Semiconductor Electronics: | Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 142 Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors 148 Special Purpose p-n Junction Diode 143 Intrinsic Semiconductor 149 Junction Transistor 14,10 Digital Electronics and Logic Gates 14.11 Integrated Circuits 144 Extrinsic Semiconductor 145 penJunction 146 Semiconductor Diode Topicwise Analysis of Last 10 Years’ CBSE Board Question (2018-2008) Mvsa sau veg Gu “ 2 {th : 5 So Be f ° M2 M4344 M7 MB M904 >> Maximum weightage is of Junction Transistor, >» Maximum SA\l and LA type questions were asked >» MaximumSAandSA| type questions were asked Co ae from Digital Electronics and Logic Gates. QUICK RECAP © Classification of solids on the basis of their (p= 1/0), the solids are broadly classified as, conductivity:Onthebasisofthe relativevalues ® Metals : Those solids which have high of electrical conductivity (6) and resistivity conductivity and very low resistivity. The value EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14 - Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII eo of conductivity for metals lies in between 10° to 10° S mand of resistivity in between 10° to 102m, Insulators : Those solids which have low conductivity and high resistivity. The value of conductivity for insulators lies between 10-" to 10" § m- and of resistivity between 10" to 10"2m, Semiconductors : Those solids which have conductivity and resistivity intermediate to ‘metals and insulators. The value of conductivity for semiconductors lies in between 10° to 10 $m and of resistivity between 10° to 10°Qm. Energy bands of solids or band theory of solids Valence band : This band contains valence electrons. ‘This band may be partially or completely filled with electrons. This band is never empty. Electrons in this band do not contribute to electric current. Conduction band : In this band, electrons are rarely present, This band is either empty or partially filled, Electrons in the conduction band are known as free electrons. ‘These electrons contribute to the electric current, Forbidden energy gap or forbidden band : “The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is known as forbidden energy gap or forbidden band. No electrons are present in this gap. It isa measure of energy band gap. ~The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from valence band to conduction band is known as energy band gap. — If} is the wavelength of radiation used in shifting the electron from valence band to conduction band, then energy band gap is iw where h is called Planck's constant and c is the speed of light, = The forbidden energy gap E, in a semiconductor depends upon temperature, = Fermi energy : It is the maximum possible energy possessed by free electrons of a ‘material at absolute zero temperature (ie. 0K) Differences between metals, insulators and semiconductors on the basis of band theory EduSuccess/ > Metals: = In metals either the conduction band is partially filled or conduction band and valence band partially overlap each other. ~ In metals, there is no forbidden energy gap between the valence and conduction bands. 3] Fe eee a) a é Valence 4) 0) E] ke 8 | ev ss = In insulators, valence band is completely filled and conduction band is completely empty. = Im insulators, there is a very wide forbidden energy gap between the valence and conduction bands. Its of the order of 5 eV onion a Tet = In semiconductors, valence band is completely filled and the conduction band isempyy. = _Insemiconductors,thereisasmall forbidden energy gap between the valence and the conduction bands, Its of the order of I eV. Forsilicon,itis1.1 eV and for germaniumitis o72ev. EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII Fe Bev By lectron energies [At absolute zero, semiconductors behave asa perfect insulator. = Hole : It is a seat of positive charge which is produced when an electron breaks away fom a covalent bond in a semiconductor. Hole has a positive charge equal to that of clectron. Mobility of hole is smaller than that of electron, © Intrinsic: semiconductor + A pure semi conductor which is free from every impurity is known as intrinsic semiconductor. Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) are the important examples of intrinsic semiconductors. > Inintrinsie semiconductor, 1, =, =) where n,, n, are number density of electrons in conduction band and number density of holes in valence band, nis the intrinsic carrier concentration. > When an electric field is applied across an intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes move in opposite directions so that total current (D through the pure semiconductor is given by [akth whe [.is the free electron current and I, is the hole current > Effect of temperature on conducti intrinsic semiconductor = An intrinsic semiconductor will behave asa perfect insulator at absolute zero. = With increasing temperature, the density of hole-clectron paits increases and hence the conductivity of an increases with increase in temperature. ity of trinsic semiconductor In other words, the resistivity (inverse of conductivity) decreases as the temperature - The negative temperature coefficient of resistance. semiconductors have EcluSuccess/ © Doping: Ibis a process of deliberate addition of «desirable impurity to « pure semiconductor in ‘order to increase its conductivity. The impurity atoms added are known as dopants. © Extrinsic semiconductor: A doped semiconductor is known as extrinsic semiconductor. Extrinsie semiconductors are ‘of two types > n-type semiconductor = When a pure semiconductor of Si or Ge (tetravalent) is doped with a group V_ pentavalent impurities like arsenic (As), antimony (Sb). phosphorus (P) ete, we obtain a n-type semiconductor. The pentavalent impurity atoms are known as donor atoms. = It is called n-type semiconductor because the conduction of electricity in such semiconductor is due to motion of electrons i.e. negative charges. = It is called donor type semiconductor, because the doped impurity atom donates ‘one free electron to semiconductor for ‘conduction. In n-type semiconductor electrons are ‘majority carriers and holes are minority ~ ‘The representation of n-type semiconductor iss shown in