only be used late in the restoration
process and then very cautiously.

Usage of Shunt Reactors

The usage of shunt reactors is often useful for reducing voltage depending on the
particular system. Unfortunately, the usage of shunt reactors may make a weak
system more susceptible to ferroresonance because the insertion of a shunt reactor
effectively increases the impedance of the system. If shunt reactors are to play a
part in the system restoration plan, their impact (TOVs, etc.) should be studied in
detail and any limitations noted in the restoration plan.

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Usage of Generators
Generators are the primary voltage control tool during a restoration condition.
Generators are used to absorb or produce Mvar as the system requires. The
ability of the on-line generators to absorb or produce Mvar must always
exceed the ability of the restored power system to produce or absorb Mvar.

Maintaining Adequate Dynamic Reactive Reserve

A generator’s dynamic reactive reserve is the difference between its actual Mvar
loading and the Mvar limit of the generator. In the early stages of restoration, the
ability to absorb Mvar is typically a key issue. The generators dynamic reactive
reserve absorption capability must be sufficient and rapidly available prior to
energizing a new transmission line.
For example, if a line with 50 Mvar of charging is about to be energized, there
should first be in place the ability to dynamically absorb the 50 Mvar plus a
margin of safety. It is important to remember that the Mvar production of the line
increases in proportion to the square of the voltage. If the system voltage is above
nominal once a transmission line or cable is energized, the cable or line’s Mvar
will be greater than its nominal quantity. A comfortable safety margin is
necessary to ensure that an out-of-control voltage situation does not occur.
One additional issue is maintaining sufficient dynamic reactive reserve for
response to contingencies. Starting very early in the restoration process and
continuing through out, dynamic reactive reserve should be sufficient to withstand
the loss of any generator or piece of voltage control equipment with an adequate
margin of safety.

Constraints Imposed by Generator Auxiliary Loads

The voltages at generator station service (auxiliary) buses must be within the
allowable limits for the particular type of equipment. Equipment damage can
occur if voltage limits are violated. The restoration plan should give guidance on
each generator’s allowable auxiliary bus voltage levels.

Step-up Transformer Tap Positions

Studies should be conducted in advance of the restoration condition to determine
the optimal transformer fixed-tap positions to best accommodate normal and
restoration operating conditions. Consideration should be given to the tap settings
of power transformers, generator step-up transformers, and auxiliary bus
transformers.

Usage of ULTCs
Although there are many different control strategies, under load tap changing
(ULTC) transformers are typically operated either manually or automatically to
control a low-side voltage magnitude. Under normal operating conditions, the
high-side voltage is typically a stronger source than the low-side voltage. In this

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condition, when tap positions are adjusted, the high-side voltage remains the same
or changes slightly while the low-side voltage of the transformer experiences
most of the voltage change.
Under system restoration conditions, the low-side voltage of the transformer
may be connected to generation and the high-side may be isolated from other
generators or only weakly connected. Under this scenario, changes to tap
positions create little effect on transformer low-side voltages, but have great
impact on the transformer’s high-side voltage. Under these conditions the ULTC
can be used to control high-side system voltage and the generator can be used to
control its Mvar loading and terminal voltage. Coordinating the tap-changer
position and generator voltage adjustment permits a broad range of operating
flexibility with respect to the generator and the power system. Figure 11-12
illustrates the usage of ULTCs in normal and restoration conditions.
Figure 11-12 follows on the next page.

Figure 11-12. ULTC Usage in Normal and Restoration Conditions

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Usage of Controlled Load Pick-up to Maintain Voltage

System loading also plays a part in the control of voltage. For example, the
addition of some customer load at the open-end of a transmission line may
dramatically reduce the Ferranti rise over-voltage. Energizing load with a low
lagging power factor is very helpful as the load absorbs excess Mvar from
energized transmission lines. Conversely, loads with a leading power factor
aggravate efforts to absorb Mvar and interfere with the control of system voltages.
Load also dampens switching surges and reduces the likelihood of resonance
incidents.
11.2.4 Operation of the System at Reduced Voltage
There are a number of voltage concerns that surface in restoration conditions.
Steady-state voltages are often difficult to control depending upon the system and
the generators that are available in the early stages of restoration. Ferranti rise is a
concern depending upon the length of the transmission lines. Transformer
saturation and ferroresonance can occur due to high voltage conditions during the
restoration. The numerous switching surges that typically occur in the early
stages of restoration can result in many TOV events. Reducing system steady-
state voltages can diminish the potential for all these problems.

Methods of Reduced Voltage Operation

When considering the reduction of system voltage during restoration conditions,
the impact on equipment and customer load should be given careful consideration.
The issues include:
Î Generators and their protective relay settings
Î Acceptable generator auxiliary bus voltage
Î The impact on substation auxiliary equipment including transformer oil
pumps
Î The impact on connected customer load
There are several ways to accomplish reduced voltage operation. If reduced
voltage operation is deemed necessary for a particular system, a carefully studied
approach should be selected and included in the restoration plan. Approaches that
might be considered include:
Î Energize a portion of the system from a single generator operating at a
reduced voltage:
- The generator’s automatic voltage regulator can be in or out-of-
service. The automatic or manual voltage control point targets the
reduced level of voltage. The protective relay and control settings
of the generator (LOF relay, MEL, etc.) should be analyzed to
ensure unexpected and unnecessary tripping does not occur.
- If a suitable area ULTC is available, its usage could allow a
generator to operate at essentially normal voltage levels while

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simultaneously permitting all or portions of the transmission

system to operate at reduced voltage levels.
11.2.5 Voltage Based Automatic Load Shedding
Some power systems use protective relay schemes that automatically shed
Schemes that shed portions of the customer load if voltage drops below a defined point. In some
load based on cases, these schemes also allow the load to automatically restore once system
voltage are called voltage recovers to a certain level. These types of schemes should be evaluated as
under-voltage load to their appropriateness during a restoration condition. The settings may not be
shedding (UVLS) appropriate during restoration conditions and/or the amount of load shed may be
schemes.
incorrect. In addition, any automatic load pick-up may be inappropriate in a
restoration condition. Recommendations as to the appropriate usage and
operation of these types of protective schemes should be contained in the
restoration plan.
11.3 Frequency Control and System Restoration
This section builds
During normal operating conditions, a large interconnected power system
upon material
presented in experiences relatively small frequency deviations when either a generator trips or
Chapter 4 and system loads are switched. The reduced impact on frequency is due to the
describes special typically large amount of widely distributed operating reserves and the sizeable
issues associated inertia of a large power system.
with frequency
control during However, during restoration conditions, frequency control requires a system
restoration operator’s careful attention. There may be one or only a few generators on-line,
conditions.
therefore a generator trip or a large load pick-up can have a significant impact on
system frequency. If the frequency deviation is too large, equipment damage
and/or a system shutdown can result.
11.3.1 Frequency Control as an Interconnection Issue
During the restoration process, it is very important to approach frequency control
from an interconnected system perspective. There are two key issues that must be
evaluated. Both issues are explained in this section.

Generator Dynamic Response

Frequency Each generating unit responds to a frequency deviation in a manner unique to the
control is an generator’s own operating characteristics. The Interconnection’s frequency is
Interconnection
wide issue while however a joint issue. The frequency deviation is impacted by the combined
voltage control is response of all the generators connected in the interconnected system.
a local power
system issue. A large frequency deviation can be initiated by the pick-up of a large block of
load or by the trip of a generator that was supplying a large amount of MW.
Following the initiating disturbance, the inertia of each rotating machine rapidly
provides energy to meet the generation deficiency. The generator’s inertial
response increases the generator’s MW output. Generators contribute MW in
proportion to their relative inertia. As described in Chapter 4, the MW provided
by a generator immediately after the initiating disturbance is not a function of

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governor settings but rather of the stored energy in the power system, including
the energy stored in the generators’ rotating mass.
Eventually (within a few seconds), the governor response dominates over the
inertial response as the system frequency decays. Assuming there is sufficient
MW reserve capacity, and further assuming that the disturbance is not so severe
that it causes a complete shutdown, the frequency decay is arrested at a certain
point. The lowest frequency dip following a disturbance is referred to as the
“undershoot”. (The undershoot point is labeled “C” in Figure 11-13.) Eventually
the frequency recovers to the stabilization point. The stabilization point is labeled
point “B” in Figure 11-13.

Figure 11-13. Plot of a Frequency Disturbance

The ability of a generator to produce additional MW to arrest a frequency decline

is referred to as the generator’s “frequency response rate” and is expressed as:

MW Re sponse as % of Generator Capacity

Frequency Response Rate =
Frequency Deviation in HZ

A generator’s frequency response rate is the percent of a generator’s MW capacity

that is delivered in the process of responding to a disturbance induced reduction in
frequency. The frequency undershoot point typically occurs within 2-5 seconds
of the initiating disturbance as illustrated in Figure 11-13. The frequency

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response rate represents the short-term response of a generator and is not

necessarily representative of the steady-state MW operating point of the generator
once governor response has taken place. Typical frequency response rates for
various types of generators are as follows:

Steam unit with a drum type boiler: 10%/HZ

Combustion Turbine (CT): 20%/HZ
Low-Head Hydro (short penstock): 30%/HZ
Following the frequency undershoot; generator governor action continues to
The prime mover is provide MW. Approximately 10-15 seconds after the initial disturbance the
the generator’s MW provided from governors and other sources stabilizes the frequency. The
mechanical energy stabilization point is labeled point “B” in Figure 11-13. In the case where all
source. In a steam
unit, the prime generators within the restored system have the same response capability and
mover includes the droop setting (for example 5%), each responding unit ultimately picks up a
boiler and turbine. portion of the MW in proportion to the generator’s capacity. (This assumes
that the generator’s prime mover is capable of such a response.)

Transmission System Impacts

During the early stages of restoration conditions, the transmission system is
weaker than during normal operating conditions. The initial restoration system
typically uses lower transmission voltages and has a lower MW capacity.
Inter-connections between energized portions of the system may be weak or
absent altogether. Under these weak conditions, the dynamic response of the
currently on-line generators to the loss of a generator can easily create an
overload and/or instability in the transmission system. Transmission overloads
and instability can result in system splits and may lead to another system
shutdown. A similar response can also be caused by the pick-up of a large
block of load.
11.3.2 Maintaining Frequency during Restoration Conditions
Frequency is more difficult to control during restoration conditions than during
normal operating conditions. As a restoration process proceeds, customer load
blocks are constantly energized. Although it is desirable to pick-up only small
blocks of load in the initial stages of restoration, the power system configuration
may not cooperate. Even a relatively lightly loaded distribution feeder
energization can have a significant impact on system frequency in the early stages
of restoration. The pick-up of each load block tends to cause a new frequency
disturbance.

Allowable Frequency Bounds

There are several issues that should be considered with respect to the power
system’s allowable frequency limits. The necessary frequency limitations may
vary depending upon the restoration area’s equipment design and control. The
system restoration plan should specify allowable high and low frequency limits.

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When interconnected with other systems, the most restrictive frequency limits for
the entire system should be respected.
The following issues should be addressed⎯in the planning stage⎯when
establishing restoration conditions frequency operating limits:
Î Evaluate possible damage to steam turbine blades
- A typical steam turbine can operate between 59.5 and 60.5 HZ
indefinitely. (Figure 11-14 illustrates typical steam turbine
frequency related operating limits.)

Figure 11-14. Steam Turbine Frequency Operating Limits

Î Evaluate possible damage to hydro-electric generators

Î Study and possibility of damage to combustion turbines (CTs) and other
types of generating units from abnormal frequency exposure
Î Evaluate the possibility of over-excitation damage to transformers and Recall from Chapter
generator stators (any wound equipment) from exposure to low frequency, 5 that a transformer
high voltage combinations can be over-excited
from high voltage
Î Evaluate the possible damage to customer equipment and the impact on and/or low
various types of control systems used by customers frequency.

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Î Consider the possible problems that could result from the undesirable
automatic pick-up of load via automatic load restoration schemes
Î Consider the possible problems that could result from the undesirable
shedding of load via automatic under-frequency load shedding (UFLS)
schemes
When establishing restoration conditions frequency limit guidelines, establish
both short term exposure limits (the undershoot area) and longer term (the
stabilization area) limits.

Load Restoration Limitations

In restoration conditions, a system operator has an understandable desire to
rapidly restore load. However, caution must be exercised to ensure that overly
aggressive load restoration does not place the system in avoidable jeopardy. The
capability of individual generators to respond to a load pick-up should be
considered and factored into the restoration plan.
For example, a low head hydro unit may be capable of picking-up relatively large
blocks of load with an acceptable frequency dip. A similarly sized steam unit
may not be able to respond as effectively and may sustain turbine blade damage
and/or ultimately trip. A key issue with any generator is that the governor of the
unit may request a MW response, but if the prime mover of the generator is not
If only one unit is capable of the response, the unit could be placed in jeopardy.
on-line, a system When more than one generator is on-line, the impact on all generators must be
cannot be operated
to survive a single considered. At all times sufficient operating reserve should be maintained such
contingency. that the system can sustain the loss of the largest load carrying unit.
Therefore, place a
second unit in- Industry Guidelines for Load Restoration and Frequency Control
service as soon as
possible. The following statements summarize industry guidelines with respect to
frequency control and load restoration:

NERC publishes a
Î Frequency should normally be held within a range of 59.75 to 61 HZ with
series of standards an attempt to regulate toward 60 HZ. A system operator may want to hold
(the EOP series) the frequency high (61 HZ) if a large load block is about to be restored.
with requirements The frequency should be kept at least above 59.75 HZ to avoid load
related to power additions activating under-frequency tripping relays.
system restoration.
Î Avoid energizing load blocks that are greater than 5% of the total restored
area’s synchronized generation. This conservative rule is designed to
avoid activating under-frequency relays.
Î If the restored system’s frequency has stabilized below 60 HZ, and the
goal is to raise the frequency back to 60 HZ, shed 6-10% of the connected
system load to raise the frequency 1 HZ.
Î Operating reserve (especially the frequency responsive spinning
component) should be provided to cover the loss of the largest load
carrying generating unit currently in-service.

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Î If the frequency regulation burden is too great for any one generator, two
or more generators should share the frequency regulation. Preferably the
two generators are located at the same generating station to ensure a
coordinated response.
Î In general, the amount of regulating reserve carried in restoration
conditions should be approximately double that carried during normal
operating conditions.
Î Generating units not controlling frequency should be loaded such that the
regulating units remain roughly in the middle of their operating range.
This optimizes the regulating reserve capability.
Î When two or more systems are synchronized together to form a larger
system, only one system should control the frequency. If two systems
attempt to simultaneously regulate the frequency, an undesired
competition could result. In general, one system (the one with the best
responding generation) should control frequency while the other systems
assist when asked for help.
Regional Reliability Councils and/or Reliability Coordinators may also provide
guidance for frequency control during restoration conditions.
11.3.3 Usage of Governors to Control Frequency
Following a large enough frequency disturbance, a generator’s governor attempts The theory and
to adjust its MW output in accordance with the droop setting. Figure 11-15 operation of a
governor control
illustrates the response of a 300 MW generator with a 5% governor droop. When system was described
governors have a % droop setting (greater than 0% droop), no attempt is made by and illustrated in
the governor/generator to recover the frequency. Rather the generator arrests the Chapter 4.
frequency drop. Note that the frequency is arrested at 59.9 HZ in Figure 11-15.
The MW response from a unit due to governor action is not simply a function of
governor droop settings. The generator itself must have the stored energy A once-through type
available to accomplish the governor’s directions. In the case of CT and hydro boiler is a boiler
design in which
units, the MW response can often be delivered within 10 seconds and sustained there is no re-heat
indefinitely. In contrast, the MW response of a steam unit may be delivered cycle. Once
within 10 seconds, but may not be sustained very long beyond the initial through type boilers
10-second response. Depending on the design of the steam unit, very little steam have very little
storage may be maintained so the unit cannot sustain its initial response. steam storage.

Sustaining the MW response from a steam unit is dependent on the unit’s prime
mover design and performance. In the case of once through type boilers,
governor response may be minimal as there is little steam storage in the unit.
Attempts to energize large blocks of load from steam generator sources should be
preceded with a thorough analysis of the impact on frequency and the generator’s
operation. Attempts to rapidly load a steam unit can create dramatic excursions
on the steam side of the operation and result in the unit tripping.

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Figure 11-15. 300 MW Unit with 5% Droop Responding to Frequency

Drop

Droop Control
When generators
compete for a MW When generators are operated in parallel in a power system, each unit should have
change and their a droop setting so the unit shares MW response with other generators in the
MW outputs system. If each generator were attempting to control to a precise frequency value
oscillate it is (using low values of droop), generators tend to compete with the MW response
referred to as a actions of other generators. A generator attempting precise frequency control
“hunting”
condition. may tend to overload, motor, or cause other generators within the restored system
to do the same. Overly sensitive frequency control settings can create instability
and MW oscillations resulting in generator tripping and system shutdown.
The effectiveness of restoration frequency control using normal conditions droop
settings is frequently questioned. Although an argument can be made that droop
settings should be set lower (well below 5%) during restoration conditions to
provide better frequency control, this action may not be easily accomplished. The
changing of generator droop settings is typically a function performed by plant
maintenance personnel and may even require a unit outage to accomplish.

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Consideration should be given to the impact on system stability from any changes
to droop settings. Governor instability using low droop values is an especially
serious issue during light loading conditions. Furthermore, if droop settings are
lowered, the eventual transition to normal operating conditions may present a
difficult problem.
During restoration conditions, frequency must be closely and continuously
monitored. Governor response should be followed up with manual adjustments to
generator loading to ensure acceptable frequency. The system operator in charge
of the restoration process should:
Î Designate the largest, fastest responding unit as the regulating unit within
each island. If more than one generator is required to share the frequency
control burden, it is desirable that all the units are at the same plant
location, under the control of a single plant operator.
Î Utilize operating guidelines, or preferably an automatic calculation tool, to
estimate the frequency dip when picking up new loads or for assessing the
impact of a generator trip.
Î Maintain and distribute operating reserves such that the post-contingency
loading of generators and the frequency level remains within acceptable
limits.

Isochronous Control
Isochronous governor control refers to a governor droop setting of 0%. This
mode of governor operation results in the generator’s governor attempting to
control frequency solely in accordance with the governor’s frequency target
value. When operating in isochronous, the governor attempts to fully recover the
frequency to its target (assume 60 HZ) value. Figure 11-16 illustrates a 300 MW
unit using 0% droop. In theory, the unit operating point slides left and right along
the operating curve in an effort to control frequency to 60 HZ.
The concept of operating a generator governor in isochronous control initially is
very appealing. However, there are several issues that should be considered:
Î Isochronous control is well suited to a single generator serving an isolated
block of load. Under these circumstances, the generator frequency
automatically adjusts as the customer load varies. Isochronous operation
may be an advantage when an isolated block of load is to be served for a
lengthy period, for example, for several days. Generator operators may
install a selector switch in their unit’s control panel so the unit can easily
be switched between isochronous and normal droop modes.

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Figure 11-16. Isochronous Governor Response to Frequency Drop

Î In a typical restoration scenario, additional generators are paralleled to the
system as rapidly as possible. Once additional units are paralleled, there
can be only one unit on isochronous control within the restored system or
an undesired MW response competition can occur. As a restored power
system grows in size, the usefulness of isochronous control diminishes as
no single unit can regulate a large power system.
Î Switching between isochronous and normal droop modes cannot always
be accomplished while a generator is on-line carrying load. The generator
may have to be taken off-line to adjust the droop. If a generator has been
started in isochronous mode, it may not be possible to transfer to a normal
droop mode without an outage.

Auto-Load Control
Generators, especially CTs, are sometimes equipped with an “auto-load” control
feature. Under normal operating conditions, the auto-load feature is used to load
a generator to a target load level (for example, to a minimum value or to a base
value). In normal operating conditions within a large interconnected power
system, the MW levels of other on-line generators are adjusted to accommodate
the MW changes of the auto-load unit.
During restoration conditions, extreme care must be exercised in the use of the
auto-load feature. The auto-load control logic attempts to load the generator to
the desired load level. If the generator is isolated from the power system, the
auto-loading action could result in the frequency being driven either high or low

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as an attempt is made to reach the target MW. If the unit is operating in parallel
with other generators, the auto-load feature shifts the MW load on other on-line
generators, potentially creating undesirable loading conditions in these units.
11.3.4 AGC and System Restoration
AGC (automatic generation control) can be a very effective tool during
restoration, although AGC usage in restoration conditions is substantially
different than normal conditions usage. AGC software is normally designed to
control a defined portion (within the Balancing Authority boundaries) of the
interconnected system. To accomplish the AGC control function, control
parameters are continuously monitored. The control parameters consist of an
actual frequency reading and all tie-line MW flows to neighboring Balancing
Authority areas. These control parameters are selected and normally fixed for the
portion of the system being controlled. A key assumption to the typical AGC
control strategy is that the power system is operating in an interconnected mode.
However, under restoration conditions the restored power system may:
Î Not be fully interconnected
- There may be a single or multiple islands
- There may be a surviving portion or portions of the system
interconnected to adjacent systems while simultaneously one or
more islands exist
Î Not have appropriate frequency indication
- Although AGC systems have multiple frequency sources available,
there is no guarantee that any frequency source can be accessed for
the surviving portions of the system or the various islands that may
form
- The frequency source currently utilized by the AGC software may
not be located within the surviving portions of the system or
islands that exist
For a frequency based AGC system to function correctly the frequency source
must be located within the same boundaries as the generation under control. AGC
systems normally select one of several possible predefined frequency sources.
The system operator must ensure that an appropriate frequency source is utilized,
and remains utilized during the restoration process.
For a tie-line flow based AGC system to function correctly, the tie-line meters
must accurately monitor the MW flow in and out of the controlled area’s
boundaries. However, if a tie-line is not in-service, no AGC control problem
exists as the tie-line’s MW flow is equal to zero and there is no impact on AGC
calculations.

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Usage of AGC Control Modes

Figure 11-17 illustrates the tie-line frequency bias control mode of AGC. The
constant frequency control and constant net interchange control modes of AGC
are reduced versions of the tie-line frequency bias control mode.

Figure 11-17. Tie-Line Frequency Bias Control ACE Calculation

Constant Frequency Control (CFC)

Constant frequency control (CFC) AGC calculates an ACE (area control error)
value based solely on the frequency error in the controlled area. The target
frequency for control purposes is entered as the scheduled frequency (FS). The
AGC software dispatches generation in proportion to the frequency bias (B) and
the frequency error to correct any deviation from the scheduled frequency.
The normal conditions frequency bias value (expressed in MW/0.1 HZ) is
likely not appropriate for usage during restoration conditions. A bias value based
on normal system operations is dependent on the load/frequency response
characteristic and the governor response of neighboring Balancing Authority
areas. During restoration conditions, customer load levels are much lower and
neighboring Balancing Authorities may not be energized. Unless the frequency
bias value is adjusted to an appropriate value, frequency control could be
incorrect and unacceptable frequency swings could occur. Some Balancing
Authorities utilize software programs to automatically adjust the frequency bias
parameter if restoration conditions are detected.

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Constant Net Interchange (CNI) Control

Constant net interchange (CNI) control may be utilized if a restored system is
connected to another restored system or to the main body of the Interconnection.
Both systems must agree upon which system controls the frequency (operates in
CFC) and which system controls the tie-line flows (operates in CNI). This
method of AGC may be a reasonable alternative if neither system is capable
of or does not want to operate in tie-line frequency bias control mode.

Tie Line Frequency Bias (TLB) Control

Tie-line frequency bias (TLB) is the AGC control mode typically used in normal
operating conditions. TLB controls the actual net tie-line flow (NIA) to the
scheduled net tie-flow (NIS), biased by a MW value equal to the measured
frequency deviation times the frequency bias value. For proper control action,
the frequency bias value (B) utilized by each system must be appropriate for the
current system condition.
11.3.5 Connecting Islands
Islands may be unintentionally created when a disturbance results in system
separations. Once an island develops, initial system operator actions should
concentrate on stabilizing the island’s frequency and voltage and ensuring In a sequential
equipment is within acceptable loading limits. restoration philosophy,
the system is restored
Islands may also be created intentionally in the course of the restoration process. as one island that
Depending on the restoration philosophy used, multiple islands may be keeps growing in size.
simultaneously created. Caution should be exercised when intentionally creating In a parallel
multiple islands, as simultaneous frequency control is a more difficult process. restoration philosophy,
multiple islands are
The creation of multiple islands may also spread available generation resources so created and then
thin that a system operator has a difficult time energizing large blocks of load. eventually
The process of synchronizing multiple islands also requires time, coordination, synchronized.
and careful execution.
Islands should only be synchronized when each system is stable and operating
within acceptable limits. The combined system should be capable of sustaining
the loss of the on-line generator carrying the greatest load. All elements of the
transmission system of the combined system should be capable of handling the
power flow swing that would follow the trip of any on-line generator.
11.3.6 Cold Load Pick-Up Concerns
The term cold load pick-up refers to an increase in the load magnitude when a
feeder is re-energized following an outage period. For example, a feeder may
have carried 5 MVA prior to an outage and when the feeder is restored ½ hour
later the MVA loading may rise to 50 or more for a short period of time. The
primary causes of cold-load pick-up include loss of load diversity and motor
in-rush currents.

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Loss of Load Diversity

The load that is served (once energized) from a recently tripped distribution
feeder tends to gradually increase as the duration of the feeder outage increases.
Once the feeder is re-energized, this effect (called loss of load diversity) can
substantially increase the connected load.
In normal conditions, portions of a feeder’s load mixture switches on and off in a
random fashion. For example, air conditioning units normally cycle on and off
several times in the course of a typical hour. At any given time a portion of the
available air conditioning units are energized and a portion de-energized.
The actual air conditioning load at any given time consists of the sum of the load
from all the air conditioners on-line at that moment. This load quantity is
normally less than the potential air conditioning load that is the sum of the load if
all air conditioners are energized at the same time. The difference between the
actual load and the potential load is referred to as the load diversity.
Given the trip of a feeder, the natural load diversity tends to diminish as more
loads are connected to the de-energized feeder. The primary cause of the loss of
load diversity phenomenon is thermostatically controlled loads. For example, air
conditioner thermostats initiate the start of their compressor units as room
temperatures rise. Thermostatically controlled heating systems and hot water
heaters work in the same manner.

Locked-rotor is the Motor In-Rush Current

condition when the
motor is first started Motor starting is a key issue during system restoration. When a motor is initially
with the motor rotor started a large current magnitude approaching locked-rotor conditions may flow.
at standstill. This current is called the motor in-rush current. The in-rush current can exceed
Locked-rotor 10 times full load current depending on the motor design and conditions at the
current is the
maximum possible
time of closing. The in-rush current decays to normal load current levels as the
magnitude. motor reaches normal operating speed. The time to reach normal operating speed
also depends on the type of motor and the load connected to the motor shaft. In
general, the in-rush current only last a few cycles to a few seconds.
The startup of large motors at power plants should be given special consideration
in the development of the restoration plan. Large motors should not be started
unless adequate MVA capacity is available to limit the frequency and voltage
deviations to tolerable levels.

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When large power plant motors are started during a restoration condition, the
ability to maintain adequate voltage levels is a concern. Excessive voltage drop
during large motor starting events can create multiple problems. If the voltage dip
is too large, the newly energized motor may be unable to build to a normal
operating speed. The aborted startup attempt can damage the motor and/or
activate protective devices.
The startup of a large generating station motors may create a generalized low
voltage condition effecting plant auxiliaries and local customer equipment. Other
motors connected to the system may trip. The trip of a critical plant auxiliary may
lead to the trip of generating equipment and a subsequent system shutdown. The
generator restoration plan must ensure that adequate voltage support is available
to start large motors.

Magnitude of the Cold-Load Pickup Effect

The cold-load pick-up is a combination of the loss of load diversity effect and
motor in-rush currents. The loss of load diversity is a long-term effect, lasting
possibly 30 minutes, while the in-rush current effect lasts only a few seconds.
The amount of cold load pick-up depends upon the nature of the connected load.
Cold load pick-up can involve in-rush currents of ten or more times the normal
load current depending on the nature of the load being picked-up. The initial high
current generally decays to about two times normal load current in two to four
seconds and remains at a level of 150% to 200% of pre-shutdown levels for as
long as 30 minutes.
The increase in load magnitude results in larger blocks of load (both MW and
Mvar) picked up as distribution feeders are re-energized.
The phenomena of cold load pick-up can:
Î Overload equipment
Î Cause over-current relays to operate resulting in the tripping of feeder CBs
Î Create more severe frequency dips than expected when energizing blocks
of load
Figure 11-18 illustrates the concept of cold-load pick-up. Figure 11-18 (a) notes
that the initial feeder load is 5 MW and 1 Mvar. The feeder then trips and is
restored a few hours later as illustrated in Figure 11-18 (b). Immediately the
feeder load jumps to 53 MVA. Note that most of this new load is Mvar for the
in-rush to the motor type load that must be attached to the feeder. The
overcurrent relays illustrated in Figure 11-18 could trip because of this sudden
increase in feeder current.

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Figure 11-18. Illustration of Cold-Load Pick-Up

Sectionalizing of Load
In situations where cold load pick-up results in equipment overload, the operation
of over-current relays, or unacceptable frequency deviations, the connected
load must be reduced prior to energizing the feeder. The process of reducing
distribution feeder load is referred to as sectionalizing. Sectionalizing consists
of opening selected switches associated with the feeder in order to reduce the
amount of connected load. This process can be time consuming and frequently
requires manual switching at a number of field locations.
Once a feeder has been energized, the sectionalized load can be gradual returned
to service. The switching associated with this gradual load pick-up can be a time
consuming process.

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Frequency Based Automatic Load Restoration

Power systems may install protective relay schemes that automatically restore
customer loads that were previously tripped via a UFLS scheme. Normally, these
restoration schemes are deactivated during a restoration process to prevent an
uncontrolled pick-up of load. In some cases however, these schemes cannot be
deactivated so the system operator must be aware of the frequency levels at which
the scheme operates and restores load.
11.3.7 Maintaining Operating Reserves during Restoration
Conditions
When a generator trips during normal operating conditions, frequency control is
typically sufficient because the remaining interconnection provides the needed
support. Even if one entity fails to provide their share of reserves, it is likely the
response of the remaining interconnection is enough to keep the frequency
deviation reasonable. The deficient system is said to be “leaning-on-the-ties”
when they are dependent on their neighbors for MW support. Leaning is
acceptable for short periods, but the deficient system must recover as soon as
The composition of
possible so the interconnection is prepared for the next event. operating reserves
During restoration conditions, following a generator trip or an excessive includes responsive
and non-responsive
load pick-up, a failure to provide adequate operating reserves (especially the elements. The
frequency responsive portion) can have a devastating effect on frequency. responsive elements
Inadequate levels of responsive reserves under restoration conditions may lead are critical during
to a system shutdown. restoration conditions
as the large inertial
Chapter 4 of this text described the need for and the types of operating response of a normal
reserves. This section explains specific issues associated with the maintenance conditions power
of adequate reserves during restoration conditions. system is not available.

The actual MW response of reserves during a frequency disturbance is partially

limited by the response capabilities of on-line generators. This response may be
far less than governor control theory would suggest. Regardless of what MW
response a governor requests, the desired response is not achieved unless the
generator’s prime mover is capable of the response. The prime mover response
dictates the rate of generator loading following the initial inertial (stored energy)
response phase.

Maintaining Reserves with Only One Unit In-Service

When a single unit is operational, adequate levels of reserve must be available on
that generator to support any possible cold load pick-up and gradual increases in
system load. With only one unit on-line, the loss of that generator results in a
blackout of the system. An obvious goal is to get a second generator on-line as
soon as possible. Once a second unit is operational, better reserve positions can
be established as described in the next paragraph.

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Maintaining Reserves to Survive Single Most Severe Contingency

Sufficient reserve should be provided such that the MW response of the surviving
Interruptible load on-line generation is able to replace the MW that was carried by the single most
may also play a role severe (SMS) generation contingency. The SMS contingency is the contingency
in the amount of that leads to the greatest loss of MW generation. In the case of an isolated
reserves provided in
restoration
system, the SMS is normally the loss of the on-line generator with the highest
conditions. MW loading. If the restored system is partially interconnected, the loss of a
tie-line to a neighboring system that is supplying MW may be the SMS
contingency because the loss of the tie-line separates the deficient system
from the MW support.
In some cases, the provision of sufficient reserve to recover from the SMS
contingency may not ensure adequate frequency control. For example, a
moderately loaded, fast responding generator may provide a large amount of
reserve to a system, and essentially cover for the loss of more heavily loaded but
much slower responding units. If the fast responding generator should trip, the
reserve available form the other, slower, on-line generation may not be adequate
to arrest the frequency decline.
The most severe
contingency may At a minimum, a power system in the process of restoration should have sufficient
not be the loss of the
responsive reserve to recover from the trip of any single generator or tie-line.
largest generation
source, but rather
the loss of the most Maintaining Regulating Reserves
responsive
generation source. Regulating reserve is defined during normal conditions as the spinning reserve
held in AGC responsive generators. However, in restoration conditions AGC
may or may not be operational. Therefore, the definition of regulating reserve is
expanded to include all reserve that is used to maintain frequency and tie-line
flows within the restored system. Regulating reserve levels must be sufficient for
the system operator to keep frequency and tie-line flows within acceptable limits.

Reserve Distribution
Reserves should be distributed throughout the power system to provide optimal
loading of the reserves in response to potential generator and tie-line trips. When
determining an appropriate distribution of reserves, the following points should be
considered:
Î Reserves should be distributed such that their usage following generator
and tie-line contingencies does not result in the post-contingency overload
of any transmission facilities.
Î Reserves should be distributed such that the frequency dip that follows
a generation loss is effectively managed. Optimal frequency dip
management is achieved when reserves are distributed in proportion to
each generator’s rapid responsive capability. In other words, ensure
enough rapidly responding (within seconds) reserves are distributed
appropriately throughout the restored system.

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Î Reserves should be distributed such that the steady-state frequency

that follows the initial frequency dip is effectively managed. Optimal
steady-state frequency control is achieved when reserves are distributed in
proportion to each unit’s response capability, assuming all units have the
same governor drop setting. If the governor droop settings are not the
same, optimal steady-state frequency performance is achieved when
reserves are distributed in proportion to the generator’s MW capacity
divided by the generator’s droop setting.
11.3.8 Load Curtailment
During a restoration event it is likely that at a point in the restoration process, the
available MW capacity is not adequate to serve the existing load. If an on-line
generator trips or the load pick-up is greater than anticipated and reserves drop
below acceptable limits, load must be reduced.
One of the most important objectives during any restoration event is to avoid a
second system shutdown. Energized load may be shed to protect frequency
and/or mitigate an operating security limit violation. Procedures must be
established ahead of time so that load is shed in an organized, rapid, and
efficient manner.
When a need for load shedding arises, a system operator may not have the time to
select the least important loads for shedding. The system operator’s speed of
response may be more important than exactly which load is shed. Once the
proper amount of load has been shed in a prompt and effective manner, load
priority issues can be addressed.

Rotating Load Shedding

If it is anticipated that the need for load shedding lasts for an extended period, an
option is to shed load on a rotating basis. By shedding load on a rotating basis,
two objectives are satisfied. First fairness is addressed in that the load shedding is
spread across as much of the customer base as possible. Second, the impact of
the load curtailment on any individual customer is reduced. For example if a
refrigeration customer experiences a power outage for 20 minutes every two
hours, the potential damage from a loss of refrigeration is reduced.
The design of a rotational load shedding program varies from utility to utility.
The length of service interruption is commonly governed by the utility’s ability to
interrupt and restore the load. Some utilities have SCADA systems and software
that makes rotational load shedding very easy to implement. Other utilities may
have to use manual switching techniques to interrupt the customers. The more
cumbersome the switching process, the more difficult it is to facilitate a faster
rotation of the load shedding.

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A second consideration when designing a load-shedding program is the ability to

pick-up the load following the initial interruption. Once a feeder is interrupted,
the cold-load pick-up phenomenon starts to occur. The speed at which load
diversity is lost is dependent on both the composition of the load and the current
weather conditions. For example, if there are a high proportion of electrically
heated homes served by a distribution feeder, and the weather is cold and windy,
load diversity may be lost quickly. The same distribution feeder on a mild spring
day would lose load diversity slowly. The duration of an intentional load
interruption should not be so long that the feeder cannot be re-closed due to
cold-load pick-up issues.
A typical rotational load-shedding scheme might call for blocks of load to be
interrupted for a 20-minute period. The frequency of interruption and the
duration of the interruptions vary depending on the amount of relief needed and
the type of load interrupted. Procedures, which include tabular descriptions of the
load to be shed, are normally developed for the system operators’ usage. These
tables state the load to be shed, how the loads are shed, and the time periods that
the shedding should last.

Frequency Based Automatic Load Shedding and Restoration

Under frequency load shedding (UFLS) theory and usage were described in
Chapter 4. UFLS schemes are designed to shed load in a controlled effort to
avoid a frequency driven system collapse. Figure 11-19 illustrates the concept
of UFLS.
Figure 11-19 follows on the next page.

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Figure 11-19. UFLS Illustration

During the restoration process, especially during the early stages, UFLS schemes
may not operate in the desired manner. For example, the frequency dips which
occur when picking-up load in restoration conditions are much greater than those
experienced in normal conditions, but the dips may be well within restoration
limits. However, if loads that are controlled by the UFLS scheme relays are
energized, they may be susceptible to tripping following frequency dips.
System operators should consider the possibility of undesired UFLS operations.
For example, if possible do not utilize loads that are part of the UFLS scheme
until the more advanced stages of the restoration process. In this manner the
frequency sensitive loads are not energized until after the period of the most
severe frequency dips has passed.

Automatic Load Restoration Schemes

Some systems utilize automatic load restoration schemes. Automatic load
restoration schemes automatically restore load as the frequency recovers. For
example, the schemes may close CBs, which were tripped by the UFLS scheme,
once frequency recovers to 59.99 or above.

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Automatic load restoration schemes, those based on frequency, are normally not
appropriate during restoration conditions. The restoration of load during weak
restoration conditions in general should be a system operator function. Automatic
schemes may restore load at the wrong time or in the wrong amount. If a utility
has installed an automatic load restoration scheme, its impact on system
restoration must be examined. If appropriate, a means of de-activating the
scheme should be provided for the system operators’ usage. At a minimum, the
automatic load restoration scheme should be described in the system restoration
plan and any restoration related scheme options fully explained.
11.4 Equipment Issues Related to System Restoration
A variety of equipment related problems could occur during restoration
conditions. Some of these problems exist at the onset of the restoration condition,
while others develop over time. In some instances an initiating event, such as an
earthquake, damages equipment. Equipment may also be damaged in the course
of a system shutdown, for example as the result of a sudden overload.
Equipment issues may start to develop within minutes of the shutdown. For
example, as little as a 15 minute power failure to a generator’s turning-gear can
result in a warped turbine/generator shaft and lead to a several day long forced
outage of the unit. Other equipment issues develop over lengthier periods, such
as over a number of hours or days. For example, the battery system in a
substation normally supplies emergency energy for several hours but eventually
runs down as the energy storage in the battery bank is drained.
11.4.1 Substation Stored Energy
Substations are typically designed so that following the loss of substation station
service AC power; all critical operating functions remain serviceable. Less
critical functions, such as substation control room heating, may be lost when the
AC power failure occurs.
CB tripping and Stored Energy in CB Mechanisms
closing coils
typically consist of CBs use various forms of stored energy to provide mechanical tripping (opening)
an electro-magnet (a power. Compressed springs are often used for tripping power. For example,
solenoid) which,
when energized, when a CB is opened a spring may be automatically compressed. Stored energy
triggers a is now available in this spring for tripping power. The CB’s tripping coil⎯the
mechanical latch coil is the electrical device (an electro-magnet) that releases the stored energy in
allowing the CB to the tripping spring⎯normally receives power from the substation battery or from
either open or close
by releasing some
a charged capacitor device.
form of stored CBs typically use stored energy to close the CB given a loss of AC power. The
energy. The stored
energy is often in a
power to activate the closing coil of a CB is normally provided from the
spring type device. substation batteries. The stored energy that is needed to actually close the CBs
contacts is provided from various sources including: compressed air, springs,
hydraulic mechanisms, and substation battery banks.

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The disconnect switches used in a substation may be motor operated. The power
to operate these motor operated disconnects (MODs) is normally provided from
the substation battery banks.

Stored Energy in Battery Banks

Batteries have been relied upon for many years to provide power to critical
system functions. In some applications, batteries drive power inverters. The
power inverter inputs the battery’s DC power, converts the DC to AC, and then
provides AC power to critical AC driven equipment. Substation battery power
may be used to power:
Î Protective relaying
Î CB control systems
Î Power inverters
Î Telecommunication equipment.
When first installed, battery banks are designed to provide service for a certain
length of time. For example, a battery bank may be designed to provide service
for 12 hours following a substation AC power outage. However, if the energy
drawn from the battery bank is greater than the initial design parameters, the
battery is not able to provide service as long as initially envisioned. The amp-
hour capability of batteries also decreases with the age of the battery bank.
Given the possibilities for battery bank service life reduction, the original design
battery bank service hours may not be available in actual system operations.
Every system’s restoration plan should include a recent estimate of the service
hours for each battery system that is critical to system operation, control, and
communications. The batteries to check include those at key substations,
generators, and telecommunication facilities.

Battery Maintenance
Battery banks are obviously a key piece of equipment as batteries are used to
power many critical functions. The regular monitoring and maintenance of
battery banks is necessary to ensure that batteries are available when needed. If a
major shutdown occurs, and battery banks are discovered dead, the length and
impact of the outage can be dramatically extended. For example, if a substation’s
battery banks are available, the SCADA system can be used to speed the pace of
system restoration. However, if the battery banks are dead, personnel have to be
sent to the substation to open and/or close CBs manually.

Importance of Restoring Substation Station Service

If the AC power to a substation is lost, the power needs to be restored as soon as
possible. The restoration of substation station service is important for several
reasons including:

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Î To ensure that the charging system for the substation battery bank is
operational
Î To ensure the charging of the stored energy sources used to open and close
CBs
Î To ensure the operation of lighting systems to provide a safe working
environment for personnel
Î To ensure that substation temperature control systems (heating or cooling)
are operational
Î To ensure the operation of oil pumps used by underground cable systems
Î To ensure the operation of all other critical substation equipment
Every power system restoration strategy should plan for the rapid energization of
a source of station service as each substation is energized.
11.4.2 Pipe-Type Cable Systems
Pipe-type cable systems consist of a metal pipe within which are placed three
oil-impregnated, paper-insulated conductors. The pipe is initially filled with oil
and any remaining air is vented from the cable. Oil is pumped into the cable until
the normal operating pressure of the cable (perhaps 250 PSI) is achieved. The
oil-pressure is constantly monitored to ensure proper operation.
When initially pressurized, it may take several hours to eliminate all of the voids
(air bubbles, vacuum pockets, etc.) in the conductor’s paper insulation and vent
any remaining air from the pipe. This period is commonly referred to as the
pipe’s soaking period. Figure 11-20 illustrates the basic construction of a pipe-
type cable while Figure 11-21 contains a photograph of a section of pipe-type
cable.
The operating pressure of a pipe-type cable system is determined in the design
stage. The cable system must be operated within an acceptable margin of its
design pressure or faults can develop within the cable system.
An important part of a pipe-type cable system is the oil pumping facilities. The
pumping system consists of pumps, regulating valves, and oil reservoirs. The
pumping facility must maintain the oil pressure within the pipe between its high
and low limits. SCADA alarms are often installed to provide warning if the oil
pressure is outside of acceptable operating limits. The oil pumping facility is
typically located at one (or both) of the terminals of the cable system.

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Figure 11-20. Pipe-Type Cable Design

Figure 11-21. Pipe-Type Cable Photograph

Operation of Pipe-Type Cable Systems

As load is placed on the cable, the current flow heats the oil within the cable,
raising the oil pressure. If the oil pressure reaches its high operating limit,
automatic regulating valves allow some oil flow from the pipe into an oil storage
reservoir. The oil movement from the cable to storage reduces the oil pressure

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within the pipe. If the current flow on the cable drops, the cable temperature
drops and so does the oil pressure within the pipe. When the oil pressure reaches
its low operating limit, an oil pump automatically starts and pumps oil from the
storage reservoir into the pipe, raising the oil pressure within the pipe. This
continuous process keeps oil pressure within the operating limits of the cable
Some pipe-type system.
cable systems allow
a reduced cable If the pipe-type cable pressure drops below a minimum level, the cable must be
pressure mode of de-energized. De-energizing is necessary because voids and bubbles can develop
operation for in the paper insulation that surrounds the cable conductors resulting in a cable
maintenance and
leakage control
fault. The cable must now be soaked until pressure is again within acceptable
purposes. This limits. Once oil pressure is acceptable, the cable can be re-energized.
reduced oil pressure
mode of operation is Special Procedures Following Loss of Oil Pressure
normally not
sufficient to permit During restoration conditions, AC oil pumping power is often lost. Once a
the cable to be system shutdown occurs, pipe-type cables start cooling and oil pressure drops.
energized. The more heavily loaded a cable is prior to shutdown, the higher the cable’s
operating temperature and the greater the reduction in temperature as the cable
cools toward ambient conditions. The greater the temperature drop, the greater
the resulting pressure drop. In other words, a cable with little load current is
already operating near ambient temperature and does not experience a large
pressure drop. Conversely, a heavily loaded cable experiences a large drop in
temperature and oil pressure when a shutdown occurs.
11.4.3 Lightning Arresters
Zinc-oxide lightning arresters may operate when switching surges initiate
sufficient magnitude and duration TOV events. Under normal operating
conditions, most TOV events are quickly damped by system load. However,
during restoration conditions, TOVs are numerous and not well damped.
When a TOV event occurs, zinc-oxide arresters may allow some current flow
through the arrester to ground. This current flow results in arrester heating. The
arrester can only withstand a certain heating level, beyond which the arrester is
subject to thermal failure.
During a restoration condition there are several reasons why zinc-oxide arresters
are subjected to greater than normal duty including:
Î There is a greater potential for elevated system voltage. High voltage
increases the potential for TOV events and also increases the severity of
the TOV event.
Î Restoration conditions always include multiple switching surges as
equipment is energized. Each switching surge potentially creates a TOV.
Î TOV events persist for longer periods as restoration conditions provide
poor damping to the TOVs

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Each power system’s exposure to TOVs and the allowable duty (limits of high
voltage exposure) of zinc-oxide arresters should be studied. Suitable guidelines
should be incorporated into the restoration plan to avoid arrester failure during the
restoration process.
11.4.4 Transformers
Transformer energization may cause several restoration conditions operating
problems including:
Î High in-rush currents that lead to large switching surges
Î An increased potential for resonance
Î An increased possibility of voltage control problems

Energizing Transformers
The composition of
The process of energizing a large power transformer creates a substantial operating reserves
includes responsive
disturbance in a weak power system. Ideally, no transformer is energized until
and non-responsive
the restored power system is strong enough to absorb the energization shock. elements. The
Unfortunately, in many instances of restoration, the energization of a transformer responsive elements
cannot wait and the transformer must be energized from a weak system. For are critical during
example, once a black-start generator is on-line, the generator’s step-up restoration conditions
as the large inertial
transformer (GSU) must be energized. Once the GSU is energized, several
response of a normal
relatively large power transformers⎯large when compared to the size of the conditions power
generator⎯are typically energized before any load can be restored. system is not available.

Mechanical Shock from Unbalanced Currents

The in-rush current when a transformer is first energized can reach 10 times the
transformer’s full load current and persist for several seconds. Figure 11-22
illustrates the wave shape of a single phase of the in-rush current when a
transformer is energized.
The in-rush current in Figure 11-22 has a high harmonic content. Note the
irregular shape of the sine wave. The sine wave shape is distorted which means
there are odd (likely 3rd) harmonics present. Also note that the waveform is not
symmetrical about the horizontal (time) axis. This means
that the waveform has even (likely 2nd) harmonics present.
A three phase system’s
Figure 11-22 illustrates only a single phase of the in-rush current. The currents (A, B, C)
currents in the other two phases have different magnitudes and are therefore should have 120°
imbalanced. The unbalanced nature of the phase currents and the high levels phase separation and
have the same
of harmonic content can produce a significant amount of mechanical shock to magnitude. If the
local generators. The mechanical shock to area generation is often more phase angles or
significant when energizing a transformer then when picking up large blocks of currents are not equal
load or when a fault occurs close to the transformer. the phase currents are
“imbalanced”.

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Figure 11-22. Transformer In-Rush Current

Transient Over-Voltages
Steady-state voltage is often high during the early stages of restoration. The
major cause of the high voltage is the abundance of Mvar from energizing
transmission lines. Ferranti raise and improper transformer tap settings may also
contribute to the high voltage condition. Voltage levels at various locations in the
system may be close to maximum acceptable levels.
When a transformer is energized, a switching surge is created. The magnitude of
the switching surge is dependent upon the point in the voltage wave at which the
switching device (CB, etc.) used for energization actually closes. Once created, a
switching surge voltage wave reflects back and forth throughout the restored
power system until it is damped by system load and resistive losses.
The magnitude of the resulting voltage is a combination of the switching surge
magnitude and the steady-state system operating voltage. The switching surge
voltage transient combines with⎯and rides upon⎯the 60 HZ steady-state power
system voltage. The combined voltage contains a base steady-state value with
switching surge frequency oscillations added above and below the steady-state
value. The peak voltage of the combined waveform can rise high enough to be
considered a TOV event. Reducing the initial steady-state operating voltage
(for example, to 90% of nominal), reduces the magnitude of the combined
waveform and reduces the impact of the TOV event.

Resonance Phenomena
Weak, lightly loaded power systems⎯typical in the early stages of system
restoration⎯are more susceptible to resonant conditions than normal conditions
power systems. The dampening effects of a tightly interconnected system and its
connected load are highly effective in reducing the potential for a resonant
condition. During the early stages of restoration, the initial elements energized

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often have high inductance (transformers) and capacitance (transmission lines).

The combination of capacitive and inductive elements, with minimal levels of
damping, sets the stage for a resonant condition.
The presence of capacitive and inductive elements does not in itself guarantee a
resonant condition. The resonant condition must first be triggered and then
sustained by the application of a voltage near the resonant frequency. During
normal operating conditions, the 60 HZ power system voltage predominates.
Therefore, if 60 HZ resonant conditions are avoided, the potential for a resonant
condition developing during normal conditions is low.
This condition is a
When a transformer is energized, the result is a switching surge and increased form of
harmonic content. High harmonic content increases the likelihood of a resonant ferroresonance as
condition as one or more of the harmonic frequencies can trigger the resonant it involves an iron-
condition. The resonant condition normally rapidly decays as it is damped by core inductance.
system load and power losses. However, if an additional source of energy exists
to feed the resonant condition, the resonance can sustain itself indefinitely.
The presence of high steady-state voltage, TOVs, or high resonant frequency
voltages, can drive a transformer into saturation. A saturated transformer is a
strong source of harmonics. The increased harmonic content can feed energy into
and sustain the resonance condition resulting in damage (typically thermal) to the
transformer. Local utility and customer equipment can also be damaged due to
the high harmonic content and the high voltages that result.

Reasons to Avoid Energizing Transformers Back-To-Back

Two or more transformers that are connected in series (back-to-back) should not
be energized simultaneously. When energized back-to-back, the first transformer
(“T-1” in Figure 11-23) is energized with a 60 HZ voltage. Transformer T-1’s
energization creates a high harmonic content and potentially a TOV. The second
transformer (“T-2” in Figure 11-23) in-line is then energized with a higher than
normal voltage that is rich in harmonics. The back-to-back energizing of
transformers increases the potential for and the magnitude of a TOV and creates
additional harmonics. Therefore, the likelihood of a resonant condition
developing is increased. A third transformer energized in the series further
increases the probability of a damaging resonant condition.

Figure 11-23. Energizing Back-to-Back Transformers

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Over-Voltage and Under-Frequency

A transformer can be damaged if it is energized using a combination of high
voltage and low frequency. The ratio of the voltage to the frequency is called the
“% excitation” of the transformer and is measured in volts-per-hertz. The larger
the volts-per-hertz ratio, the more likely transformer damage will occur. Over-
excitation (greater than 100% excitation) of a transformer can result in excessive
heating and damage to the transformer’s core. The severity of the damage is a
function of the level of excitation and the duration of the event. Serious damage
can occur very rapidly (within a few seconds) if the volts-per-hertz ratio is large
enough. Figure 11-24 contains a % excitation damage curve for a typical power
transformer. For the transformer illustrated in Figure 11-24, a 15% over-
excitation that lasts for more than seven minutes, likely results in transformer
damage.

Figure 11-24. Transformer Over-Excitation

Additional Transformer Restoration Concerns

Inability to Adjust Tap Positions

The motors used to change tap positions in most under-load tap changing (ULTC)
transformers and in phase shifting transformers (PSTs) are powered using AC
station service. A loss of substation station service may disable existing SCADA
control adjustment capability of ULTC and PST tap positions. The loss of remote
ULTC and PST control can severely limit a system operator’s restoration
condition control options. These potential problems should be analyzed and
their impact documented in the power system’s restoration plan.

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Effects of Low Voltage on Transformer Pumps

If a power system elects to use a reduced steady-state voltage restoration strategy,
the impact of the reduced voltage on motor type load must be considered. The
ability of a motor to operate at a reduced voltage is a function of the motor design.
Some motors may be damaged if operated at 90% of normal voltage while others
can be safely operated. A key area of concern is the allowable voltage range of
the pumps used to circulate transformer oil.
11.4.5 Circuit Breakers and Restoration Conditions

CB Control Circuitry
The design of a CBs control circuitry can interfere with the CBs switching during
restoration conditions. The DC power used for initiating CB tripping is typically
drawn from the station battery bank. As long as the station’s battery remains
charged, CBs can typically be opened electrically either from the substation’s
control panel or via SCADA.
The designs used in CB closing circuits vary. Substation CB closing is typically
initiated using DC power from the substation batteries. CB closing may only
require a DC power source. However, the CB closing sequence may utilize more
selective control circuitry. For example, the control circuitry may require both a
DC power source and the satisfaction of certain permissives for the CB to close.
For example, a CB may not close if the substation bus to which the CB is
connected is de-energized. The permissive in this case is the required
energization of the substation bus.
Figure 11-25 contains a simple CB control circuitry schematic that illustrates the
usage of a substation bus energized permissive. The battery provides the 120 volt
DC power. The DC power is provided to the CBs close coil only if the two
contacts between the close coil and the battery are closed. Contact “A” closes
when the CB close button is pressed. Contact “B” closes if the bus to which the
CB is connected to is energized. Once both contacts are closed, the close coil is
energized and a command is sent to the CB to close. If the CB has enough
mechanical energy to close it rapidly closes its contacts.

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Figure 11-25. DC Control Schematic for a CB

The switching strategies planned for usage in system restoration conditions

should be analyzed to determine if the CB control circuitry permits the intended
switching actions. The system restoration plan should document all verified
switching sequences.

Bleed-Down of CB Air Pressure

Many of the CBs utilized in the transmission system use compressed air as the
energy source to close the CB. The CB may have a dedicated AC powered air
compressor and an air storage tank. The air compressor automatically cycles on
and off to maintain pressure within prescribed operating limits. When a CB is
closed, it must close rapidly to prevent excessive arching as the CB’s contacts are
closed. Delays in the closing process can result in a violent CB failure. The
pressure of the compressed air must be above a minimum level to ensure rapid
closure. Protective systems are often employed to prevent closing the CB if air
pressure is not sufficient.
The loss of CB air When a system shutdown occurs, power to CB air compressors is often lost. The
pressure is air pressure at the time of shutdown is somewhere between the high and low
sometimes
intentional to operating limits. As time passes, the air pressure could gradually reduce and
ensure the CBs air eventually drop below the minimum for closing. If a power system uses air CBs,
compressor the restoration plan should state the typical times for CB air pressure bleed-down
periodically cycles. to minimum acceptable levels.

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Cold Weather Effects

Effect of Oil Viscosity on CB Closing

A CB may use a combination of compressed air and hydraulic fluid for closing.
This CB closing method typically uses compressed air to pressurize a reservoir
of hydraulic fluid. When activated, the CB’s closing coil opens a valve. The
valve movement allows hydraulic fluid to rapidly pass to a hydraulic ram. The
hydraulic ram movement closes the CB’s contacts. The CB’s contacts must close
rapidly or the CB may be damaged.
The low viscosity (resistance to flow) of the hydraulic fluid allows the fluid to
rapidly flow through the control valve and activate the hydraulic ram. To
maintain its low viscosity, the hydraulic fluid must be kept above a certain
temperature. Heaters are often used to maintain temperature if there is possibility
the CB is subjected to cold-weather operation.
The heaters used to maintain the hydraulic fluid’s viscosity are normally AC
powered. If a system shutdown occurs in cold weather conditions, the hydraulic
fluid may rapidly cool. Eventually the fluid viscosity may increase enough to
slow the closing process for the CB. A CB protective system may then activate to
prevent the CB’s closure and avoid damage. Each system restoration plan should
address CB cold weather issues and provide appropriate solutions.

SF6 CB Need for Heaters

The pressure of the SF6 gas used in SF6 based CBs must be maintained above a
minimal level to ensure the CB has sufficient insulating capability. If the SF6
pressure drops below a minimum acceptable level, CB tripping is typically
blocked. Because SF6 pressure naturally drops with declining temperature, SF6
CBs are often equipped with heaters.
If a system shutdown occurs during cold weather conditions, SF6 CB heaters may
lose power and the gas pressure may drop below the minimum acceptable level.
This possibility should be addressed in each power systems restoration plan.
11.4.6 Telecommunication Systems and SCADA
The rapid and accurate communication of information is critical in a restoration
condition. Given the loss of AC power, a power system’s telecommunication
systems may be degraded or totally fail. Each system’s restoration plan should
analyze the impact of a system shutdown on their telecommunication systems
and make the appropriate adjustments and/or improvements to ensure effective
telecommunications in restoration conditions.

Battery Life and Telecommunications Systems

A telecommunication facility may fail when an AC shutdown occurs. Although
high priority telecommunications facilities are designed to function independent
of AC power, lower priority systems may not be as well designed. Following the

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loss of AC power, a telecommunication system may fail due to design oversights

or equipment malfunction. For example, an AC powered intermediate
telecommunication switching station may fail, disabling the entire system even
though all other equipment used in the system is fully functional.
Batteries are often utilized to provide the necessary power to operate critical
telecommunication systems. Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) are normally
installed to transition the supply of system power from the AC source to battery
driven inverter power. The back-up battery power may be the only source of
power until normal AC service is restored. Telecommunication systems battery
discharge times under restoration conditions should be determined and noted in
the restoration plan for all important telecommunications systems.

Adequacy and Usability of Telecommunication Systems

The usage of a particular telecommunication system during a restoration condition
may far exceed normal traffic levels. A telecommunication system may also be
used for unexpected purposes. If one type of telecommunication system fails,
other systems may have to absorb additional traffic. For example, if a local
telephone system is overloaded, the restoration plan may call for the use of a
utility radio system as a backup voice system. The radio system could then have
more users and more traffic than it was designed for. Restoration drills may be
used to verify that the companies involved in the restoration effort have sufficient
and varied telecommunications capability.

RTU Communications
EMS is a very broad Generating stations and substations are often equipped with a remote terminal unit
term. The EMS (RTU). The RTU is an electronic device that acts as an interface between a
includes both the company’s energy management system (EMS) and their various generators and
SCADA and AGC
substations. If a substation or generator RTU loses power, the utility loses both
systems.
indication and remote control of the facility. The communications between
RTUs and the control center’s EMS are vitally important during a restoration
condition and the continued availability of RTU telecommunications should be
addressed in the restoration plan.
11.4.7 Generators and Power System Restoration
Generation related restoration issues are examined in a general manner in this
section. Each generating unit is unique and each must be studied to determine its
restoration related strengths and weaknesses.

Generator Safe Shutdown Concerns

The safe shutdown of generating equipment that trips in the course of a system
shutdown is a top restoration priority. Immediately following a system shutdown,
efforts must be made to ensure personnel safety and avoid damage to generation
equipment. The precise steps taken are unique to each generating facility.

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Critical generation vulnerabilities should be identified, appropriate responses

developed, and all actions documented in the system restoration plan.
The security and reliability of nuclear facilities is the highest priority during a
system restoration. A nuclear utility must make the restoration of an adequate
supply of off-site power to its nuclear facilities the key objective of the restoration
plan. Each nuclear generator has its own documentation pertaining to on-site and
off-site station power requirements. Every nuclear associated transmission
operating company’s power system restoration plan must integrate with and
support its nuclear plant requirements.

Generator Heath and Safety Issues

Critical health and safety needs must be identified for each generating facility.
The design of generating facilities varies from small CTs to large coal fired steam
stations to remote hydro plants. Health and safety issues vary widely from plant
site to plant site. Frequently a generating site has unique health and safety issues,
depending upon the physical location, type of equipment used, and potential
natural disasters (for example, hurricane exposure). Typical generating unit
health and safety issues that should be addressed in a restoration plan include the
following:
Î Emergency lighting requirements
Î Air handling and ventilation requirements
Î Increased fire safety requirements due to restoration conditions
- The potential for fire related emergencies may increase during
restoration conditions. The increased exposure may come from:
o Heavily loaded DC equipment
o Loss of normal facility cooling
o Overheating during a shutdown
o Damage due to a natural disaster

Availability of Generator DC Oil Pumps

Once a generator trips, the rotating components continue to spin for many
minutes. Lubricating oil pressure must be available to all generator and turbine
bearings. A lack of sufficient oil pressure can cause bearings to overheat and
fail. The failure of bearings due to a lack of oil pressure and the subsequent
overheating is commonly referred to as “wiping the bearings”. Depending on
the bearing construction material, once the bearing overheats, it may start to
deteriorate quickly. Bearing failures can result in a lack of clearance between
stationary and rotating generator/turbine components and lengthy repair outages.

AC power driven lube-oil pumps are available during normal operating

conditions. Emergency lube-oil pumps are normally installed and are driven via

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DC power from the station’s battery banks. The emergency lube-oil pumps are
designed to ensure adequate bearing oil pressure in shutdown conditions. The
availability of emergency lube-oil pumps and the DC power to drive the pumps
are critical in system restoration conditions.

Generator Over-Excitation Damage

Chapter 5 described
over-excitation of a During restoration conditions, a generating unit may be exposed to higher than
transformer. The
concept is the same,
normal voltage and/or lower than normal frequency. The ratio of the voltage to
although more the frequency is called the excitation level of the generator. The metal in a
restrictive, for a generator’s stator can be driven into a saturation condition from exposure to
generator. A excessive excitation levels. This condition is called over-excitation.
typical transformer
can be exposed to a Over-excitation of a generator leads to saturation of the stator steel and possible
10% over-excitation thermal damage to the generator. Over-excitation conditions must be quickly
indefinitely with no eliminated to avoid damage. On some generators, the voltage regulator may
damage. A typical
generator can be
include an over-excitation protective device or the generator operator may install
exposed only to a an over-excitation relay. These relays are often referred to as volts-per-hertz
5% over-excitation relays.
without risk of
damage. Availability of Generator Turning-Gear
When a horizontally mounted (thermal units are typically horizontally mounted
while hydro units are typically vertically mounted) turbine/generator is suddenly
tripped, the shaft eventually stops rotating and can sag or bend. The degree to
which the shaft bends is a function of the shaft design (weight distribution, etc.)
and the shaft’s operating temperature. The hotter the shaft, the more flexible the
shaft’s metal and the greater the likelihood of shaft bending.
The shafts of steam units and CTs are often very sensitive to shaft sag. If a
turbine/generator shaft is allowed to cool with a bend in the shaft, the shaft may
retain the bend. Once operational and rotating the sag condition often creates
excessive turbine/generator vibration. Turbine/generator sags and bends are
normally removed by slowly rotating the shaft for an extended period
(perhaps for several days).
To prevent the development of a bend in the turbine/generator shaft, a turning-
gear motor is provided to slowly rotate the shaft. The turning gear is started
anytime the prime mover is not rotating the turbine shaft. The turning-gear motor
may rotate the shaft for a period following a shutdown until cooling is complete,
or the turning-gear may continuously rotate the turbine shaft even if the unit is
out-of-service.
The primary turning-gear motor is typically AC powered. An emergency back-up
turning-gear motor may also be provided. The back-up turning-gear motor is
typically powered via DC from the plant’s battery bank. If both the AC and DC
turning-gear motors are unavailable, the plant operators may still be able to rotate
the shaft using some type of manual lever arrangement.

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Following a generator shutdown, turning-gear power must be provided. For some

generators, if turning-gear power is not supplied within 10-15 minutes, the shaft
bends and the unit may not be available for service for several days while the
bend is removed. In some generators, automated controls may block a unit’s
restart if the turning-gear is not started quickly enough following a shutdown.
Each power system’s restoration plan should document the turning-gear
requirements of each generating unit. The documentation should include the
maximum time delay permitted before a tripped generator is placed on turning-
gear. The restoration plan should also document the estimated time that a
generator is unavailable for service if the turning-gear motor is not in-service
within the permitted time.

Water Pumps at Hydro-Electric Facilities

The dams associated with hydro-electric projects frequently use pumps to remove
any water accumulation from within the dam’s galleries (A gallery is an
inspection tunnel within the dam’s structure). Pumps may also be used to
eliminate water accumulation around the dam’s foundations.
Sump pumps are often used within the power houses (the hydro generators are in
the power houses) to remove any water seepage. If the sump pumps fail, the
power house may flood, resulting in forced generator outages. Power house
flooding is a major concern during certain types of plant maintenance as power
house water seepage is greater than normal.
AC power is typically used to drive the pump motors. If AC power is lost,
problems may occur depending on the importance of the pumping functions for
the particular hydro facility. If the loss of pumping function is an important issue,
it should be addressed in the restoration plan.

Generator Abnormal Frequency Operations

A system disturbance may result in a generating unit operating at an abnormal
frequency. For example, a disturbance may lead to the tripping of several
transmission lines resulting in a generator operating in an island at a sustained low
or high frequency.
Steam turbines are sensitive to abnormal frequency operation due to turbine blade
vibration. The low-pressure turbine blades are the most susceptible to vibration.
The blades could eventually fail (break apart) if operated while under load outside
of a 59.5 to 60.5 HZ frequency range. Figure 11-26 illustrates the acceptable
frequency operating range and the time limits before probable damage for a
typical steam turbine.

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Figure 11-26. Steam Turbine Abnormal Frequency Limits

When activated, a
generator’s UF
protective relays
The frequency and time of exposure limits for each generator’s operation should
may alarm the be documented in the restoration plan. The documentation should include the
operator and/or trip generator abnormal frequency limits and also the settings on any under and
the unit. System over-frequency relays that are used to protect the generator.
operators must be
aware of their
generator UF relay
Concerns with Black-Start Capable Units
settings. Black-start capable generating units have the capability of starting when the
power system that the generator normally connects to is shutdown. Even though a
generator may be classified as black-start capable, there are a number of issues
that can interfere with the black-start process. If any of the following issues are
applicable to a particular system, the issues should be documented in the
appropriate restoration plan.

Availability of Compressed Air to Start CTs

Aircraft derivative type CTs frequently use compressed air storage to drive
air-motors. The air-motors propel the CT to a speed at which the CT’s
combustors can be ignited. Air leaks or usage of the compressed air for other
purposes may deplete the supply of compressed air to levels below that necessary
for the CT’s black-start.

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Gas Compressors for CT Operation

Many CTs use natural gas as the fuel source. The available pipe-line pressure at a
CT site is often not high enough for direct utilization by the CT. Gas compressors
are then used to raise the gas pressure to acceptable levels for the CT. The
compressors are sometimes gas powered, but are often AC powered. Black-start
generator operations should be analyzed to ensure adequate gas pressure and AC
power during restoration conditions.
There may be restricted CT operation possibilities during low gas pressure
conditions. For example, a CT may be able to operate at reduced MW output
levels without the benefit of a gas compressor.

Penstock Water for Hydro Units

Water⎯taken directly from the penstock of a hydro unit⎯can sometimes be used
to drive the critical auxiliary loads needed to execute a hydro unit black-start.
Typical water driven auxiliaries include AC station service generators and
excitation power supplies.

Lift-Oil Pumps for Hydro Units The runner is the

Some vertical mounted hydro units (Francis turbine powered generators are rotating portion of the
hydro turbine. The
normally vertical mounted) utilize pressurized oil to raise the turbine runner thrust-bearing supports
off the thrust-bearing prior to starting the rotation of the runner. The pumps the weight of a
used to pressurize the lift-oil are normally AC powered. DC or water powered vertically mounted
pumps may be utilized in a black-start capable unit. hydro generator.

Fuel Forwarding Pumps for CTs and Diesels

Diesel generators typical have one large fuel storage tank and an additional
smaller tank. Diesel fuel is pumped from the large tank to the small tank and then
to the diesel engine. The fuel-forwarding pump between the two storage tanks is
frequently AC powered. The fuel-forwarding pump may be fed power directly
from the diesel generator output.
If a diesel generator is designated as a black-start capable unit, the small tank
(commonly called the day tank) and the large tank should be kept full of fuel.
The AC power source for the fuel-forwarding pump should be rapidly restored
once the diesel generator has black-started, otherwise the unit may unexpectedly
run out of fuel.
CT generators can also use fuel-forwarding pumps. CT fuel-forwarding pumps
are typically AC powered. A CT with black-start capability may have a DC
powered fuel-forwarding pump. The DC pump often needs to be manually
switched in-service for the black-start process. Once the CT has successfully
black-started, the DC pump may need to be switched out and the AC pump
switched in-service. This switching process must be completed in the correct
manner to avoid a fuel interruption.

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Restoration of a Generator’s Normal Auxiliary Power

Once a black-start generator has successfully started, the transfer from the
emergency start-up power source to the normal auxiliary power source can result
in generator tripping. For example, automatic transfer schemes may operate
creating switching surges that cause critical auxiliaries to trip. Manual switching
of auxiliaries can also cause generator tripping.

Pump-Storage Hydro Units

Pump-storage hydro units are capable of operating as generators when the power
system needs energy or as pumps when energy is available from the system to
increase the pump-storage unit’s water reservoir level. Pump-storage units are
often capable of black-start operation. If a restoration plan requires the use of
pump-storage facilities for black-start, the pump-storage plant operators must
ensure that enough water is available in the unit’s water reservoir for generator
operations.

Concerns with Non Black-Start Capable Units

Given the sudden trip of a generating unit, there are a several issues that begin to
unfold as time progresses. If these issues apply to a system, the issues should be
documented in the appropriate restoration plan.

Time Window for the Restart of a Generator

When a steam turbine is operational and then suddenly trips, the turbine rotor and
turbine outer metal shell temperatures are initially at approximately the same
temperature. The turbine/generator starts to experience temperature changes
within minutes of the shutdown. As time passes, the temperature of the turbine
shell and the temperature of the turbine rotor start to diverge. This temperature
divergence is the result of the unique construction and design elements of the
different turbine components.
Once the turbine manufacturer’s specified temperature differential is exceeded,
the turbine/generator cannot be restarted as an adequate clearance between the
turbine shell and rotor may not exist. This clearance issue can develop within
20 minutes of the generator trip. If the allowable shell-to-rotor temperature
difference is exceeded, the unit must be allowed to cool until the temperature
differential is again within acceptable limits. The cool down period required to
permit a generator restart may exceed eight hours. The estimated time to which
the shell/rotor temperature differential exceeds acceptable limits and the required
cool down period should be documented in the restoration plan.
CT generators naturally go through a cool down process when removed from
service. A sudden system shutdown interferes with the CT’s normal cool down
process and may create delays for the restart of the CT. In addition, a lack of
turning-gear power and hotter than normal rotor temperatures, increase the
probability of developing rotor sag, which further delays the possible restart of the
CT.

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Unit Scrubber Availability

A scrubber is a
Following a sudden system shutdown, a fossil fuel power plant’s scrubber pollution control
system is likely not available for the immediate restart of the unit. Depending system that removes
sulfur from the exhaust
upon existing air quality control requirements, a scrubber outage may
gases of the fossil
substantially delay the unit restart. generator.

Availability of Control Power for the Generator and Auxiliary Loads

Prior to the restart of a generating unit, all of its critical control systems must be
restored to service. These control systems normally possess a small amount of
stored energy that may allow the system to remain functional for a short time.
Critical plant control systems include:
Î The DC control systems that are used for control power, emergency
auxiliaries, and protective relaying
Î The hydraulic control systems that are often used at hydro stations for
control purposes
Î The pneumatic control systems that are used extensively in steam power
plants for control purposes

Effect of Plant Bus Configuration

The configuration of a generating station’s main and auxiliary power distribution
buses may be different in restoration conditions than during normal operating
conditions. The buses within a power plant are normally interconnected at the
high voltage level and all auxiliary busses are ultimately tied to the higher voltage
buses.
During a restoration effort, high voltage buses may be split and the buses may be
operated out-of-synchronism with one another. For example, one auxiliary bus
may be energized from an isolated on-site emergency generator, which is
out-of-synch with other auxiliary and higher voltage buses at the plant.
11.4.8 Usage of Emergency Generators
Emergency generators are provided at many customer locations to provide power
to critical loads if a system shutdown occurs. Emergency generators are often
provided at police stations, hospitals, nursing homes, prisons etc., to carry a
portion of the facilities load given a power supply outage. Emergency generators
are normally capable of supplying only a percentage of the facility’s total load, so
a system shutdown does have a significant impact on the load. If an emergency
generator fails to start, a crisis situation can develop with respect to public safety
and health.
Emergency generators are also used by utilities to power critical loads during
restoration conditions. The emergency generator normally energizes only a
portion of the load at a particular location. The selection of the critical loads to
power is very important as one critical element, left de-energized, may disable the
entire facility.

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An adequate supply of on-site fuel is required to ensure the continued operation of

an emergency generator in restoration conditions. In addition, the type of fuel
used is important as certain types of fuel (for example, gas from a pipe-line) may
not be available during restoration conditions.

Control Centers
Emergency generators are normally provided at control center locations. The
emergency generator provide power to all elements necessary for the operation of
the control center during restoration conditions. Computers, lighting, and
telecommunications equipment are obvious high priority loads. The importance
of other types of equipment may not be so obvious. For example, cooling power
for computers and inverter equipment may be critical to prevent thermal
overloads. Sewage and storm water pumps may also be critical to control center
operations at certain locations.
The emergency power supply must be designed to restore full functionality to
critical equipment. For example, in one actual case, power was provided so that
all telephones worked in the control center, but the indicator lights on the
telephones were not powered. When a call was made to the control center, with
no line indicators working, it was a matter of chance to determine which line to
answer.

Black-Start Units
Black-start capable generators often use an emergency generator to provide power
to critical unit loads. The emergency generator is the feature that makes the unit
black-start capable. The types of critical auxiliary loads vary from unit to unit.
Typical uses for a black-start unit emergency generator include:
Î Turning gear motors
Î Large motor cranking power
Î Battery bank charging
Î Oil and air control pressure
Î Fuel-forwarding pumps
Î Emergency lighting systems
Î Lift-oil pumps

Substations
Important substations may be provided with an emergency generator to power
critical station service loads during restoration conditions. The natures of the
critical loads vary depending upon the substation. Typical substation critical
loads include:
Î Battery bank charging

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Î CB oil and air pressure

Î CB heaters
Î Telecommunication system and RTU power
Î Substation heating and cooling systems
Î Substation emergency lighting

Cable Oil Pumping Stations

Cable oil pumping stations may use emergency generators to power the cable oil
pumping system during a system shutdown. The emergency generator may also
power emergency lighting and pumping station alarm systems.

Repeater and Microwave Stations

Remote radio repeater and microwave stations may be provided with emergency
generators to power the facility during an AC power failure. The generator may
also power emergency and navigation lighting, heating and cooling systems, and
facility alarm systems.
11.5 Protective Relay Issues Related to System Restoration
The fundamentals of
This section examines protective relaying issues that a system operator may protective relaying
encounter in restoration conditions. were addressed in
Chapter 2.
11.5.1 Restoration Conditions and Protective Relaying
Protective relaying and control system designs and settings are typically
optimized for the expected range of normal system operating conditions. System
restoration conditions differ greatly from normal conditions. Therefore, some
protective relaying and control schemes may operate undesirably during
restoration conditions and some schemes may not operate when they should have
operated.

Operating the Power System under Abnormal Conditions

Every restoration plan should address the performance of protective relaying and
control schemes during restoration conditions. The restoration plan should
answer the following questions:
Î Will the protective relays undesirably trip load, generators, transformers or
transmission lines?
Î Will adequate system protection be maintained so that faults are cleared
accurately and rapidly and equipment is sufficiently protected?
Î Will undesired automatic switch (CBs, MODs, etc.) closing actions occur?
Î Will undesired automatic switch opening actions occur?
Î Will unnecessary generator control actions occur?

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Î Will unnecessary transformer control actions occur?

Î Will mechanical interlocks and DC control logic circuits frustrate a
planned switching sequence?

Fault Current and Restoration Conditions

In normal operating conditions, fault current is provided from many sources
(mostly the generators) via a relatively low impedance power system. Therefore,
normal operating conditions available fault current magnitudes are relatively high.
The apparent system impedance from the fault current sources (generators) to the
point of the fault is low which results in the high levels of fault current.
In system restoration conditions, only one generator may be providing fault
current to the system. The fault current has to travel through the high impedance
of a weak restoration conditions power system. Therefore, the available fault
current is relatively low. The apparent impedance from the fault current source
(generators) to the point of the fault is high which results in the low fault current
levels. Restoration conditions fault current magnitudes may be so low that
protective relays are unable to perform their intended function.
Figure 11-27 illustrates the concept of reduced fault current during restoration
conditions. Figure 11-27(a) illustrates normal conditions fault current of 25,000
amps. Notice how the normal conditions fault current comes from many on-line
generating resources and flows through many transmission lines to the point of
the fault. Figure 11-27(b) illustrates restoration conditions fault current. The
fault current magnitude (2,000 amps) is much lower due to less on-line generation
and a higher impedance system.
Figure 11-27 follows on the next page.

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O/S is the
symbol for
out-of-service.
The O/S
elements have
not yet been
restored.

Figure 11-27. Reduced Fault Current Levels

11.5.2 System-Wide Protective Relay Issues
This section addresses system-wide protective relay issues that may have an
impact during restoration conditions.

Under-Frequency Protection
UFLS relays are used to shed system load in coordinated steps when system
frequency falls below acceptable levels. Figure 11-28 illustrates the operation of
a UFLS scheme that sheds 30% of the total customer load in three 10% steps at
59.3 HZ, 59.0 HZ, and 58.7 HZ. Notice how each step in the UFLS scheme
operation brings the system closer to a match between generation and load and
slows the decline in frequency. The system frequency is finally arrested at 58.8
HZ and the system operators can now bring the system gradually back to 60 HZ.