the figure. FO RP] repens b foto o effectuate ce tie te boieee uration postive charge) = _mtype semiconductor is neutral ~ Inm-type semiconductor n= Ni>> 1 where Ny is the density of donor atoms. > ptype semiconductor : When a pure semiconductor of Si or Ge (tetravalent) is doped with a group II trivalent impurities like aluminium (Al), boron (B), indium (In) etc, we obtain a p-type semiconductor. The trivalent impurity atoms are known as acceptor atoms. — Itis called p-type because the conduction of electricity in such semiconductor is due to motion of holes ie. postive charges. EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII = It is called acceptor type semiconductor because the doped impurity atom creates hole in semiconductor which accepts the electron, resulting conduction in p-type semiconductor = Inp-type semiconductor, holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority earriers. — Therepresentation of p-type semiconductor sas shown in the figure. Legends 4 Hole (positive charge) 1 electron negative charge) | Stable inn negative charge) = p-type semiconductor is neutral = In p-type semiconductor y= N2 > Me where Nis the density of acceptor atoms. Mass action law : Under thermal equilibrium, the product of the free negative and positive concentrations is a constant independent of the amount of donor and acceptor impurity doping, This relationship is known as the mass action law and is given by where n., rare the number density of electrons and holes respectively and 1, is the intrinsie carriers concentration. Electrical conductivity in semiconductor : The conductivity of the semiconductor is given by = end, +My) where 1, and jt, are the electron and hole mobilities. n, and ny are the electron and hole densities, eis the electronic charge. - The conductivity of an semiconductor is = me(He+ I) ~The conduetivity of n-type semiconductor iso, =eNB. ~The conductivity of p-type semiconductor is, =eNah, nm junction : When donor impurities are troduced into one side and acceptors into the other side ofa single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor, a p-1 junction is formed. It is also known as junction diode. The most important characteristic ofa p-n junction is its ability to conduct current in one direction only. In the other (reverse) direction it offers very intrinsic > > EduSuccess/ high resistance. Its symbolically represented by o—_ >} Depletion region : In the vicinity of junction, the region containing the uncompensated acceptor and donor ions is known as depletion region. There is a depletion of mobile charges (holes and free electrons) in this region. Since this region has immobile (fixed) ions which electrically charged itis also known as the space charge region. The electric field between the acceptor and the donor ions is known as a barrier. The physical distance from one side of the barrier to the other isknowm as the width of the barrier. The difference of potential from one side ofthe barrier to the other side is known as the height ofthe barr = For a silicon p-n junction, the barrier potential is about 0.7 V, whereas for a {germanium p-m junction itis approximately 03V. ~The width of the depletion layer and ‘magnitude of potential barier depend upon the nature ofthe material of semiconductor and the concentration of impurity atoms. ‘The thickness of the depletion region is of the order of one tenth of a micrometre. Forward biasing of a p-n junction : When the positive terminal of external battery is connected to p-side and negative to n-side of ‘Pn junction, then the p-n junction is said to be forward biased. = In forward biasing, the width of the depletion region decreases and barrier height reduces, ~The resistance of the p-n junction becomes low in forward biasing. Reverse biasing of a p-n junction : When the positive terminal of the external battery is connected to 1-side and the negative terminal to p-side of a p-n junction, then the p-n junction is said to be reverse biased. In reverse biasing, the width of the depletion region increases and_ barrier height increases. ~The resistance of the p-n junction becomes high in reverse biasing, EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252EduSuccess/ Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII erect ache cicoe > Breakdown voltage : A very small current biased. The I-V characteristics ofan ideal diode flows through p-n junction, when itis reverse as shown in figure biased, The flow of the current is due to the movement of minority charge carriers. The reverse current is almost independent of the applied voltage. However, if the reverse bias voltage is continuously increased, for a certain reverse voltage, the current through the pn junction will increase abruptly This reverse bias voltageisthusknown as breakdown voltage. “There can be two different causes for the break > An ideal diode acts lke an automatic switch. > In forward bias, it acts as a closed switch ‘whereas in reverse bias it acts as an open switch as shown in the figure down, One is known as zener breakdown and * E Closed the other is known as avalanche breakdown. crea ree, > LV characteristics of a p-n junction : The I-V > s,m characteristics of a p-n junction do not obey ‘Ohm’ law. The J-V characteristics of a p-n jer : It is a device which converts ac junction areas shown in the figure. voltage to devoltage. Diode is used as arectifier. Rectifier i based on the fact that, a forward bias pom junetion conducts and a reverse bias ont junction does not conduct: > Half wave rectifier : Diode conducts corresponding to positive half cycle and does not conduct during negative half eycle. Hence, AC is converted by diode into unditectional pulsating DC. This action is known as half: ‘wave rectification. Ho), w of Revere vokage ¢— 204 wiih -s0"4) “40-20 0) trae oe oe > Fenway volte Yiu) ~ Knee voltage : In forward biasing, the voltage at which the current starts to increase rapidly is known as cut-in or knee voltage. For germanium itis 0.3 V while for silicon itis 0.7 V. ~ Dynamic resistance : It is defined as the ratio of a small change in voltage (AV) + applied across the p-n junction to a small ‘change in current AJ through the junction. av YN LN LN. rine > Full wave