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Figure 11-28. Operation of a UFLS Scheme

The designers of UFLS schemes normally assume that most of the normal system
load is in-service at the beginning of an under-frequency load shedding event.
The timing, frequency set-point for tripping, and the size (MW) of the load blocks
tripped are selected to arrest the under-frequency condition at an acceptable point.
The system operators involved can then coordinate the restoration of system
frequency.
In some power systems, the load shed by UFLS operation is automatically
restored once system frequency recovers above a pre-set level. The intent
of these automatic load restoration schemes is typically to avoid over-frequency
conditions from excessive load shedding and also to restore system load in a more
coordinated manner. Automatic load restoration schemes may also be applicable
in substations that do not have SCADA control capability.
As described earlier in this chapter, UF relays are often used to trip generating
units. The UF relays are designed to protect the generator turbines from a
prolonged exposure to low frequency conditions.
UF relays are sometimes applied in the transmission system. These UF relays are
designed to separate a portion of the power system when system frequency drops
below a specified level for a specified period of time. Transmission UF relays
trip the appropriate CBs to intentionally create an islanded system that hopefully
contains enough generation capability to support the island’s frequency.

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Unintended Operation of Frequency Based Protective Relays

System restoration conditions are often substantially different than those that are
assumed when designing frequency based protection schemes. The load
connected to the system⎯especially in the early stages of restoration⎯is often
very low. Only one or a small number of generators are in-service in the initial
stages of the restoration process. Frequency excursions are expected as load is
picked up in a weak power system. The energization of distribution feeders can
have a significant impact on frequency, depending upon the amount and type of
in-service generation.
Restoration conditions expected frequency deviations are roughly equivalent to
those expected when major disturbances occur in a normally interconnected
power system. UF relays may operate at undesirable times during restoration
conditions. UFLS relay operation may cause on-line generators to accelerate and
lead to tripping of the on-line units. When more than one generator is operating
in parallel, a sudden loss of a large amount of customer load may cause a
generator to trip due to operation of its anti-motoring (also called reverse power)
relays. The improper operation of automatic load restoration schemes could be
very damaging if the additional load results in a sudden drop in frequency.
Islanding schemes might also operate improperly, potentially destroying a
recently restored system.
In summary, the settings of UF relays may not be appropriate for restoration
conditions for the following reasons:
Î A sudden, large loss of load from a UFLS scheme operation may create
high frequency and/or high voltage conditions.
Î The operation of a generator’s UF protection may create sudden low
frequency conditions and lead to a total system collapse.
Î The unintended operation of a UF based islanding scheme can result in a
large imbalance between generation and load and the total collapse of a
power system.
Î The unexpected operation of a frequency based automatic load restoration
scheme may frustrate system restoration and synchronizing efforts and
lead to time delays and/or an additional system shutdown.
Every system restoration plan should carefully consider the impact of frequency
based protective relays and include appropriate strategies to address potential
problems.

Under-Voltage Load Shedding (UVLS) Schemes

UVLS schemes are implemented in some power systems. The purpose of UVLS schemes were
described in Chapter 6.
UVLS is normally to shed load as voltage declines in an effort to prevent a
voltage collapse.
Voltage control is not as precise or as stable during restoration conditions as
during normal system conditions. High voltage is normally the principal voltage

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problem during restoration conditions. However, power system operators may

intentionally operate at a lower than normal voltage (perhaps 90% of normal) to
reduce the transmission system’s Mvar production and to reduce the likelihood
of TOVs during restoration conditions.
The tripping of load from UVLS scheme operation, especially reactive load,
during restoration conditions can produce unwanted results. Severe voltage
deviations, frequency deviations, and generator tripping (from anti-motoring, loss
of field, etc.) are possible results of unintended UVLS scheme activation during
restoration conditions.
Every system’s restoration plan should consider the impact of existing UVLS
schemes and provide guidance as required.

Effect of Control Circuit Logic on Desired Switching

Earlier in this chapter, the impact of the design of a CB’s DC control circuitry was
briefly examined. Many system operators assume that CBs can be opened and/or
closed as desired in system restoration conditions. This is a poor assumption as
the CB’s DC control logic circuitry may interfere with the desired switching
action.
A switching device’s control circuitry design dictates when and how the device is
automatically or manually opened and closed. An unexpected problem switching
a single device in restoration conditions may render the entire restoration
approach a failure. A control circuitry design and its impact on intended
switching operations should be carefully evaluated to verify the ability to
execute a planned switching sequence.
DC control circuitry design philosophies vary from system to system and
frequently are different within a given system as a result of philosophy changes as
time passes. The control circuitry designs of distribution providers, transmission
owners, generator owners and large customers may utilize substantially different
approaches. Changes to existing control logic must be evaluated with respect to
its impact on the restoration plan.
Typically, certain permissive conditions must be satisfied for a CB to close via
SCADA. For example, the closing permissives for a transmission line CB might
allow the transmission line’s CBs to close only if one of the following conditions
is met:
Î The transmission line is energized (from another substation) and the
substation bus associated with the CB is de-energized.
Î The transmission line is energized (from another substation) and the
substation bus associated with the CB is energized and a synch-check
relay indicates that the power angle across the open CB is less than a
specified amount, and the frequency difference across the CB is small
enough that the power angle remains less that the specified amount for a
defined time.

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Until one set of the conditions stated above is satisfied, the CB does not close.
For example, if the substation bus is energized and the transmission line is
de-energized, the CB does not close.
Figure 11-29 illustrates the control logic described above on a CB logic diagram.
CB #1 control logic is illustrated. Note that there are two control logic paths to
the closing coil for CB #1. If either path is satisfied, the proper DC switches are
closed and the DC battery bank energizes the CB closing coil.

Figure 11-29. CB Closing DC Control Logic Circuitry

Each proposed restoration strategy should be studied ahead of time and any
control logic problems identified. For example, the developers of a restoration
plan may want to use a generator to initially energize a small portion of the
system. However, the generator’s control circuitry may intentionally prevent the
closing of its main CB if the external system is de-energized. For example, the
generator’s control circuitry may:
Î Permit the closing of the main CB if the system and the generating station
are both energized and in synchronism with each other

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Î Permit the closing of the main CB if the system is energized and the
generating station is de-energized
Î Block the closing of the main CB when the generating station is energized
and the system is de-energized
The modern control circuitry used in power system’s generators and substations is
gradually growing more complex. Frequently microprocessor and computer
systems are incorporated into the DC control logic. A thorough understanding of
all DC control system logic is a must when developing restoration strategies.

Electromagnetic Versus Solid-State Relays

The tripping contact Electromagnetic, solid-state, and microprocessor based protective relay systems
is a switch that typically all require DC power to perform intended functions. Although an
closes when the
relay detects an electromagnetic relay’s tripping contact may close without DC power, DC power
abnormal condition. is normally required to trip a CB or perform other desired control actions.
Solid-state relays normally have a greater range of functionality than
electromagnetic relays. Microprocessor based protective relays normally include
additional complex control logic circuitry well beyond that found in an
electromagnetic relay. The inclusion of complex DC logic circuitry, may allow
a microprocessor based protective system to distinguish between normal and
restoration conditions and respond in a manner appropriate to either condition.

Transformer Protection
This section addresses transformer protection related issues that may have an
impact during restoration conditions.

Volts-per-Hertz Protection
Transformers can be damaged from over-excitation. Over-excitation is due to a
combination of high voltage and low frequency. Unfortunately, both conditions
(high voltage and low frequency) are increasingly likely during restoration
conditions. Volts-per-hertz relays are designed to detect over-excitation and
alarm or trip. Volts-per-hertz relays are more likely to operate in restoration
conditions.

Over-Current Relay Operation

When a transformer is energized, an in-rush of current occurs. The magnitude
of the in-rush current depends upon the point in the voltage cycle at which the
transformer is first energized. The in-rush current magnitude is also affected by
any residual magnetism present in the transformer core. The in-rush current is
primarily a reactive current and has a high harmonic content. The in-rush current
magnitude can be 10 times greater than the normal full-load current.
Some transformers use over-current relays as part of the transformer’s protection
package. These over-current relays may operate falsely due to the in-rush current
when the transformer is energized. Some over-current relays are equipped with a

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harmonic restraint feature to prevent their operation due to energizing currents.

During a system restoration, transformers may be energized in a different manner
than during normal circumstances. For example, the transformer may be
energized from the low instead of from the high side. When energizing from a
direction other than normal, the potential for unexpected over-current relay
operation is heightened depending upon the relay design standards for the
particular system.

Differential Relay Operation

Most power transformers are protected with current based differential relays.
When energizing a transformer, the differential relay sees the energizing current
flowing in to the transformer, but does not detect any current flow out of the
transformer. The differential circuit is unbalanced and tripping could occur unless
preventative measures are taken. Typically, the differential relays used on power
transformers have a harmonic restraint feature installed. The harmonic restraint
feature prevents relay activation if the imbalance current has a high harmonic
content. The harmonic restraint feature reduces the likelihood of tripping from
in-rush current. However, not all power transformer differentials have harmonic
restraint.

Directional Relays
Directional relays (for example, impedance relays and directional over-current
relays) are sometimes installed on the low side of transformers. Directional relays
frequently require a polarizing source. The polarizing source is what makes the
relay directional. Polarizing sources are often drawn from substation PT circuits.
In a restoration condition, when a substation is in the process of re-energization,
the appropriate PTs may not be initially energized. Directional relays may then
falsely operate. Polarizing source issues should be identified and appropriate
solutions documented in the restoration plan.
11.5.3 Transmission Line Protection
This section addresses transmission line protective relay issues that may have an
impact during restoration conditions.

Distance (Impedance) Relays

Distance relays use current and voltage inputs to determine the apparent
impedance (V/I) of the protected line. The apparent impedance is used to
determine whether fault conditions exist on the protected line. A distance relay
interprets low impedance as a fault condition and initiates CB tripping. If a
distance relay’s voltage input is lost, the relay sees a low impedance⎯because
the ratio V/I is now zero⎯and may trip.
To prevent inappropriate CB tripping, over-current relays are often installed in
series with the distance relay. The overcurrent relay is referred to as a fault
detector. The fault detector must activate for the distance relay to trip a CB.
Figure 11-30 illustrates the concept of a distance relay (#21) with its associated

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fault detector (#50). The series insertion of the fault detector in the control
circuitry ensures the distance relay does not activate for low voltage conditions
only, the current flow must also be high.

Figure 11-30. Use of a Fault Detector in a Distance Scheme

Not all distance relays have fault detectors. If fault detectors are not used, it is
essential that the distance relay’s voltage input is available at all times to avoid
false trips.
Even if a fault detector is used, problems can still surface. The current (amp)
setting of the fault detector may be greater or less than the normal full load
current of the protected line. The current setting of a fault detector is often a
difficult compromise between setting the value high enough to avoid false trips
and setting the value low enough so the protected line trips given the minimum
anticipated fault current level.

Loss of Polarizing Source

Distance relays are directional relays and use a polarizing source to determine the
direction of fault current. Polarizing sources can be either voltage or current
values. The loss of a polarizing source prevents the determination of fault current
direction and may lead to false tripping. Relay polarizing needs should be
considered in the determination of a substation’s restoration switching strategy.

Inadequate Fault Current for Fault Detectors

A common problem during restoration conditions is a lack of fault detector
operation in the event of an actual line fault. Fault current levels in restoration
conditions are often not high enough to activate the fault detector when a fault

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occurs. In a typical distance relay scheme, the failure of the fault detector to
activate prevents CB tripping. For example, if a lightning arrester was to fail in a
substation (which could easily occur during restoration conditions switching), the
fault may be detected very slowly or not detected at all. Delayed or backup
clearing of the fault could jeopardize the restoration effort and contribute to
equipment damage.
A restoration strategy should be evaluated from a distance relay performance
perspective. If fault detector activation during fault conditions is a problem due to
low levels of available fault current consideration should be given to:
Î Decreasing the fault detector current settings
Î Increasing the available fault current by starting additional generators
- Fault current levels may not increase markedly with the starting of
additional generators, depending upon the system configuration.
Short-circuit computer simulations should be completed to
determine the anticipated fault currents in restoration conditions.
Î Changing the switching step sequence to increase fault current levels
- Changing the switching step sequence could decrease the system
impedance, which may raise fault current levels.
Î Installing control schemes which by-pass selected fault detectors or place
more sensitive fault detectors in-service in restoration conditions.

Distance Relay Voltage Inputs

In restoration conditions, a distance relay’s voltage input may not be electrically
connected to the distance relay’s associated line terminal. In other words, the
distance relay may be inputting a voltage that has nothing to do with its protected
line. This condition interferes with the ability of a distance relay to determine
fault location. Improper and/or no relay tripping could occur.

Over-Current Relays
Two major issues associated with transmission line over-current relay operation
during a restoration condition are addressed in this section.

Inadequate Fault Current

The available fault current may be so low that over-current relays may not detect
a fault. Transmission line faults are more likely to occur during a restoration
condition due to switching surges, physical damage to the system, and increased
automobile accidents. A failure to detect and clear a fault can result in safety
hazards, equipment damage, and a repeat of the system shutdown.
Short-circuit computer simulations may reveal an inability to detect and clear
faults on some transmission lines and especially on distribution feeders in the
early stages of a system restoration. Distance relays may provide backup to the

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over-current relays and clear the faults that were not detected by the over-current
relays.
The switching steps in the system restoration plan should be evaluated to ensure
that adequate protection is maintained on energized transmission lines and
distribution feeders. Transmission lines and feeders that use over-current
protection should not be energized until adequate levels of fault current are
available to permit proper operation of the relays. In addition, distribution feeders
that use fuse protection may not clear properly due to a lack of fault current.

Effect of Initial Feeder Loading

When the load on a recently interrupted distribution feeder is restored, the initial
loading can be considerably higher than the normal load current. The initial
loading on a feeder is dependent upon the nature of load being served, the season,
the time-of-day of the interruption, and the duration of the interruption. The
theory and effects of cold-load pickup were described in Section 11.3.6.
The initial loading on a feeder upon restoration can exceed the settings of over-
current relays. It may be necessary to initially disconnect a portion of the feeder
load to successfully re-energize the feeder and avoid over-current relay operation.

Reclosing Relays
Reclosing relays are routinely used in transmission and distribution systems.
Reclosing relays automatically reclose CBs following specific types of tripping
events. Automatic CB reclosing can produce disastrous results in restoration
conditions.
For example, a transmission substation may be totally de-energized with several
transmission line CBs open. When a power source is energized into the
substation, the reclosing relays on the transmission CBs may operate, suddenly
picking up many miles of transmission line (and the associated Mvar) and a large
amount of load. This automatic reclosing could drive voltage so high and
frequency so low that the system collapses.

The potential for automatic reclosing should be addressed in the development of

the restoration plan. In many instances, the best option is to disable the reclosing
relays before transmission and distribution restoration efforts begin.

Out-of-Step (OOS) Relays

Out-of-step relay OOS protective relays are designed to detect OOS conditions in the transmission
theory and and generation systems. OOS conditions are more likely to arise in restoration
operation was
described in
conditions as the power system is much weaker (higher impedance, etc.) than
Chapter 7. during normal conditions. Systems may have a low probability of an OOS event
in normal conditions but have a high probability in restoration conditions. The
loss of a key transmission line or key generator may⎯in the early stages of a

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system restoration⎯ cause voltage phase angles to grow so rapidly that OOS
relays activate collapsing the weak power system.
If several islands have formed as a result of restoration conditions, a decision
must be made where and when to tie the islands together. If the islands are
synchronized with a large frequency difference, a large power angle, or a large
voltage magnitude difference, a large power swing can occur. If the transmission
system has OOS relays installed, the relays may activate and cause transmission
line tripping.
Not every power system installs OOS protective relays. If a system has installed
OOS relays, any issues related to the OOS relay operation in restoration
conditions should be documented in the restoration plan.
11.5.4 Generator Relays
This section addresses generator protective relay issues that may have an impact
during restoration conditions.

Under-Excitation Protection
On-line generators are often used to absorb any excess Mvar in the power system.
During the early stages of a system restoration, Mvar load and transmission
system Mvar usage are very low. The difference between the Mvar used by the
system and loads and the Mvar supplied by the energized transmission lines must
often be absorbed by only a few on-line generators.
Generators are equipped with several features that prevent the generator from
absorbing excessive amounts of Mvar. The voltage regulator may have a URAL
(under-excited reactive ampere limit) or a MEL (minimum excitation limiter) that
limits the amount of Mvar absorbed to safe levels. In addition, the generator
operator may install protective relays (loss-of-field or LOF) that operate and
either alarm or trip the generator if the Mvar absorbed rises above a pre-set level.
If the Mvar that a generator is forced to absorb exceeds the generator’s voltage
regulator controls and/or protective relay settings, the generator may trip or the
Mvar absorbed may suddenly reduce. The exact action taken depends on the
particular generator’s control systems and protective relay settings.

Phase Imbalance Issues

High voltage transmission lines are typically constructed in a horizontal
configuration and are seldom transposed. Figure 11-31 illustrates horizontal
transmission line construction and the concept of transposition.

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Figure 11-31. Imbalanced Phase Conductors and Transposition

The inductive reactance (XL) of each of the three phases of a transmission line is a
function of that phase’s magnetic field strength. The magnetic field surrounding
each of the three phases of a horizontally constructed line is different than the
magnetic field of the other two phases. The three fields are different because the
fields interact with one another as a function of their tower positions relative to
one another. For example, the magnetic field surrounding the center phase on the
support tower is impacted strongly by the two end-position phases. However, the
magnetic field of an end-phase has little impact on the magnetic field of the other
end-phase because the phases are physically so far apart.
The result of the differences in the phase conductor magnetic fields is different
impedances (XL) in the three phases. When transmission line phases are
transposed, the position of each phase on its support tower is periodically
switched with a different phase. Ideally, each phase occupies the same tower
position an equal amount of time along the entire length of the line.
Some transmission
lines use delta The impedance of each phase of a horizontal construction transmission line is
phase different than the other two phase impedances unless the phases are transposed. If
arrangements.
These phase transposition is used, an approximate match can be obtained
impedances are
balanced.

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between the three phase impedances. A transmission line does not have to be
transposed at every structure. For example, a 100 mile long line may be
transposed once to get the necessary impedance match.
If transposition is not used, and the phase impedances are different, the current
magnitudes in the three phases are different. When the three phase currents are
not the same magnitude, the phases are said to be imbalanced. Imbalanced phase
currents can damage rotating equipment. Generators and large motors are often
equipped with negative sequence relays. A negative sequence relay is designed to
detect imbalance conditions and either alarms the operator or trips the machine
(motor or generator).
Phase imbalance issues are especially important when high voltage transmission
lines are used. High voltage transmission (for example, 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765
kV) is often used to move power from generating units to far-off load centers. A
phase imbalance in the transmission system that connects to the generator can
result in imbalance currents in the generator and severe damage to the unit.

Volts-Per-Hertz Relays
Generators can be damaged due to over-excitation in a similar manner as
transformers. Over-excitation results in the heating of the generator’s stator core
and can cause permanent damage to the generator.
Over-excitation is a function of both high voltage and low frequency. A generator
is in a unique position in that both high voltage and low frequency are
simultaneously possible, especially during restoration conditions. Generators are
often protected with volts-per-hertz relays in recognition of the high probability
that over-excitation can occur.

Under-Frequency and Over-Speed Protection

Generators can be damaged by prolonged exposure to abnormal frequency.
Generators are usually protected from low frequency exposure (and sometimes
from high frequency) with frequency based relays. Restoration conditions
increase the likelihood of prolonged abnormal frequency and thus the likelihood
generators could trip. Generators are also protected with mechanical over-speed
relays that monitor the shaft speed. A typical setting may be to trip the unit if the
over-speed exceeds 110% of the rated unit speed.

Reverse Power or Anti-Motoring Protection

In normal operating conditions, when a new generator is synchronized and
loaded, other on-line generator MW outputs are reduced to accommodate the new
generation. The Balancing Authority AGC system typically adjusts all the
regulating unit MW levels to ensure conformance to each generator’s high and
low operating limits. If the AGC system is unable to reduce generation to low
enough levels to match the net interchange schedule (NIS), inadvertent
interchange results. The system frequency may rise slightly due to the excess

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generation but in a large interconnection the frequency rise may not even be
noticed.
In restoration conditions, the operating situation is substantially different. There
may be only a few generators on-line. Load and generation must be in balance at
all times or large frequency deviations rapidly develop.
Frequency levels can rise rapidly if a customer load suddenly trips or a generator
is synchronized and starts adding MW faster than other on-line units are backed
down. An on-line generator’s MW output may be backed-off so rapidly that the
unit becomes a motor. For example, assume generator “A” is initially lightly
loaded and has a fully operational governor control system. Assume a new
generator (“B”) is synchronized and rapidly loaded. The generator “A” governor
reacts and reduces the unit’s MW output until the unit is actually absorbing MW.
Generator “A” is now a motor.
Some generator’s can motor with no adverse effects. For example, hydro units
can often motor. The hydro unit is said to be condensing when it is absorbing
MW. However, most steam units cannot motor as the steam turbine may be
damaged if motoring occurs. Most steam units are protected with reverse-power
or anti-motoring relays that alarm the operator or trip the unit if motoring occurs.

Synch-Check Relays
Synch-check relays are often installed in high-voltage substations to block the
closing of transmission line CBs when the power angle across the CB exceeds a
set value. Most synch-check relays also incorporate features that block CB
closing if the frequency difference or voltage magnitude difference across the CB
exceeds set values.
During restoration conditions, generation levels are low and the system
impedance is high. Large standing power angles can develop across open CBs.
For example, Figure 11-32 illustrates a weak islanded power system. Only a few
transmission lines and two generators are in-service. A large power angle (45°) is
measured at open CB #1 and the synch-check relay installed at CB #1 does not
allow the CB to close due to its 40° setting. The system operator must either
reduce the magnitude of the power angle to below 40°, or reduce the angle setting
on CB #1’s synch-check relay to above 45° in order to close the CB. The next
section of this chapter examines the issue of synchronizing during restoration
conditions.

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Figure 11-32. Large Standing Power Angle

Synchronizing theory
11.6 Synchronizing and System Restoration and the usage of
synchronizing
This section reviews the theory of synchronizing and the usage of synchronizing equipment were
equipment. Synchronizing issues related to power system restoration are introduced in
examined. Chapter 2.

11.6.1 Review of Synchronizing Theory

When closing a CB between two energized parts of a power system, the
voltages on both sides of the CB are synchronized prior to CB closing. If the
synchronizing process is not done correctly, a system disturbance can result and
equipment may be damaged. In order to synchronize, three different aspects of
the voltage across the CB are monitored. The three aspects of the voltage are
called the synchronizing variables and are:
1. The voltage magnitudes
2. The frequency of the voltages
3. The phase angle between the voltages

Voltage Magnitude Synchronizing Variable

If the voltage magnitudes are not closely matched, a large Mvar flow appears
across the CB as it is closed. The large Mvar flow can cause sudden changes
in voltage and protective relay operation. The allowable voltage magnitude

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differences across the open CB are system specific. In general, restoration

conditions trigger the usage of greater voltage deviations then would be allowed
in normal system conditions. For example, in normal conditions the voltage
difference may be limited to a 5 kV when closing a 345 kV CB, but in restoration
conditions an operator may tolerate a 10 kV difference.

Frequency Synchronizing Variable

If the frequencies on either side of an open CB are not matched prior to closing, a
large MW flow appears across the CB as it is closed. The large MW flow is a
response to the initial frequency difference as the system rapidly seeks to establish
a common frequency once the CB is closed. The allowable frequency difference
is system specific. In normal system conditions, a system operator may allow a
frequency difference no greater than 0.05 Hz. In restoration conditions, a system
operator may tolerate a greater maximum difference such as 0.1 Hz.

Power angle Synchronizing Variable

The third synchronizing variable is the voltage phase angle or the power angle.
If the power angle between the voltages on either side of the open CB is not
reduced to an allowable value (for example, 30°) a large MW flow appears once
the CB is closed. The allowable power angle is highly system specific. A
ballpark allowable value is impossible to provide as the tolerances of different
systems and different areas of the same system vary widely. Some systems may
accept no more than a 20° angle while others may close CBs with 70° angles
during restoration conditions.
11.6.2 Synchronizing Equipment

Synchroscope
A synchroscope panel contains equipment to monitor the three synchronizing
variables. A synch-panel contains a synchroscope and two voltage meters.
Figure 11-33 is an illustration of a synch-panel. The synchroscope connects to
voltage inputs from the two sides of an open CB. If the voltage sine waves
are at the same frequency, the synchroscope does not rotate. If the voltage sine
waves are at a different frequency, the synchroscope rotates in proportion to the
frequency difference. The synchroscope needle always points to the power angle
across the open CB at that moment in time.

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Figure 11-33. A Synch Panel

A synchroscope is a manual device in that an operator is watching the scope to

ensure the CB is closed at the correct time. The synchroscope is normally
mounted above eye level as part of a synch-panel. The synch-panel also contains
two voltmeters so the voltage magnitudes on either side of the open CB can be
compared.
The voltage inputs to a substation or generator synch-panel can often be switched
to whatever substation or generator CB the operator wants to synchronize across.
The selection of the desired CB is normally accomplished by means of a sync-
handle. A sync-handle is a key-like device that can be inserted into the receptacle
(similar to a key hole) associated with the particular CB. The synch-panel inputs
are then received from the desired CB.

Generator Automatic Synchronizers

Generator automatic synchronizers adjust the speed, phase angle, and terminal
voltage of the generator with respect to the system. The automatic synchronizer
initiates the closing of the generator CB when all three of the synchronizing
variables are within allowable limits.

Substation Synchronizers
The synchronizers used in transmission substations typically monitor the three
synchronizing variables and do not allow a CB close until all three are within
limits. Substation automatic synchronizers sometimes have timer features. For
example, the timer might be set at five minutes. Once the automatic synchronizer
is activated, all three of the synchronizing variables must fall within tolerance
within five minutes or the process is aborted. The automatic synchronizers used
in substations may also be configured to control a local generator’s MW and
Mvar output. The generator’s MW and Mvar outputs are automatically adjusted

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to move the three synchronizing variables within tolerance and the

CB automatically closes.

Synch-Check Relays
The primary function of a synch-check relay is to prevent a CB closing if the
power angle across the CB is too large. Synch-check relays are typically installed
in transmission substations to prevent:
Î The out-of-synch reclosing of transmission CBs following a system
separation
Î The closing of transmission CBs where a power angle is so high that the
closure could damage generating equipment or initiate a system shutdown
11.6.3 Synchronizing Examples
Two scenarios for synchronizing are presented to describe the synchronizing
process.

Scenario #1: Synchronizing Two Islands

The first scenario assumes that two islands have been restored and are about
to be interconnected using the open CB illustrated in Figure 11-34. The two
islands have different frequencies so all three of the synchronizing variables are
monitored using a synch-panel at the open CB’s substation to ensure the variables
are within acceptable limits prior to closing the CB. The system operators for the
two islands adjust generator MW levels (or load magnitudes) in one or both
islands to achieve the desired adjustment to frequency and angle. Voltage control
equipment is used as necessary to adjust voltages to acceptable values.

Figure 11-34. Synchronizing Two Islanded Systems

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Scenario #2: Energizing a Second Transmission Line

Once the first interconnection is in-service (see Figure 11-35), the frequency is
the same throughout the two former islands. The other two synchronizing
variables must still be monitored as illustrated in Figure 11-35. Generation
and/or voltage control equipment is used to ensure the power angle and voltage
magnitude differences are within acceptable limits prior to closing the second CB.

Figure 11-35. Establishing the Second Transmission Link

11.6.4 Guidelines for Synchronizing Islanded Systems
When a restoration plan is first developed, the plan’s developers must determine
where synchronizing equipment is located within the power system and whether
the equipment is at the correct locations. The restoration plan should include a
list of the facilities that have synchronizing equipment and also a description of
the type of equipment (synch-scope, automatic synchronizer, synch-check, etc.).
A restoration plan should estimate the locations at which synchronization is likely
required and provide guidance as to how the synchronizing is accomplished. If a
thorough restoration planning process is not completed, multiple islands may be
created only to eventually find it is difficult or impossible to synchronize the
islands. Poor restoration planning may lead to situations where restored parts of a
power system have to be de-energized in order to accomplish synchronizing at
locations with the appropriate synchronizing equipment. The need for additional
synchronizing equipment is frequently identified in the course of restoration
planning.
The restoration plan should provide guidance on how to eventually synchronize
with neighboring power systems. Once two islanded power systems are
synchronized, the actions of one system impact the entire interconnected system.
Although larger power systems are often more reliable, this is not always the case.
In some instances, it may be better to wait until a neighboring system has reached
minimum reliability requirements before synchronizing.

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Additional Synchronizing Guidance

When synchronizing two islanded systems, first ensure that at a minimum:
Î The synch-panel is monitoring the correct CB to energize the intended
facility
Î The synchroscope is operating as evidenced by a rotating needle
- If the synchroscope is not rotating, do not assume the frequencies
are matched, the scope may be broken or the frequency difference
may be too large for the scope needle to keep up with the magnetic
field rotation
Î All customer load pick-up, generator ramping, and AGC actions are
suspended for the duration of the synchronizing process
Î That no generator governor is set in a 0% droop mode
Once the conditions listed above have been satisfied, a typical synchronizing
process usually contains the following steps:
Î The frequency of each system should be adjusted to a common value
- Normally as close to 60 HZ as possible
Î The voltage on each side of the open CB should be adjusted to a common
value
- The greater the magnitude difference, the greater the initial
Mvar flow
Î The synchroscope needle must be rotating to prove the scope is working

When
Î The speed of one or both of the islands is adjusted so that the
synchronizing a synchroscope needle is rotating very slowly
generator, the
- Typically, slowing the “running” side system slows the clockwise
running side is the
energized power rotation of the synchroscope and speeding up the running system
system and the slows counter-clockwise rotation
incoming side is
the new generator. - A slight initial speed adjustment is often used to verify the
The terms running appropriate speed adjustment needed to slow the scope down
and incoming are
sometimes used in
Î Once all the previous steps have been taken and verified, the CB should be
the transmission closed at the moment when the scope needle is approaching the 12 o’clock
system. position
- The 12 o’clock position is a 0° power angle
Î The newly interconnected system should now be placed in a suitable
frequency control mode as described earlier in this chapter

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11.7 Lessons Learned From Actual System Restorations

This section summarizes some of the key technical lessons learned from actual
restoration events. The intent of this final section is to highlight issues that have
either precipitated, aggravated, frustrated, or hindered restoration efforts.
Hopefully, the items noted in this section spark some recognition of your own
system restoration conditions weaknesses.
11.7.1 Problems with Backup Power Sources
Î Emergency diesel generators are unable to start due to dead battery banks
Î Battery bank electrical connections fail due to heavy load current when the
battery banks are discharging
11.7.2 Problems with Black-Start Capable Generators
Î Hydro generators are unable to return to service following a system
shutdown due to a lack of station service power for oil lift pumps
Î Hydro generators are unable to return to service following a system
shutdown due to a lack of station service power for governor system
hydraulic pressure
Î Thermal generator start-up delayed due to lack of turning-gear power
following shutdown
Î Generator black-start plans never tested and turn out to be unusable in an
actual restoration condition
11.7.3 Problems with Circuit Breakers
Î As time passes, the air pressure deteriorates to the point that an air CB
cannot be closed
Î Due to a combination of cold weather conditions and a loss of a gas CB’s
AC heaters, hydraulic mechanisms do not close and the SF6 CB gas
pressure falls below acceptable operating levels
11.7.4 Problems with Telecommunications
Î Telecommunication systems fail due to loss of AC power to critical
system functions
Î Telecommunication system usage is so great that the system is unavailable
to those who most need to communicate
11.7.5 Problems with Computers
Î AGC and SCADA computer systems fail due to a loss of AC power
combined with improper switching to the back-up DC source
Î SCADA computers slow to an unusable speed from excessive data and
alarms
Î Generators trip due to a loss of the plant computer system when AC
station service power is lost

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Î Generators trip due to excessive vibration

- The excessive vibration is not real but the vibration monitors
initiated the trip when their power source was switched from
AC to back-up DC
11.7.6 Problems with DC Control Circuitry and Interlock Schemes
Î Mechanical CB interlock schemes prevent a desired switching action
Î Permissives in a DC control logic scheme prevent the closing of key CBs
Î Transmission line automatic reclosing logic is not applicable to restoration
conditions
Î The DC control circuitry on a black-start generator prevents the generator
from being tied to a de-energized bus
11.7.7 Problems with the Frequency Control Process
Î Following a major disturbance, a failure to rapidly restore frequency to
within acceptable limits results in various frequency based protective
relays timing-out and operating which collapses the power system
Î Various dispatching entities independently begin to restore customer load
in a weak power system, which results in a collapse of frequency
Î Two interconnected systems attempt to use inappropriate methods of
frequency control. The result is a large MW flow across the single
in-service tie-line and a collapse of both systems.
Î UFLS schemes are not properly coordinated between systems in the same
interconnection and the schemes operation causes more problems than it
solves
Î Several power systems’ UFLS schemes are not working properly or are
disabled and not enough load is shed to arrest the frequency decline
Î Islands develop but the system operators are unable to rapidly determine
island boundaries due to a lack of frequency monitoring equipment
11.7.8 Problems with the EMS Man-Machine Interface (MMI)
Î A poorly designed MMI to the EMS makes it difficult for the system
operators to determine the condition of the power system following a
major disturbance. The system operators lose situational awareness.
11.7.9 Problems with Protective Relays
Î Protective relays schemes operate too slowly to prevent damage
Î Protective relay schemes are improperly coordinated for restoration
conditions
Î Zone 3 and 4 distance relays pick-up on high load current magnitudes
which collapses the system

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Î A protective relay system’s failure is not identified until a major

disturbance occurs
Î Protective relay equipment suffers physical damage
Î Auxiliary tripping and lockout relays fail, interrupting CB tripping circuits
Î Transmission line protective relaying logic is inappropriate for restoration
conditions
11.7.10 Problems with Special Protection Systems (SPS)
Î SPS (or RAS) operate in an unexpected manner during a major system
disturbance
- The SPS operates as designed but the operation is not appropriate
for the particular disturbance conditions
11.7.11 Problems with Transmission System Design
Î Transmission towers fail due to unexpected levels of wind and/or ice
loading
Î One transmission tower fails which results in cascading tower failures
and/or faults
Î One substation is lost, and so many key transmission elements terminate in
the lost substation that the system is left in a very weak condition
11.7.12 Problems Encountered During System Operations
Î A key system element is damaged and the system restoration plan offers
no alternatives
Î Cascading transmission line tripping severs the entire interconnection
between adjacent power systems
11.7.13 Problems with System Operator Training
Î A power system has developed an excellent restoration plan but the
system operators are never trained in the plans usage
11.7.14 Problems with the Voltage Control Process
Î Too many transmission lines are energized in the initial stages of the
restoration resulting in a run-away voltage condition
Î The switching of high voltage equipment creates switching surges which
lead to TOVs which fail lightning arresters and damage key equipment

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11.8 Summary of Power System Restoration

11.8.1 Definition of a Restoration Condition
Î A power system restoration condition exists when large portions of the
power system collapse, losing both voltage and frequency.
Î A total system blackout is a post-disturbance condition in which the
entire power system of a particular entity is de-energized.
Î A partial blackout is a post-disturbance condition in which a portion of
the power system of a particular entity is de-energized.
Î An islanded power system occurs when, following a disturbance; pockets
of generation remain operational but isolated from the remainder of the
power system.
11.8.2 Causes of System Shutdowns
Î Power system shutdowns may occur due to any one of the following
causes:
— Angle instability
— Equipment overload
— Switching errors
— Cascading outages
— Generator overload
— Voltage collapse
— Severe weather
— Earthquakes
— SMDs
— Fires
— Sabotage
— Control system failure
— Lack of right-of-way maintenance
11.8.3 Overview of Key Technical Restoration Issues
Î Voltage and frequency control during restoration conditions are more
delicate control processes than during normal system conditions.
Î Reduced fault current levels during restoration conditions may result in
protective relays failing to detect and clear faults.

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11.8.4 Restoration Planning

Î Each restoration plan should coordinate with the restoration plans of
other power systems in the interconnection.
Î The general goals of a system restoration are:
— A quick and accurate assessment of the system condition
— The safe shutdown of generating facilities
— A prompt but secure restoration of generating resources
— The restoration of the minimum required transmission system
— The restoration of customer load
Î A restoration process can be broken down into three distinct phases:
— Phase 1: Assessment
— Phase II: Preparation of Subsystems
— Phase III: Establishment of Target Systems
Î Initially load is restored based on the technical needs of the power
system. Higher priority customer loads are energized once system
conditions are such that the loads can be safely accommodated.
11.8.5 Voltage Control as a Local Issue
Î In restoration conditions, sufficient Mvar absorption capability must be
located close to the areas where higher voltages are expected to occur.
11.8.6 Review of Voltage Related Restoration Theory
Î Ferranti Rise is a more serious concern in restoration conditions. A line
energized from a weak sending-end bus can result in the open-end
voltage rising to damaging levels.
Î Some power systems intentionally energize their system at a lower
steady-state voltage (for example, 90% of normal) to reduce the risks of
damage from TOVs.
Î An understanding of the actual (as opposed to theoretical) Mvar
capability of a generator is critical in a system restoration condition.
Î A generator’s voltage regulator typically includes a MEL or a URAL.
The MEL or URAL alarms the operator and possibly blocks movement
into a dangerous operating area.
11.8.7 Voltage Control in Restoration Conditions
Î There are three key objectives with respect to voltage control during
restoration conditions:

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1. Absorb sufficient Mvar to prevent excessive high voltage

2. Maintain all voltages within acceptable limits
3. Minimize the TOVs due to switching surges
Î During the early stages of restoration, shunt capacitors are normally not
used.
Î The usage of shunt reactors may make a weak system more susceptible to
ferroresonance.
Î Dynamic reactive reserve should be sufficient to withstand the loss of
any generator or piece of voltage control equipment.
11.8.8 Operation of the System at Reduced Voltage
Î Lower steady-state voltage levels during the initial stages of a system
restoration reduces the likelihood of high voltage related operating
problems
11.8.9 Voltage Based Automatic Load Shedding
Î Recommendations as to the appropriate usage and operation of UVLS
schemes should be contained in the restoration plan.

11.8.10 Frequency Control as an Interconnection Issue

Î A generator’s frequency response rate is the percent of a generator’s MW
capacity that is delivered in the process of responding to a frequency
disturbance.

11.8.11 Maintaining Frequency During Restoration Conditions

Î A typical steam turbine can operate between 59.5 and 60.5 HZ
indefinitely.
Î Frequency should normally be held within a range of 59.75 to 61 HZ
with an attempt to regulate toward 60 HZ.
Î Avoid energizing load blocks that are greater than 5% of the total
restored area’s synchronized generation.
Î If the restored system’s frequency has stabilized below 60 HZ, and the
goal is to raise the frequency back to 60 HZ, shed 6-10% of the
connected system load to raise the frequency 1 HZ.

11.8.12 Usage of Governors to Control Frequency

Î Overly sensitive frequency control settings can create instability and MW
oscillations resulting in generator tripping and system shutdown.
Î Designate the largest, fastest responding unit as the regulating unit within
each island.