rectifier : The circuit diagram © lcaldiode:Adiodepermitsonly unidirectional and output waveforms for a full wave conduction. It conducts well in the forward are as shown inthe figure. direction and poorly in the reverse direction. It ‘would have been ideal ifa diode actsasa perfect conductor (with zero voltage acrossit) when itis forward biased, and asa perfect insulator (with zo current flows through it) when itis reverse EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII "eo Be Time Ef Time é3 Ripple factor : The ripple factor is a measure of purity of the de output of a rectifier, and is defined as ‘ms value of the components of wave ote) Special Purpose p-n Junction Diodes : Light emitting diode (LED) : It converts electrical energy into light energy. Itis a heavily doped p-n junction which operates under forward bias and emits spontaneous radiation, = The I-V characteristics ofa LED is similar to that of Si junction diode. But the threshold voltages are much higher and slightly different for each colour ‘The reverse breakdown voltages of LEDs are very low, typically around 5 V. = The semiconductor used for fabrication of visible LEDs must at least have a band gap of 18 eV, The compound semiconductor gallium, arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) is used for making LEDs of different colours. GaAs is used for making infrared LED. ~The symbol of a LED is shown in the figure. x oP Photodiode: A photodiode isa special type p-n junction diode fabricated with a transparent window to allow light to fall on the diode. It is operated under reverse bias. When it is illuminated with light of photon energy greater than the energy gap of the semiconductor, electron-hole pairs are generated in near depletion region, pol]n Yow EduSuccess/ ~The symbol of a photodiode is shown in the figure below. a Solar cell : It converts solar energy into electrical energy. A solar cell is basically a ‘pon junction which generates emf when solar radiation falls on the p-n junction. It works fon the same principle (photovoltaic effect) as the photodiode, except that no external bias is applied and the junction area is kept large Zener diode It was invented by C. Zener. It is designed to operate under reversebiasin thebreakdown region and is used as a voltage regulator. ‘The symbol for Zener diode is shown in the figure. = Zener diode as a voltage regulator : The circuit diagram for zener diode asa voltage regulator is shown in the figure below. fe Be JUnmesulated ower supply ‘Transistor : A junction transistor is a three terminal. semiconductor device consisting of ‘pon junctions formed by placing a thin layer (of doped semiconductor (p. type or n-type) between two similar layers of opposite type “There are two types of transistor ( pomp transistor : Here, two segments of mtype semiconductor (emitter and collector) are separated by a segment of p-type semiconductor (base). Gi) porep transistor : Here two segments of p-type (termed as emitter and collector) are separated by a segment of n-type semiconductor (base). ‘The schematic representations of a n-p-1 and p-n-p transistors are shown in the figure. Eniuer Bre Cllcor —Eniger Buse Collector bec 4!» bf» {bec EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14 - Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII > The symbols for n-p-n and p-r-p transistors are shown in the figure below. F ce tc npn pep > In operation ofa transistor, Iy = Ip + Ic where I; is emitter current, [pis base current, le Is the collector current. > A trans or can be operated in any one of the following three configurations : = Common emitter (CE) — Common base (CB) ~ Common collector (CC) > Input characteristics of a transistor ‘The variation ofthe input current withthe input voltage for a given output voltage is known as Input characteristics ofa transistor. 15409) ea 100: 0 0 ly 40 veg 20 Vad) oz 08 o6 08 HO > Output characteristics ofa transistor ‘The variation of the output current with the output voltage for a given input current is known as output characteristics. of a i a a - oo 2 te eee ee Clletorto emir vltage (Vc) in volts EduSuccess/ © Transistor asa switeh BoM Active "B53 Non ve “Transfer cbarstersic When the transistor is used in the cut off region ‘or saturation region, itacts as a switch. © Transistoras an amplifier: > Hat pete es Saturation \ | ¥ Tansr characteristic When the transistors used in the active region, it acts as an amplifier. Common emitter amplifier : In the common ‘emitter transistor amplifies, the input signal voltage and the output collector voltage are 180° out of phase, CB aplier with easier ‘dc current gain: It is defined as the ratio of the collector current ({,) to the base current (1) EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252EduSuccess/ Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII erect ache cicoe > accurrent gain: Its defined as ratio of change The frequency ofthe oscillation is given by in collector current (Alc) to the change in base current (Al,). 1 an Vic fe =dle © Lost gates: A dighal circuit wih one ot more Aly input signals but only one output signal is > Voltage gain : Itis defined as the ratio of output known as logic gate voltage to the input voltage. There are three basic logie gates & > OR gate: An OR gate has two or more inputs By x but only one output. Ri = Thellogic symbol of OR gate is where R, and R, are the output and input resistances. “ ‘ ‘Negative sign represents that output voltage is hs ‘opposite in phase with the input voltage > Power gain : It is defined as the ratio of the output power to the input power. =e output power) apt + 1” Tnput power(R) = oto 1 Note: Voltage gain (in db) =20 logy “= 1b vi Tp The truth table for OR gate is, A T 1 r i = 20 logic ‘The Boolean expression for OR gate i Power gai in dB) =10 log v= aft Hee > AND gate : An AND gate has two or more © ‘Transistor as an oscillator : An oscillator” fut only one outa generates ac output signal without anyinput ac he oye spol af AND gates signal, An oscillator is self sustained amplifier in which a part of output is fed back to the As—_§_ inp in the same phase (this process is called postive feedback) > The block diagram of an oscillator is show in The truth table for AND gate is the figure Input_[Outpat] Inpot__ Trans 2 ae Output ate 77 Tho Faia mm ae The Book for AND > ‘The circut diagram of the tuned collector ~The Boolean expression for AND gate is oscillators shown in the figure below: ae 8 > NOT gate : The NOT gate is the simplest of EREEEEEL aor ems EN mp nee all logic gates. It has only one input and one {Coupling through output magni = The logic symbol of NOT gate is mpl 13 Eom —a ao WS Geriteh) ~The truth table for NOT gate is EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Tat [Oapal ~The Boolean expression for NAND gate is aft y-5B 1 z > NOR gate: It is an OR gate followed by a NOT = ‘The Boolean expression for NOT gate is sate y=a = The logic symbol of NOR gate is > NAND gate: It is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate, = The logic symbol for NAND gate is Be a ‘The truth table for NOR gate is Y — Tnput_Joupun a 1 ~The truth table for NAND gate is a Tnput_[Ouper t a o o T ~The Boolean expression for NOR gate is a a v — T Y=AvB EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14 - Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII Previous Years’ CBSE Board Questions 14.2 Classification of Metals, Conductors & Semiconductors (2 marks) 1 Distinguish between a metal and an insulator on the basis of energy band diagrams (Foreign 2014) 2 Draw a plot showing the variation of resistivity ‘of a () conductor and (i) semiconductor, with the increase in temperature. (283, Delhi 20140) (3 marks) Write any two distinguishing features between conductors, semiconductors and insulators on the basis of energy band diagrams. (AI 2014) 14.3 Intrinsic Semiconductor (3 marks) 4, Explain the formation of energy bands in solids. Draw energy band diagrams for(i) a conductor, (ii) an intrinsic semiconductor. (AI 2007) 14.4 Extrinsic Semiconductor (1 mark) 5. What s the difference between an n-type and a p-type extrinsic semiconductor? (Delhi 2012C) HEM (2 marks) 6. Distinguish between ‘intrinsic’ and ‘extrinsic’ semiconductors (Delhi 2015) 7. Draw energy band diagrams of an n-type and p-type semiconductor at temperature T > 0 K. Mark the donor and acceptor energy levels with their energies (Foreign 2014) 8, Write two characteristic atures to distinguish between n-type and p-type semiconductors (Foreign 2012) EININ (3 marks) @ Distinguish between mtype and p-type semiconductors on the basis of energy band diagrams, (i) Compare their conductivities at absolute zero temperature and at room temperature. (Delhi 2015C) 10, Draw the energy band diagrams of (@mtypeand (ii) prype semiconductor at temperature, > 0K In the case n-type Si semiconductor, the donor energy level is slightly below the bottom of conduction band whereas in p-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level is slightly above the top of the valence band Explain, what role do these energy levels playin conduction andvalence bands. (AI 2015C) (5 marks) 11. Distinguish between an intrinsic semiconductor and a p-type semiconductor. Give reason why a p-type semiconductor is electrically neutral, although m, >> n. (215, Foreign 2013) 145 p-n Junction (1 mark) 12. Why can't we take one slab of p-type semiconductor and physically it to another slab ‘of n-type semiconductor to get p-m junction? (Al20100) WAMIN 6s marks) 13, Explain with the help of the diagram the formation of depletion region and barrier potential ina p-r junction. (2/3, AT2016) 14. Wsite briefly the important processes that occur during the formation of p-n junction. With the help of necessary diagrams, explain the term barrier potential, (Foreign 2015) 15. Name the important process that occur during the formation of a p-n junction. Explain briefly, EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII with the help of a suitable diagram, how a p-n junction is formed. Define the term ‘barrier potential! (Foreign 2011) (5 marks) 16, State briefly the processes involved inthe formation of p-n junction explaining clearly how the depletion region is formed. (2/5, Delhi 2014) 17. Explain with the help of diagram, how a depletion layer and barrier potential are formed ina junction diode. (5/5, Delhi 20140) 18, Describe briefly, with the help ofa diagram, the role ofthe two important processes involved in the formation of a p-n junction. (2/5, AI2012) 19, Explain the formation of depletion layer and barrier potential in p-n junction, (215, Dethi 2010) 14.6 Semiconductor Diode (mark) 20, What happens to the width of depletion layer of a p-n junction when itis (i) forward biased, (ii) reverse biased? (alzo11) HEY 0 mars) 4 21, ‘he V-1 characteristic of a silicon diode is as shown in the figure, Calculate the resistance of the diode at (i) [= 15 mA and (ii) V=-10 (may 30 15 0507 08 THA (Foreign 2015) 22, Thecircuit shownin the figurehastwo oppositely connected ideal diodes connected in parallel Find the current flowing through each diode in the circuit. EduSuccess/ 20 >, (Foreign 2013) 23, Assuming that the two diodes D, and D, used in the electric circuit shown in the figure are ideal, find out the value ofthe current flowing through 1 Q resistor. b, 20 », 20 | 2 VM 10a) 45, State the reason, why GaAs is most commonly used in making ofa solar eel (AI 2008) HEM 22 marks) v 46, Explain, with the help of a circuit diagram, the working of a photodiode. Write briefly how itis used to detect the optical signals. (Delhi 2013) 47. (a) Mention the important. considerations required while fabricating a p-n junction diode to be used as a light emitting diode (LED). (b) What should be the order of band gap ofan LED if tis required to emit light in the visible range? (Delhi 20130) 48. ‘The current in the forward bias is known to be yore (~mA) than the current inthe reverse bias (~ MA). What is the reason, then, to operate the photodiode in reverse bias? (Delhi 2012) EduSuccess/ 49, How does a light emitting diode (LED) work? Give two advantages of LED’ over the conventional incandescent lamps. (Foreign 2012) 30. (a) Why are Si and GaAS preferred mat for fabrication in solar cells? (b) Draw V-1 characteristic of solar cell and als ‘mention its significance. (A120120) 51, Name the semiconductor device that can be used to regulate an unregulated de power supply. With