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Î Maintain and distribute operating reserves such that the post-contingency

loading of generators and the frequency level remains within acceptable
limits.
Î Exercised caution when using generator auto-load control systems in
restoration conditions.
11.8.13 AGC and System Restoration
Î For a frequency based AGC system to function correctly, the frequency
source must be located within the same boundaries as the generation
under control.
Î For a tie-line flow based AGC system to function correctly, the tie-line
meters must accurately monitor the MW flow in and out of the controlled
area’s boundaries.
11.8.14 Connecting Islands
Î Caution should be exercised when intentionally creating multiple islands
as simultaneous frequency control of multiple islands is a difficult
process.
11.8.15 Cold Load Pick-Up Concerns
Î The primary causes of cold-load pick-up include long-term loss of load
diversity effects and short-term motor in-rush effects.
11.8.16 Maintaining Operating Reserves During Restoration
Conditions
Î Regardless of what MW response a governor requests, the desired
response is not achieved unless the generator’s prime mover is capable of
the response.
Î When only a single unit is operational in an island, adequate levels of
reserve must be available in that generator to support any possible cold
load pick-up and gradual increases in system load.
Î A power system with multiple generators operational should have
sufficient reserve to recover from the trip of any single generator or tie-
line.
Î Regulating reserve levels must be sufficient for the system operator to
keep frequency and tie-line flows within acceptable limits.
11.8.17 Load Curtailment
Î Procedures must be established ahead of time so that load is shed in an
organized, rapid, and efficient manner.
Î Automatic frequency based load restoration schemes are normally not
appropriate for restoration conditions.

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11.8.18 Substation Stored Energy

Î Every system restoration plan should include a recent estimate of the
service hours for each battery system
Î The restoration of substation station service is important for several
reasons including:
— To ensure that the charging system for the substation battery bank is
operational
— To ensure the charging of the stored energy sources used by CBs
— To ensure the operation of lighting systems to provide a safe working
environment
— To ensure that substation temperature control systems are operational
11.8.19 Pipe-Type Cable Systems
Î In restoration conditions, pipe-type cable oil pumping power is often lost.
If the cable oil pressure drops below minimum levels, the cable is not
available for service.
11.8.20 Lightning Arresters
Î In restoration conditions there are several reasons why zinc-oxide
arresters are subjected to greater than normal duty and possible failure
11.8.21 Transformers
Î Transformer energization may cause several restoration conditions
operating problems including:
— High in-rush currents
— Increased potential for resonance
— Increased possibility of voltage problems including over-excitation
11.8.22 Circuit Breakers and Restoration Conditions
Î The switching strategies planned for usage in restoration conditions
should be analyzed to determine if the CB’s DC control logic circuitry
permits the intended switching actions.
Î If a power system uses air CBs, the restoration plan should state the
typical times for the CBs pressure to bleed-down below minimum
acceptable levels when AC station service power is lost.
Î Each system restoration plan should address CB cold weather issues and
provide appropriate solutions.
11.8.23 Telecommunication Systems and SCADA

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Î Each systems restoration plan should analyze the impact of a system

shutdown on their telecommunications systems and make the appropriate
adjustments and/or improvements to ensure effective telecommunications
during restoration conditions.
Î The communications between RTUs and the control center’s EMS are
vitally important during a restoration condition and the continued
availability of RTU telecommunications should be addressed in a
company’s restoration plan.
11.8.24 Generators and Power System Restoration
Î The safe shutdown of generating equipment that trips in the course of a
system shutdown is a top priority.
Î Every nuclear utilities power system restoration plan should integrate
with and support its nuclear plant requirements.
Î The availability of generator emergency lube-oil pumps and the DC
power to drive the pumps are critical
Î To prevent the development of a bend in the turbine/generator shaft, a
turning-gear motor is provided to slowly rotate the shaft.
Î If a hydro unit loses AC power, the loss of pumping functions may cause
flooding problems in the unit.
Î The frequency magnitude limits and allowed time of exposure to these
limits for each generator’s operation should be documented in the
restoration plan.
11.8.25 Usage of Emergency Generators
Î Control centers, black-start units, key substations, key generators, key
telecommunications facilities, and cable oil pumping stations may have
emergency generators installed.
Î An adequate supply of on-site fuel is required to ensure the continued
operation of emergency generators in restoration conditions.
11.8.26 Restoration Conditions and Protective Relaying
Î Protective relaying and control schemes may operate undesirably during
restoration conditions and some schemes may not operate at all due to
low levels of fault current.
11.8.27 System-Wide Protective Relay Issues
Î The settings of UF relays may be inappropriate for restoration conditions
Î Every system’s restoration plan should consider the impact of existing
UVLS schemes and provide guidance as required.
Î Volts-per-hertz relays are more likely to operate in restoration conditions.

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Î A transformer’s over-current relays may operate falsely due to the

in-rush current when the transformer is energized.
Î A polarizing source is a voltage or current input that a directional relay
uses as a directional reference.
11.8.28 Transmission Line Protection
Î If a distance relay’s voltage input is lost, the relay sees low apparent
impedance and may falsely trip.
Î If fault detector activation during restoration conditions is a concern due
to low levels of available fault current, consideration should be given to:
— Decreasing the fault detector current settings
— Increasing the available fault current by starting additional units
— Changing a switching sequence to increase fault current levels
— Installing control schemes which by-pass fault detectors or place
more sensitive fault detectors in-service during restoration conditions
Î The potential for unwanted automatic reclosing of line CBs should be
addressed in the development of the restoration plan.
Î OOS conditions are more likely to arise in restoration conditions as the
power system is much weaker than during normal conditions.
11.8.29 Generator Relays
Î If the Mvar that a generator is forced to absorb exceeds the generator’s
voltage regulator controls and/or protective relay settings, the generator
may trip or the Mvar absorbed may suddenly reduce.
Î The purpose of transposition is to balance phase impedances. When
transmission line phases are transposed, the position of each phase on its
support tower is periodically switched with a different phase.
Î Generators and large motors are often equipped with negative sequence
relays.
Î Generators are often protected with volts-per-hertz relays in recognition
of the high probability that over-excitation can occur.
Î Some generator’s can motor with no adverse effects

11.8.30 Review of Synchronizing Theory

Î The three synchronizing variables are:
1. The voltage magnitudes
2. The frequency of the voltages
3. The power angle between the voltages

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11.8.31 Synchronizing Equipment

Î Synchronizing equipment includes:
— A synch-panel with a synch scope and voltage meters
— Generator automatic synchronizers
— Substation synchronizers
— Synch-check relays

11.8.32 Synchronizing Examples

Î Two scenarios for synchronizing were presented to help describe the
process of synchronizing

11.8.33 Guidelines for Synchronizing Islanded Systems

Î Guidelines for synchronizing islanded systems were presented

11.8.34 Lessons Learned from Actual System Restorations

Î A list of important concepts or issues that have been identified from past
restoration events in North America was presented

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11.9 Power System Restoration Questions

1. In the initial stages of a restoration condition, high transmission system
voltage problems are more likely than low transmission system voltage
problems. Why?

A. Because of the excessive Mvar supply from too many on-line

generators
B. Because of the deficiency in Mvar from too much customer load
energization
C. Because of the deficiency in MW from too much customer load
energization
D. Because of the excessive Mvar supply from the energization of
transmission lines

2. A synchroscope can be used to determine the standing phase angle across

an open CB even if the power system on both sides of the open CB is
interconnected.

A. True
B. False

3. Generators and large motors are often equipped with negative sequence
relays. The negative sequence relay is designed to:

A. Detect reverse rotation of the machine’s shaft

B. Detect imbalance in the machine’s phase currents
C. Detect A-C-B phase rotation
D. Detect OOS conditions

4. During which phase of the restoration process is the voltage and frequency
of the generators that survived the initial disturbance adjusted to optimum
values:

A. Phase 4: Billing
B. Phase 2: Preparation of Subsystems
C. Phase 1: Assessment
D. Phase 3: Establishment of Target Systems

5. In the early stages of a system restoration, the energization of customer

load with a __________ is usually helpful as this type load absorbs excess
Mvar from the energized transmission lines.

A. low lagging power factor

B. high leading power factor
C. low leading power factor
D. high lagging power factor

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6. A 200 mile long 500 kV line is transposed at two locations along the line.
The purpose of transposition is to:

A. Balance each phase’s inductive reactance value

B. Reduce the Ferranti Rise effect
C. Increase the power transfer limit
D. Reduce each phase conductor’s resistance

7. In the early stages of a system restoration, the frequency has stabilized at

59 HZ. The system operator has decided to shed load to restore the
frequency to 60 HZ. How much load should the system operator shed to
raise the frequency 1 HZ?

A. 3 to 5% of the connected load

B. 10 to 15% of the connected load
C. 6 to 10% of the connected load
D. 1 to 3% of the connected load

8. Why would a power transformer’s differential relay be equipped with a

harmonic restraint feature?

A. To avoid relay activation when the transformer is first energized

B. To avoid relay activation when the transformer is de-energized
C. To reduce the amount of harmonics created by the power
transformer
D. To restrain the transformer from operating as an overly aggressive
harmonic filter

9. Which of the following types of units could most likely operate, without
damage, as a motor?

A. Hydro turbine
B. Nuclear drive steam turbine
C. Combustion turbine
D. Coal driven steam turbine
10. Given the following types of turbine/generators, which typically has the
highest frequency response rate?

A. Low head hydro-electric

B. Coal-fired steam
C. Oil-fired steam
D. Combustion turbine

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11. The high probability of switching surge induced TOVs and the potential
for ferroresonance may necessitate operation at reduced steady-state
voltage levels during the early stages of restoration. These reduced
steady-state voltage levels are typically in the __________ range.

A. 105 to 110%
B. 90 to 95%
C. 70 to 80%
D. 80 to 90%

12. When a switching surge occurs, the power system is exposed to a wave
like effect as the switching surge voltage propagates through the area
power system. The propagating surge voltage can add to the power
system steady-state voltage, producing a __________.

A. LOF
B. TOV
C. AGC
D. URAL

13. In the early stages of a power system restoration, 500 MW of generation is

synchronized with 300 MW of spinning reserve available. What is the
largest load block that can be restored while still maintaining acceptable
frequency control?

A. 150 MW
B. 10 MW
C. 25 MW
D. 50 MW

14. What type of condition(s) is a volts-per-HZ relay most likely to activate

for?

A. Low voltage combined with high frequency

B. High voltage
C. High voltage combined with low frequency
D. Low frequency

15. A(n) __________ occurs when, following a disturbance, pockets of

generation and load remain operational but isolated from the remainder of
the power system.

A. interconnected power system

B. partial black-out
C. islanded power system
D. total black-out

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11.10 Power System Restoration References

1. Power System Restoration: Methodologies & Implementation Strategies⎯A
book in the IEEE Press Series on Power Engineering, a reprint of selected
papers, edited by Mr. M. M. Adibi, Published by IEEE Press, 2000.
Î Excellent restoration reference that contains many papers covering a broad
range of power system restoration issues. The papers are written primarily
for an engineering audience.
2. NERC Operating Manual
Î The current version of the NERC Operating Manual contains a large
amount of information on system restoration.
3. NERC Reliability Standards
Î The current version of the NERC Reliability Standards, especially the
EOP series, contains information on system restoration.
4. A Web-Based Power System Restoration Tutorial⎯A series of six articles on
power system restoration, by Mr. M. M. Adibi, published on the Internet by
EPRI, 2000.
Î This series of articles addresses various restoration problems and presents
the results of computer simulations and case studies. The intended
audience for the articles is system operation personnel. Topics addressed
include: load pick-up and reserve distribution, energizing lines, reactive
power considerations, protective relay issues, black-start of a steam unit,
and black-start simulation.

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GLOSSARY

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GLOSSARY

A-INDEX
A daily index of GEOMAGNETIC activity derived as the average of the eight 3-hourly indices.

A-INDEX WATCH
An A-Index Watch is issued when the daily Boulder, Colorado A-index is predicted to be greater
than 20, 30, 50, or 100, with one day or greater lead-time, in the daily forecasts issued by SEC.
A-index watches are issued for valid times corresponding to entire calendar days, based upon the
daily analyses and forecasts produced by SEC. They serve as a long lead-time prediction of the
expected trend in GEOMAGNETIC activity, within the limits of what the 24-hour A-index value can
describe.

ACCELERATING POWER
In a GENERATOR, the difference between the MECHANICAL INPUT POWER and the electrical output
POWER (assuming no LOSSES). For a GENERATOR’s TORQUE ANGLE to change, the GENERATOR
must have accelerating POWER.

ACCUMULATED INADVERTENT
The accumulation over time of INADVERTENT ENERGY. The accumulated inadvertent account of a
BALANCING AUTHORITY represents the amount of excess ENERGY a BALANCING AUTHORITY has
either supplied to the INTERCONNECTION or absorbed from the INTERCONNECTION. BALANCING
AUTHORITIES monitor their accumulated inadvertent to ensure the accounts do not grow too large.

ACTIVE POWER
The component of the COMPLEX POWER that performs the work. The common unit of active
power is the MW and the symbol is “P”. Active power is sometimes called REAL POWER.

ACTUAL INTERCHANGE
The metered INTERCHANGE over a specific INTERCONNECTION between two PHYSICALLY
ADJACENT BALANCING AUTHORITIES.

ACTUAL LOAD
The actual MW drawn by a LOAD from the POWER SYSTEM. The actual load will be different from
the rated or NOMINAL LOAD if the LOAD’s VOLTAGE or FREQUENCY vary from their NOMINAL
values.

ADEQUACY
The ability of the electric SYSTEM to supply the aggregate electrical DEMAND and ENERGY
requirements of the end-use customers at all times, taking into account SCHEDULED and reasonably
expected unSCHEDULEd OUTAGEs of SYSTEM ELEMENTS.

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ADEQUATE REGULATING MARGIN

The minimum on-line CAPACITY that can be increased or decreased to allow the SYSTEM to
respond to all reasonable DEMAND changes in order to be incompliance with the CONTROL
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS.

ADJACENT BALANCING AUTHORITIES

A BALANCING AUTHORITY AREA that is interconnected to another BALANCING AUTHORITY AREA
either directly or via a multi-party AGREEMENT or TRANSMISSION TARIFF.

AGC PULSES
The AGC SYSTEM sends signals to selected (regulating) GENERATORS to adjust their set-points.
These signals are sent via telecommunication EQUIPMENT. The signals are often called AGC
pulses.

AIR-GAP
The air space between the ROTOR and STATOR of a motor or GENERATOR.

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

In an AC SYSTEM the CURRENT and VOLTAGE magnitudes constantly vary or alternate. CURRENT
and VOLTAGE magnitudes do not alternate in a DC SYSTEM.

ALTERNATOR
A rotating machine whose output is alternating VOLTAGE and CURRENT.

ALUMINUM CABLE STEEL REINFORCED (ACSR)

A common type of TRANSMISSION line CONDUCTOR that comes in many different sizes and
designs. The aluminum is the CONDUCTOR and the steel provides strength.

AMORTISSEUR WINDING
A machine winding consisting of a number of conducting bars attached between the magnetic
POLES of the machine’s ROTOR. Amortisseur windings may be used as starter windings or to help
dampen POWER OSCILLATIONS.

AMPERE
The unit of measurement for CURRENT flow, often stated as “amp”.

AMPLITUDE
The value or magnitude that a waveform has at a specific point in time.

ANALOG ELECTRONICS
Electronic circuitry in which the magnitudes of quantities are used in a continuous manner to
perform functions. For example, input CURRENT values may be amplified and used to perform
work in an analog CIRCUIT. Analog is different than digital in the sense that analog CIRCUITS use
VOLTAGE and CURRENT magnitudes continuously while digital CIRCUITS use VOLTAGE and
CURRENT to determine the state (on or off) of ELEMENTS.

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ANCILLARY SERVICES (FERC)

Those services that are necessary to support the TRANSMISSION of CAPACITY and ENERGY from
RESOURCES to LOADS while maintaining reliable operation of the TRANSMISSION SERVICE
PROVIDER’s TRANSMISSION SYSTEM in accordance with GOOD UTILITY PRACTICE.

ANGLE INSTABILITY
The opposite of ANGLE STABILITY. When a POWER SYSTEM loses ANGLE STABILITY it enters a
PERIOD of angle instability. An angle unstable SYSTEM has lost some portion of the magnetic
bound that holds sections of the POWER SYSTEM in synchronism with one another.

ANGLE STABILITY
An angle stable POWER SYSTEM is one in which all ELEMENTS of the POWER SYSTEM are bound
together via magnetic forces. For example, an angle stable GENERATOR’s internal MAGNETIC
FIELD rotates in synchronism (in-step) with the MAGNETIC FIELD of the 3Φ POWER SYSTEM to
which it connects.

APPARENT POWER
The product of VOLTAGE and CURRENT PHASORS. Apparent power comprises both active and
REACTIVE POWER, usually expressed in KILOVOLTAMPEREs (kVA) or megavoltamperes (MVA).
Another term for apparent power is COMPLEX POWER.

ARC
The discharge of CURRENT through the air or in a gas.

ARCING HORNS
An enhancement to a DISCONNECT SWITCH to increase the switch’s CURRENT interrupting
capability.

AREA CONTROL ERROR (ACE)

The instantaneous difference between net actual and SCHEDULED INTERCHANGE, taking into
account the effects of FREQUENCY bias including a correction for meter error.

ARMATURE
The component of a machine in which the VOLTAGE is induced. In a SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
the armature is usually the STATOR. The armature winding is wrapped about the armature.

ASYNCHRONOUS
To be OUT-OF-STEP with a reference. An induction GENERATOR is an asynchronous GENERATOR
as its ROTOR does not rotate in synchronism with the POWER SYSTEM.

AUTO-LOAD
A feature on some GENERATORs that automatically moves the GENERATOR to a TARGET LOAD
(MW) level.

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AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL (AGC)

EQUIPMENT that automatically adjusts GENERATION in a BALANCING AUTHORITY AREA from a
central location to maintain the BALANCING AUTHORITY’s INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE plus
FREQUENCY BIAS. AGC may also accommodate automatic INADVERTENT payback and TIME
ERROR CORRECTION.

AUTOMATIC OPERATING SYSTEMS

SPECIAL PROTECTION SYSTEMS, REMEDIAL ACTION SCHEMEs, or other operating SYSTEMs installed
on the electric SYSTEMs that require no intervention on the part of SYSTEM OPERATORS.

AUTO-TRANSFORMER
A POWER TRANSFORMER with a single coil. The entire coil acts as the PRIMARY WINDING while a
portion of the same coil acts as the SECONDARY WINDING.

AUXILIARY RELAY
A RELAY whose function is to supplement the actions of other types of RELAYS. For example, a
LOCKOUT RELAY is an auxiliary relay with numerous contacts that each can perform an action.
The IEEE has numbers assigned to two types of auxiliary relays; 86 (lock-out) and 94 (tripping).

AVAILABILITY
A measure of time a generating unit, TRANSMISSION line, or other FACILITY is capable of providing
service, whether or not it actually is in service. Typically, this measure is expressed as a percent
available for the PERIOD under consideration.

AVAILABLE FLOWGATE CAPABILITY (AFC)

The available CAPACITY in MW or MVA on a FLOWGATE, which a TRANSMISSION SERVICE
PROVIDER has determined, is available for sale. The available CAPACITY determined will be
dependent on the GENERATION, LOADS and TRANSMISSION configuration assumed for the time
period studied and therefore is referred to as a capability. The AFC will account for all thermal,
VOLTAGE and STABILITY LIMITS under both pre and post CONTINGENCY conditions, along with any
TRM or CBM. There is no one set of SOURCE and SINK points associated with an AFC. The AFC
can be used to determine the amount of MW that can be transferred between a specific set of
SOURCE and SINK points with respect to the FLOWGATE, by dividing the AFC by its corresponding
PTDF.

AVAILABLE TRANSFER CAPABILITY (ATC)

A measure of the TRANSFER CAPABILITY remaining in the physical TRANSMISSION network for
further commercial activity over and above already committed uses. It is defined as TOTAL
TRANSFER CAPABILITY less existing TRANSMISSION commitments (including retail customer
service), less a CAPACITY BENEFIT MARGIN, less a TRANSMISSION RELIABILITY MARGIN.

AVERAGE DEMAND
The electric ENERGY delivered over any interval of time as determined by dividing the total
ENERGY by the units of time in the interval.

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AVOIDED COST
The cost the utility would incur but for the existence of an independent GENERATOR or other
ENERGY service option. Avoided cost rates have been used as the POWER purchase price utilities
offer independent suppliers.

BACK EMF
When AC CURRENT flows through a CONDUCTOR an alternating MAGNETIC FIELD is created. This
alternating MAGNETIC FIELD induces a VOLTAGE in the CONDUCTOR. The induced VOLTAGE is
called the CONDUCTOR’S back EMF.

BACK-TO-BACK HVDC
An HVDC SYSTEM in which AC is converted to DC and then immediately back to AC. The
HVDC TRANSMISSION path is very short, normally consisting of a short section of buswork.

BACKUP POWER
POWER provided by contract to a customer when that customer’s normal SOURCE of POWER is not
available.

BALANCING AUTHORITY
The responsible ENTITY that integrates resource plans ahead of time, maintains LOAD-
INTERCHANGE-GENERATION balance within a BALANCING AUTHORITY AREA, and supports
INTERCONNECTION FREQUENCY in real time.

BALANCING AUTHORITY AREA

The collection of GENERATION, TRANSMISSION, and LOADS within the metered boundaries of the
BALANCING AUTHORITY. The BALANCING AUTHORITY maintains LOAD-RESOURCE balance within
this area.

BANDWIDTH
The acceptable range of a quantity. For example, if it is desired to hold the VOLTAGE at a 345 kV
BUS between 355 and 360 kV then the bandwidth is 355 - 360 kV or 5 kV.

BANKING
ENERGY delivered or received by a utility with the intent that it will be returned in kind (as
ENERGY) in the future.

BASE LOAD
The minimum amount of electric POWER delivered or required over a given period at a constant
rate.

BASE LOAD CAPACITY

CAPACITY used to serve an essentially constant level of customer DEMAND. Base load generating
units typically operate whenever they are available, and they generally have a CAPACITY FACTOR
that is above 60%.

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BASE LOAD GENERATING UNITS

GENERATORs that normally run continuously to serve a BALANCING AUTHORITY’S LOAD.

BILATERAL PAYBACK
INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE accumulations paid back via an INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE with
another BALANCING AUTHORITY.

BIPOLAR HVDC
An HVDC SYSTEM that uses two CONDUCTORS. One CONDUCTOR is energized with a positive
VOLTAGE and the other a negative VOLTAGE.

BLACK-START UNIT (BSU)

A generating unit that has the ability to go from a shutdown condition to an operating condition
and start delivering POWER without assistance from the POWER SYSTEM the GENERATOR normally
connects to.

BLACKSTART CAPABILITY PLAN

A documented procedure for a generating unit or STATION to go from a shutdown condition to an
operating condition delivering electric POWER without assistance from the ELECTRIC SYSTEM. This
procedure is only a portion of an overall SYSTEM RESTORATION plan.

BLADE
The component of a steam TURBINE upon which the steam impacts. Blades are also called
“buckets”.

BLOCKED GOVERNOR
A GOVERNOR CONTROL SYSTEM that has somehow been blocked or prevented from responding to
a FREQUENCY DEVIATION. There are many ways to block a governor.

BOILER
The component of a steam POWER plant in which the steam is created.

BOILER FOLLOW
A MODE of operation of a fossil unit’s TURBINE/BOILER CONTROL SYSTEM in which the unit’s
TURBINE is allowed to immediately respond to a LOAD (MW) change request while the BOILER
response “follows” with the resulting temperature and pressure swings.

BRAKING RESISTOR
A device used to enhance the angle stability of a power system that uses hydro-electric generation.
A Braking Resistor is a large resistive load that is inserted to absorb excess energy when an
accelerating condition is detected in the power system.

BROKER
A third party who establishes a TRANSACTION between a seller and a purchaser. A Broker does
not take title to CAPACITY or ENERGY.

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BRUSH
A sliding contact, usually made of carbon, located between the excitation CURRENT SOURCE and
the ROTOR FIELD WINDING leads of a SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR.

BULK ELECTRIC SYSTEM

As defined by the REGIONAL RELIABILITY ORGANIZATION, the electrical GENERATION RESOURCES,
TRANSMISSION LINES, INTERCONNECTIONS with neighboring SYSTEMS, and associated EQUIPMENT,
generally operated at VOLTAGES of 100 kV or higher. Radial TRANSMISSION facilities serving only
LOAD with one TRANSMISSION SOURCE are generally not included in this definition.

BULK TRANSMISSION
A functional or VOLTAGE classification relating to the higher VOLTAGE portion of the
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM, specifically, lines at or above a VOLTAGE level of 115 kV.

BURDEN
Operation of the BULK ELECTRIC SYSTEM that violates or is expected to violate a SYSTEM
OPERATING LIMIT or INTERCONNECTION RELIABILITY OPERATING LIMIT in the INTERCONNECTION,
or that violates any other NERC, REGIONAL RELIABILITY ORGANIZATION, or local operating
RELIABILITY standards or criteria.

BUS
An abbreviation of the word busbar. A bus is a location in an electrical network where one or
more ELEMENTS are connected together.

CAPACITANCE (C)
The property of an ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT that opposes VOLTAGE changes by storing ENERGY in its
ELECTRIC FIELD. The symbol for capacitance is “C” and the unit is the FARAD. All energized
EQUIPMENT has a natural capacitance.

CAPACITIVE LOAD
A LOAD that supplies LAGGING REACTIVE POWER to the SYSTEM.

CAPACITIVE REACTANCE (XC)

The opposition that CAPACITANCE provides to AC CURRENT. The capacitive reactance (XC) in a
60 HZ CIRCUIT is:

1
XC =
2π fC

CAPACITIVELY COUPLED VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER (CCVT)

An instrument TRANSFORMER that is similar in function to a potential TRANSFORMER (PT). A
capacitive VOLTAGE divider CIRCUIT is used in a CCVT to reduce POWER SYSTEM VOLTAGE
magnitudes to usable (≈120 Volt) levels. Capacitive VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (CVTs), Coupling
CAPACITOR Potential Devices (CCPDs), and Bushing Potential Devices (BPDs) are similar in
design and function to a CCVT.

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CAPACITOR
A device intentionally designed to act as a capacitor and store ENERGY in its ELECTRIC FIELD. A
shunt capacitor acts as a SOURCE of REACTIVE POWER to the SYSTEM. Series capacitors are seldom
seen devices that are used to reduce the INDUCTIVE REACTANCE of a TRANSMISSION path.

CAPACITOR BANK
A CAPACITOR is an electrical device that provides REACTIVE POWER to the SYSTEM and is often
used to compensate for reactive LOAD and help support SYSTEM VOLTAGE. A bank is a collection
of one or more CAPACITORS at a single location.

CAPACITY
The rated continuous LOAD-carrying ability, expressed in megawatts (MW) or megavolt-amperes
(MVA) of GENERATION, TRANSMISSION, or other electrical EQUIPMENT.

CAPACITY BENEFIT MARGIN (CBM)

That amount of firm TRANSMISSION TRANSFER CAPABILITY preserved by the TRANSMISSION
PROVIDER for LOAD SERVING ENTITIES (LSEs), whose LOADs are located on that TRANSMISSION
SERVICE PROVIDER’s system, to enable ACCESS by the LSEs to GENERATION from
INTERCONNECTED SYSTEMS to meet GENERATION RELIABILITY requirements. Preservation of
CBM for an LSE allows that entity to reduce its installed generating CAPACITY below that which
may otherwise have been necessary without INTERCONNECTIONS to meet its GENERATION
RELIABILITY requirements. The TRANSMISSION TRANSFER CAPABILITY preserved as CBM is
intended to be used by the LSE only in times of EMERGENCY GENERATION deficiencies.

CAPACITY EMERGENCY
A capacity emergency exists when a BALANCING AUTHORITY AREA’s operating CAPACITY, plus
firm purchases from other systems, to the extent available or limited by TRANSFER CAPABILITY, is
inadequate to meet its DEMAND plus its regulating requirements.

CAPACITY FACTOR
The ratio of the total ENERGY generated by a generating unit for a specified period to the
maximum possible ENERGY it could have generated if operated at the maximum CAPACITY RATING
for the same specified period, expressed as a percent.

CASCADING
The uncontrolled successive loss of SYSTEM ELEMENTS triggered by an incident at any location.
Cascading results in widespread electric service INTERRUPTION that cannot be restrained from
sequentially spreading beyond an area predetermined by studies.

CASCADING OUTAGES
The uncontrolled successive LOSS of BULK ELECTRIC SYSTEM FACILITIES triggered by an incident
(or condition) at any location resulting in the INTERRUPTION of ELECTRIC SERVICE that cannot be
restrained from spreading beyond a pre-determined area.

CAVITATION
Noise or vibration causing damage to a hydro unit’s TURBINE BLADEs as a result of bubbles that
form in the water as it goes through the TURBINE which causes a loss in CAPACITY, HEAD loss,
efficiency loss, and the cavity or bubble collapses when they pass into higher regions of pressure.

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CENTRIFUGAL BALLHEAD GOVERNOR

A mechanical governor that uses rotating FLYWEIGHTS to sense shaft speed. A very common
governor due to its durability and accuracy.

CHARGE
An atomic force. An electron has a negative charge. A proton has a positive charge. Like
charges repel one another while opposite charges attract one another. CURRENT is the flow of
charge.

CHARGING
The Mvar production of a TRANSMISSION line. For example, a 100 mile long 345 kV line has
approximately 75 Mvar of charging.

CHARGING CURRENT
The LEADING CURRENT that flows into the natural CAPACITANCE of a TRANSMISSION line when it
is first energized.

CHECKOUT PROCESS
The method by which any two ENTITIES in the utility industry routinely perform a confirmation of
SCHEDULES for a period of time.

CIRCUIT
A CONDUCTOR or a SYSTEM of CONDUCTORS through which electric CURRENT flows.

CIRCUIT BREAKER (CB)

A piece of POWER SYSTEM EQUIPMENT that is used to disconnect other EQUIPMENT from the
POWER SYSTEM. Circuit breakers are grouped according to their insulating medium. For example,
Air Circuit Breaker (ACB), Gas Circuit Breakers (GCB), Oil Circuit Breakers (OCB), etc.

CIRCUIT SWITCHER (CS)

An enhanced DISCONNECT SWITCH that is similar in function to a CIRCUIT BREAKER. A circuit
switcher will contain an interrupting device (typically gas based) to enhance its CURRENT
interrupting ability.

CLOCK HOUR
The 60-minute PERIOD ending at :00. All surveys, measurements, and reports are based on clock
hour PERIODS unless specifically noted.

COGENERATION
Production of ELECTRICITY from steam, heat, or other forms of ENERGY produced as a by-product
of another process.

COLD LOAD PICK-UP

The increase in a LOAD’s magnitude during the initial PERIOD after it is energized. The cold load
pick-up consists of a short-term (possibly several seconds) in-rush component and a longer term
(possibly many minutes) LOSS OF LOAD DIVERSITY component.

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COMBINED CYCLE
An electric generating technology in which electricity and process steam are produced from
otherwise lost waste heat exiting from one or more combustion TURBINES. The exiting heat is
routed to a conventional BOILER or to a heat recovery steam GENERATOR for use by a steam
TURBINE in the production of electricity. This process increases the overall efficiency of the
electric generating unit.

COMBUSTION TURBINE GENERATOR (CT)

A type of GENERATOR in which a fuel (oil, gas, etc.) is ignited and the combustion products are
used to drive a TURBINE.

COMMONLY OR JOINTLY OWNED UNITS (COU/JOU)

These terms may be used INTERCHANGEably to refer to a unit in which two or more GENERATION
OWNERS share.

COMMUTATION
The process of turning off one VALVE and turning on another in an HVDC CONVERTER. In a
twelve-pulse converter there are twelve commutations per CYCLE of the AC supply VOLTAGE.

COMPLEX POWER (S)

The vector sum of the active (MW) and reactive (Mvar) POWER. The common unit for complex
POWER is MVA and the symbol is “S”. Complex Power is sometimes called APPARENT POWER.

COMPLIANCE MONITOR
The entity that monitors, reviews, and ensures compliance of responsible entities with
RELIABILITY standards.

COMPLIMENTARY CURRENTS
When a SUBSYNCHRONOUS CURRENT flows in the STATOR winding of a SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE it
will induce two complimentary currents in the ROTOR of the machine. These complimentary
currents will have frequencies of 60 ± the FREQUENCY of the SUBSYNCHRONOUS STATOR
CURRENT.

COMPRESSOR
A machine that increases the pressure of a gas (typically air) or vapor.

CONDENSER
The component of a steam POWER plant in which the steam is cooled to water after exiting the
TURBINE.

CONDUCTOR
A material with a low RESISTANCE to CURRENT flow. A conductor is the opposite of an
INSULATOR.

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CONGESTION
The condition that exists when MARKET PARTICIPANTS seek to dispatch GENERATION in a pattern
which would result in POWER flows that cannot be physically accommodated by the
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM. Although the TRANSMISSION SYSTEM will not normally be operated in an
overload condition, it may be described as congested based on requested/desired SCHEDULES.

CONSTANT FREQUENCY CONTROL (CFC)

An operating MODE of an AGC SYSTEM. While in constant FREQUENCY control an AGC SYSTEM
will determine the ACE value by considering only the FREQUENCY ERROR.

CONSTANT NET INTERCHANGE (CNI) CONTROL

An operating MODE of an AGC SYSTEM. While in constant net interchange control an AGC
SYSTEM will determine the ACE value by considering only the INTERCHANGE error.

CONSTRAINED FACILITY
A TRANSMISSION FACILITY (line, TRANSFORMER, breaker, etc.) that is approaching, is at, or is
beyond its SYSTEM OPERATING LIMIT or INTERCONNECTION RELIABILITY OPERATING LIMIT.

CONSTRAINT
A limitation placed on INTERCHANGE TRANSACTIONS that flow over a CONSTRAINED FACILITY.

CONTIGUOUS
To belong to a common area. Adjoining. A contiguous BALANCING AUTHORITY is self-
contained. A non-contiguous BALANCING AUTHORITY may have pieces spread over an entire
INTERCONNECTION.

CONTINGENCY
The unexpected failure or OUTAGE of a system component, such as a GENERATOR, TRANSMISSION
LINE, CIRCUIT BREAKER, SWITCH or other electrical ELEMENT.

CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS (CA)

The process by which the effects of contingencies are identified. CA SOFTWARE is used to
identify N-1 violations.

CONTINGENCY RESERVE
The provision of CAPACITY deployed by the BALANCING AUTHORITY to meet the DISTURBANCE
CONTROL STANDARD (DCS) and other NERC and REGIONAL RELIABILITY ORGANIZATION
contingency requirements.

CONTINUOUS RATING
The RATING as defined by the EQUIPMENT owner that specifies the level of electrical loading,
usually expressed in megawatts (MW) or other appropriate units that a SYSTEM, FACILITY, or
ELEMENT can support or withstand indefinitely without loss of EQUIPMENT life.

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CONTRACT PATH
An agreed upon electrical path for the continuous FLOW of ELECTRICAL POWER between the parties
of an INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION.

CONTRACTUALLY ADJACENT BALANCING AUTHORITIES

Two BALANCING AUTHORITIES that are part of the same Regional Transmission Organization.

CONTROL CENTER
The physical location from which an operating entity operates.

CONTROL PERFORMANCE STANDARD (CPS)

The reliability standard that sets the limits of a BALANCING AUTHORITY’S AREA CONTROL ERROR
over a specified time period.

CONTROL SYSTEM
A collection of electrical and mechanical components designed to produce a series of outputs
based on a series of measured inputs. Common control systems related to POWER are excitation
control and GOVERNOR CONTROL SYSTEMS.

COORDINATED CONTROL
A MODE of operation of a fossil unit’s TURBINE/BOILER CONTROL SYSTEM in which the operation
of the BOILER and the TURBINE SYSTEMS are coordinated. The coordination balances the pressure
and temperature limits of the BOILER SYSTEM with the desire for a TURBINE to immediately
respond to LOAD (MW) change requests.

CORE
The material used within a TRANSFORMER. A TRANSFORMER’s core is formed of a magnetic
material such as iron. The purpose of the core is to confine the MAGNETIC FIELD to a TARGET area.

CORONA
A condition that occurs on energized EQUIPMENT when the surface potential (VOLTAGE) is so large
that the DIELECTRIC strength of the surrounding air breaks down (IONIZATION occurs). Symptoms
of corona are a visible ring of light and a hissing sound. Corona is undesirable as ENERGY LOSSES
and electrical interference are a consequence. Corona rings are used to reduce the gradient of the
ELECTRIC FIELD and reduce the likelihood of corona occurring.

COSINE
The cosine of either of the unknown angles of a RIGHT TRIANGLE is the ratio of the side adjacent to
the unknown angle to the HYPOTENUSE.

CRANKING PATH
A portion of the electric SYSTEM that can be ISOLATED and then energized to deliver ELECTRIC
POWER from a GENERATION SOURCE to enable the startup of one or more other GENERATING UNITS.

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CRANKING POWER

CURRENT (I)
The rate of flow of electrons in an electrical CONDUCTOR. Symbol is “I” and unit is the AMPERE,
or amp.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT)

A low POWER TRANSFORMER (an instrument TRANSFORMER) used to reduce normally high POWER
SYSTEM CURRENT magnitudes to lower values (≈ 5 amps). A CT has a low number of turns on the
PRIMARY WINDING and a high number of turns on the SECONDARY WINDING. The low magnitude
secondary CURRENTS of a CT are typically input to PROTECTIVE RELAYS, meters, etc.

CURTAILMENT
A reduction in the SCHEDULED CAPACITY or ENERGY delivery.

CUT-OUT
A switching device typically found in the DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM. Cut-outs often include a fuse so
the device serves the dual purpose of providing electrical isolation and protection.

CYBER ASSETS
Programmable electronic devices and communication networks including hardware, software, and
data.

CYCLE
A complete sequence of a repeating waveform. For example, the magnitude of a SINE wave
changes as the degrees progress from 0° to 360°. After 360° the SINE wave begins to repeat itself.
One cycle of a SINEWAVE is therefore 360°.

DAMPING
Forces or CONTROL SYSTEM actions that reduce the magnitude of OSCILLATIONS. Damping is
provided by various natural phenomena and by various electrical EQUIPMENT. Damping can either
be positive (reduce OSCILLATIONS) or negative (amplify OSCILLATIONS).

DEADBAND
The distance about a TARGET value within which a CONTROL SYSTEM will not respond. For
example, a GOVERNOR CONTROL SYSTEM may have a deadband of ±0.036 HZ. Unless the
FREQUENCY DEVIATION exceeds 0.036 HZ, the governor will not respond.

DELAYED FAULT CLEARING

FAULT clearing consistent with correct operation of a breaker failure PROTECTION SYSTEM and its
associated breakers, or of a backup PROTECTION SYSTEM with an intentional time delay.

DELIVERING PARTY
The entity supplying the CAPACITY and ENERGY to be transmitted at the POINT OF RECEIPT.

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DELTA CONNECTION
A 3Φ electrical connection in which the three PHASES are connected in series with one another.
The three PHASES form a closed triangle. TRANSFORMER windings are often connected in a Delta
configuration.

DEMAND
1. The rate at which electric ENERGY is delivered to or by a SYSTEM or part of a SYSTEM,
generally expressed in kilowatts or megawatts, at a given instant or averaged over any designated
interval of time. 2. The rate at which ENERGY is being used by the customer.

DEMAND INTERVAL
The time period during which a DEMAND is measured, usually in 15-, 30-, or 60-minute
increments.

DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT (DSM)

The term for all activities or programs undertaken by LOAD-SERVING ENTITY or its customers to
influence the amount or timing of electricity they use.

DERATING (GENERATOR)
A reduction in a generating unit’s NET DEPENDABLE CAPACITY.

DEVIATION
The variance from the SCHEDULED value. For example, if the SCHEDULED value of VOLTAGE is
142 kV and the actual value is 138 kV then the VOLTAGE deviation is -4 kV.