the help of V-I characteristics of this device, explain its working principle. (Delhi 2011) 52, Draw the circuit diagram of an illuminated photodiode in reverse bias. How is photodiode used to measure light intensity? (Delhi 2010) HEIN (3 marks) 53. (i) Describe the working principle of a solar cel, Mention three basi processes involved in the generation of emf. (ji) Why are St and GaAs preferred materials for solar cells? (Foreign 2016) $4, With what considerations in view, a photodiode is fabricated? State its working with the help of a suitable diagram. Even though the current inthe forward bias is kxovin to be more than in the reverse bias, yet the photodiode works in reverse bias, What is the reason? (Delki 2015) 55. (a) Why is zener diode fabricated by heavily doping both p- and n-sides of the junction? (©) Draw the circuit diagram of zener diode as a voltage regulator and briefly explain its working. (Foreign 2014) 56. (a) How isa photodiode fabricated? (b) Briely explain its working, Draw its V-I characteristics for two diferent intensities (Foreign 2014) 57. (i) The figure shows the V-I characteristics of a semiconductor device. Identify this device (ii) Explain briefly, using the necessary circuit diagram, how this device is used as a voltage regulator, of illumination, EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII ma) Reverse bias ¥ Forward bias 7 ua) (Delhi 20120) 58. The given figure below shows the V-I characteristic of a semiconductor diode. (i) Identify the semiconductor diode used. (ii) Draw the circuit diagram to obtain the given characteristic ofthis device. (ii) Briefly explain how this diode can be used as a voltage regulator, Ima) go 0 40» i wy 0204 06 08 10 yay (A12011) 59, (a) Describe briefly with the help of a necessary circuit diagram, the working principle of a solar cell. (b) Why are Si and GaAs preferred. materials for solar cells? Explain, (Ar20110) 60. Draw a circuit diagram of LED. What are its advantages? (2/3, Delhi 2008) 61, Explain, with the help of a schematic diagram, the principle and working of a light emitting diode. What criterion is kept in mind while choosing the semiconductor material for such a device? Write any two advantages of light emitting diode over conventional incandescent lamps. (Delhi 2007) EduSuccess/ (4 marks) 62. Meeta’s father was driving her to the school. At the traffic signal she noticed that each traffie light was made of many tiny lights instead of a single bulb, When Meeta asked this question to her father, he explained the reason for this. Answer the following questions based on above information (_ What were the values displayedby Meetaand her father? (ii) What answer did Meetas father give ? (ii) Whatarethetiny lightsintrafficsignalscalled and how do these operate? (Dethi 2016) 63, Ameen had been getting huge electricity bill for the past few months. He was upset about ths. One day his friend Rohit, an electrical engineer by profession, visited his house. When he pointed out his anxiety about this to Rohit, his friend found that Ameen was using traditional incandescent lamps and using old fashioned air conditioner. In addition there was no proper carthing in the house, Rohit advised him to use CFL bulbs of 28 W instead of 1000W - 200V and also advised him to get proper earthing in the house. He made some useful suggestion and asked him to spread this message to his friends also. (i) What qualities/values, in your opinion did Rohit possess? (ii) Why CFLs and LEDs are better than traditional incandescent lamps? (ii) In what way earthing reduces electricity bill (Delhi 2015C) (5 marks) 64. (a) Why is a zener diode considered as a special purpose semiconductor diode? (b) Draw the V-I characteristic ofa zener diode and explain briefly how reverse current suddenly increases at the breakdown voltage. (€) Describe briefly with the help of a circuit diagram how a zener diode works to obtain a constant dc. voltage from the unregulated dc. ‘output of a rectifier. (Foreign 2012) EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XIl 65. Name the device which is used as a voltage regulator. Draw the necessary circuit diagram and explain its working, (25, A12012) 666, What isa light emitting diode (LED)? Mention two important advantages of LEDs over conventional lamps. (2/5, AL2010) 67. (a) Draw V-I characteristics of a Zener diode. (b) Explain with the help of a circuit diagram, the use of a zener diode asa voltage-regulator. (6) A photoiode is operated under reverse bias although in the forward bias the current is known to be more than the current in the reverse bias. Explain giving reason. (Foreign 2010) 68. State the main practical applications of LED. Explain, giving reason, why semiconductor sed for fabrication of visible light LEDs must hhave a band of at least (nearly) 1.8 eV. (2/5, Delhi 2010C) 14.9 Junction Transistor (1 mark) 69, Ina transistor, doping level in base is increased slightly. How will it affect (i) collector current and (ii) base current? (Delt 2011) 70, In the given circuit, a voltmeter "V"is connected across amp ‘L: What changes would youabserve in the lamp ‘L’ and the voltmeter, ifthe value of resistor‘R’is reduced? Tap ). (Delhi 20116) HRN 22 marks) 71, In the given circuit diagram a voltmeter ‘V" is connected across a lamp ‘L: How would ()) the brightness of the lamp and (fi) voltmeter reading 'V" be afected, ithe value of resistance 'R is decreased? Justify your answer. n. 2. 74, 7. 76. EduSuccess/ Tamp 1 T (Delhi 2013) Draw typical output characteristics of an n-p-n transistor in CE configuration. Show how these characteristics can be used to determine output resistance. (AI2013) Describe briefly with the help of a circuit diagram, how the flow of current carriers in a p-n-p transistor is regulated with emitter-base junction forward biased and_base-collector junction reverse biased (AI2012) Draw the transfer characteristic Curve of a base biased transistor in CE configuration, Explain dearly how the active region of the Y, versus V, curve in @ transistor is used as an amplifier. (Delhi 2011) Define the following terms (i), Input resistance r; (ii) Current amplication factor B of a transistor used in its CE configuration (ar20100) (A transistor has a current gain of 30 If the collector resistance is 6 k® and input resistance 1 kO, calculate its voltage gain (ii) Why is a semiconductor damaged by strong ‘current? (Delhi 2008) HEME 3 marks) 77. 