DEVICE NUMBERS
The IEEE has adopted a numbering SYSTEM for labeling various types of protective EQUIPMENT.
Important numbers are:

IEEE Device Function

Number
21 Distance Relay Operates when the ratio of VOLTAGE divided by
current falls below a value.
25 Synchronizing Relay Operates when the phase angle across a CB is outside
allowable limits.
27 Undervoltage relay Operates when VOLTAGE falls below a value.
49 Thermal Relay Operates when the temperature exceeds a value.
50 Instantaneous Operates with no time delay when current rises above
Overcurrent a value.
51 Time Overcurrent Operates with a time-delay when the current rises
above a value.
52 Circuit Breaker The device that clears the fault current.
59 Overvoltage relay Operates when VOLTAGE exceeds a value.
63 Pressure Relay Operates when the oil pressure exceeds a value.
67 Directional Overcurrent Operates if current is above a value and flowing in the

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IEEE Device Function

Number
proper direction.
78 Out-of-Step Operates if the phase angle exceeds a preset value.
79 Reclosing relay Initiates an automatic closing of a CB following a
relay operation.
81 Frequency Relay Operates if frequency goes above or below a value.
86 Lockout Relay Auxiliary relay that locks-out after operation.
87 Differential Relay Operates when there is a difference in the current
entering and leaving the protected zone.
94 Tripping Relay Auxiliary tripping relay.

DIELECTRIC
Insulating material used to separate and insulate. CAPACITORs use a dielectric between its two
conducting plates.

DIFFERENTIAL RELAY (87)

A PROTECTIVE RELAY that responds to the difference between the CURRENTS entering and leaving
the protected zone of the RELAY. Differential relays are typically applied to TRANSFORMERS,
SUBSTATION BUSes, and GENERATORS.

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Electronic circuitry that operates on data in the form of digits. Most digital CIRCUITS use the
binary SYSTEM in which digital components are either turned on (a data value of “1”) or off (a data
value of “0”) based on CIRCUIT VOLTAGE magnitudes. Digital electronics have replaced ANALOG
ELECTRONICS in most, but not all, applications.

DIRECT CONTROL LOAD MANAGEMENT (DCLM)

DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT that is under the direct control of the SYSTEM OPERATOR. DCLM
may control the electric supply to individual appliances or EQUIPMENT on customer premises.
DCLM as defined here does not include INTERRUPTIBLE DEMAND.

DIRECT CURRENT (DC)

In a DC SYSTEM the CURRENT and VOLTAGE magnitudes are constant. CURRENT and VOLTAGE
magnitudes alternate in an AC SYSTEM.

DISCONNECT SWITCH
A mechanical device that is used to isolate EQUIPMENT from energized parts of the POWER
SYSTEM. Disconnect switches are not rated for interrupting CURRENT unless additional ARC
interrupting components are added to the disconnect.

DISPATCHABLE GENERATION
GENERATION available physically or contractually to respond to changes in SYSTEM DEMAND or to
respond to TRANSMISSION security CONSTRAINTS.

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DISTANCE RELAY (21)

A PROTECTIVE RELAY that activates if the ratio of the measured VOLTAGE divided by the CURRENT
(the IMPEDANCE) falls below a pickup point. A Distance relay is also commonly called an
IMPEDANCE RELAY.

DISTRIBUTION
For electricity, the function of distributing electric POWER using low VOLTAGE lines to retail
customers.

DISTRIBUTION FACILITIES
The facilities owned or controlled by a TRANSMISSION Owner and used to provide Wholesale
DISTRIBUTION Service.

DISTRIBUTION FACTOR (DF)

The portion of an INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION, typically expressed in PER-UNIT, that flows across
a TRANSMISSION FACILITY (FLOWGATE).

DISTRIBUTION LINES
CONDUCTORS used to distribute POWER to the utilities customers. Distribution lines may be 3Φ or
1Φ.

DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
The portion of an electric SYSTEM that is dedicated to delivering electric ENERGY to an end user.
The distribution network consists primarily of low VOLTAGE lines and TRANSFORMERS that
“transport” electricity from the bulk POWER SYSTEM to retail customers.

DISTRIBUTION PROVIDER
Provides and operates the “wires” between the TRANSMISSION system and the end-use customer.
For those end-use customers who are served at TRANSMISSION VOLTAGEs, the TRANSMISSION
OWNER also serves as the Distribution Provider. Thus, the Distribution Provider is not defined by
a specific VOLTAGE, but rather as performing the DISTRIBUTION function at any VOLTAGE.

DISTURBANCE
1. An unplanned event that produces an abnormal SYSTEM condition. 2. Any perturbation to the
electric system. 3. The unexpected change in ACE that is caused by the sudden failure of
GENERATION or INTERRUPTION of LOAD.

DISTURBANCE CONTROL STANDARD (DCS)

The RELIABILITY standard that sets the time limit following a DISTURBANCE within which a BA or
RSG must return its AREA CONTROL ERROR to within a specified range.

DISTURBANCE MONITORING EQUIPMENT

Devices capable of monitoring and recording SYSTEM data pertaining to a DISTURBANCE. Such
devices include the following categories of recorders1:

1
Phasor Measurement Units and any other equipment that meets the functional requirements of DMEs may qualify as
DMEs.

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• Sequence of event recorders which record EQUIPMENT response to the event.

• FAULT recorders, which record actual waveform data replicating the SYSTEM primary
VOLTAGES and CURRENTS. This may include PROTECTIVE RELAYS.

• DYNAMIC DISTURBANCE RECORDERS (DDRs), which record incidents that portray POWER
SYSTEM behavior during dynamic events such as low-FREQUENCY (0.1 Hz – 3 Hz)
OSCILLATIONS and abnormal FREQUENCY or VOLTAGE excursions.

DIVERSITY FACTOR
The ratio of the sum of the coincident maximum DEMANDS of two or more LOADS to their
noncoincident maximum DEMAND for the same period.

DROOP
A characteristic of a GOVERNOR CONTROL SYSTEM that requires a decrease in GENERATOR shaft
speed to produce an increase in the GENERATOR’s MW output. There are two types of droop;
permanent and TRANSIENT:

Permanent Droop
Permanent droop is the droop used to enable all GENERATORs (with active governors) to share in
FREQUENCY REGULATION and to ensure a MW response in proportion to unit size. Desired values
of permanent droop are in the neighborhood of 5%. The 5% droop means that a 5% FREQUENCY
change will result in the unit’s governor moving the fuel (steam, water, gas, etc.) VALVES across
their full range.

Transient Droop
A feature implemented in some GOVERNOR CONTROL SYSTEMS to ensure GENERATORS do not
enter into POWER OSCILLATIONS following LOAD changes. POWER OSCILLATIONS may occur due
to the inherent time delay between a request for a LOAD change by the governor and the ability of
a GENERATOR to actually deliver the LOAD change. This natural time delay could lead to excessive
control action by the governor. A condition of oscillation called “hunting” could result. If a
GENERATOR is on isochronous control, TRANSIENT droop is a necessity. The TRANSIENT droop
function or “compensation” dampens a governor’s initial response following a speed change. The
effect is temporary as opposed to a permanent droop function which is permanent.

DROOP CURVE
A graphical method of representing the performance of a governor. The horizontal axis is
typically GENERATOR output while the vertical axis is SYSTEM FREQUENCY. When a governor
with a % DROOP is plotted on such a curve the plot DROOPS from left to right with increasing
GENERATOR output.

DYNAMIC RATING
The process that allows a SYSTEM ELEMENT RATING to vary with the changing environmental
conditions in which the ELEMENT is located.

DYNAMIC REACTIVE RESERVE

REACTIVE POWER held in reserve in fast responding SOURCEs. GENERATORS and STATIC VAR
COMPENSATORS are possible SOURCEs of dynamic reactive reserve.

DYNAMIC SCHEDULE OR DYNAMIC INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE

A telemetered reading or value that is updated in real time and used as a SCHEDULE in the
AGC/ACE equation and the integrated value of which is treated as a SCHEDULE for INTERCHANGE

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accounting purposes. Commonly used for scheduling jointly owned GENERATION to or from
another BALANCING AUTHORITY AREA.

DYNAMIC TRANSFER
The provision of the real-time monitoring, TELEMETERING, computer SOFTWARE, hardware,
communications, engineering, ENERGY accounting (including INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE), and
administration required to electronically move all or a portion of the real ENERGY services
associated with a GENERATOR or LOAD out of one BALANCING AUTHORITY AREA into another.

EARTH SURFACE POTENTIALS (ESP)

VOLTAGES induced in the surface of the earth by the ELECTROJETS (CURRENT) that flow above the
earth’s surface. ESPs cause geomagnetically induced CURRENTS (GICs) to flow in the earth’s
surface.

ECONOMIC DISPATCH
The allocation of DEMAND to individual generating units on line to effect the most economical
production of electricity.

ECONOMY ENERGY
ELECTRICAL ENERGY produced and supplied from a more economical SOURCE in one SYSTEM and
substituted for that being produced or capable of being produced by a less economical SOURCE in
another SYSTEM.

ELECTRIC FIELD
The invisible lines of force that surround an energized piece of EQUIPMENT. An electric field is
created when a CONDUCTOR is energized by a VOLTAGE. ENERGY is stored in an electric field.

ELECTRIC SYSTEM LOSSES

Total electric ENERGY LOSSES in the electric SYSTEM. The LOSSES consist of TRANSMISSION,
transformation, and DISTRIBUTION LOSSES between supply SOURCEs and delivery points. Electric
ENERGY is lost primarily due to heating of TRANSMISSION and DISTRIBUTION ELEMENTS.

ELECTRIC UTILITY
Person, agency, authority, or other legal entity that owns or operates facilities for the
GENERATION, TRANSMISSION, DISTRIBUTION, or sale of electric ENERGY primarily for use by the
public, and is defined as a utility under the statutes and rules by which it is regulated. An electric
utility can be investor owned, cooperatively owned, or government owned (by a federal agency,
crown corporation, state, provincial government, municipal government, and public POWER
district).

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
An electrical circuit consists of a VOLTAGE SOURCE, a conducting path to a LOAD, a LOAD, and a
return path from the LOAD to the VOLTAGE SOURCE. All four of these ingredients are necessary for
CURRENT to flow in the electrical circuit.

ELECTRICAL DISTANCE
The IMPEDANCE of a TRANSMISSION line is a measure of the electrical distance. For example, if a
line has a 100 Ω IMPEDANCE then 50 Ω is ½ the line’s electrical length. IMPEDANCE RELAYS are

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often called DISTANCE RELAYS in reference to the use of IMPEDANCE as a measure of electrical
distance.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY
The GENERATION or use of electric POWER by a device over a period of time, expressed in
KILOWATTHOURs (kWh), or MEGAWATTHOURs (MWh), or gigaWATTHOURs (GWh).

ELECTRODES
The connection to GROUND of an HVDC CONVERTER. The grounding electrode provides a
VOLTAGE reference and may be part of the CURRENT return path.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC CONTROL (EHC)

A form of a CONTROL SYSTEM in which electrical devices are typically used to measure a quantity
magnitude and HYDRAULICS used to perform a control action. For example, a GOVERNOR
CONTROL SYSTEM may consist of a simple electrical machine that measures the shaft’s speed of
rotation (FREQUENCY) and a hydraulic SYSTEM that changes the positions of fuel VALVES.

ELECTROJET
A CURRENT flow path in the shape of a donut that situates itself above the north and south
magnetic POLES of the earth. Electrojets are the result of solar DISTURBANCES.

ELECTROMAGNET
Temporary magnet created by passing electric CURRENT through a coil. The coil is typically
wound about a magnetic CORE.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
The creation of a VOLTAGE in a CONDUCTOR due to a relative movement between the CONDUCTOR
and a MAGNETIC FIELD. Electromagnetic induction is the basic principle of operation of
TRANSFORMERS and GENERATORS.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)

The VOLTAGE produced by a GENERATOR is called an electromotive force or EMF. The symbol
“E” is often used to indicate an EMF.

ELEMENT
Any electric device with terminals that may be connected to other electrical devices, such as a
GENERATOR, TRANSFORMER, CIRCUIT BREAKER, BUS section, or TRANSMISSION LINE. An element
may be comprised of one or more components.

EMERGENCY ASSISTANCE (EA)

ENERGY and/or CAPACITY provided to a utility to assist that utility during a CAPACITY
EMERGENCY.

EMERGENCY ENERGY
ELECTRICAL ENERGY purchased by a member SYSTEM whenever an event on that SYSTEM causes
insufficient Operating Capability to cover its own DEMAND requirement.

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EMERGENCY RATING
The RATING as defined by the EQUIPMENT owner that specifies the level of electrical loading or
output, usually expressed in megawatts (MW) or Mvar or other appropriate units, that a SYSTEM,
FACILITY, or ELEMENT can support, produce, or withstand for a finite PERIOD. The RATING
assumes acceptable loss of EQUIPMENT life or other physical or safety limitations for the
EQUIPMENT involved.

EMERGENCY RESPONSE RATE

The rate of LOAD change that a generating unit can achieve under EMERGENCY conditions, such as
loss of a unit, expressed in megawatts per minute.

EMERGENCY VOLTAGE LIMITS

The operating VOLTAGE range on the INTERCONNECTED SYSTEMS that is acceptable for the time,
sufficient for SYSTEM adjustments to be made following a FACILITY OUTAGE or SYSTEM
DISTURBANCE.

ENERGY
The POWER used over a period of time. Electrical energy is measured in watt-hours, kilowatt-
hours (kWh), or Megawatt-hours (MWh).

ENERGY CONVERSION
The conversion of ENERGY from one form to another. For example, a coal fired steam
TURBINE/GENERATOR converts the coal’s chemical ENERGY to thermal ENERGY by burning the
coal. The thermal ENERGY is then converted to MECHANICAL ENERGY by heating water and
turning the TURBINE with steam. The MECHANICAL ENERGY of the TURBINE is then converted to
ELECTRICAL ENERGY via ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION.

ENERGY EMERGENCY
A condition when a LOAD Serving Entity has exhausted all other options and can no longer
provide its customers’ expected ENERGY requirements.

ENERGY “IN-KIND” PAYBACK

INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE accumulated during “ON-PEAK” hours shall only be paid back
during “ON-PEAK” hours. INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE accumulated during “OFF-PEAK” hours
shall only be paid back during “OFF-PEAK” hours.

Energy Management SYSTEM (EMS)

An EMS SYSTEM is a computer SYSTEM used by an ENERGY company. The EMS includes the
subfunctions of SCADA and AGC.

ENVELOPE
The imaginary boundary that surrounds the FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY OSCILLATIONS waveshape.
The FREQUENCY of lower FREQUENCY OSCILLATIONS can be determined by noting the FREQUENCY
of the oscillation envelope.

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EQUAL AREA CRITERION

A method of determining the ANGLE STABILITY or instability of a simple POWER SYSTEM. The
Equal Area Criterion states that the decelerating area of a POWER-ANGLE CURVE must be at least as
large as the accelerating area for the POWER SYSTEM to be angle stable.

EQUIPMENT
An electrical device with terminals that may be connected to other electrical devices.

EQUIPMENT RATING
The maximum and minimum permissible VOLTAGE, CURRENT, FREQUENCY, or active and
REACTIVE POWER flows on individual EQUIPMENT under steady state, short-circuit, and TRANSIENT
conditions, as specified by the EQUIPMENT owner.

ERCOT
Acronym for the Electrical Reliability Council of Texas.

EXCITATION SYSTEM
A GENERATOR CONTROL SYSTEM used to control the production of REACTIVE POWER. The
excitation system’S main components are the VOLTAGE REGULATOR and the EXCITER.

EXCITER
The DC POWER SOURCE for an EXCITATION SYSTEM.

EXCITING CURRENT
The CURRENT drawn by a TRANSFORMER to magnetize its CORE and supply the CORE LOSSES. The
exciting current is typically 1-2% of the TRANSFORMER’S full LOAD CURRENT.

EXTINCTION ADVANCE ANGLE (γ)

In an HVDC CONVERTER operating as an INVERTER, the angle by which the VALVE firing is
advanced from its normal VOLTAGE based COMMUTATION point. The Greek lower case letter
gamma (γ ) is the symbol for the extinction advance angle. The extinction advance angle is used
to control the magnitude of the converter’s (when operated as a INVERTER) output VOLTAGE.

FACILITY
A set of electrical EQUIPMENT that operate as a single bulk electrical SYSTEM ELEMENT (for
example, a line, a generating unit, a shunt CAPACITOR).

FACILITY RATING
The maximum or minimum VOLTAGE, CURRENT, FREQUENCY, or active and REACTIVE POWER
flows through a FACILITY that would not violate the applicable RATINGs of any EQUIPMENT
comprising the FACILITY. Facility ratings are based upon EQUIPMENT RATINGS and other limits as
applicable to the EQUIPMENT.

FARAD (F)
The unit of CAPACITANCE. Symbol is “F”.

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FAST VALVING
A method of reducing the accelerating ENERGY in a steam TURBINE/GENERATOR. Fast valving
involves the rapid adjustment of TURBINE VALVES when a GENERATOR starts to accelerate. Fast
valving may assist in maintaining the ANGLE STABILITY of a POWER SYSTEM.

FAULT
An event occurring on an ELECTRIC SYSTEM such as a SHORT CIRCUIT, a broken wire, or an
intermittent connection.

FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION (FERC)

Independent Federal agency that, among other responsibilities, regulates the TRANSMISSION and
wholesale sales of electricity in interstate commerce.

FEEDBACK LOOP
A control loop in which CURRENT control actions are influenced by the responses to previous
control actions. In a feedback loop (such as in a GENERATOR’s EXCITATION SYSTEM) the response
of the controlled variable is constantly monitored to determine what new control actions should be
taken.

FERRANTI RISE EFFECT

A phenomena in which a TRANSMISSION line, with one end closed and one end open, is exposed to
its highest VOLTAGE magnitude at the open-end of the line. The Ferranti Rise Effect is due to the
absorption of a LEADING CHARGING CURRENT when a TRANSMISSION line is energized but open-
ended.

FERRORESONANCE
A RESONANCE condition in which a portion of the INDUCTANCE is provided by an iron-core
INDUCTANCE (Ferro is Latin for iron.). Iron-core INDUCTANCES change magnitude when the iron
is saturated. Ferroresonance is possible in the TRANSMISSION or DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM but is
much more common in the DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM.

FIELD WINDING
The winding wrapped about the ROTOR of a SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE. DC excitation CURRENT is
fed to the field winding to produce the ROTOR’s MAGNETIC FIELD.

FILTER
A combination of CAPACITORS, inductors, and resistors used to encourage or block the flow of a
specific FREQUENCY or band of frequencies of ENERGY.

FIRM CAPACITY
CAPACITY that is as firm as the seller’s NATIVE LOAD unless modified by contract. Associated
ENERGY may or may not be taken at option of purchaser. Supporting reserve is carried by the
seller.

FIRM DEMAND
That portion of the DEMAND that a POWER supplier is obligated to provide except when SYSTEM
RELIABILITY is threatened or during EMERGENCY conditions.

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FIRM TRANSMISSION SERVICE

The highest quality (priority) service offered to customers under a filed rate SCHEDULE that
anticipates no planned INTERRUPTION.

FLARE
A sudden eruption of ENERGY on the solar disk lasting minutes to hours, from which radiation and
particles are emitted.

FLASHOVER
An ELECTRICAL discharge through air around or over the surface of insulation, between objects of
different potential, caused by placing a VOLTAGE across the air space that results in the ionization
of the air space.

FLAT FREQUENCY CONTROL

An alternative name for CONSTANT FREQUENCY CONTROL.

FLAT TIE-LINE CONTROL

An alternative name for CONSTANT NET INTERCHANGE CONTROL.

FLOWGATE
A designated point on the TRANSMISSION SYSTEM through which the INTERCHANGE DISTRIBUTION
CALCULATOR calculates the POWER flow from INTERCHANGE TRANSACTIONS.

FLYWEIGHTS
The portion of a CENTRIFUGAL BALLHEAD GOVERNOR that rotates.

FORCED OUTAGE
1. The removal from service AVAILABILITY of a GENERATING UNIT, TRANSMISSION LINE, or other
FACILITY for EMERGENCY reasons. 2. The condition in which the EQUIPMENT is unavailable due
to unanticipated failure.

FORCED OUTAGE RATE

An indication of the percentage of time a generating unit, TRANSMISSION line or other ENERGY
FACILITY is forced out of service for EMERGENCY reasons. This percentage excludes the time
during which the unit experiences a planned service shutdown (for example, SCHEDULED
maintenance). This number can be used to describe a FACILITY’s RELIABILITY. A weighted
average of forced outage rates for all generating facilities in a utility’s SYSTEM may be used to
describe SYSTEM RELIABILITY. Forced Outage Hours + In-Service Hours x 100 = Forced Outage
Rate.

FORECAST
Predicted DEMAND for electric POWER. A forecast may be short term (for example, 15 minutes)
for SYSTEM operation purposes, long-term (five to 20 years) for GENERATION PLANNING purposes,
or for any range in between. A forecast may include PEAK DEMAND, ENERGY, REACTIVE POWER,
or DEMAND profile. A forecast may be made for total SYSTEM DEMAND, TRANSMISSION LOADING,
SUBSTATION/feeder LOADING, individual customer DEMAND, or appliance DEMAND.

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FORECAST UNCERTAINTY
Probable DEVIATIONS from the expected values of factors considered in a FORECAST.

FOURIER ANALYSIS
A scientific process in which the various FREQUENCY components (HARMONICS) of a waveform
are identified. For example, a waveform may have a FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY of 60 HZ but
also contain 3rd and 5th harmonic components. Fourier Analysis is used to identify the order of the
harmonic components.

FRCC
Acronym for the Florida Reliability Coordinating Council. FRCC is one of the eight NERC
REGIONAL RELIABILITY ORGANIZATIONS.

FREQUENCY (F)
The rate at which a repeating waveform repeats itself. Frequency is measured in CYCLES per
second or in HERTZ (HZ). The symbol if “F”.

FREQUENCY BIAS
A value, usually expressed in megawatts per 0.1 HERTZ (MW/0.1 HZ), associated with a
BALANCING AUTHORITY AREA that approximates the BALANCING AUTHORITY AREA’s response to
INTERCONNECTION FREQUENCY ERROR.

FREQUENCY BIAS SETTING (B)

A value, usually expressed in MW/0.1 HZ, set into a BALANCING AUTHORITY ACE algorithm that
allows the BALANCING AUTHORITY to contribute its FREQUENCY RESPONSE to the
INTERCONNECTION.

FREQUENCY DEVIATION
A change in INTERCONNECTION FREQUENCY.

FREQUENCY ERROR (ΔF)

The difference between the actual and SCHEDULED FREQUENCY. (FA – FS)

FREQUENCY REGULATION
The ability of a BALANCING AUTHORITY to help the INTERCONNECTION maintain SCHEDULED
FREQUENCY. This assistance can include both TURBINE governor response and AUTOMATIC
GENERATION CONTROL.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE (EQUIPMENT)

The ability of a SYSTEM or ELEMENTS of the SYSTEM to react or respond to a change in SYSTEM
FREQUENCY.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE (SYSTEM)

The sum of the change in DEMAND, plus the change in GENERATION, divided by the change in
FREQUENCY, expressed in megawatts per 0.1 HERTZ (MW/0.1 HZ).

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FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTIC (FRC OR β)

The MW response of the POWER SYSTEM (or a section of the POWER SYSTEM) to a FREQUENCY
DEVIATION. The FRC is typically stated in terms of MW per 0.1 HZ. For example, a BALANCING
AUTHORITY may have an FRC of 200 MW/0.1 HZ. This value of FRC indicates that for a
FREQUENCY DEVIATION of 0.1 HZ this BALANCING AUTHORITY would respond with 200 MW.
The FRC of a SYSTEM varies with changing SYSTEM conditions.

FREQUENCY SWINGS
Constant changes in FREQUENCY from its NOMINAL or steady-state value.

FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY
The base FREQUENCY for a SYSTEM. For example, the fundamental frequency of North American
POWER SYSTEMS is 60 HZ while a large portion of the world uses 50 HZ as the fundamental
frequency.

GALLERY
A passageway within a water dam created to allow inspection of the dam’s structure.

GATE/GRID CONTROL
The means of controlling a MERCURY ARC VALVE (MAV) or a THYRISTER VALVE. A pulse of
CURRENT or VOLTAGE is applied to the GRID of a MAV or the gate of a THYRISTER. The pulse will
turn the VALVE on if it is forward biased. Gate/grid control is typically only used to turn a VALVE
on.

GENERATION
The process of producing ELECTRICAL ENERGY from other forms of ENERGY; also, the amount of
electric POWER produced, usually expressed in kilowatt hours (kW) or megawatt hours (MW).

GENERATION CONTROL
The process by which the GENERATION supply is adjusted to both maintain SYSTEM FREQUENCY
and keep a close match between the actual TIE-LINE flows and the SCHEDULED TIE-LINE flows.

GENERATOR
Generally, an electromechanical device used to convert mechanical POWER to electrical POWER.

GENERATOR-TO-LOAD DISTRIBUTION FACTOR (GLDF)

The algebraic sum of a GENERATOR SHIFT FACTOR and a LOAD SHIFT FACTOR to determine the
total impact of an INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION on an identified TRANSMISSION FACILITY or
FLOWGATE.

GENERATOR OPERATOR
The entity that operates GENERATING unit(s) and performs the functions of supplying ENERGY and
INTERCONNECTED OPERATIONS SERVICES.

GENERATOR OWNER
Entity that owns and maintains GENERATING units.

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GENERATOR SHIFT FACTOR (GSF)

A factor to be applied to a GENERATOR’s expected change in output to determine the amount of
flow contribution that change in output will impose on an identified TRANSMISSION FACILITY or
FLOWGATE.

GEOMAGNETIC DISTURBANCE (GMD)

Solar (sun) induced DISTURBANCES to the earth’s MAGNETIC FIELD. GMDs may result in large low
FREQUENCY CURRENTS flowing in the earth’s surface. These CURRENTS (called GICs) may enter
the POWER SYSTEM and damage TRANSFORMERS. GMDs are also called SOLAR MAGNETIC
DISTURBANCES, or SMDs.

GEOMAGNETIC INDUCED CURRENTS (GIC)

Low FREQUENCY CURRENTS induced in the surface of the earth by EARTH SURFACE POTENTIALS
(ESPs). ESPs are created by the ELECTROJETS that form above the earth’s magnetic POLES
following solar DISTURBANCES.

GEOMAGNETIC STORM
A worldwide disturbance of the earth’s magnetic field, distinct from regular diurnal variations.

GOOD UTILITY PRACTICE

Any of the practices, methods and acts engaged in or approved by a significant portion of the
ELECTRIC UTILITY industry during the relevant time period, or any of the practices, methods and
acts which, in the exercise of reasonable judgment in light of the facts known at the time the
decision was made, could have been expected to accomplish the desired result at a reasonable cost
consistent with good business practices, RELIABILITY, safety and expedition. Good Utility
Practice is not intended to be limited to the optimum practice, method, or act to the exclusion of
all others, but rather to be acceptable practices, methods, or acts generally accepted in the REGION.

GOVERNOR CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

A graphical method of representing the performance of a governor. The horizontal axis is
typically GENERATOR output while the vertical axis is SYSTEM FREQUENCY. When a governor
with a % DROOP is plotted on such a curve the plot DROOPS from left to right with increasing
GENERATOR output.

GOVERNOR CONTROL SYSTEM

A CONTROL SYSTEM for a GENERATOR that is used to control the speed of the GENERATOR’s
rotating shaft. In a steam TURBINE/GENERATOR the governor control system controls the amount
of steam striking the TURBINE BLADEs. In a hydroelectric TURBINE/GENERATOR the governor
control system controls the amount of water striking the TURBINE BLADEs. Governor control
systems are a key ingredient in maintaining a SCHEDULED INTERCONNECTION FREQUENCY.

GREEK ALPHABET
Upper and Lower case letters from the Greek alphabet are typically used by electrical engineers to
designate angles and represent variables. The following Greek letters are used in this text:

α alpha δ delta μ mu Φ Phi

β beta θ THETA π pie ω omega
γ gamma λ LAMBDA ρ rho Ω Omega

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GRID
An electrical TRANSMISSION and/or DISTRIBUTION NETWORK.

GROSS GENERATION
The output POWER (in MW) at the STATOR terminals of a GENERATOR.

GROUND
A conducting connection between an ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT or device and the earth. A ground may
be intentional, as in the case of a safety ground, or accidental, which may result in high
overcurrents.

HALF-CYCLE SATURATION
A magnetic SATURATION of a TRANSFORMER’s CORE due to the presence of a DC CURRENT in the
TRANSFORMER windings. The operating point of the TRANSFORMER on its SATURATION curve is
shifted such that for a portion of ½ of each CYCLE the TRANSFORMER saturates.

HARMONICS
Integer multiples of the FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY. If the FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY is 60 HZ
then the 2nd Harmonic has a FREQUENCY of 120 HZ, 3rd Harmonic 180 HZ, etc.

HEAD
Vertical change in elevation, expressed in either feet or meters, between the head water level and
the tailwater level of a hydro-electric FACILITY.

HEAT RATE
An expression for the efficiency of a thermal POWER plant. The heat rate is the amount of heat
(measured in British Thermal Units or BTU) that is required to produce a kWh or electrical
output. The lower the heat rate, the more efficient the POWER plant.

HENRY (H)
The unit of INDUCTANCE. The symbol for a Henry is “H”.

HERTZ (HZ)
Hertz is the unit of FREQUENCY equal to one CYCLE per second.

HIGH SIDE WINDING (HS)

The high VOLTAGE winding of a TRANSFORMER.

HOST BALANCING AUTHORITY

1. A BALANCING AUTHORITY that confirms and implements INTERCHANGE TRANSACTIONs for a
PURCHASING-SELLING ENTITY that operates GENERATION or serves customers directly within the
BALANCING AUTHORITY’s metered boundaries. 2. The BALANCING AUTHORITY within whose
metered boundaries a jointly owned unit is physically located.

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HOURLY VALUE
Data measured on a clock-hour basis.

HVDC
Acronym for High VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT. The term HVDC is commonly used when the DC
VOLTAGE is above 100 kV.

HVDC CONVERTER
An arrangement of EQUIPMENT designed and operated to convert between AC and DC POWER. A
converter can be operated as an INVERTER (DC to AC) or a RECTIFIER (AC to DC).

HVDC MODULATION
A feature added to the controls of an HVDC SYSTEM. HVDC modulation modulates (adjusts) the
POWER flow into an HVDC CONVERTER in order to dampen POWER OSCILLATIONS in the AC
supply SYSTEM. HVDC modulation assists with DAMPING AC SYSTEM POWER OSCILLATIONS.

HYDRAULICS
The use of fluid forces to perform work. For example, hydraulics are often used in GOVERNOR
CONTROL SYSTEMS to develop the large forces required to move steam or water VALVES.

HYPOTENUSE
The side of a RIGHT TRIANGLE which is opposite the 90° angle.

IEEE
Acronym for the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. The IEEE is an international
standards organization that publishes guidelines for, among other areas, POWER SYSTEMS.

IGNEOUS ROCK
Rock that was created by volcanic activity.

IGNITION DELAY ANGLE (α)

In an HVDC CONVERTER operating as a RECTIFIER, the angle by which the VALVE firing is delayed
from its normal VOLTAGE based COMMUTATION point. The Greek lower case letter alpha (α) is
the symbol for the ignition delay angle. The ignition delay angle is used to control the magnitude
of the converter’s (when operated as a RECTIFIER) output VOLTAGE.

IMBALANCE
A condition where the GENERATION and INTERCHANGE SCHEDULEs do not match DEMAND.

IMPEDANCE (Z)
The total opposition to the CURRENT flow in an ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT. The symbol for the
impedance is “Z”. The impedance includes the RESISTANCE (R), CAPACITANCE (C), and the
INDUCTANCE (L).

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IMPEDANCE RELAY
A PROTECTIVE RELAY that activates if the ratio of the measured VOLTAGE divided by the CURRENT
(the IMPEDANCE) falls below a pickup point. An impedance relay is also commonly called a
DISTANCE RELAY.

IMPULSE TURBINE
A water TURBINE in which high velocity water is directed through nozzles at the TURBINE buckets.
A Pelton Wheel is an example of an impulse turbine.

INADVERTENT ENERGY
When INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE exists for a period of time, inadvertent energy will be
accumulated.

INADVERTENT ENERGY BALANCING

A BALANCING AUTHORITY’S accounting of its INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE, which is the
accumulated difference between actual and SCHEDULED INTERCHANGE.

INADVERTENT ENERGY PAYBACK

When the INADVERTENT ENERGY that a BALANCING AUTHORITY accumulates exceeds a specified
value, the BALANCING AUTHORITY should arrange for an inadvertent payback.

INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE
The difference between the BALANCING AUTHORITY’s NET ACTUAL INTERCHANGE and NET
SCHEDULED INTERCHANGE. (IA – IS)

INCREMENTAL COST
The cost associated with producing an additional MWh of ENERGY from a generating unit.
Incremental cost is typically stated in $/MWh or MILLs/kWh.

INCREMENTAL ENERGY COST

The additional cost that would be incurred by producing or purchasing the next available unit of
ELECTRICAL ENERGY above the CURRENT base cost.

INCREMENTAL HEAT RATE

The amount of additional heat that must be added to a thermal generating unit at a given loading
to produce an additional unit of output. It is usually expressed in British thermal units per
kilowatt hour (Btu/kWh) of output.

INCREMENTAL LOSSES
The increase in LOSSES due to an increase in POWER flow. For example, assume the POWER flow
on a TRANSMISSION line is initially 100 MW. If the POWER flow is increased to 101 MW there
will be incremental ENERGY LOSSES associated with the 1 MW increase in POWER flow. The
percentage of the Incremental Loss increases with increasing levels of POWER flow.

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INDEPENDENT POWER PRODUCER (IPP)

Any entity that owns or operates an electricity generating FACILITY that is not included in an
ELECTRIC UTILITY’s RATE BASE. This term includes, but is not limited to, COGENERATORS and
SMALL POWER PRODUCERS and all other nonutility electricity producers, such as EXEMPT
WHOLESALE GENERATORS, who sell electricity.

INDEPENDENT SYSTEM OPERATOR (ISO)

An organization responsible for the reliable operation of the POWER GRID under its purview and
for providing open TRANSMISSION ACCESS to all MARKET PARTICIPANTS on a nondiscriminatory
basis. An ISO is usually not-for-profit and can advise utilities within its territory on
TRANSMISSION expansion and maintenance but does not have the responsibility to carry out the
functions.

INDIRECT DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT

Programs such as conservation, improvements in efficiency of ELECTRICAL ENERGY use, rate
incentives, rebates, and other similar activities to influence the customer’s DEMAND.

INDUCTANCE (L)
The property of an ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT that opposes a change in CURRENT flow. The symbol for
inductance is the letter “L” and the unit is the HENRY (symbol “H”).

INDUCTION MACHINE
An AC machine that can be operated as a GENERATOR or as a motor. When operated as a
GENERATOR the induction machine’s ROTOR is driven at a speed greater than SYNCHRONOUS
SPEED. When operated as a motor the induction machine’s ROTOR is driven at a speed less than
SYNCHRONOUS SPEED. Induction GENERATORs are rarely used by large scale POWER GENERATORs.
Induction motors are the most common type of AC motor. Induction machines absorb REACTIVE
POWER (always a LAGGING LOAD) and cannot be used to produce REACTIVE POWER as a
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE can.

INDUCTIVE LOAD
A LOAD that absorbs LAGGING REACTIVE POWER from the SYSTEM.

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE (XL)

The opposition that INDUCTANCE provides to AC CURRENT. The inductive reactance (XL) in a 60
HZ CIRCUIT is:

X L = 2π fL

INERTIA
The property of an object that resists changes to the motion of the object. For example, the inertia
of a rotating object resists changes to the object’s speed of rotation. The inertia of a rotating
object is a function of its mass, diameter, and speed of rotation.

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INERTIAL ENERGY
ENERGY stored within a rotating mass. For example, a spinning GENERATOR contains inertial
energy. The terms inertial energy, STORED ENERGY, and ROTATIONAL ENERGY are often used
interchangeably to refer to the ENERGY stored in the rotating ELEMENTS (motors and GENERATORS)
of the POWER SYSTEM.

IN-RUSH CURRENT
The sudden rush of CURRENT when a TRANSFORMER or a motor is first energized. The peak
magnitudes of the in-rush current last only a few CYCLES but can reach levels more than 10 times
the device’s full LOAD CURRENT.

INSTALLED RESERVE
The difference between a utility’s expected annual peak MW GENERATION capability and their
annual peak MW LOAD. Installed reserves are a rough approximation of a utility's spare or reserve
GENERATION.

INSTANTANEOUS DEMAND
The rate of ENERGY delivered at a given instant.

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS (IT)

A low POWER TRANSFORMER classification. Instrument TRANSFORMERs (IT) include CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS (CTs), POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS (PTs) and capacitive devices.

INSULATOR
A material with a high IMPEDANCE to CURRENT flow. An insulator is the opposite of a
CONDUCTOR.

INTEGRATED DEMAND
The average of the INSTANTANEOUS DEMANDS (MW) over the DEMAND INTERVAL (usually hours).

INTER-AREA MODE
A POWER oscillation MODE (FREQUENCY) in which a large section of an interconnected POWER
SYSTEM oscillates with respect to another large section of the same INTERCONNECTION. The Inter-
area mode ranges from 0.05 to 0.5 HZ.

INTERCHANGE
ENERGY transfers that cross BALANCING AUTHORITY boundaries.

INTERCHANGE AUTHORITY
The responsible entity that authorizes implementation of valid and balanced INTERCHANGE
SCHEDULES between BALANCING AUTHORITY AREAS, and ensures communication of
INTERCHANGE information for reliability assessment purposes.

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INTERCHANGE BLOCK ACCOUNTING

ENERGY accounting that assumes a beginning and ending ramp time of zero minutes. For
accounting purposes, this moves the ENERGY associated with the starting and ending ramps into
the adjacent starting and ending clock time of the INTERCHANGE.

INTERCHANGE DISTRIBUTION CALCULATOR (IDC)

The mechanism used by RELIABILITY COORDINATORs in the Eastern INTERCONNECTION to
calculate the DISTRIBUTION of INTERCHANGE TRANSACTIONs over specific TRANSMISSION
INTERFACES, which are known as “FLOWGATES.” The IDC includes a database of all
INTERCHANGE TRANSACTIONS and a matrix of the DISTRIBUTION FACTORS for the Eastern
INTERCONNECTION.

INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE
An agreed-upon INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION size (megawatts), start and end time, beginning and
ending ramp times and rate, and type required for delivery and receipt of POWER and energy
between the SOURCE and SINK BALANCING AUTHORITIES involved in the TRANSACTION.

INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION
An AGREEMENT to transfer ENERGY from a seller to a buyer that crosses one or more BALANCING
AUTHORITY AREA boundaries.

INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION CURTAILMENT

The complete or partial INTERRUPTION of an INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION that has started or
“holding” of a new INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION that has not yet started by a TRANSMISSION
PROVIDER, Reliability Coordinator, or BALANCING AUTHORITY to maintain OPERATING SECURITY.

INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION TAG (TAG)

The details of an INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION required for its physical implementation

INTERCONNECT
When two POWER SYSTEMs tie together with AC TRANSMISSION, it is referred to as an
interconnect.

INTERCONNECTED OPERATIONS SERVICE (IOS)

A service (exclusive of basic ENERGY and TRANSMISSION SERVICEs) that is required to support the
reliable operation of Interconnected BULK ELECTRIC SYSTEMS.