78. () Write the functions of three segments of a transistor. (ii) Draw the circuit diagram for studying the input and output characteristics of r-p-n transistor in common emitter configuration. Using the circuit, explain how input, output characteristics are obtained. (Delhi 2016) For a CE-transistor amplifier, the audio signal voltage across the collector resistance of 2 kO is 2 V. Suppose the current amplification factor of the transistor is 100, find the input signal voltage EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII 79. 80, 82, 83. a4, 85. and base current, ifthe base resistance is 1 kQ. (A12016) Draw a circuit diagram of a transistor amplifier in CE configuration Define the terms : (i) Input resistance and (ii) Current amplification factor. How are these determined using typical input and output characteristics? (Delhi 2015) Draw a circuit diagram of a CE transistor amplifier. Briefly explain its working and write the expression for (i) current gain, (i) voltage gain ofthe amplifier. (A12015) (a) Draw a plot of transfer characteristic (Vp vs V) and show which portion of the characteristic is used in amplification and why? (b) Draw the circuit diagram of base bias transistor amplifier in CE configuration and briefly explain its working (A120150) Draw a circuit diagram of m-p-m transistor amplifier in CE configuration. Under what condition does the transistor act asan amplifier? (Al2014) Output characteristics of an n-p-m transistor in CE configuration is shown in the figure. Determine: (i) Dynamic output resistance (ii) de. current gain and (ii) ac. current gain at an operating. point Vee = 10 V, when Ip = 30 WA. (Delhi 2013) base Wu Yet Draw the transfer characteristic of a base-biased transistor in CE configuration, Mark the regions where the transistor can be used as switch. Explain briefly its working. (Delhi 2012C) Draw twansfer characteristics of common ‘emitter 1-p-n transistor. Point out the region EcluSuccess/ in which the transistor operates as an amplifier. Define the following terms used in transistor amplifiers (Input resistance (ii) Output resistance (ii) Current amplification factor. (Foreign 2011) (Draw the general shape of the ‘transfer characteristics’ of a transistor. in. its) CE configuration, Which regions of this. characteristic of a transistor, are used when it work (a) asa switch, (b) asan amplifier? Gi) Whyisthe output voltage ofthe CEamplifier ‘opposite in phase with the input voltage? (Ar20100) Draw the labelled circuit diagram of a.common emitter transistor amplifier. Explain clearly how the input and output signals are in opposite phase. (A12008) 88, State briefly the underlying principle of a transistor oscillator, Draw a circuit diagram, show how the feedback is accomplished by inductive coupling. Explain the oscillator action (412008) Draw the circuit diagram of a common emitter amplifier using r-p-n transistor. What is the phase difference between the input signal and ‘output voltage? State two reasons why a common ‘emitter amplifier is preferred over a common base amplifier. (A12007) HEN 3 marks) 90. Gautam went for a vacation to the village where his grandmother lived. His grandmother took him to watch ‘nautanki’ one evening, They noticed a blackbox connected to the mike lying nearby, Gautam’s grandmother did not know ‘what that box was, When sheasked this question to Gautam, he explained to her that it was an amplifier, (@ Which values were displayed by the grandmother? How can inculeation of these values in students be promoted? (ii) Whats the funetion of an amplifier? (ii) Which basic electronic device is used in the amplifer? (Foreign 2016) 87. EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XIl (5 marks) 91. (a) Figure shows the input waveform which is converted by a device ‘X’ into an output waveform, Name the device and explain its working using the proper circuit, Derive the expression for its voltage gain and power gain. Teme] (b) Draw the transfer characteristic of base biased transistor in CE configuration. Explain clearly which region of the curve is used in an amplifier, (Delhi 2015C) 92 (a) Differentiate between segments of a transistor on the basis oftheir size and level of doping (b) How is transistor biased to be in active state? (©) With the help of necessary cireuit diagram, describe briefly how n-p-n transistor in CE configuration amplifies a small sinusoidal input voltage. Write the expression for the ac. current sain (Delhi 2014) 93. Describe briefly the underlying principle of a transistor amplifier working as an oscillator. Hence, use the necessary circuit diagram to explain how self sustained oscillations are achieved in the oscillator. (3/5, Delhi 2014C) 94, (a) Draw the circuit diagram of an mp-n transistor with emitter-base junction forward biased and collector-base junction reverse biased. Describe briefly how the motion of charge carriers in the transistor constitutes the emitter eurrent (J,), the base current (Jj) and the collector current (Jc). Hence deduce the relation I= Ip + Toe (b) Explain with the help of circuit diagram how transistor works as an amplifier. (A120140) 95, Draw the circuit arrangement for studying the input and output characteristics of m-p-1 transistor in CE configuration Draw the typical nature ofthese input and output characteristics. Explain how these are obtained, Define the terms (i) input resistance and (ji) current amplification factor. (Foreign 2013) EduSuccess/ 96. (a) Why is the base region of a transistor thin and lightly doped? (b) Draw the circuit diagram for studying the characteristics of an n-p-m transistor in common emitter configuration Sketch the typical (input and (ji) output characteristics can be used to obtain the current gain ofthe transistor. (Delhi 20130) 97. Drawa simple circuit ofa CE transistor amplifier. Explain its working, Show that the voltage gain, Pocky where fi, is the current gain, Ry is the load resistance and rj is the input resistance of the transistor. What is the significance of the negative sign