INTERCONNECTED SYSTEM
A SYSTEM consisting of two or more individual electric SYSTEMS that normally operate in
synchronism and have connecting tie lines.

INTERCONNECTION
When capitalized, any one of the three BULK ELECTRIC SYSTEM networks in North America:
Eastern, Western, and ERCOT. When not capitalized, the facilities that connect two SYSTEMS or
BALANCING AUTHORITIES.

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INTERCONNECTION RELIABILITY OPERATING LIMIT (IROL)

A SYSTEM OPERATING LIMIT that, if violated, could lead to instability, uncontrolled separation, or
CASCADING OUTAGES that adversely impact the reliability of the BULK ELECTRIC SYSTEM.

INTERCONNECTION RELIABILITY OPERATING LIMIT TV

The maximum time that an INTERCONNECTION RELIABILITY OPERATING LIMIT can be violated
before the risk to the INTERCONNECTION or other RELIABILITY COORDINATOR AREA(s) becomes
greater than acceptable. Each Interconnection Reliability Operating Limit’s TV shall be less than
or equal to 30 minutes.

INTERCONNECTION TIME MONITOR

An ENTITY that monitors TIME ERROR and initiates and terminates TIME ERROR CORRECTIONs.

INTERFACE
The specific set of TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS between two areas or between two areas comprising
one or more electrical SYSTEMS.

INTERMEDIATE BALANCING AUTHORITY

A BALANCING AUTHORITY AREA that has connecting facilities in the SCHEDULING PATH between
the Sending BALANCING AUTHORITY AREA and RECEIVING BALANCING AUTHORITY AREA and
operating AGREEMENTS that establish the conditions for the use of such facilities.

INTERRUPTIBLE LOAD/INTERRUPTIBLE DEMAND

DEMAND that the end-use customer makes available to its LOAD-SERVING ENTITY via contract or
AGREEMENT for CURTAILMENT.

INTERRUPTIBLE RESPONSIVE RESERVE

INTERRUPTIBLE LOAD controlled by high-set underfrequency relaying.

INTERRUPTION
A reduction in NON-FIRM TRANSMISSION SERVICE due to economic reasons.

INTRA-AREA MODE
A POWER oscillation MODE (FREQUENCY) in which a pocket of GENERATION in a POWER SYSTEM
oscillates with respect to another pocket of GENERATION in the same POWER SYSTEM. The intra-
area mode ranges from 0.4 to 1 HZ.

INTRA-PLANT MODE
A POWER oscillation MODE (FREQUENCY) in which several GENERATORs in a multi-unit POWER
STATION oscillate with respect to one another. The intra-plant mode ranges from 1.5 to 3 HZ.

INVERTER
An HVDC CONVERTER operated to convert DC POWER to AC POWER.

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IONIZATION
Ionization occurs when an atom (or group of atoms) receives enough ENERGY to split into one or
more free electrons and a positive ion. Ionization is a special case of CHARGING. The visible
CORONA effect that often surrounds energized EQUIPMENT is due to ionization of the air by the
strong ELECTRIC FIELD surrounding the energized CONDUCTOR.

ISLAND
An electrically ISOLATED portion of an INTERCONNECTION. An islanded SYSTEM maintains its
own FREQUENCY. Islands are frequently formed after major DISTURBANCES or during
RESTORATION following a major DISTURBANCE.

ISOCHRONOUS GOVERNOR CONTROL

A governor operated with a 0% DROOP. When in isochronous control, a governor will try to
maintain 60 HZ. Isochronous control may be used during a SYSTEM RESTORATION.

ISOLATED
To be electrically separated from the remainder of the INTERCONNECTION. An isolated system
does not have TRANSMISSION ties to the rest of the INTERCONNECTION. An isolated system is an
electrical ISLAND.

JOINT CONTROL
AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL of JOINTLY OWNED UNITS by two or more BALANCING
AUTHORITIES.

JOINTLY OWNED UNIT (JOU)

This term refers to a unit in which two or more ENTITIES share ownership.

JOURNAL BEARING
The bearing that supports the actual weight of a GENERATOR.

K-INDEX
A 3-hourly quasi-logarithmic local index of GEOMAGNETIC activity relative to an assumed quiet-
day curve for the recording site. Range is from 0 to 9. The K-index measures the deviation of the
most disturbed horizontal component.

K-INDEX WARNING
K-index Warnings are issued and/or extended for any period with expected values of K equal to or
greater than 4. Higher K-index warnings supersede lower ones.

KILOVAR (kVAr)
Unit of REACTIVE POWER equal to 1,000 Var.

KILOVOLT (kV)
Unit of electrical potential equal to 1,000 Volts.

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KILOVOLT-AMPERES (kVA)
Unit of COMPLEX POWER equal to 1,000 volt AMPEREs. Here, COMPLEX POWER is in contrast to
ACTIVE POWER. On AC SYSTEMS the VOLTAGE and CURRENT will not be in PHASE if REACTIVE
POWER is being transmitted.

KILOWATTHOUR (kWh)
Unit of ENERGY equaling one thousand WATTHOURs, or one kilowatt used over one hour. This is
the normal quantity used for METERING and billing electricity customers. The retail price for a
kWh varies from approximately 4 cents to 20 cents. At a 100% conversion efficiency, one kWh is
equivalent to about 4 fluid ounces of gasoline, 3/16 pound of liquid petroleum, 3 cubic feet of
natural gas, or ¼ pound of coal.

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

A basic electrical law that states that the sum of all the CURRENTS at any point in an ELECTRICAL
CIRCUIT equal zero amps.

KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

A basic electrical law that states that the sum of all the VOLTAGEs around any closed ELECTRICAL
CIRCUIT equal zero volts.

L SUB-TEN (L10)
The BANDWIDTH that ACE is bounded in order to comply with CPS2. An ACE value (±) whose
width is proportional to a BALANCING AUTHORITY’s size.

LAGGING
Term used when comparing VOLTAGE and CURRENT waves. The wave that is heading positive and
crosses zero last is the lagging wave. In a lagging LOAD the CURRENT wave lags the VOLTAGE
wave.

LAMBDA (λ)
The INCREMENTAL COST of GENERATION. Lambda is commonly expressed in $/MWh or
Mils/kWh. The symbol for lambda is “λ” (the Greek letter lambda).

LEADING
Term used when comparing VOLTAGE and CURRENT waves. The wave that is heading positive and
crosses zero first is the leading wave. In a leading LOAD the CURRENT wave leads the VOLTAGE
wave.

LIGHTNING ARRESTER
A piece of EQUIPMENT that is designed to protect the POWER SYSTEM from high VOLTAGES.
Lightning arresters activate when TRANSIENT over VOLTAGEs (TOVs) occur and harmlessly shunt
the VOLTAGE SURGE to GROUND.

LIMIT COMPLIANCE VIOLATION

An INTERCONNECTED RELIABILITY LIMIT VIOLATION that has occurred for more than 30
consecutive minutes.

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LIMIT VIOLATION
The operating state during which one or more facilities are outside SYSTEM OPERATING LIMITS or
INTERCONNECTED RELIABILITY LIMITS. A violation occurs at the instant the established limit is
exceeded. This could be a result of a change in one or more operating parameters.

LINE TRIP
Refers to the automatic opening of a TRANSMISSION line by its CIRCUIT BREAKERS. These
openings or “TRIPS” are controlled by PROTECTIVE RELAYS and are designed to protect the POWER
SYSTEM during faulted conditions.

LOAD
An end-use device or customer that receives POWER from the ELECTRIC SYSTEM.

LOAD DURATION CURVE

A nonchronological, graphical summary of DEMAND levels with corresponding time durations
using a curve, which plots DEMAND magnitude (POWER) on one axis and percent of time that the
magnitude occurs on the other axis.

LOAD FACTOR
A measure of the degree of uniformity of DEMAND over a period of time, usually one year,
equivalent to the ratio of AVERAGE DEMAND to PEAK DEMAND expressed as a percentage. Load
factor is calculated by dividing the total ENERGY provided by a SYSTEM during the PERIOD by the
product of the PEAK DEMAND during the PERIOD and the number of hours in the PERIOD.

LOAD FOLLOWING
An ENERGY based ancillary service that is provided via a linear change in a SCHEDULE through a
PERIOD (typically one hour).

LOAD OVERSHOOT
A short term increase in LOAD magnitude due to an increase in the customer’s VOLTAGE. Load
overshoot results from downstream tap changers boosting the customer’s VOLTAGE prior to the
upstream tap changer responding.

LOAD REFERENCE SET-POINT

In GOVERNOR CONTROL SYSTEMS this setting determines the position of the controlled VALVE
when the FREQUENCY is at the SCHEDULED value. From a SYSTEM operations perspective, the load
reference set-point is the MW a GENERATOR will produce when the FREQUENCY is 60 HZ.

LOAD REJECTION
The rejection of LOAD by a GENERATOR. If a GENERATOR suddenly loses its TRANSMISSION path,
it has undergone a load rejection. The GENERATOR will speed up until its mechanical POWER input
can be removed or the unit tripped.

LOAD/FREQUENCY RELATIONSHIP
The relationship between FREQUENCY DEVIATIONS and the LOAD magnitude. In general, the LOAD
magnitude varies with the FREQUENCY. If the FREQUENCY rises the LOAD magnitude rises and
vice versa.

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LOAD-SERVING ENTITY (LSE)

Secures ENERGY and TRANSMISSION SERVICE (and related INTERCONNECTED OPERATIONS
SERVICES) to serve the electrical DEMAND and ENERGY requirements of its end-use customers.

LOAD SHEDDING
The process of deliberately removing (either manually or automatically) pre-selected customer
DEMAND from a POWER SYSTEM in response to an abnormal condition, to maintain the integrity of
the SYSTEM and minimize overall customer OUTAGES.

LOCAL MODE
A POWER oscillation MODE (FREQUENCY) in which a GENERATOR oscillates with respect to the
remainder of the POWER SYSTEM. The local mode ranges from 0.8 to 2 HZ.

LOCKOUT
A state of a TRANSMISSION line following CIRCUIT BREAKERS operations where the condition
detected by the PROTECTIVE RELAYING was not eliminated by temporarily opening and reclosing
the line. In this state, the CIRCUIT BREAKERS cannot generally be reclosed without resetting a
lockout device.

LOGISTICS
The handling of the details of an operation.

LOOP FLOW
See UNSCHEDULED POWER FLOW.

LOSS OF LOAD DIVERSITY

An increase in the TOTAL LOAD that occurs due to a majority of the customer’s LOAD drawing
POWER from the SYSTEM at the same time. During normal SYSTEM operations only a percentage of
the customer’ TOTAL LOAD is drawing POWER at any one time. When LOAD diversity is lost a
larger percentage of the customer LOAD draws POWER simultaneously.

LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM
The loss of the magnetic bond between ELEMENTS of a POWER SYSTEM. Loss of synchronism and
OUT-OF-STEP refer to the same concept.

LOSSES
The ENERGY losses in the POWER SYSTEM. The total SYSTEM losses consist of the TRANSMISSION,
transformation, and DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM losses.

LOW SIDE WINDING (LS)

The low VOLTAGE winding of the TRANSFORMER.

MAGNETIC FIELD
The invisible lines of force between the north and south POLES of a magnet. A magnetic field is
created when CURRENT flows through a CONDUCTOR. ENERGY is stored in a magnetic field.

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MAGNETISM
A property of matter associated with moving CHARGEs. A material may be a permanent magnet or
it may acquire magnetic characteristics due to CURRENT flow through the material.

MARKET CLEARING PRICE

The price at a location at which supply equals DEMAND—all DEMAND at or above this price has
been satisfied, and all supply at or below this price has been purchased.

MARKET OPERATOR
An ENTITY that administers a market that integrates CAPACITY, ENERGY, BALANCING RESOURCES,
and TRANSMISSION RESOURCES to achieve an economic, reliability-constrained dispatch of
RESOURCES.

MARKET PARTICIPANT
An entity participating in the ENERGY marketplace by buying/selling TRANSMISSION rights,
ENERGY, or ANCILLARY SERVICES into, out of, or through an ISO-controlled GRID.

MARKETER
An entity that has the authority to take title to electrical POWER generated by itself or another
entity and remarket that POWER at market-based rates.

MECHANICAL ENERGY
ENERGY of a mechanical nature. For example, a rotating mass possesses mechanical energy.

MECHANICAL INPUT POWER

POWER input of a mechanical nature. For example, a steam or water TURBINE input mechanical
POWER to the ROTOR of a GENERATOR.

MEGAWATTHOUR (MWh)
One million WATTHOURS.

MERCURY ARC VALVE (MAV)

A high POWER switch that utilizes older “tube” based technologies. MAVs were commonly used
in HVDC CONVERTERs and other POWER CONVERTER applications. MAVs have largely been
replaced by THYRISTERS.

METERED VALUE
A measured electrical quantity that may be collected by TELEMETERING, SCADA, or other means.

METERING
A device for measuring a quantity. For example, meters are used to measure POWER flows,
VOLTAGES, CURRENT, FREQUENCY, etc.

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MICROPROCESSOR
An arithmetic, logic, and control unit all contained on one integrated CIRCUIT chip. One
microprocessor will contain thousands of transistors.

MILL
A unit of currency equal to 1/10 of a cent.

MISOPERATION
• Any failure of a PROTECTION SYSTEM ELEMENT to operate within the specified time
when a FAULT or abnormal condition occurs within a ZONE OF PROTECTION.
• Any operation for a FAULT not within a ZONE OF PROTECTION (other than operation as
backup protection for a FAULT in an adjacent zone that is not cleared within a specified
time for the protection for that zone).
• Any unintentional PROTECTION SYSTEM operation when no FAULT or other abnormal
condition has occurred unrelated to on-site maintenance and testing activity.

MODE
A specific oscillation FREQUENCY. For example, a steam/TURBINE GENERATOR’s shaft has
specific frequencies at which it is susceptible to SSR. These frequencies are called modes.

MONOPOLAR HVDC
An HVDC SYSTEM that uses one CONDUCTOR energized with either a positive or negative
VOLTAGE and a CURRENT return path.

MOTOR LOAD
A simplified grouping of all spinning type LOAD. Motor load includes air conditioner
COMPRESSORS, motor drives, etc. TOTAL LOAD is composed of motor load plus NON-MOTOR
LOAD.

MRO
Acronym for the Midwest Reliability Organization. MRO is one of the eight NERC REGIONAL
RELIABILITY ORGANIZATIONs.

MUST-RUN GENERATION
GENERATION designated to operate at a specific level and not available for dispatch.

NAESB
The acronym for the North American Energy Standards Board. NAESB is responsible for
business practice standards in the wholesale electric ENERGY industry.

NATIVE LOAD (NL)

The end-use customers that the LOAD-SERVING ENTITY is obligated to serve.

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NATURAL FREQUENCY
Every mechanical device has a natural frequency of oscillation. For example, when a force is
applied to a bridge the bridge will oscillate at its natural frequency. ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS also
have a natural frequency of oscillation. An ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT’s natural frequency is determined
by its RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE, and CAPACITANCE.

NERC
An acronym for the North American Electric Reliability Corporation. The purpose of NERC is to
enhance the RELIABILITY of the interconnected POWER SYSTEMS of North America. NERC
publishes RELIABILITY Standards that provide requirements as to how to reliably operate the
POWER SYSTEM.

NET ACTUAL INTERCHANGE (NIA)

The algebraic sum of all metered INTERCHANGE over all INTERCONNECTIONs between two
physically Adjacent BALANCING AUTHORITY AREAS.

NET GENERATION
The net POWER available from a GENERATOR to be fed to the POWER SYSTEM. Net generation is
equal to GROSS GENERATION minus the GENERATOR’s internal POWER usage (STATION SERVICE).

NET INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE (NIS)

The algebraic sum of all INTERCHANGE SCHEDULES with each adjacent BALANCING AUTHORITY.

NET SCHEDULED INTERCHANGE

The algebraic sum of all INTERCHANGE SCHEDULES across a given path or between BALANCING
AUTHORITIES for a given period or instant in time.

NETWORK CUSTOMER
An entity receiving TRANSMISSION SERVICE pursuant to the terms of the TRANSMISSION SERVICE
PROVIDER’s NETWORK INTEGRATION TRANSMISSION SERVICE.

NETWORK INTEGRATION (NI) TRANSMISSION SERVICE

Service that allows an electric TRANSMISSION customer to integrate, plan, economically dispatch
and regulate its network reserves in a manner comparable to that in which the TRANSMISSION
OWNER serves NATIVE LOAD customers.

NETWORK RESOURCE
Any designated generating resource owned, or purchased or leased by a NETWORK CUSTOMER
under the NETWORK INTEGRATION TRANSMISSION SERVICE Tariff. Network RESOURCES do not
include any resource, or any portion thereof, that is committed for sale to third PARTIES or
otherwise cannot be called upon to meet the NETWORK CUSTOMER’s Network LOAD on a non-
interruptible basis.

NO LOAD TAP CHANGER (NLTC)

A tap changer that is designed to change the TURNS RATIO only when the TRANSFORMER has no
CURRENT flow across its windings. The term offload tap changer (OLTC) is also used to refer to
this type tap changer.

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NOAA
The acronym for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the U.S. Government.

NOMINAL
The design or rated value. Not necessarily the value that is intended or that occurs. For example,
the nominal VOLTAGE for a piece of EQUIPMENT would be the design or rated VOLTAGE but in
operation the EQUIPMENT may be operated at a different value of VOLTAGE.

NOMINAL LOAD
The rated or nameplate LOAD. For example, 100 MW of customer LOAD may be fed from a utility
BUS. This LOAD will draw 100 MW if the VOLTAGE and FREQUENCY at the BUS are at NOMINAL
values. If VOLTAGE or FREQUENCY should vary then the ACTUAL LOAD will be different than the
nominal load.

NON-FIRM ENERGY
ELECTRICAL ENERGY that may be interrupted by either the provider or the receiver of the ENERGY
by giving advance notice to the other party to the TRANSACTION. This advance notice PERIOD is
equal to or greater than the minimum PERIOD agreed to in the contract. Non-firm energy may also
be interrupted to maintain SYSTEM RELIABILITY of third-party TRANSMISSION SERVICE
PROVIDERS. Non-firm energy must be backed up by reserves.

NON-FIRM POINT-TO-POINT TRANSMISSION SERVICE

POINT-TO-POINT TRANSMISSION SERVICE under the Tariff that is reserved and SCHEDULED on an
as-available basis and is subject to CURTAILMENT or INTERRUPTION.

NON-FIRM TRANSMISSION SERVICE

TRANSMISSION service that is reserved on an as-available basis and is subject to CURTAILMENT or
INTERRUPTION.

NON-MOTOR LOAD
A simplified grouping of all non-spinning type LOAD. Non-motor load includes resistive heaters,
lighting, etc. TOTAL LOAD is composed of MOTOR LOAD plus non-motor type LOAD.

NON-SPINNING RESERVE
1. That generating reserve not connected to the system but capable of serving DEMAND within a
specified time. 2. INTERRUPTIBLE LOAD that can be removed from the system in a specified time.

NORMAL CLEARING
A PROTECTION SYSTEM operates as designed and the FAULT is cleared in the time normally
expected with proper functioning of the installed PROTECTION SYSTEMS.

NORMAL EXCITATION
A condition in which the GENERATOR’s EXCITATION SYSTEM is supplying exactly the excitation
CURRENT needed to maintain the MAGNETIC FIELD of the GENERATOR. A normally excited
GENERATOR is neither supplying or absorbing REACTIVE POWER from the SYSTEM.

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NORMAL RATING
The RATING as defined by the EQUIPMENT owner that specifies the level of electrical loading,
usually expressed in megawatts (MW) or other appropriate units that a SYSTEM, FACILITY, or
ELEMENT can support or withstand through the daily DEMAND CYCLES without loss of EQUIPMENT
life.

NORMAL VOLTAGE LIMITS

The operating VOLTAGE range on the INTERCONNECTED SYSTEMS that is acceptable on a sustained
basis.

NPCC
Acronym for the Northeast Power Coordinating Council. NPCC is one of the eight NERC
REGIONAL RELIABILITY ORGANIZATIONS.

OFF-PEAK
Those hours or other PERIODs defined by NAESB business practices, contract, AGREEMENTs, or
guides as PERIODs of lower electrical DEMAND.

ON-PEAK
Those hours or other PERIODs defined by NAESB business practices, contract, AGREEMENTs, or
guides as PERIODs of higher electrical DEMAND.

OHM’S LAW
A basic electrical law that relates the VOLTAGE (V), CURRENT (I), and IMPEDANCE (Z). Ohm’s law
is commonly stated as:
V =I×Z

OPEN ACCESS SAME TIME INFORMATION SERVICE (OASIS)

An electronic posting system that the TRANSMISSION SERVICE PROVIDER maintains for
TRANSMISSION ACCESS data and that allows all TRANSMISSION CUSTOMERs to view the data
simultaneously.

OPEN ACCESS TRANSMISSION TARIFF (OATT)

Electronic TRANSMISSION tariff accepted by the U.S. FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY
COMMISSION requiring the TRANSMISSION SERVICE PROVIDER to furnish to all shippers with non-
discriminating service comparable to that provided by TRANSMISSION OWNERS to themselves.

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OPERATING AUTHORITY
An entity that:
1. Has ultimate accountability for a defined portion of the BULK ELECTRIC SYSTEM to meet
one or more of three RELIABILITY objectives – GENERATION/DEMAND balance,
TRANSMISSION security, and/or EMERGENCY preparedness; and
2. Is accountable to NERC and its REGIONAL RELIABILITY ORGANIZATIONS for complying
with NERC and Regional Policies; and
3. Has the authority to control or direct the operation of generating RESOURCES,
TRANSMISSION facilities, or LOADS, to meet these Policies.

OPERATING PROCEDURE
A document that identifies specific steps or tasks that should be taken by one or more specific
operating positions to achieve specific operating goal(s). The steps in an Operating Procedure
should be followed in the order in which they are presented, and should be performed by the
position(s) identified. A document that lists the specific steps for a SYSTEM OPERATOR to take in
removing a specific TRANSMISSION LINE from service is an example of an Operating Procedure.

OPERATING RESERVE
That capability above firm SYSTEM DEMAND required to provide for REGULATION, LOAD
forecasting error, EQUIPMENT forced and SCHEDULED OUTAGES and local area protection. It
consists of SPINNING and NON-SPINNING RESERVE.

OPERATING RESERVE - SPINNING

The portion of OPERATING RESERVE consisting of:
• GENERATION SYNCHRONIZEd to the SYSTEM and fully available to serve LOAD within the
DISTURBANCE RECOVERY PERIOD following the CONTINGENCY event; or
• LOAD fully removable from the system within the DISTURBANCE RECOVERY PERIOD
following the CONTINGENCY event.

OPERATING RESERVE - SUPPLEMENTAL

The portion of OPERATING RESERVE consisting of:
• GENERATION (SYNCHRONIZEd or capable of being SYNCHRONIZEd to the system) that is
fully available to serve LOAD within the DISTURBANCE RECOVERY PERIOD following the
CONTINGENCY event; or

• LOAD fully removable from the SYSTEM within the DISTURBANCE RECOVERY PERIOD
following the CONTINGENCY event.

OPERATING SECURITY LIMIT

The value of a SYSTEM operating parameter (for example, total POWER transfer across an
INTERFACE) that satisfies the most limiting of prescribed pre- and post- CONTINGENCY OPERATING
CRITERIA as determined by EQUIPMENT loading capability and acceptable STABILITY and VOLTAGE
conditions.

OSCILLATIONS
Cyclic variations in VOLTAGE, CURRENT, FREQUENCY, or POWER flows. The VOLTAGE and
CURRENT of the POWER SYSTEM naturally oscillates at 60 HZ. The term oscillations is typically
used to refer to low FREQUENCY (a few HZ) oscillations that may occur.

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OSCILLATORY STABILITY / INSTABILITY

An ANGLE STABILITY classification. The oscillatory STABILITY LIMIT of a POWER SYSTEM is the
maximum amount of ACTIVE POWER that can be transmitted across the SYSTEM without excessive
POWER OSCILLATIONS leading to a LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM. No large DISTURBANCE need occur.
The response of GENERATOR CONTROL SYSTEMS (governor and EXCITER) are very important to
oscillatory stability / instability.

OUT-OF-STEP (OOS)
To lose synchronism. Out-of-step is best viewed in terms of rotating MAGNETIC FIELDs. When a
GENERATOR is out-of-step with the POWER SYSTEM it connects to, the GENERATOR’s rotating
MAGNETIC FIELD is no longer in-step or in synchronism with the rotating MAGNETIC FIELD of the
SYSTEM.

OUT-OF-STEP PROTECTIVE RELAY (78)

A PROTECTIVE RELAY that is designed to detect OUT-OF-STEP conditions and initiate a user
determined response. Out-of-step protective relays are often based on the same principles as
IMPEDANCE RELAYs. An OUT-OF-STEP RELAY differentiates between an OUT-OF-STEP condition
and a FAULT condition by measuring the speed at which the measured IMPEDANCE changes.

OUTAGE
The PERIOD during which a generating unit, TRANSMISSION line, or other FACILITY is out of
service.

OUTAGE DISTRIBUTION FACTOR (ODF)

Expressed in per unit as the change in POWER flow on a given TRANSMISSION path (or FLOWGATE)
due to the OUTAGE of a specified TRANSMISSION ELEMENT(s) or GENERATOR(s). The affect of
LOSSES is generally ignored:
ODF = (Change in path flow) / (Pre-CONTINGENCY flow on OUTAGED ELEMENTS)

OUTAGE TRANSFER DISTRIBUTION FACTOR (OTDF)

Expressed in per unit as the portion of POWER flow on a path (or FLOWGATE) in response to a
transfer, taking into consideration the PTDF of the flow gate and the effects of an OUTAGEd
TRANSMISSION ELEMENT(s). The affect of LOSSES is generally ignored:
OTDF (FLOWGATE) = PTDF (FLOWGATE) + (ODF) * PTDF (OUTAGED ELEMENT)

OVERCURRENT RELAY
A PROTECTIVE RELAY that activates in response to a high CURRENT magnitude. Overcurrent relays
can be either timed or instantaneous and directional or non-directional.

OVEREXCITE
A GENERATOR is overexcited when the applied excitation is greater than that needed to support the
GENERATOR’s MAGNETIC FIELD. The excess REACTIVE POWER produced by the overexcitation
condition flows to the SYSTEM. An overexcited GENERATOR supplies REACTIVE POWER to the
SYSTEM. The terms “LAGGING” and “boosting” are also used to refer to an overexcited
GENERATOR. A TRANSFORMER may also overexcite. Overexcitation of a TRANSFORMER results
from either applying to high a VOLTAGE magnitude or operating at to low of a FREQUENCY.

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OVERLAP ANGLE (μ)

When commutating between two VALVEs in an HVDC CONVERTER, a natural overlap PERIOD
occurs in which both VALVES are simultaneously conducting. The length of the overlap PERIOD is
measured in degrees and is called the overlap angle. The symbol for the overlap angle is the
Greek lower case letter mu (μ).

OVERLAP REGULATION SERVICE

A method of providing REGULATION SERVICE in which the BALANCING AUTHORITY providing the
REGULATION SERVICE incorporates another BALANCING AUTHORITY’s ACTUAL INTERCHANGE,
FREQUENCY RESPONSE, and SCHEDULES into providing BALANCING AUTHORITY’s AGC/ACE
equation.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT
An ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT in which all the positive terminals are connected to a common point. All
the negative terminals are connected to a second point. The VOLTAGE drop is the same across
each full ELEMENT of the parallel circuit.

PARALLEL PATH FLOWS

The difference between the SCHEDULED and actual POWER flow, assuming zero INADVERTENT
INTERCHANGE, on a given TRANSMISSION path.

PARALLEL RESONANCE
A RESONANCE condition in a CIRCUIT with a parallel combination of INDUCTANCE and a
CAPACITANCE. At RESONANCE a PARALLEL CIRCUIT REACHes its maximum IMPEDANCE equal to a
multiple of the CIRCUIT’s RESISTANCE value.

PARKING
Parking is a commercial term that defines ENERGY or TRANSMISSION that is not complete. The
TRANSACTION SINK, SOURCE, and path are identified when tagged – prior to TRANSACTION
implementation. The priority of the TRANSACTION is also identified when tagged. The merchant
buys a “link” of the final TRANSMISSION path and “parks” the GENERATION without identifying
SOURCE or SINK (but must show POR and POD). The merchant can also buy a “link” of ENERGY
and park it. The ATC for a parked TRANSACTION should be decremented – there is an impact on a
FLOWGATE, but it is not calculated until the SOURCE and SINK are known. Parking applies to both
firm and NON-FIRM ENERGY and TRANSMISSION.

PARTICIPATION FACTOR
Typically used to refer to generator participation in a facilities loading
• For example, assume a transmission line is overloaded
• Further assume Generator “A” has a 0.3 participation factor
• This means that Generator “A” is responsible for 0.3 or 30% of the overloaded line’s
flow

PARTIES
The TRANSMISSION SERVICE PROVIDER and TRANSMISSION CUSTOMER receiving service under the
Tariff.

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PEAK DEMAND
1. The highest hourly integrated NET ENERGY FOR LOAD within a BALANCING AUTHORITY
occurring within a given PERIOD (e.g., day, month, season, or year). 2. The highest
INSTANTANEOUS DEMAND within the BALANCING AUTHORITY.

PEAKING CAPACITY
CAPACITY used to serve PEAK DEMAND. PEAKING GENERATING UNITS operate a limited number of
hours per year, and their CAPACITY FACTOR is normally less than 20%.

PEAKING GENERATING UNITS

GENERATORs that are normally only run during the peak LOAD PERIODS of the LOAD CYCLE.

PENSTOCK
A water pipe or conduit that carries water from the upper water reservoir to the TURBINE at a
hydroelectric unit.

PERIOD
The time for one complete CYCLE of a repeating wave. For example, a 60 HZ CURRENT steps
through 60 CYCLES per second. The period of one complete CYCLE is therefore 1/60th of a second.

PERMANENT MAGNET GENERATOR (PMG)

A simple GENERATOR that uses a permanent magnet (a material that retains its MAGNETISM) to
provide the required MAGNETIC FIELD. PMGs are often part of GOVERNOR CONTROL SYSTEMS.
The PMG is used to produce an output VOLTAGE whose magnitude is representative of a
GENERATOR’s shaft speed.

PER-UNIT (P.U.)
A SYSTEM for reporting quantity magnitudes. A per-unit number is stated in terms of a base
quantity. For example if the base VOLTAGE is 345 kV then a VOLTAGE of 359 kV is 1.04 per-unit
(359/345=1.04).

PHASE
AC POWER SYSTEMs use three CONDUCTORS to efficiently generate and transmit large amounts of
POWER. Each of the CONDUCTORS is called a phase. The phases are each assigned a letter
designation; “A”, “B”, and “C”. Customer LOAD can be connected as single-phase (1Φ), two-
phase (2Φ), or three-phase (3Φ).

PHASE ANGLE
The angle by which one waveform leads or lags another waveform. A phase angle can exist
between two VOLTAGEs, two CURRENTS, or between a CURRENT and a VOLTAGE.

PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMER (PST)

A TRANSFORMER designed to shift the PHASE of the incoming VOLTAGEs. PSTs use a tap changing
winding in the similar manner to a conventional tap changer. The VOLTAGE of a PSTs tap changer
is added in QUADRATURE to the incoming VOLTAGE to create a PHASE shift. PSTs are also referred
to as PHASE ANGLE regulators or PARs.

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PHASORS
Similar to a vector but also includes information about the FREQUENCY of the quantity. A phasor
diagram is a collection of lines that, like VECTORS, illustrate a quantities magnitude and direction.
However, phasor diagrams must also specify the FREQUENCY of the quantity. AC VOLTAGES and
CURRENTS can be represented by phasors.

PHYSICALLY ADJACENT BALANCING AUTHORITIES

Two BALANCING AUTHORITIES that are directly interconnected with each other.

PICK-UP POINT
An operating setting for a PROTECTIVE RELAY that determines at what point the RELAY will
activate.

PILOT RELAY
A PROTECTIVE RELAY SYSTEM typically used to protect high VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION LINES. Pilot
relays use telecommunication SYSTEMS to communicate between the terminals of the
TRANSMISSION line.

PLANNED OUTAGE
An OUTAGE that is planned well in advance.

PLANNING
The process by which the performance of the electric SYSTEM is evaluated and future changes and
additions to the BULK ELECTRIC SYSTEMS are determined.

PLANNING AUTHORITY
The responsible entity that coordinates and integrates TRANSMISSION FACILITY and service plans,
resource plans, and protection systems.

PLANNING RESERVE
The difference between an entity’s expected annual peak capability and its expected annual PEAK
DEMAND expressed as a percentage of the annual PEAK DEMAND.

POINT OF DELIVERY (POD)

A location that the TRANSMISSION SERVICE PROVIDER specifies on its TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
where an INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION leaves or a LOAD-SERVING ENTITY receives its ENERGY.

POINT OF RECEIPT (POR)

A location that the TRANSMISSION SERVICE PROVIDER specifies on its TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
where an INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION enters or a GENERATOR delivers its output.

POINT-TO-POINT (PTP) TRANSMISSION SERVICE

As specified in the TRANSMISSION SERVICE PROVIDERS TARIFF, TRANSMISSION SERVICE reserved
and/or SCHEDULED between specified POINTS OF RECEIPT and DELIVERY.

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POLES
The ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS formed by the FIELD WINDING on the ROTOR of a SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR. When DC CURRENT is passed through the FIELD WINDING the poles become
magnetic north or south poles.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
A difference in VOLTAGE magnitudes between two locations. CURRENT can flow along a closed
path if a potential difference exists across the path.

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS (PT)

A low POWER TRANSFORMER (an instrument TRANSFORMER) used to reduce normally high POWER
SYSTEM VOLTAGES to low values (≈ 110 Volt). A PT has a high number of turns on the PRIMARY
WINDING and a low number of turns on the SECONDARY WINDING. The low magnitude secondary
VOLTAGEs of a PT are typically input to meters, RELAYS, etc.

POWER (P)
The rate at which ENERGY is expended to do work. Power is measured in watts (W), kilowatts
(kW), Megawatts (MW), or Gigawatts (GW).

POWER ANGLE (δ)

The PHASE ANGLE between two VOLTAGE waveforms. A power angle is the same as a VOLTAGE
ANGLE difference. The power angle is a major factor in determining the amount of MW flow
between two locations. The Greek letter delta (δ) is the symbol for power angle.

POWER CONVERTER
A mechanical or solid state device for converting AC POWER to DC POWER or vice versa. Modern
power converters are THYRISTER based devices that are typically strong sources of HARMONICS.

POWER FACTOR (PF)

The ratio of the ACTIVE POWER (MW) to the COMPLEX POWER (MVA). The COSINE of the PHASE
ANGLE between a LOAD’s VOLTAGE and CURRENT is the power factor of the LOAD. A unity power
factor LOAD draws no REACTIVE POWER, just ACTIVE POWER.

POWER FLOW PROGRAM

A computerized algorithm that simulates the behavior of the electric SYSTEM under a given set of
conditions.

POWER POOL
Two or more interconnected electric SYSTEMs planned and operated to supply POWER for their
combined DEMAND requirements.

POWER SYSTEM
The collective name given to the ELEMENTS of the electrical SYSTEM. The power system includes
the GENERATION, TRANSMISSION, DISTRIBUTION, SUBSTATIONS, etc. The term power system may
refer to one section of a large INTERCONNECTED SYSTEM or to the entire INTERCONNECTED
SYSTEM.

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POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER (PSS)

A feature added to an EXCITATION SYSTEM that is designed to assist with the DAMPING of low
FREQUENCY (≈1 HZ) POWER SYSTEM OSCILLATIONS. A typical PSS provides positive DAMPING to
POWER OSCILLATIONS by ensuring that VOLTAGE corrections made by the EXCITATION SYSTEM are
in-PHASE with detected FREQUENCY OSCILLATIONS.

POWER TRANSFER DISTRIBUTION FACTOR (PTDF)

The portion of an INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION, expressed in per unit, that flows across a
TRANSMISSION FACILITY (FLOWGATE). The values of the PTDF’s can range from minus one to
plus one. NERC also uses the terms DISTRIBUTION FACTOR and Transfer DISTRIBUTION FACTOR.

POWER-ANGLE CURVE
A graphical representation of the ACTIVE POWER transfer equation. The power-angle curve is a
plot of the ACTIVE POWER transfer as the POWER ANGLE is varied between 0° and 180°. The
power-angle curve is a good tool for analyzing the ANGLE STABILITY of a simple (two BUS) POWER
SYSTEM.

POWER-CIRCLE DIAGRAM
A graphical method of illustrating how MW and Mvar flows change as the POWER ANGLE
changes. Power-circle diagrams are composed of circular characteristics of the POWER flow out of
the sending end and into the receiving end of a two BUS SYSTEM.

PRIMARY WINDING
The winding of a TRANSFORMER that is connected to the POWER input or SOURCE end of the
TRANSFORMER.

PRIME MOVER
A mechanism that converts thermal or hydraulic ENERGY into mechanical POWER. For example, a
coal fired BOILER with a steam TURBINE is a prime mover as it converts the thermal ENERGY of
coal into the mechanical POWER to turn the TURBINE.

PRO FORMA TARIFF

Usually refers to the standard OATT and/or associated TRANSMISSION rights mandated by the U.S.
FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION Order No. 888.

PRODUCTION COST
The costs associated with starting, operating, and stopping generating units.

PROTECTION SYSTEM
PROTECTIVE RELAYS, associated communication systems, VOLTAGE and CURRENT sending
devices, station batteries and DC control circuitry.

PROTECTIVE RELAY
A mechanical or electronic device used to sense POWER SYSTEM DISTURBANCES and respond to
limit the possible damage.

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PSEUDO-TIE
A telemetered reading or value that is updated in real time and used as a “virtual” tie line flow in
the AGC/ACE equation but for which no physical tie or energy METERING actually exists. The
integrated value is used as a metered MWh value for INTERCHANGE accounting purposes.

PURCHASING-SELLING ENTITY (PSE)

The entity that purchases or sells, and takes title to, ENERGY, CAPACITY, and INTERCONNECTED
OPERATIONS SERVICES. Purchasing-Selling Entities may be affiliated or unaffiliated merchants
and may or may not own generating facilities.

P-V CURVE
A POWER versus VOLTAGE curve. A plot of the POWER transferred to a BUS versus the VOLTAGE at
that BUS. P-V curveS are a graphical tool used to analyze a POWER SYSTEM’s VOLTAGE STABILITY.

PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
A mathematical relationship which states that in a RIGHT TRIANGLE the square of the HYPOTENUSE
length is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the remaining two sides.

QUADRATURE (Q)
At an angle of 90°. When two VECTORS are in quadrature they are perpendicular to one another.
The symbol “Q” for REACTIVE POWER is derived from the word Quadrature.

QUALITY (Q)
A factor for measuring the FREQUENCY RESPONSE of an ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT. A CIRCUIT’s quality
is dependent upon the relative magnitudes of its reactive and resistive ELEMENTS.

RAMP PERIOD
The time between GENERATION ramp start and end times usually expressed in minutes.

RAMP RATE
(SCHEDULE) The rate, expressed in megawatts per minute, at which the INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE
is attained during the RAMP PERIOD.
(GENERATOR) The rate, expressed in megawatts per minute, that a GENERATOR changes its output.

RAMP WINDOW
The time PERIOD that occurs each hour for adjusting a BALANCING AUTHORITY’s GENERATION. A
typical ramp window is from 10 minutes to the hour till 10 minutes after the hour. If all
BALANCING AUTHORITIES use the same ramp windows, FREQUENCY DEVIATIONS will be reduced.

RATE BASE
The value of property upon which a utility is permitted to earn a specified rate of return as
established by a regulatory authority. The rate base generally represents the value of property
used by the utility in providing service and may be calculated by any one or a combination of the
following accounting methods: fair value, prudent investment, reproduction cost, or original cost.
Depending on which method is used, the rate base includes cash, working capital, materials and
supplies, and deductions for accumulated provisions for depreciation, contributions in aid of

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construction, customer advances for construction, accumulated deferred income taxes, and
accumulated deferred investment tax credits.

RATE-OF-CHANGE (PROTECTIVE RELAY)

A type of PROTECTIVE RELAY that monitors the rate at which a quantity changes. For example, a
rate-of-change relay may monitor the rate at which the MW flow along a TRANSMISSION line
varies. The RELAY could be set to TRIP the line if the rate of MW flow change exceeds a specified
value.

RATING
The operational limits of a TRANSMISSION SYSTEM ELEMENT under a set of specified conditions.

REACH
The extent of protection that an IMPEDANCE RELAY provides to a TRANSMISSION line. The reach is
typically defined in terms of the IMPEDANCE of the line. For example, a zone #1 IMPEDANCE
RELAY may reach 85% into the protected line.

REACTION TURBINE
A water TURBINE in which the pressure difference across the TURBINE BLADEs causes the BLADEs
to turn. A Francis TURBINE is an example of a reaction turbine.

REACTIVE CAPABILITY CURVE

A graphical method of illustrating the COMPLEX POWER output limits of a SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORs. The reactive capability curve is sometimes called a “D-Curve” as it is typically
shaped like the letter “D”.

REACTIVE POWER (Q)

The portion of electricity that establishes and sustains the electric and MAGNETIC FIELDS of
ALTERNATING-CURRENT EQUIPMENT. Reactive power must be supplied to most types of magnetic
EQUIPMENT, such as MOTORS and TRANSFORMERS. It also must supply the reactive LOSSES on
TRANSMISSION FACILITIES. Reactive power is provided by GENERATORS, SYNCHRONOUS
CONDENSERS, or electrostatic EQUIPMENT such as CAPACITORS and directly influences electric
SYSTEM VOLTAGE. It is usually expressed in KILOVARs (kvar) or megavars (Mvar).

REACTOR
A device intentionally designed to act as an inductor and store ENERGY in its MAGNETIC FIELD. A
shunt reactor acts as a SINK (absorber) of REACTIVE POWER from the SYSTEM. Series reactors are
devices that are used to increase the INDUCTIVE REACTANCE (XL) of a TRANSMISSION path.

REAL POWER
The portion of electricity that supplies ENERGY to the LOAD. Real Power is sometimes called
ACTIVE POWER.

REAL-TIME
Present time as opposed to future time. (From INTERCONNECTION RELIABILITY OPERATING
LIMITS standard.)

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REAL-TIME OPERATIONS
The instantaneous operations of a POWER SYSTEM as opposed to those operations that are
simulated.

RECEIVING BALANCING AUTHORITY

The BALANCING AUTHORITY importing the INTERCHANGE.

RECLOSING RELAY
A RELAY that automatically (after a few CYCLES or a few seconds) recloses a TRANSMISSION line
following a FAULT.

RECTIFIER
An HVDC CONVERTER operated to convert AC POWER to DC POWER.

REGION
One of the NERC REGIONAL RELIABILITY ORGANIZATIONS.

REGIONAL RELIABILITY ORGANIZATION (RRO)

1. An entity that ensures that a defined area of the BULK ELECTRIC SYSTEM is reliable, adequate
and secure. 2. A member of the North American Electric Reliability Council. The REGIONAL
RELIABILITY ORGANIZATION can serve as the COMPLIANCE MONITOR. NERC is divided into eight
REGIONAL RELIABILITY ORGANIZATIONS:

FRCC Florida Reliability Coordinating Council

MRO Midwest Reliability Organization
NPCC Northeast Power Coordinating Council
RFC Reliability First Corporation
SERC Southeastern Electric Reliability Council
SPP Southwest Power pool
TRE Texas Reliability Entity
WECC Western Electricity Coordinating Council

REGIONAL TRANSMISSION GROUP (RTG)

Voluntary organization of TRANSMISSION OWNERs, TRANSMISSION users, and other entities
interested in coordinating TRANSMISSION PLANNING and expansion and use on a REGIONAL and
interregional basis.

REGIONAL TRANSMISSION ORGANIZATION (RTO)

An organization that is independent from all GENERATION and POWER marketing interests and has
exclusive responsibility for electric TRANSMISSION GRID operations, short-term electric
RELIABILITY, and TRANSMISSION SERVICES within a multi-State REGION. To achieve those
objectives, the RTO manages TRANSMISSION facilities owned by different companies and
encompassing one, large, CONTIGUOUS geographic area.

REGULATING RESERVE
An amount of reserve responsive to AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL, which is sufficient to
provide normal regulating MARGIN.

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REGULATING TRANSFORMER
A TRANSFORMER used to regulate VOLTAGE or PHASE ANGLE. Conventional tap changing (ULTC)
TRANSFORMERS and PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMERS (PSTs) are regulating transformers.

REGULATING UNIT
A GENERATOR used for the REGULATION of SYSTEM FREQUENCY. To serve as a regulating unit the
GENERATOR must have available SPINNING RESERVE.

REGULATION
The ability to maintain a quantity within acceptable limits. For example, FREQUENCY
REGULATION is the control or regulation of the SYSTEM FREQUENCY to within a tight BANDWIDTH
of 60 HZ. VOLTAGE regulation is the control of a VOLTAGE level within a set BANDWIDTH.

REGULATION SERVICE
The process whereby one BALANCING AUTHORITY contracts to provide corrective response to all
or a portion of the ACE of another BALANCING AUTHORITY. The BALANCING AUTHORITY
providing the response assumes the obligation of meeting all applicable control criteria as
specified by NERC for itself and the BALANCING AUTHORITY for which it is providing the
Regulation Service.

RELATIVE ACCELERATION
For TORQUE and POWER ANGLEs to change, a relative acceleration must exist for a PERIOD of time.
One part of the SYSTEM must accelerate with respect to another part. Once relative acceleration
occurs, any speed difference that has developed will continue the increase or decrease in TORQUE
or POWER ANGLES. TORQUE and POWER ANGLES will not stop changing until all sections of the
SYSTEM are running at the same FREQUENCY.

RELAY
A electrical or mechanical device that responds to a measured input with a user determined output.
Types of RELAYS include AUXILIARY RELAYS, monitoring RELAYS, regulating RELAYS, and
PROTECTIVE RELAYS.

RELIABILITY
The degree of performance of the ELEMENTS of the BULK ELECTRIC SYSTEM that results in
electricity being delivered to customers within accepted standards and in the amount desired.
Reliability may be measured by the FREQUENCY, duration, and magnitude of adverse effects on the
electric supply.

RELIABILITY COORDINATOR (RC)

The entity that is the highest level of authority who is responsible for the reliable operation of the
BULK ELECTRIC SYSTEM, has the WIDE AREA view of the BULK ELECTRIC SYSTEM, and has the
operating tools, processes and procedures, including the authority to prevent or mitigate
EMERGENCY operating situations in both next-day analysis and REAL-TIME OPERATIONS. The
Reliability Coordinator has the purview that is broad enough to enable the calculation of
INTERCONNECTION RELIABILITY OPERATING LIMITS, which may be based on the operating
parameters of TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS beyond any TRANSMISSION OPERATOR’S vision.

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RELIABILITY COORDINATOR AREA

The collection of GENERATION, TRANSMISSION, and LOADS within the boundaries of the
RELIABILITY COORDINATOR. Its boundary coincides with one or more BALANCING AUTHORITIES.

RELIABILITY COORDINATOR INFORMATION SYSTEM (RCIS)

The system that RELIABILITY COORDINATORS use to post messages and share operating
information in real time.

REMEDIAL ACTION SCHEME (RAS)

See “SPECIAL PROTECTION SYSTEM”.

REMOTE TERMINAL UNIT (RTU)

An electronic device, installed in a SUBSTATION or GENERATOR, which acts as an INTERFACE
between a company’s EMS SYSTEM and the GENERATOR or SUBSTATION.

REPORTABLE DISTURBANCE
Any event that causes an ACE change greater than or equal to 80% of a BALANCING AUTHORITY’s
or RESERVE SHARING GROUP’s most severe CONTINGENCY. The definition of a reportable
disturbance is specified by each REGIONAL RELIABILITY ORGANIZATION. This definition may not
be retroactively adjusted in response to observed performance.

RERATING
A change in the capability of a GENERATOR due to a change in conditions such as age, upgrades,
auxiliary EQUIPMENT, cooling, etc.

RESERVE SHARING GROUP (RSG)

A group whose members consist of two or more BALANCING AUTHORITIES that collectively
maintain, allocate, and supply OPERATING RESERVEs required for each BALANCING AUTHORITY’s
use in recovering from contingencies within the group. Scheduling energy from an Adjacent
BALANCING AUTHORITY to aid recovery need not constitute reserve sharing provided the
transaction is ramped in over a PERIOD the supplying party could reasonably be expected to load
GENERATION in (e.g., ten minutes). If the transaction is ramped in quicker (e.g., between zero and
ten minutes) then, for the purposes of DISTURBANCE Control Performance, the Areas become a
Reserve Sharing Group.

RESISTANCE (R)
The property of a material that opposes or resists CURRENT flow by converting electric ENERGY to
heat. The symbol for resistance is the letter “R”.

RESISTIVITY
A measure of the ability of a material to conduct electricity. The greater the resistivity, the greater
the opposition to CURRENT flow. An INSULATOR has a high resistivity.

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RESONANCE
In an ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT, resonance is achieved when the magnitudes of the inductive and
capacitive ELEMENTS match. Resonance may be achieved by inputting ENERGY at the CIRCUIT’s
RESONANT FREQUENCY or by varying the size of the inductive or capacitive ELEMENTS. A radio
receiver is tuned to resonance at the channel the operator wants to receive.

RESONANT
To achieve RESONANCE.

RESONANT FREQUENCY (FR)

The FREQUENCY at which RESONANCE is achieved in an ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT. The formula for the
resonant frequency is:

1
FR =
2π LC

RESOURCE PLANNER
The entity that develops a long-term (generally one year and beyond) plan for the resource
ADEQUACY of specific LOADs (customer DEMAND and energy requirements) within a PLANNING
AUTHORITY Area.

RESOURCES
Resources is typically used to refer to available GENERATION. For example, LOAD must match
resources to maintain FREQUENCY.

RESPONSE RATE
The RAMP RATE that a generating unit can achieve under normal operating conditions expressed
in megawatts per minute (MW/Min.).

RESPONSIVE RESERVES
Reserve CAPACITY that is available to respond to SYSTEM FREQUENCY DISTURBANCES.

RESPONSIVE SPINNING RESERVE

That portion of SPINNING RESERVE available to respond to FREQUENCY DISTURBANCES as a result
of the GENERATOR’s normal governor action.

RESTORATION
The process of returning GENERATORs and TRANSMISSION SYSTEM ELEMENTS and restoring LOAD
FOLLOWING an OUTAGE on the electric SYSTEM.

RESTRIKE
The re-ignition of an electric ARC.

RFC
Acronym for the Reliability First Corporation. RFC is one of the eight NERC RROs.

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RIGHT-OF-WAY (ROW)
A corridor of land on which electric lines may be located. The TRANSMISSION OWNER may own
the land in fee, own an easement, or have certain franchise, prescription, or license rights to
construct and maintain lines.

RIGHT TRIANGLE
A triangle in which one of the three internal angles is equal to 90°.

ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS)

The effective value of an AC VOLTAGE or CURRENT. The RMS value of an AC quantity would
produce the same amount of heat in a DC resistive CIRCUIT. For example if an AC CIRCUIT has an
RMS CURRENT of 10 amps, then 10 amps of DC CURRENT would have the same heating effect.
Most AC meters read RMS values.

ROTATIONAL ENERGY
ENERGY stored within a rotating mass. For example, a spinning GENERATOR contains rotational
energy. The terms INERTIAL ENERGY, STORED ENERGY, and rotational energy are often used
interchangeably to refer to the ENERGY stored in the rotating ELEMENTS (motors and GENERATORS)
of the POWER SYSTEM.

ROTOR
The rotating component of a motor or GENERATOR.

RUNNER
The rotating ELEMENT of a hydro TURBINE.

SATURATION
After a MAGNETIC FIELD REACHes a certain strength, any further increase in the CURRENT that
caused the MAGNETIC FIELD will not result in any increase in the strength of the MAGNETIC FIELD.
The magnetic material is saturated at this point. When a TRANSFORMER becomes saturated, the
CORE’s MAGNETIC FIELD will expand and link portions of the TRANSFORMER not designed for
exposure to an alternating MAGNETIC FIELD. TRANSFORMER thermal problems may result.

SCENARIO
Possible event.

SCHEDULE (noun)
An INTERCHANGE schedule.

SCHEDULE (verb)
To set up a plan or arrangement for an INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION.

SCHEDULE PERIOD
The length of time between the NOMINAL starting and ending time of each SCHEDULE.

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SCHEDULED
The desired or TARGET value. For example, for a 345 kV BUS, the Scheduled value of VOLTAGE
may be 358 kV. SYSTEM OPERATORs would try to hold this BUS VOLTAGE at 358 kV.

SCHEDULED FREQUENCY
60.0 HERTZ, except during a time correction.

SCHEDULED INTERCHANGE
Electric POWER SCHEDULED to flow between entities, usually the net of all sales, purchases, and
WHEELING TRANSACTIONs between those areas at a given time.

SCHEDULED NET INTERCHANGE

The sum of the intended (SCHEDULED) MW flows on all of a BALANCING AUTHORITY’s TIE-LINES.

SCHEDULED TOTAL INTERCHANGE

The net of all INTERCHANGE SCHEDULES with all ADJACENT BALANCING AUTHORITIES. It is, in
essence, the SCHEDULED INTERCHANGE with the INTERCONNECTION.

SCHEDULING PATH
The TRANSMISSION SERVICE arrangements reserved by the PURCHASING-SELLING ENTITY for a
TRANSACTION.

SCROLL CASE
A spiral-shaped steel intake guiding the flow of water into the WICKET GATES located just prior to
the TURBINE of a hydro-electric FACILITY.

SCRUBBER
A pollution CONTROL SYSTEM used in fossil fuel units for removing sulfur from the exhaust gases.

SEAMS
The boundaries between adjacent electricity-related organizations. Differences in regulatory
requirements or operating practices may create “seams problems”.

SECONDARY WINDING
The winding of a TRANSFORMER that is connected to the POWER output or LOAD end of the
TRANSFORMER.

SECTIONALIZING
The process of reducing the LOAD on a DISTRIBUTION feeder using switching actions.

SELF-EXCITATION
A possible operating condition for a GENERATOR in which the CHARGING CURRENT from a high
VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM takes over as the excitation CURRENT SOURCE of the
GENERATOR. Self-excitation is a dangerous condition as high VOLTAGES can develop in the
GENERATOR and in the GENERATOR auxiliaries.

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SENDING BALANCING AUTHORITY

The BALANCING AUTHORITY exporting the INTERCHANGE.

SERC
Acronym for the Southeastern Electric Regional Reliability Council. SERC is one of the eight
NERC REGIONAL RELIABILITY ORGANIZATIONS.

SERIES CIRCUIT
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT in which ELEMENTS are connected end to end. The same CURRENT flows
through each ELEMENT of a series circuit.

SERIES RESONANCE
A RESONANCE condition in a CIRCUIT with a series combination of INDUCTANCE and
CAPACITANCE. At RESONANCE a SERIES CIRCUIT REACHes its minimum IMPEDANCE equal to the
CIRCUIT’s RESISTANCE value.

SERVOMOTOR
A device used to create a force based on a control signal input. For example, in a GOVERNOR
CONTROL SYSTEM a control signal is first developed using a control VALVE. The control signal is
input to a servomotor. The servomotor then drives steam VALVES, WICKET GATES, etc. The
servomotor may be an electric motor, an hydraulic piston, or any other means of developing a
force.

SHIELD WIRES
CONDUCTORS strung across the top of TRANSMISSION LINES that are designed to protect the
TRANSMISSION line from lightning strikes.

SHORT CIRCUIT
The introduction of a low IMPEDANCE path between CONDUCTORS energized at different
VOLTAGES. A short circuit is the same as a FAULT.

SHORT CIRCUIT RATIO (SCR)

The ratio between the SHORT CIRCUIT MVA of the local SYSTEM and the MVA RATING of a piece
of EQUIPMENT. For example, the SCR of a GENERATOR is equal to the MVA that would flow to a
3Φ FAULT applied at the GENERATOR’s high side BUS divided by the MVA RATING of the
GENERATOR. SCRs can also be calculated for HVDC SYSTEMs and other electrical devices.

SHUNT CAPACITOR BANK

Shunt capacitors are CAPACITORs connected from the POWER SYSTEM to an electrical GROUND.
They are used to supply KILOVARs (REACTIVE POWER) to the SYSTEM at the point where they are
connected. A shunt capacitor bank is a group of shunt capacitors.

SINE
The sine of either of the unknown angles of a RIGHT TRIANGLE is the ratio of the side directly
opposite the unknown angle to the HYPOTENUSE.

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SINEWAVE
A quantity that continually repeats itself. For example, AC VOLTAGE and CURRENT are sinewaves.
The wave shape for the COSINE function is the same as the SINE function but with a 90° PHASE
ANGLE difference.

SINGLE CONTINGENCY
The sudden, unexpected failure or OUTAGE of a SYSTEM FACILITY(ies) or ELEMENTS(s) (generating
unit, TRANSMISSION line, TRANSFORMER, etc.). ELEMENTS removed from service as part of the
operation of a REMEDIAL ACTION SCHEME are considered part of a single CONTINGENCY.

SINK
Final POINT OF DELIVERY for the TRANSACTION: the ACTUAL LOAD.

SINK BALANCING AUTHORITY

The BALANCING AUTHORITY in which the LOAD (SINK) is located for an INTERCHANGE
TRANSACTION. (This will also be a RECEIVING BALANCING AUTHORITY for the resulting
INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE.)

SIX-PULSE CONVERTER
An HVDC CONVERTER that has six pulses to the DC output VOLTAGE for each CYCLE of the AC
supply VOLTAGE.

SLIDING PRESSURE
A method of operation available in some thermal units. Normally a unit’s steam VALVES are
adjusted to control the amount of steam sent to the TURBINE stages. In a sliding pressure MODE of
operation, the steam VALVES are operated wide open to minimize VALVE throttling LOSSES. The
BOILER pressure is then varied to adjust the MW output of the unit.

SLIP
The difference between the SYNCHRONOUS SPEED of an induction motor and the speed at which its
ROTOR actually rotates.

SLIP-RINGS
Metal rings attached to the shaft of a SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE. The ROTOR’s FIELD WINDING
terminates on the inner surface of the slip-rings while the BRUSHes ride on the smooth outer
surface of the slip-rings.

SMOOTHING REACTOR
A series REACTOR attached to an HVDC TRANSMISSION line that smoothes the ripple of an HVDC
CONVERTER’s DC output VOLTAGE and assists with the POWER conversion process.

SOFTWARE
A series of instructions written to enable computer hardware to perform useful tasks.

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SOLAR MAGNETIC DISTURBANCE (SMD)

Solar (sun) induced DISTURBANCES to the earth’s MAGNETIC FIELD. SMDs may result in large low
FREQUENCY CURRENTS flowing in the earth’s surface. These CURRENTS (called GICs) may enter
the POWER SYSTEM and damage TRANSFORMERS. SMDs are also called GEOMAGNETIC
DISTURBANCES, or GMDs.

SOLENOID
An electro-magnet that, when energized, is used to perform a mechanical function such as opening
a switch.

SOLID-STATE RELAY
A RELAY that uses semiconductor components.

SOURCE
The INITIAL POINT OF RECEIPT for the TRANSACTION: the actual GENERATION FACILITY.

SOURCE BALANCING AUTHORITY

The BALANCING AUTHORITY in which the GENERATION (SOURCE) is located for an INTERCHANGE
TRANSACTION. (This will also be a SENDING BALANCING AUTHORITY for the resulting
INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE.)

SPECIAL PROTECTION SYSTEM (SPS)

An automatic protection system designed to detect abnormal or predetermined system conditions,
and take corrective actions other than and/or in addition to the isolation of faulted components to
maintain system RELIABILITY. Such action may include changes in DEMAND, GENERATION (MW
and Mvar), or SYSTEM configuration to maintain SYSTEM STABILITY, acceptable VOLTAGE, or
POWER flows. An SPS does not include (a) underfrequency or underVOLTAGE LOAD SHEDDING or
(b) FAULT conditions that must be ISOLATED or (c) OUT-OF-STEP relaying (not designed as an
integral part of an SPS). Also called REMEDIAL ACTION SCHEME (RAS).

SPINNING RESERVE
Unloaded GENERATION that is SYNCHRONIZEd and ready to serve additional DEMAND.

SPP
Acronym for the Southwest Power pool. SPP is one of the eight NERC REGIONAL RELIABILITY
ORGANIZATIONS.

STABILITY
The ability of an electric SYSTEM to maintain a state of equilibrium during normal and abnormal
SYSTEM conditions or DISTURBANCES.

STABILITY LIMIT
The maximum POWER flow possible through some particular point in the SYSTEM while
maintaining STABILITY in the entire SYSTEM or the part of the SYSTEM to which the stability limit
refers.

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STATE ESTIMATOR (SE)

Computer SOFTWARE that takes measurements of quantities related to a SYSTEM state as input and
provides an estimate of the complete SYSTEM state (as its output). The SE is used to confirm that
the monitored POWER SYSTEM is operating in a secure state by simulating the SYSTEM both at the
present time and one step ahead, for a particular network topology and loading condition. With
the use of an SE and its associated CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS SOFTWARE, SYSTEM OPERATORS can
review each critical CONTINGENCY to determine whether each possible future state is within
RELIABILITY limits.

STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR (SVC)

A combination of shunt REACTORs and shunt CAPACITORs that use THYRISTER based switches and
THYRISTER control to regulate the var output.

STATIC VAR SYSTEM (SVS)

A combination of an SVC and other REACTIVE POWER EQUIPMENT. A common CONTROL SYSTEM
controls both the SVC and the other reactive EQUIPMENT.

STATION
A location in an electrical network where one or more ELEMENTS are connected. Examples
include generating stations and SUBSTATIONS.

STATION SERVICE
The electric supply for the ancillary EQUIPMENT used to operate a generating STATION or
SUBSTATION.

STATION SERVICE GENERATOR

A GENERATOR (usually found in hydro plants) used to normally supply electric ENERGY for
STATION SERVICE EQUIPMENT.

STATOR
The stationary component of a motor or GENERATOR.

STEADY STATE STABILITY / INSTABILITY

An ANGLE STABILITY classification. The steady state STABILITY LIMIT of a POWER SYSTEM is the
maximum amount of ACTIVE POWER that can be transmitted across the SYSTEM without a LOSS OF
SYNCHRONISM occurring. No large DISTURBANCE need occur.

STORAGE
ENERGY transferred from one entity to another entity that has the ability to conserve the ENERGY
(that is, stored as water in a reservoir, coal in a pile, etc.) with the intent that the ENERGY will be
returned at a time when such ENERGY is more useable to the original supplying entity.

STORED ENERGY
ENERGY stored within a rotating mass. For example, a spinning GENERATOR contains stored
energy. The terms INERTIAL ENERGY, stored energy, and ROTATIONAL ENERGY are often used
interchangeably to refer to the ENERGY stored in the rotating ELEMENTS (motors and GENERATORs)
of the POWER SYSTEM.

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SUBREGION
A portion of a REGIONAL RELIABILITY ORGANIZATION.

SUBSTATION
An ELEMENT of the POWER SYSTEM that contains CIRCUIT BREAKERS, DISCONNECT SWITCHES,
TRANSFORMERS, REACTORS, CAPACITORS, and other EQUIPMENT. A central control house is often
provided to house control and protective EQUIPMENT.

SUBSYNCHRONOUS
A FREQUENCY below SYNCHRONOUS SPEED.

SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE (SSR)

An electric POWER SYSTEM condition where the electric network exchanges ENERGY with a
TURBINE/GENERATOR at one or more of the natural frequencies of the combined SYSTEM. The
FREQUENCY of the ENERGY EXCHANGE is below the SYNCHRONOUS FREQUENCY
(SUBSYNCHRONOUS) of the SYSTEM.

SUBTRANSMISSION
A functional or VOLTAGE classification relating to lines at VOLTAGE levels between the
DISTRIBUTION and TRANSMISSION levels.

SUNSPOTS
Large dark colored patches on the surface of the sun. Sunspots are a consequence of ENERGY
DISTURBANCES on the surface of the sun.

SUPERCRITICAL BOILER
A BOILER SYSTEM that is operated at a much higher temperature and pressure than a conventional
drum type BOILER. Supercritical BOILERs are also called “once through” type BOILERs. A
supercritical BOILER does not have any significant steam STORAGE, which affects its response to
governor commands.

SUPERSYNCHRONOUS
A FREQUENCY above SYNCHRONOUS SPEED.

SUPERVISORY CONTROL
A form of remote control comprising an arrangement for the selective control of remotely located
facilities by an electrical means over one or more communication media.

SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION (SCADA)

A system of remote control and TELEMETRY used to monitor and control the TRANSMISSION
SYSTEM.

SUPPLEMENTAL REGULATION SERVICE

A method of providing REGULATION SERVICE in which the BALANCING AUTHORITY providing the
REGULATION SERVICE receives a signal representing all or a portion of the other BALANCING
AUTHORITY’s ACE.

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SURGE
A TRANSIENT variation of CURRENT, VOLTAGE, or POWER flow in an electric CIRCUIT or across an
electric SYSTEM.

SURGE IMPEDANCE LOADING (SIL)

The MW loading on a TRANSMISSION line at which the line’s natural REACTIVE POWER production
equals its REACTIVE POWER usage.

SWITCHING ORDER
A sequence of steps to accomplish a desired switching action.

SWITCHING PROCESS
The process by which the status (open, closed, etc.) of POWER SYSTEM EQUIPMENT (switches,
CIRCUIT BREAKERS, etc.) is adjusted to perform maintenance or enhance operations.

SWITCHING STATION
POWER SYSTEM EQUIPMENT used to tie together two or more electric CIRCUITS through switches.
The switches are selectively arranged to permit a CIRCUIT to be disconnected, or to change the
electric connection between the CIRCUITS.

SWITCHING SURGE
The sudden changes to VOLTAGE and CURRENT waveforms that accompany TRANSMISSION
SYSTEM switching events.

SYNCH-CHECK RELAY (25)

A PROTECTIVE RELAY that will not allow a CIRCUIT BREAKER to be closed unless the FREQUENCY
difference, VOLTAGE magnitude difference, and VOLTAGE ANGLE across the open CIRCUIT
BREAKER are within acceptable limits.

SYNCHRONIZE
The process to bring two electrical SYSTEMS together by closing a CIRCUIT BREAKER.

SYNCHRONOUS
To be in-step with a reference. A synchronous GENERATOR rotates in synchronism with the
POWER SYSTEM.

SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER
A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE that operates as a SYNCHRONOUS motor. The MW to turn the
machine’s shaft is drawn from the POWER SYSTEM. The full capabilities of the machines
EXCITATION SYSTEM (to absorb and supply MVAR) are then available for VOLTAGE CONTROL
purposes. Hydroelectric GENERATORS can often be operated in synchronous condenser MODE.
The unit’s water TURBINE is typically de-watered and the unit’s ROTOR turned as if it were a
motor.

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SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
An AC machine whose ROTOR rotates in synchronism with the POWER SYSTEM to which it is
attached. Synchronous machines can be either GENERATORS or motors. A synchronous machine
also includes a SOURCE of DC excitation CURRENT (the EXCITATION SYSTEM).

SYNCHRONOUS SPEED
The speed at which a SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR must rotate in order to stay in synchronism with
the rotating MAGNETIC FIELD of the SYSTEM. The synchronous speed is determined by the
FREQUENCY of the POWER SYSTEM and the number of ROTOR magnetic POLES.

SYNCHROSCOPE
A device for comparing the FREQUENCY difference and VOLTAGE ANGLE across an open CIRCUIT
BREAKER.

SYSTEM
A combination of GENERATION, TRANSMISSION, and DISTRIBUTION components comprising an
ELECTRIC UTILITY, or group of utilities.

SYSTEM OPERATING LIMIT (SOL)

The value (such a MW, Mvar, AMPERES, FREQUENCY, or Volts) that satisfies the most limiting of
the prescribed OPERATING CRITERIA for a specified SYSTEM configuration to ensure operation
within acceptable RELIABILITY CRITERIA. System operating limits are based upon certain
OPERATING CRITERIA. These include, but are not limited to:
• FACILITY RATINGS (Applicable pre- and post-CONTINGENCY EQUIPMENT or FACILITY
RATINGS)
• TRANSIENT STABILITY LIMITs (Applicable pre- and post-CONTINGENCY STABILITY
LIMITs)
• VOLTAGE STABILITY LIMITs (Applicable pre- and post-CONTINGENCY VOLTAGE
STABILITY)
• SYSTEM VOLTAGE LIMITS (Applicable pre- and post-CONTINGENCY VOLTAGE LIMITS)

SYSTEM OPERATOR
An individual at a CONTROL CENTER (BALANCING AUTHORITY, TRANSMISSION OPERATOR,
GENERATOR OPERATOR, RELIABILITY COORDINATOR) whose responsibility it is to monitor and
control that electric system in real time.

SYSTEM PERSONNEL
Those people who have the capability to affect SYSTEM operations and who must abide by the
authority vested in the SYSTEM OPERATOR. May include POWER plant operators, SYSTEM
maintenance personnel, POWER schedulers, POWER MARKETERS, etc.

TAG
Refers to the collection of information in the electronic request for an ENERGY SCHEDULE and
subsequent responses utilized in the electronic Transaction Information System (TIS)
implemented by NERC.

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TAPS
Fixed electrical contacts at different positions on a TRANSFORMER’s winding. Taps are adjusted to
change the VOLTAGE RATIO of a TRANSFORMER.

TARGET
An indicator on a RELAY that is displayed when the RELAY operates. The term “flag” is often used
to refer to a target.

TELEMETERING
The process by which measurable electrical quantities from SUBSTATIONS and generating
STATIONs are instantaneously transmitted to the CONTROL CENTER, and by which operating
commands from the CONTROL CENTER are transmitted to the SUBSTATIONS and generating
STATIONs.

TELEMETRY
EQUIPMENT for measuring a quantity (amps, volts, MW, etc.) and transmitting the result via a
telecommunication SYSTEM (radio, microwave, etc.) to a remote location for indication or
recording.

TERTIARY WINDING
An additional winding added to a POWER TRANSFORMER. The tertiary winding may be used to
connect a REACTOR, CAPACITOR, or to provide STATION SERVICE.

THERMAL LIMIT
A POWER flow limit based on the possibility of damage by heat. Heating is caused by the
electrical LOSSES which are equal to I2R.

THERMAL RATING
The maximum amount of electrical CURRENT that a TRANSMISSION line or electrical FACILITY can
conduct over a specified time PERIOD before it sustains permanent damage by overheating or
before it sags to the point that it violates public safety requirements.

THETA (q)
A Greek symbol used to indicate an angular measurement.

THRUST BEARING
The bearing that opposes axial forces in the GENERATOR shaft.

THYRISTER
A solid state electronic component whose ability to conduct CURRENT is controlled via its
VOLTAGE polarity or a gate signal. Thyristers are also called silicon controlled RECTIFIERS (SCR).
Thyristers are combined in series/parallel arrangements to perform rapid switching actions.
Thyristers are used in modern STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS (SVC), adjustable speed drives (ASD),
and high VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT (HVDC) SYSTEMS.

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TIE FACILITY
The transmission facility interconnecting BALANCING AUTHORITY AREAS.

TIE-LINE
A TRANSMISSION LINE connecting two BALANCING AUTHORITY AREAs.

TIE-LINE BIAS (TLB)

A MODE of AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL that allows the BALANCING AUTHORITY to 1)
maintain its INTERCHANGE SCHEDULE; and 2) respond to INTERCONNECTION FREQUENCY ERROR.

TIE-LINE TELEMETRY
TELEMETRY EQUIPMENT used to measure POWER flow data on a TIE-LINE connecting BALANCING
AUTHORITIES. The POWER flow data is then transmitted to both BALANCING AUTHORITIES.

TIME ERROR
The difference between the INTERCONNECTION time measured at the BALANCING AUTHORITY(ies)
and the time specified by the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Time error is
caused by the accumulation of FREQUENCY ERROR over a given PERIOD.

TIME ERROR CORRECTION

An offset to the INTERCONNECTION’s SCHEDULED FREQUENCY to return the INTERCONNECTION’S
TIME ERROR to a predetermined value.

TORQUE
The torque is a force that produces a rotating or twisting action.

TORQUE ANGLE (δ)

The angle by which the rotating MAGNETIC FIELD of SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE leads or lags the
rotating MAGNETIC FIELD of the SYSTEM to which it connects. A GENERATOR has a positive torque
angle while a motor has a negative torque angle. The symbol for the torque angle is the letter “δ”
(Greek lower case letter delta).

TORQUE-SPEED CURVES
A graphical means of illustrating the relationship between the TORQUE developed by a motor and
the speed of rotation of the motor shaft.

TORSIONAL
A twisting force.

TOTAL ACTUAL INTERCHANGE

The algebraic sum of all INTERCHANGE metered with all PHYSICALLY ADJACENT BALANCING
AUTHORITIES. It is, in essence, the ACTUAL INTERCHANGE with the INTERCONNECTION.

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TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION (THD)

A computed value used to quantify the harmonic content of a waveform. The THD is a measure
of the percent of the harmonic components content as compared to the magnitude of the
fundamental component.

TOTAL LOAD
The summation of motor and NON-MOTOR LOAD.

TOTAL TRANSFER CAPABILITY (TTC)

The amount of electric POWER that can be moved or transferred reliably from one area to another
area of the interconnected TRANSMISSION systems by way of all TRANSMISSION LINES (or paths)
between those areas under specified system conditions.

TRANSACTION
Sale of bulk POWER via the TRANSMISSION GRID.

TRANSACTION PARTICIPATION FACTOR (TPF)

Expressed in per unit, the change in POWER flow through an area of the POWER SYSTEM due to a
change in the POWER transfer between a specified SOURCE and a specified SINK, used for loss
calculations.
TPF = (Change in through flow) / (Change in POWER transfer)
The change in POWER flow through an area is defined as one-half of the sum of the changes in
flow (absolute values) of each TIE-LINE connected to the area.

TRANSFER CAPABILITY
The measure of the ability of interconnected electric SYSTEMS to move or transfer POWER in a
reliable manner from one area to another over all TRANSMISSION LINES (or paths) between those
areas under specified SYSTEM conditions. The units of transfer capability are in terms of electric
POWER, generally expressed in megawatts (MW). In this context, “area” may be an individual
electric SYSTEM, POWER POOL, BALANCING AUTHORITY, SUBREGION, or NERC REGION, or a
portion of any of these. Transfer capability is directional in nature. That is, the transfer capability
from “Area A” to “Area B” is not generally equal to the transfer capability from “Area B” to
“Area A”.

TRANSFER DISTRIBUTION FACTOR (TDF)

The portion of an INTERCHANGE TRANSACTION, expressed in percent that FLOWS across a
TRANSMISSION FACILITY (FLOWGATE).

TRANSFER LIMIT
The maximum amount of POWER that can be transferred in a reliable manner from one area to
another over all TRANSMISSION LINES (or paths) between those areas under specified SYSTEM
conditions.

TRANSFORMER
A device that operates on magnetic principles to increase (step up) or decrease (step down)
VOLTAGE.

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TRANSIENT
A short term phenomena.

TRANSIENT STABILITY
The ability of an electric SYSTEM to maintain synchronism between its parts when subjected to a
DISTURBANCE and to regain a state of equilibrium following that DISTURBANCE.

TRANSMISSION
An interconnected group of lines and associated EQUIPMENT for the movement or transfer of
electric ENERGY between points of supply and points at which it is transformed for delivery to
customers or is delivered to other electric SYSTEMS.

TRANSMISSION CONSTRAINT
A limitation on one or more TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS that may be reached during normal or
CONTINGENCY SYSTEM operations.

TRANSMISSION LINE
A system of structures, wires, insulators and associated hardware that carry electric energy from
one point to another in an electric power system. Lines are operated at relatively high voltages
varying from 69 kV up to 765 kV, and are capable of transmitting large quantities of electricity
over long distances.

TRANSMISSION LOADING RELIEF (TLR)

A procedure used to manage CONGESTION on the electric TRANSMISSION SYSTEM.

TRANSMISSION OPERATOR
The entity responsible for the RELIABILITY of its “local” TRANSMISSION SYSTEM, and that operates
or directs the operations of the TRANSMISSION FACILITIES.

TRANSMISSION OWNER
The entity that owns and maintains TRANSMISSION FACILITIES.

TRANSMISSION OVERLOAD
A state where a TRANSMISSION line has exceeded either a normal or EMERGENCY RATING of the
electric CONDUCTOR.

TRANSMISSION PLANNER
The entity that develops a long-term (generally one year and beyond) plan for the RELIABILITY
(ADEQUACY) of the interconnected BULK ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS within its portion of
the PLANNING AUTHORITY AREA.

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TRANSMISSION RELIABILITY MARGIN (TRM)

The amount of TRANSMISSION TRANSFER CAPABILITY necessary to provide reasonable assurance
that the interconnected TRANSMISSION network will be secure. TRM accounts for the inherent
uncertainty in SYSTEM conditions and the need for operating flexibility to ensure reliable SYSTEM
operation as SYSTEM conditions change.

TRANSMISSION SERVICE
Services provided to the TRANSMISSION CUSTOMER by the TRANSMISSION SERVICE PROVIDER to
move ENERGY from a POINT OF RECEIPT to a POINT OF DELIVERY.

TRANSMISSION SERVICE PROVIDER (TSP)

The entity that administers the TRANSMISSION tariff and provides TRANSMISSION SERVICE to
TRANSMISSION CUSTOMERS under applicable TRANSMISSION SERVICE AGREEMENTs.

TRAVELING WAVE
ENERGY can be viewed as a wave traveling through space. When a DISTURBANCE occurs in the
POWER SYSTEM the DISTURBANCE can be viewed as a wavefront of CURRENT and VOLTAGE
propagating out from the DISTURBANCE point. A FREQUENCY DISTURBANCE can also be viewed in
terms of a FREQUENCY DEVIATION propagating out from the DISTURBANCE point in the shape of a
wave.

TRE
Acronym for the Texas Reliability Entity. TRE is one of the eight Regional Reliability
Organizations.

TRIP
The opening of a CIRCUIT BREAKER or breakers on an electric SYSTEM, normally to electrically
isolate a particular ELEMENT of the SYSTEM to prevent it from being damaged by FAULT CURRENT
or other potentially damaging conditions.

TRIGONOMETRY
A branch of mathematics that deals with the relationships between the lengths of sides and the
angles between the sides of triangles.

TRIPLEN HARMONICS
The odd harmonic orders which are evenly divisible by the number three. For example, the 3rd,
9th, 15th, etc. are Triplen Harmonics.

TURBINE
A rotating mechanical device. A turbine is rotated by the force of a working fluid. The working
fluid is typically steam, water, or combustion gas.