in the expression for the voltage gain? (Delhi 2012) 98. (a) Draw the circuit for studying the input and output characteristics of an n-p-r transistor in CE configuration. Show, how from the output ‘characteristics, theinformationabout thecurrent amplification factor (p,,) can be obtained. (b) Draw a plot of the transfer characteristic (Va) versus (V) for a base-biased transistor in CE configuration. Show for which regions in the plot the transistor can operate asa switch. (Foreign 2012) 99, ‘Ihe set-up shown below can produce an ac. ‘output without any external input signal. entity the components ‘X° and ‘Y” of this set up. Draw the circuit diagram for this set-up. Describe briefly its working. ‘Aw of the amplifier is given by Ay = Input vi x \ Ouipat ¥ (a12012¢) 100. Using the necessary circuit diagram, draw the transfer characteristics of a base-biased transistor in CE, configuration. With the help of these characteristics explain briefly how the transistor can be used as an amplifier (3/5, Delhi 20110) EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII 101, With the help of the circuit diagram explain the working principle ofa transistor amplifier asan oscillator. (3/5, Delhi 2010) 102, (a) Draw the circuit arrangement for studying the input and output characteristics of an n-p-n transistor in CE configuration. With the help of these characteristics define (i) input resistance, (ii) current amplification factor. (b) Describe briefly with the help of a circuit diagram how an n-p-n transistor is used to produce self-sustained oscillations. (A12010) 103. Draw the circuit diagram of a base-biased n-p-n transistor in CE configuration. Expl how this circuit is used to obtain the transfer characteristic (V, ~ V; characteristics). How do we explain the working ofa transistor as a switch using the characteristic? (Foreign 2010) (a) Draw the circuit diagram used for studying the input and output characteristics, of an ‘n-p-n transistor, in its CE configuration. Show the typical shapes of these two characteristics, (b) How are the (i) input resistance and (i) current amplification factor of the transistor determined from these characteristics? (Delhi 20100) 105. (i) Draw a circuit diagram to study the input and output characteristics ofan n-p-ntransistor inits common emitter configuration. Draw the typical input and output characteristics. (ii) Explain, with the help ofa circuit diagram, the working of n-p-n transistor as a common ‘emitter amplifier 104. (Delhi 2008) 106. Draw the symbolic representation of (i)p-n-p, (ii) n-p-n transistor. Why is the base region of transistor thin and lightly doped? With proper circuit diagram, show the biasing of a p-r-p transistor in common base configuration. Explain the movement of charge through different parts of the transistor in such a configuration and show that fy = e+ Ip (Delhi 2007) EduSuccess/ 14.10 Digital electronics and logic gates (1 mark) 107. Draw the logical symbol of NAND gate and give its truth table, (A12015C) 108, Writethe truth table fora NAND gate as shown in the figure o—] ps (Al 2013C) 109, Draw the logic circuit of NAND gate and write its truth table (Foreign 2011) 110. A given logic gate inverts the input applied to Vame this gate and give its symbol, (Delhi 20100) 111, ‘The truth table, of a logic gate, has the form given here, Name this gate and draw its symbol. #)\-lBlole (Al20100) HAM 2 marks) 112. Write the truth table for the combination of the gates shown, Name the gates used ‘opto (Delhi 2014) C1, [dst the lg ge cocked ane the given circuit. Write the truth table for the combination. . fae, 7 (Delhi 2014) 114, Identify the equivalent gate represented by the circuit shown in the figure. Draw its logic symbol and write the truth table. EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14 - Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII — 4 a 115. ‘The outputs of two NOT gates are fed toa NOR gate, Draw the logic circuit of the combination of gates. Give its truth table. Identify the gate represented by this combination, (Dethi 20140) 116. The input waveforms ‘A’ and “B’ and output waveform “Y’ of a gate are shown below: Name the gate it represents, write its truth table and draw the logic symbol ofthis gate. ap 5 6 3 (AI2014C, AL.2009) 117. In the circuit shown in the figure, identify the equivalent gate of the circuitand make its truth table 4 a4 > (ar2013) 118, Draw the output waveform at X, using the given inputs A and B for the logic circuit shown below. Also, identify the logic operation performed by this circuit. Heke a a (Delhi 2011) EduSuccess/ 119. Identify the logic gates "X’ and "Y’in the figure. Write down the truth table for output Z for all possible inputs ‘A’ and ‘B? aw—f 7 z 5 Z — (ar20110) 120, (i) Identify the logic gates marked P and Qin the given logi circus A iia: (ii) Write down the output at X for the inputs ). B=Oand A= 1, B (Ar2010) 121. Write the truth table for the following circuit. Name the equivalent gate that this circuit represents, (Foreign 2010) 122. ‘The given inputs A, Bare fed to 2-input NAND gate, Draw the output wave form of the gate. A (input) inp) (Delhi 2008) HEN 0 marks) 123. Identify the gates P and Q shown in the figure. Write the truth table for the combination of the gates shown, a ——-| > Name the equivalent gate representing this, circuit and draw its logic symbol. (AI 2015) 124, You are given a circuit below, Write its truth table. Hence, identify the logic operation carried out by this circuit. Draw the logic symbol of the gate corresponds to it. EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14 - Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII (ar2o11) 125, ‘The inputs A and B are inverted by using two NOM gates and their outputs are fed to the NOR gate as shown below. Analyse the action of the gates (1) and (2) and indentify the logic gate of the complete circuit so ‘obtained. Give its symbol and the truth table. (AI 2008) a 8 HE (5 marks) 126, Identify the logic gate equivalent to the circuit shown inthe figure Draw the truth table forall possible values of inputs A and B EduSuccess/ ¥ a (2/5, Delhi 20150) 127. Show the output waveforms (¥) for the following inputs A and B of (i) OR gate (ii) NAND