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TURBINE FOLLOW
A MODE of operation of a fossil unit’s TURBINE/BOILER CONTROL SYSTEM in which the unit’s
response to a LOAD (MW) change request is delayed if the BOILER’s temperature and/or pressure
moves outside set boundaries. The MW response of the unit’s TURBINE “follows” the response of
the BOILER.

TURNING GEAR
A method of rotating the shaft of a horizontally mounted TURBINE/GENERATOR. The turning gear
may rotate the shaft at 2 RPM to prevent shaft warpage.

TURNS RATIO
The ratio of the number of turns in the PRIMARY WINDING of a TRANSFORMER to the number of
turns in the SECONDARY WINDING.

TWELVE PULSE CONVERTER

An HVDC CONVERTER that has twelve pulses to the DC output VOLTAGE for each CYCLE of the
AC supply VOLTAGE.

UNBUNDLING
Separating ELECTRIC UTILITY service into its basic components and offering each component
separately for sale with separate rates for each component.

UNDER LOAD TAP CHANGER (ULTC)

A tap changer that is designed to change the TURNS RATIO when the TRANSFORMER has CURRENT
flow across its windings. The term load tap changer (LTC) is also used to refer to this type tap
changer.

UNDEREXCITE
A GENERATOR is underexcited when the applied excitation is less than that needed to support the
GENERATOR’s MAGNETIC FIELD. The deficiency in the REACTIVE POWER needs of the GENERATOR
is supplied by the SYSTEM. An underexcited GENERATOR absorbs REACTIVE POWER from the
SYSTEM. The terms “LEADING” and “bucking” are also used to refer to an underexcited
GENERATOR.

UNDERFREQUENCY LOAD SHEDDING (UFLS)

The tripping of customer LOAD based on magnitudes of SYSTEM FREQUENCY. For example, a
utility may dump 5% of their connected LOAD if FREQUENCY falls below 59.3 HZ, dump an
additional 10% if FREQUENCY falls below 58.9 HZ, and dump a final 10% if FREQUENCY falls
below 58.5 HZ. These three steps of LOAD SHEDDING would form this utilities UFLS plan. The
purpose of UFLS is a final effort to arrest a FREQUENCY decline.

UNDERVOLTAGE LOAD SHEDDING (UVLS)

The tripping of customer LOAD based on magnitudes of SYSTEM VOLTAGE. For example, a utility
may dump 5% of their connected LOAD if VOLTAGE falls below 92% of NOMINAL and an
additional 10% of their LOAD if VOLTAGE falls below 90% of NOMINAL. These two steps of LOAD
SHEDDING would form this utilities UVLS plan. The purpose of UVLS is typically to avoid a
VOLTAGE COLLAPSE.

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UNILATERAL PAYBACK
INADVERTENT INTERCHANGE accumulations paid back unilaterally controlling to a target of non-
zero ACE. Controlling to a non-zero ACE ensures that the unilateral payback is accounted for in
the CPS calculations. The unilateral payback control offset is limited to BALANCING
AUTHORITY’S L10 limit and shall not burden the INTERCONNECTION.

UNIT COMMITMENT
The process of selecting which generating units will be placed on line to serve the LOAD and
reserve requirements.

UNIVERSAL COORDINATED TIME (UTC)

Time standard used by the Electronic Tagging System for communication purposes; also referred
to as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).

UNSCHEDULED POWER FLOW

POWER does not flow where it is SCHEDULED but rather according to the relative IMPEDANCE of
the available paths. When POWER is SCHEDULED to flow from SYSTEM “A” to SYSTEM “B” some
of the POWER may flow through an adjoining SYSTEM “C”. The POWER that flows through
SYSTEM “C” is called unscheduled POWER flow. Also called PARALLEL PATH FLOW or LOOP
FLOW.

VALVE
General name given to a mercury-ARC or THYRISTER based device that is used to conduct
CURRENT when a control signal is applied. A valve is turned on by a gate or GRID pulse. When
turned on a valve conducts CURRENT. When turned off a valve blocks the flow of CURRENT. A
valve is turned off by removing the forward biased VOLTAGE and stopping the CURRENT flow.
POWER CONVERTERS are composed of several valves connected in different arrangements
depending on the converter design.

VECTORS
Line segments that are used to represent the magnitude and direction of physical quantities. DC
VOLTAGES and CURRENTS can be represented by vectors.

VEGETATION
All plant material, growing or not, living or dead.

VISCOSITY
A property of a fluid that tends to prevent the fluid from flowing when subjected to an applied
force. High-viscosity fluids resist flow; low-viscosity fluids flow easily.

VOLTAGE (V)
The electrical force (a separation of CHARGE) that causes CURRENT to flow. Symbol is “V” and
units are volts.

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VOLTAGE ANGLE
The PHASE ANGLE between two VOLTAGES. The VOLTAGE angle is the same as the POWER ANGLE.
(In a GENERATOR the VOLTAGE angle between the internal GENERATOR VOLTAGE and the STATOR
terminal VOLTAGE is the equivalent of the TORQUE ANGLE.)

VOLTAGE COLLAPSE
A process in which a VOLTAGE unstable SYSTEM experiences an uncontrollable reduction in
SYSTEM VOLTAGE.

VOLTAGE CONTROL
The control of TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE through adjustments in GENERATOR reactive output and
TRANSFORMER TAPS, and by switching CAPACITORs and inductors on the TRANSMISSION and
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.

VOLTAGE LIMITS
A hard limit above or below which is an undesirable operating condition. Normal limits are
between 95 and 105 percent of the NOMINAL VOLTAGE at the BUS under discussion.

VOLTAGE RATIO
The ratio between the primary and secondary VOLTAGES of a TRANSFORMER. There is a strong
(but not identical) relationship between a TRANSFORMER’s voltage ratio and its TURNS RATIO.

VOLTAGE REDUCTION
A procedure designed to deliberately lower the VOLTAGE at a BUS. It is often used as a means to
reduce DEMAND by lowering the customer’s VOLTAGE.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR
A component of an EXCITATION SYSTEM. The voltage regulator monitors the GENERATOR’s output
VOLTAGE and causes an adjustment in excitation CURRENT when required. Voltage regulators can
be operated in either a manual or automatic MODE.

VOLTAGE RELAY (27 AND 59)

A PROTECTIVE RELAY that activates in response to either a high (59) or low (27) VOLTAGE.

VOLTAGE SOURCE
A device capable of producing a VOLTAGE. GENERATORS and batteries are voltage sources.

VOLTAGE STABILITY
The ability of a POWER SYSTEM to maintain VOLTAGE so that when the SYSTEM NOMINAL LOAD is
increased the actual POWER transferred to that LOAD will increase. In a VOLTAGE stable POWER
SYSTEM the POWER transfer and the SYSTEM VOLTAGES are controllable by the SYSTEM
OPERATORS.

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V-Q CURVE
A VOLTAGE versus REACTIVE POWER curve. A plot of the VOLTAGE at a BUS versus the REACTIVE
POWER injected into that BUS. V-Q curves are a graphical tool used to analyze a POWER SYSTEM’s
VOLTAGE STABILITY.

WATTHOUR (Wh)
A unit of measure of ELECTRICAL ENERGY equal to 1 watt of POWER supplied to, or taken from, an
electric CIRCUIT steadily for 1 hour.

WECC
Acronym for the Western Electricity Coordinating Council. WECC is one of the eight NERC
REGIONAL RELIABILITY ORGANIZATIONS.

WHEELING
TRANSMISSION line usage which a TRANSMISSION line owner agrees to provide to permit the
transfer of CAPACITY and ENERGY by another party.

WHEELING CHARGES
Payments required for providing WHEELING services.

WICKET GATE
Adjustable ELEMENTs that control the flow of water to the TURBINE of a hydro-electric FACILITY.

WIDE AREA
The entire RELIABILITY COORDINATOR AREA as well as the critical flow and status information
from adjacent RELIABILITY COORDINATOR AREAS as determined by detailed SYSTEM studies to
allow the calculation of Interconnected RELIABILITY OPERATING LIMITS.

WYE CONNECTION
A 3Φ electrical connection in which one end of each of the three PHASES is connected to a
common point. The common point is often GROUNDED. TRANSFORMER windings are often
connected in a Wye configuration.

ZONES OF PROTECTION
The zone or area within which a PROTECTIVE RELAY can sense abnormal conditions.

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYM EXPANSION

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 Abbreviations and Acronym Expansion

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYM

EXPANSION

Acronym Expansion
A Symbol for Ampere
ABA Adjacent Balancing Authority
AC Alternating Current
ACB Air Circuit Breaker
ACE Area Control Error
ACSR Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced
AFC Available Flowgate Capability
AGC Automatic Generation Control
AIE Area Interchange Error
ANSI American National Standards Institute
AS Ancillary Services
ASD Adjustable Speed Drive
ATC Available Transfer Capability
ATF After the Fact
AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator
B Symbol for frequency Bias
β Symbol for frequency response characteristic
BA Balancing Authority
BAL Balancing
BES Bulk Electric System
BPD Bushing Potential Device
BSU Black-Start Unit

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Abbreviations and Acronym Expansion

Acronym Expansion
BTU British Thermal Unit

C Symbol for Capacitance

CA Contingency Analysis

CB Circuit Breaker

CBM Capacity Benefit Margin

CCPD Capacitively Coupled Potential Device

CCVT Capacitively Coupled Voltage Transformer

CF Compliance Factor

CFC Constant Frequency Control

CNI Constant Net Interchange

COM Communications

COU Commonly Owned Unit

CPC Control Performance Criteria

CPS Control Performance Standard

CPS1 Control Performance Standard 1

CPS2 Control Performance Standard 2

CS Circuit Switcher

CT Combustion Turbine

CT Current Transformer

CVT Capacitive Voltage Transformer

DC Direct Current

DCB Directional Comparison Blocking

DCLM Direct Control Load Management

DCS Disturbance Control Standard

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 Abbreviations and Acronym Expansion

Acronym Expansion
DCU Directional Comparison Unblocking

DF Distribution Factor

DME Disturbance Monitoring Equipment

DOE Department of Energy

DSM Demand-Side Management

DUTT Direct Under-reaching Transfer Trip

ε1 Symbol used in CPS1 for the one-minute average

acceptable frequency error

ε10 Symbol used in CPS2 for the ten-minute average

acceptable frequency error

EA Emergency Assistance

ED Economic Dispatch

EEA Energy Emergency Alert

EHC Electro-Hydraulic Control

EHV Extra High Voltage

EM Electromechanical

EMF Electro-Magnetic Field

EMF Electro-Motive Force

EMS Energy Management System

EOP Emergency Operation & Preparedness

EPRI Electric Power Research Institute

ERCOT Electric Reliability Council of Texas

ERO Electric Reliability Organization

ESP Earth Surface Potential

F Symbol for Farad

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Abbreviations and Acronym Expansion

Acronym Expansion
F Symbol for Frequency

FA Frequency Actual

FAC Facilities

FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

FR Frequency Resonance

FRC Frequency Response Characteristic

FRCC Florida Reliability Coordinating Council

FS Frequency Scheduled

FTR Firm Transmission Rights

G Symbol for Giga or 109

GCB Gas Circuit Breaker

GIC Geomagnetic Induced Currents

GLDF Generator-to-Load Distribution Factor

GMD Geo-Magnetic Disturbance

GO Generation Owner

GOP Generation Operator

GSF Generation Shift Factor

GSU Generator Step-Up

GW Giga Watt

GWh Giga Watt hour

H Symbol for Henry

HBA Host Balancing Authority

HDF Harmonic Distortion Frequency

HDV Harmonic Distortion Voltage

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 Abbreviations and Acronym Expansion

Acronym Expansion
HIR High Initial Response

HP High Pass

HP High Pressure

HS High Side

HV High Voltage

HVDC High Voltage Direct Current

HZ Hertz

I Symbol for current

IA Interchange Authority

IDC Interchange Distribution Calculator

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IME Interchange Metering Error

INT Interchange

IOS Interconnected Operations Services

IOU Investor Owned Utilities

IP Intermediate Pressure

IPP Independent Power Producer

IR Inertia Ratio

IRO Interconnection Reliability Operations

IROL Interconnection Reliability Operating Limit

IROL TV Interconnection Reliability Operating Limit TV

IS Interchange Schedule

ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network

ISN Interregional Security Network

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Abbreviations and Acronym Expansion

Acronym Expansion
ISO Independent System Operator

IT Interchange Transaction

IT Instrument Transformer

ITC International Transmission Company

ITS Interchange Transaction Scheduler

JOU Jointly Owned Unit

k Symbol for kilo or 103

kV kilo Volt

kVar kilo Volt Amperes reactive

kW kilo Watt

kWh kilo Watt hours

L Symbol for inductance

LDC Load Drop Compensation

LED Light Emitting Diode

LF Load Forecast

LLR Local line Loading Relief

LOF Loss Of Field

LP Low Pressure

LS Low Side

LSE Load Serving Entity

LSF Load Shift Factor

LTC Load Tap Changer

LV Low Voltage

M Symbol for Mega or 106

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 Abbreviations and Acronym Expansion

Acronym Expansion
MAV Mercury Arc Valve

MCP Market Clearing Price

MEL Minimum Excitation Limiter

MHO Ohm spelled backwards (type of distance relay)

MMI Man-Machine Interface

MOD Modeling

MOD Motor Operated Disconnect

MRO Midwest Reliability Organization

MSC Mechanically Switched Capacitor

MVA Mega Volt Ampere

Mvar Mega volt ampere reactive

MW Mega Watt

MWh Mega Watt hour

N-1 Normal – one

NAESB North American Energy Standards Board

NERC North american Electric Reliability Corporation

NESC National Electricity Safety Code

NIA Net Interchange Actual

NIS Net interchange Scheduled

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology

NLTC No-Load Tap Changer

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOPR Notice of Proposed Rule Making

NPCC Northeast Power Coordinating Council

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Abbreviations and Acronym Expansion

Acronym Expansion
NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission

NRCan Natural Resources Canada

NUG Non-Utility Generator

OASIS Open Access Same time Information Service

OATT Open Access Transmission Tariff

OLTC Off Load Tap Changer

OOS Out Of Step

OPF Optimal Power Flow

OSL Operating Security Limit

OTDF Outage Transfer Distribution Factor

P Symbol for Active Power (MW)

P.U. Per-unit

PA Planning Authority

PAR Phase Angle Regulator

PF Power Factor

PLC Power Line Carrier

PLC Programmable Logic Controller

PMG Permanent Magnet Generator

POD Point Of Delivery

POR Point Of Receipt

POTT Permissive Over-reaching Transfer Trip

PRC Protection and Control

PS Personnel Subcommittee

PSE Purchasing Selling Entity

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 Abbreviations and Acronym Expansion

Acronym Expansion
PSI Pounds per Square Inch

PSIG Pounds per Square Inch Gauge

PSS Power System Stabilizer

PST Phase Shifting Transformer

PT Potential Transformer

PTDF Power Transfer Distribution Factor

PTP Point to Point Transmission Service

PUC Public Utility Commission

PUTT Permissive Under-reaching Transfer Trip

PX Power Exchange

P-V Power versus Voltage

Q Quality

Q Symbol for Mvar

R Symbol for Resistance

RAS Remedial Action Scheme

RC Reliability Coordinator

RCIS Reliability Coordinator Information System

RF Reactive Factor

RFC Reliability First Corporation

RFI Request for Interchange

RMS Root Mean Square

ROW Right-of-Way

RP Resource Planner

RPM Revolutions Per Minute

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Abbreviations and Acronym Expansion

Acronym Expansion
RRO Regional Reliability Organization

RSG Reserve Sharing Group

RTE Regional Transmission Entity

RTG Regional Transmission Group

RTO Regional Transmission Organization

RTU Remote Terminal Unit

S Symbol for MVA

SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition

SCR Short Circuit Ratio

SCR Silicon Controlled Rectifier

SE State Estimator

SERC Southeastern Electric Reliability Council

SESC Space Environmental Service Center

SF6 Symbol for Sulfur hexa-Fluoride gas

SIL Surge Impedance Loading

SMD Solar Magnetic Disturbance

SMD Standard Market Design

SMS Single Most Severe

SO SystemOperator

SOL System Operating Limit

SPP Southwest Power Pool

SPS Special Protection System

SSR Sub-Synchronous Resonance

SVC Static Var Compensator

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 Abbreviations and Acronym Expansion

Acronym Expansion
SVS Static Var System

T&D Transmission and Distribution

TCF Total Capacity of Facilities

TCR Thyrister Controlled Reactor

TDF Transmission Distribution Factor

THD Total Harmonic Distortion

TLB Tie-Line frequency Bias

TLR Transmission line Loading Relief

TO Transmission Owner

TOP Transmission Operator

TOU Time of Use

TOV Transient Over-Voltage

TP Transmission Planner

TSP Transmission Service Provider

TPL Transmission Planning

TRM Transmission Reliability Margin

TSA Transient Stability Analysis

TSC Thyrister Switched Capacitor

TTC Total Transfer Capability

UC Unit Commitment

UF Under Frequency

UFLS Under-Frequency Load Shedding

UHV Ultra High Voltage

ULTC Under Load Tap Changing

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Abbreviations and Acronym Expansion

Acronym Expansion
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply

URAL Under-excited Reactive Ampere Limit

UTC Universal Coordinate Time

UVLS Under-Voltage Load Shedding

V Symbol for Volt

VA Volt-Ampere

VAR Voltage & Reactive

V-Q Voltage versus Q (for reactive power studies)

VT Voltage Transformer

W Symbol for Watt

WACS Wide Area Stability and Voltage Control System

WAMS Wide Area Monitoring System

WECC Western Electricity Coordinating Council

WEQBPS Wholesale Electric Quadrant Business Practice Standard

XC Transmission line capacitive reactance

XL Transmission line inductive reactance

YTD Year To Date

Z Symbol for impedance

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REVIEW QUESTIONS ANSWER KEY

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 Review Questions Answer Key

REVIEW QUESTIONS ANSWER KEY

Chapter 2: Fundamentals Review

1. If a generator is producing 500 MW and 200 Mvar, is the generator?

A. Leading
B. Lagging
C. Underexcited
D. Dropping

2. What is the IEEE device number for a differential relay?

A. 87
B. 86
C. 67
D. 50

3. Can a synchronous machine have a negative torque angle? What does

this mean?

A. Yes / the machine is absorbing reactive power

B. No / the machine is absorbing active power
C. No / the machine is absorbing reactive power
D. Yes / the machine is absorbing active power

4. A customer load is fed at 120 volts. The customer voltage is doubled

while the load magnitude stays the same. What effect does this have on
the power losses?

A. Doubles the losses

B. Halves the losses
C. Increases the losses by a factor of four
D. Decreases the losses by a factor of four

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Review Questions Answer Key

5. In a DC circuit, a 100 volt battery is connected to both sides of a 2 ohm

resistor. What is the current through the resistor and the power usage of
the resistor?

A. 50 amps / 5000 watts

B. 40 amps / 80 watts
C. 50 amps / 100 watts
D. 40 amps / 3200 watts

6. The actual voltage is 362 kV on a 345 kV bus. What is the p.u. voltage?

A. 1.0
B. 1.05
C. 1.5
D. .95

7. A load has a power factor of 0.9 lagging. If the load draws 100 MVA,
what is the MW draw?

A. 100
B. 90
C. 111
D. 44

8. Which of the following is NOT a synchronizing variable?

A. Phase angle
B. Frequency difference
C. Voltage magnitude difference
D. MW flow differential

9. In a typical multi-stage steam turbine, the governor control valves control

the steam entry to the:

A. high pressure turbine

B. intermediate pressure turbine
C. low pressure turbine
D. crossover

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 Review Questions Answer Key

10. The high side of a delta-wye connected transformer is connected to a

power system with 199 kV L-G high side voltage. What is the voltage
across the winding of the delta transformer?

A. 199 kV
B. 230 kV
C. 345 kV
D. 500 kV

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Review Questions Answer Key

Chapter 3: Active and Reactive Power

1. Thermal limits are the direct result of?

A. High torque and power angles

B. The thermal capability of system equipment
C. A reactive power deficiency
D. All of the above

2. Reactive power flow is influenced more by system power and torque

angles than reactive power.

A. True
B. False

3. At what line power angle does the MW transfer across a transmission path
equal ½ of the path’s PMAX?

A. 15 degrees
B. 20 degrees
C. 30 degrees
D. 45 degrees

4. A transmission line is rated at 1000 MVA. The power flow is currently 0

MW and 1001 Mvar. Is the transmission line overloaded?

A. Yes
B. No
C. Impossible to determine
D. The line has no load

5. The TTC limit has been determine to be 1000 MW from east to west for a
particular transmission path. The transmission path operator sells 500
MW of this TTC. What is the path’s ATC?

A. 1000 MW
B. 1500 MW
C. 0 MW
D. 500 MW

6. A distribution line is rated at 50 MVA. The line’s power flow is currently

50 MW and -50 Mvar. This distribution line is overloaded.

A. True
B. False

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 Review Questions Answer Key

7. Angle stability limits are the result of?

A. High torque and power angles

B. The thermal capability of system equipment
C. A reactive power deficiency
D. All of the above

8. If the resistance is ignored, the maximum theoretical MW flow across a

transmission line will occur at a power angle of:

A. 0 degrees
B. 45 degrees
C. 90 degrees
D. 180 degrees

9. If the resistance is ignored, the maximum theoretical Mvar flow across a

transmission line will occur at a power angle of:

A. 0 degrees
B. 45 degrees
C. 90 degrees
D. 180 degrees

10. 200 MW is scheduled to flow from Bus “X” to Bus “Y”. Transmission
line “A-B” has a 10% distribution factor for this schedule. How much of
the 200 MW schedule will flow on transmission line “A-B”?

A. 20 MW
B. 40 MW
C. 180 MW
D. 200 MW

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Review Questions Answer Key

Chapter 4: Frequency Control

1. According to the load/frequency relationship, a 1% change in frequency
will lead to what approximate magnitude of load change in a typical
10,000 MW system?

A. 500 MW
B. 1000 MW
C. 200 MW
D. 50 MW

2. A governor with a 0% droop is called:

A. Flat frequency control

B. Transient droop
C. A blocked governor
D. An isochronous governor

3. Steam turbine generators typically have better governor response than

hydro-electric generating units.

A. True
B. False

4. A Balancing Authority’s frequency bias setting is equal to:

A. The control area’s frequency response characteristic (FRC)

B. The natural response of the control area
C. The AGC system’s bias value
D. All of the above

5. All of the following are modes of AGC EXCEPT:

A. Flat tie-line control

B. Isochronous control
C. Flat frequency control
D. Tie-line bias control

6. In which stage of a generator’s response to a system disturbance is the

power flow supported primarily by the generator’s excitation system?

A. Governor response stage

B. AGC stage
C. Electromagnetic energy stage
D. Inertial stage

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7. If system frequency were to run at 60.02 HZ for two consecutive hours,

how much positive time error would occur?

A. 2.0 seconds
B. 2.4 seconds
C. 1.0 second
D. 1.2 seconds

8. A Balancing Authority has a bias of -150 MW. Frequency falls 0.05 HZ

due to an external disturbance. How many MW would you expect this
Balancing Authority to provide to the disturbance?

A. -75
B. +75
C. -150
D. +150

9. An isochronous governor has a droop setting of:

A. 5%
B. 0%
C. 10%
D. 8%

10. What element of the power system is typically most susceptible to damage
from prolonged operation at frequencies above or below 60 HZ?

A. Transformers greater than 300 MVA

B. Low pressure turbine stage blades
C. Synchronous motors
D. Induction motors

11. Hydro-electric generators typically exhibit better governor response than

thermal generators because:

A. Hydro-electric generators typically have more stored energy

B. Thermal generators typically do not carry spinning reserve
C. Water is a better conductor than steam
D. Hydro-electric generators utilize microprocessor based governors
while thermal units utilize mechanical governors

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Review Questions Answer Key

12. A generator with a 6% droop governor is connected to a 60 HZ power

system. Initially the generator is at 100% load. Frequency then falls 0.9
HZ. What is the generator’s new % output?

A. 75%
B. 100%
C. 0%
D. 25%

13. What magnitude of frequency change would cause a 10% droop governor
to move its generator from zero to full output in a 60 HZ system?

A. 6 HZ
B. 10 HZ
C. 3 HZ
D. 5 HZ

14. Which component of the CPS is intended to limit the magnitude of

unscheduled power flows?

A. DCS 1
B. DCS 2
C. CPS1
D. CPS2

15. What is the upper limit to the CPS1 magnitude?

A. 50%
B. 100%
C. 200%
D. No limit

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Chapter 5: Voltage Control

1. What is the Mvar production of a 50 Mvar shunt capacitor that is
energized at 90% of its nominal voltage?

A. 40.5
B. 45
C. 55.6
D. 61.7

2. A 5% change in voltage will typically lead to what change in the total load
magnitude?

A. 2%
B. 3%
C. 5%
D. 10%

3. A transformer can be overexcited if exposed to:

A. High voltage
B. Low frequency
C. High voltage and low frequency
D. All of the above

4. What is the approximate Mvar/Mile production for a 345 kV overhead

line?

A. 1/3
B. 3/4
C. 2.0
D. 5.0

5. A 345 kV transmission line operates at various voltage levels throughout

the day. At which voltage level will the transmission line produce more
reactive power?

A. 345 kV
B. 340 kV
C. 350 kV
D. 360 kV

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6. A transmission line has 50 ohms of inductive reactance. 25 ohms of series

capacitors are inserted in the line. What is the line’s % series
compensation?

A. 25%
B. 40%
C. 50%
D. 80%

7. A transmission line’s __________ is the MW loading at which the Mvar

from the line’s natural capacitance is equal to the Mvar the line needs to
support its voltage.

A. surge impedance loading

B. angle stability limit
C. voltage stability limit
D. thermal limit

8. What is the approximate Mvar/Mile production for a 500 kV overhead

line?

A. 1/3
B. 3/4
C. 2.0
D. 5.0

9. Given a purely inductive load, what can be said about the MVA this load
draws from the power system?

A. The load draws only MW

B. The load draws only Mvar
C. The load magnitude cannot exceed 100 MVA
D. The load magnitude cannot exceed 1000 MVA

10. A generator with spare Mvar is always a source of dynamic reactive

reserve.

A. True
B. False

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Chapter 6: Voltage Stability

1. The nominal load is:

A. Equal to the rated load

B. Dependent on the actual voltage and frequency
C. Dependent on the scheduled voltage and frequency
D. Equal to the actual load

2. A period of voltage instability will always result in a voltage collapse.

A. True
B. False

3. The critical voltage and critical MW transfer are located at the:

A. Knee of the V-Q curve

B. Knee of the P-V curve
C. Origin of the V-Q curve
D. Origin of the P-V curve

4. During voltage collapse prone conditions, tap changing to support

secondary voltage should generally NOT be used if the secondary load is
formed by:

A. Induction motors
B. Motor type load
C. Nominal load
D. Non-motor type load

5. P-V curves indicate the __________ margin from voltage instability while
V-Q curves indicate the __________ margin from voltage instability.

A. Mvar / MW
B. MW/ Mvar
C. MW / current
D. Power / Mvar

6. UVLS differs from UFLS in that:

A. The tripping frequencies are different

B. The tap changing points are different
C. UVLS is based on voltage while UFLS is based on frequency
D. UVLS is based on frequency while UFLS is based on voltage

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7. In which type of voltage instability does a key element outage trigger the
instability?

A. Oscillation Voltage Instability

B. Classical Voltage Instability
C. Transient Voltage Instability
D. Long Term Voltage Instability

8. A P-V curve relates:

A. The Mvar transferred across a system to the voltage at the

receiving end of the system
B. The MW transferred across a system to the voltage at the receiving
end of the system
C. The MW transferred across a system to the voltage at the sending
end of the system
D. The Mvar transferred across a system to the voltage at the sending
end of the system

9. In a radial power system, the addition of shunt capacitors at the receiving

end of the system tends to:

A. Decrease the curvature of the P-V curve

B. Flatten the P-V curve and increase the critical voltage
C. Increase the curvature of the P-V curve
D. Flatten the P-V curve and decrease the critical voltage

10. In which type of voltage instability does a simultaneous stalling of large

amounts of induction motor load trigger the voltage instability?

A. Oscillation Voltage Instability

B. Classical Voltage Instability
C. Transient Voltage Instability
D. Long Term Voltage Instability

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Chapter 7: Angle Stability

1. The loss of the magnetic bonds that bind together the elements of a power
system is known as:

A. Angle stability
B. Loss of synchronism
C. Out-of-step
D. All of the above

2. If a 2-pole generator’s rotor is spinning at 3601 RPM while the generator

is connected to a 60 HZ system, how fast is the generator’s torque angle
changing?

A. 3 degrees per second

B. 0 degrees per second
C. 9 degrees per second
D. 6 degrees per second

3. Neglecting losses, the difference between a generator’s mechanical power

input and electrical power output is called:

A. Relative power
B. Synchronizing power
C. Stability power
D. Accelerating power

Match a type of angle instability from the left column with a unique
definition from the right column:

1. Steady state instability A. Rapidly developing event

2. Transient instability B. Excitation systems are common
cause
3. Oscillatory instability C. Slowly developing event

1. C. Slowly developing event

2. A. Rapidly developing event
3. B. Excitation systems are common cause

7. According to the equal area criterion for transient stability:

A. The torque angle must never exceed 90 degrees

B. The accelerating area must exceed the decelerating area
C. The decelerating area must at least match the accelerating area
D. None of the above

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8. A generator is angle unstable whenever its torque angle exceeds 90

degrees.

A. True
B. False

9. High speed transmission protection is a benefit to angle stability because:

A. Fault duration is reduced

B. Accelerating time is reduced
C. Angle spread is reduced
D. All of the above

10. The primary difference between an out-of-step event and a fault is:

A. Out-of-step events are detected by distance relays while faults are

not
B. Faults are detected by distance relays while out-of-step events are
not
C. The location at which the low voltage occurs
D. The speed at which the apparent impedance changes

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Chapter 8: Power Oscillations

1. Typical power oscillation frequencies vary from:

A. 0.001 HZ to .0001 HZ
B. 100 HZ to 80 HZ
C. 60 HZ to 30 HZ
D. 0.05 HZ to 3.0 HZ

2. Amortisseur windings are:

A. Extra windings in a transformer’s magnetic core

B. Conducting bars embedded in the magnetic poles of a rotor
C. A type of hydro generator stator winding
D. A type of circuit breaker tripping coil typically used in SF6
breakers

3. Which of the following will tend to increase a generator’s natural

frequency of oscillation?

A. Strong transmission system

B. Higher inertia
C. Weak transmission system
D. High power output

4. Which mode of power oscillations typically appears on the major tie-lines

that connect large power systems?

A. Intra-area mode
B. Inter-area mode
C. Intra-plant mode
D. Local mode

5. High speed excitation systems tend to extend _____ stability limits but
may lead to _____ instability.

A. Transient / steady state

B. Oscillatory / transient
C. Steady state / transient
D. Transient / oscillatory

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6. Which of the following are used to dampen power system oscillations?

A. HVDC modulation
B. Amortisseur windings
C. PSS
D. All of the above

7. Which type of power oscillations are of most concern?

A. Negatively damped
B. Damped
C. Undamped
D. Positively damped

8. Which of the following will tend to decrease a generator’s natural

frequency of oscillation?
1. Higher inertia
2. Weak transmission system
3. High power output
4. Strong transmission system

A. 2 and 4
B. 1 and 2
C. 4
D. 1, 2, and 3

9. Which mode of power oscillations does every generator participate in?

A. Intra-plant mode
B. Inter-area mode
C. Intra-area mode
D. Local mode

10. On August 10, 1996, large 0.224 HZ power oscillations were measured in
the Pacific AC Intertie 500 kV lines. These oscillations were:

A. Intra-area mode
B. Local mode
C. Inter-plant mode
D. Inter-area mode

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Chapter 9: Additional Topics

1. Delta connected three-phase transformer windings trap the:

A. Odd harmonics
B. Even harmonics
C. High order harmonics
D. Triplen harmonics

2. If the inductance is 0.001 henry and the capacitance is .000782 farad, what
is the resonance frequency?

A. 300 HZ
B. 60 HZ
C. 180 HZ
D. 240 HZ

3. All of the following are forms of SSR EXCEPT:

A. Induction generator effect

B. Transient torque
C. Parallel induction
D. Torsional interaction

4. SSR is more of a concern with hydroelectric units than with thermal units.

A. True
B. False

5. All of the following are methods of preventing distribution system

ferroresonance EXCEPT:

A. Use grounded-wye to delta transformer connections

B. Keep resistive load connected to the transformer during switching
C. Switch at the transformer end of the distribution line
D. Use three-phase switching

6. The currents that flow in the earth’s surface as a result of solar magnetic
disturbances are called:

A. Electrojets
B. Geomagnetic induced currents
C. Earth surface potentials
D. Sunspot currents

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7. The currents induced by solar magnetic disturbances enter the power

system via:

A. Series capacitors
B. Shunt capacitors
C. Transformer delta windings
D. Transformer grounded neutrals

8. In a 60 HZ system, the frequency of the 8th Harmonic is:

A. 480 HZ
B. 100 HZ
C. 200 HZ
D. 300 HZ

9. Shunt capacitor tripping can be a problem during SMD activity. Why?

A. Because high frequency GIC currents flow into the shunt

capacitors
B. Because GIC currents saturate transformers which creates high
frequency harmonics which cause the shunt capacitors to trip
C. Because GIC currents enter the power system through the
grounded neutrals of the shunt capacitors
D. Because shunt capacitors trip from high ESP

10. Assume a transmission line has a series inductive reactance of 100 ohms
and a series capacitive reactance of 50 ohms. What amount of series
capacitance (in ohms) must be added to create a series resonance
condition?

A. 100
B. 50
C. 25
D. 150

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Chapter 10: Equipment

1. Which type of HVDC system has two conductors, one energized with a
positive voltage and one with a negative voltage?

A. Semipolar
B. Bipolar
C. Unipolar
D. Monopolar

2. Thyrister and mercury-arc are types of __________ in HVDC converters.

A. Transformers
B. Electrodes
C. Valves
D. Filters

3. A twelve-pulse converter has twelve pulses in its DC output per:

A. Commutation of the converter

B. Cycle of the HVDC converter from no load to full load
C. Change of the firing angle from 0 to 30 degrees
D. Cycle of the incoming AC voltage

4. An HVDC converter firing angle is used to:

A. Delay inversion
B. Delay commutation
C. Delay conversion
D. Delay rectification

5. A phase shifting transformer controls MW flow by:

A. Controlling the firing angle

B. Controlling the phase angle between voltage and current
C. Controlling the voltage phase angle across the transformer
D. Controlling the phase angle between current and voltage

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6. The voltage added to the incoming voltage to be regulated is added in

__________ in a phase shifting transformer and added in __________ in a
voltage regulating transformer.

A. series / quadrature
B. series / series
C. quadrature / quadrature
D. quadrature / series

7. Several HVDC systems are used to electrically connect the Eastern and
Western Interconnections of North America. Since both Interconnections
are 60 HZ systems, why would HVDC be used?

A. Because even though both Interconnection’s frequencies are

scheduled for 60 HZ, large voltage phase angles and small
frequency differences do exist.
B. Because the lines connecting the Interconnections are long enough
to justify HVDC system cost.
C. Because the lines connecting the Interconnections are short enough
for justifying the HVDC system cost.
D. Because HVDC systems are always less costly to build than an
equivalent AC system.

8. When compared to an AC transmission system with the same MW

transfer, the same insulation levels, and with the same size conductors,
HVDC transmission system losses are approximately 33% lower than AC
system losses.

A. True
B. False

9. The functions of an HVDC system smoothing reactor include all the

following EXCEPT:

A. Reducing DC ripple
B. Reducing DC fault duty
C. Assisting with the commutation process
D. Filtering the AC harmonics

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10. A 200 MW HVDC system is installed next to a 138 kV AC substation.

The three-phase fault duty of the 138 kV bust must be at least _____
MVA.

A. 67-100
B. 101-201
C. 400-600
D. 1000 or greater

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Chapter 11: Power System Restoration

1. In the initial stages of a restoration condition, high transmission system
voltage problems are more likely than low transmission system voltage
problems. Why?

A. Because of the excessive Mvar supply from too many on-line

generators
B. Because of the deficiency in Mvar from too much customer load
energization
C. Because of the deficiency in MW from too much customer load
energization
D. Because of the excessive Mvar supply from the energization of
transmission lines

2. A synchroscope can be used to determine the standing phase angle across

an open CB even if the power system on both sides of the open CB is
interconnected.

A. True
B. False

3. Generators and large motors are often equipped with negative sequence
relays. The negative sequence relay is designed to:

A. Detect reverse rotation of the machine’s shaft

B. Detect imbalance in the machine’s phase currents
C. Detect A-C-B phase rotation
D. Detect OOS conditions

4. During which phase of the restoration process is the voltage and frequency
of the generators that survived the initial disturbance adjusted to optimum
values:

A. Phase 4: Billing
B. Phase 2: Preparation of Subsystems
C. Phase 1: Assessment
D. Phase 3: Establishment of Target Systems

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5. In the early stages of a system restoration, the energization of customer

load with a __________ is usually helpful as this type load absorbs excess
Mvar from the energized transmission lines.

A. low lagging power factor

B. high leading power factor
C. low leading power factor
D. high lagging power factor

6. A 200 mile long 500 kV line is transposed at two locations along the line.
The purpose of transposition is to:

A. Balance each phase’s inductive reactance value

B. Reduce the Ferranti Rise effect
C. Increase the power transfer limit
D. Reduce each phase conductor’s resistance

7. In the early stages of a system restoration, the frequency has stabilized at

59 HZ. The system operator has decided to shed load to restore the
frequency to 60 HZ. How much load should the system operator shed to
raise the frequency 1 HZ?

A. 3 to 5% of the connected load

B. 10 to 15% of the connected load
C. 6 to 10% of the connected load
D. 1 to 3% of the connected load

8. Why would a power transformer’s differential relay be equipped with a

harmonic restraint feature?

A. To avoid relay activation when the transformer is first

energized
B. To avoid relay activation when the transformer is de-energized
C. To reduce the amount of harmonics created by the power
transformer
D. To restrain the transformer from operating as an overly aggressive
harmonic filter

9. Which of the following types of units could most likely operate, without
damage, as a motor?

A. Hydro turbine
B. Nuclear drive steam turbine
C. Combustion turbine
D. Coal driven steam turbine

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10. Given the following types of turbine/generators, which typically has the
highest frequency response rate?

A. Low head hydro-electric

B. Coal-fired steam
C. Oil-fired steam
D. Combustion turbine

11. The high probability of switching surge induced TOVs and the potential
for ferroresonance may necessitate operation at reduced steady-state
voltage levels during the early stages of restoration. These reduced
steady-state voltage levels are typically in the __________ range.

A. 105 to 110%
B. 90 to 95%
C. 70 to 80%
D. 80 to 90%

12. When a switching surge occurs, the power system is exposed to a wave
like effect as the switching surge voltage propagates through the area
power system. The propagating surge voltage can add to the power
system steady-state voltage, producing a __________.

A. LOF
B. TOV
C. AGC
D. URAL

13. In the early stages of a power system restoration, 500 MW of generation is

synchronized with 300 MW of spinning reserve available. What is the
largest load block that can be restored while still maintaining acceptable
frequency control?

A. 150 MW
B. 10 MW
C. 25 MW
D. 50 MW

14. What type of condition(s) is a volts-per-HZ relay most likely to activate

for?

A. Low voltage combined with high frequency

B. High voltage
C. High voltage combined with low frequency
D. Low frequency

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15. A(n) __________ occurs when, following a disturbance, pockets of

generation and load remain operational but isolated from the remainder of
the power system.

A. interconnected power system

B. partial black-out
C. islanded power system
D. total black-out

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