gate, 4b bh (2/5, 120140) 128. Identify the logic gate represented by the circuit as shown and write its truth table. = (215, Dethi 2010) — s—| EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14 - Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII Lie 1. Metals : (i) For metals, the valence band is completely filled and the conduction band can have two possiblitis-either itis partially filled with an extremely small energy gap between the valence and conduction bands o it is empty, withthe two bands overlapping each other as shown below ‘Conduction Band Conduction Band ‘Valence Band! (ii) On applying even an small electric field, metals ‘can conduct electricity, Insulators (i) for insulator, the energy gap between the conduction and valence bands is very large. Also, the conduction band is practically empty, as shown, below Condition Hand ‘Valence Band! (ii) When an electric field is applied across such a solid, the electrons find it difficult to acquire such a large amount ofenergy to reach the conduction band. ‘Thus, the conduction band continues to be empty. That is why no current flows throtgh insulators. 2 (i) The resistivity of a conductor increases ‘non-linearly with increase in temperature 4 + z ie $ g ote a CW we TK)» (For low temperature (ii) The resistivity of @ sefticondictor decreases with increase in temperate. 1 (or hgh emperatre) (2m) > o BOR TK)» led Solutions {Soviet bd E) & : oe femicin tant | WEE, Insulators pr i f Scmicondstors ‘Two Distinguishing features (In conductors, the valence band and conduction band tend to overlap (or nearly overlap) while in insulators they are separated by a large energy gap and in semiconductors are separated by a small energy gap, (i) The conduction band of a conductor has a large number of electrons available for electrical conduction, conduction band of insulators is almost empty while that of the However, the semiconductor has only a (very) small number of such electrons available for electrical conduction. 4. When two atoms come closer to each other their valence electrons begin to interact with each other. Duc to this interaction energy levels of valence clectrons get modified, This processis called splitting of energy levels. Splitting of energy levels in case of a crystal results in the formation of energy bands. Completely filled energy levels form valence band and vacant energy levels form conduction band. The energy bands are separated by an energy gap (E,) called energy band gap. Energy band diagrams (at T> 0K), EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14 - Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII (i) Fora conductor Conduction band Overlapping of band E09) Electro energy Valence band (ii) For an intrinsic semiconductor: EduSuccess/ 7. The required energy band diagrams are given below: ecton energy Ow @ Energy band diagram of aypesemiconductar atT> 0K 2 —S= a g =001 DF 5. a is oR na SS Semiconductor | Semiconductor DP ® @ [itis formed by| ttsformedby doping Ey an grr of : = payne semiconictr doping _pentavalent| trivalent impurities a impurities 8 Refer toonower (ii) |The electrons are) The holes are a aw majority carriers | majority carriers H) and holes are |and_ electrons. are minority carriers. | minority carriers. 2 (n,>> 1m), (an, >> 0), q 6 A Intrinsic Extrinsic Semiconductors | Semiconductors 1. |Theseare pure These are sem- Pay ba aa semiconducting | condueting tetravalent pe semicond |tetravalent crystals: | crystals doped! with impurity atoms of group IT or ¥ = 2 Ata eewiet 7 | tho eect i conductivity slow. conductivity is high. i 3. | Thereisno permitted | There is permitted = energy state between energy. state of the valence and impurity atom © conduction bands. between valence and bard ee conduction bands Leite EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14 - Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII In n-type extrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons in conduction band is much more than the number of holes in valence band, The donor energy level lies just below the conduction band. In p-type extrinsic semiconductor, the number of holesin valence band is much more than the number of free electrons in conduction band. The acceptor energy level lies ust above the valence band, aw) EduSuccess/ 2 [intrinsic charge] Majority charge carriers are electrons | carriers are holes and holes with equal |and minority concentration. charge carriers. are dlectrons. 3. | Conductivity depends | Conductivity depends com temperature. fon temperature as well as dopant concentration. At absolute zero temperature (0 K) conduction band of semiconductor is completely empty, ie, 6 = 0. Hence the semiconductor behaves as an insulator. At room temperature, some valence electrons acquire enough thermal energy and jump to the conduction band where they are free to conduct electricity. Thus the semiconductor acquires a small conductivity at room temperature, 10, Refer to answer 7. The donor energy level Epis just below the bottom of the conduction band. At room temperature this small energy gap is easly converted by the thermally excited electrons. The conduction band has more electrons as they have been contributed both by thermal excitation and donor impurities. Whereas the acceptor energy level B, lies slightly above the top of the valence band. At room temperature, many clectrons of the valence band get excited to these acceptor energy levels, leaving behind equal number ofoles in the valence band. These holes an conduct current. Thus the valence band has more holes than the electrons in the conduetion band. n. Intrinsic semiconductor 1. | Tt isa semiconductor | It isa semiconductor in pure form. doped with trivalent (like Al, In) impurity. Tn p-lype semiconductor, trivalent impurity is doped with tetravalent pure semiconductor. Both type of atom (impurity and host semiconductor) are electrically neutral and hence, so produced p-type semiconductor is electrically neutral 12, Any slab, howsoever flat, will have roughness much larger than the inter-atomic erystal spacing (2 to 3A) and hence continuous contact at the atomic level will not be possible. The junction will behave as a discontinuity for the flowing charge cauriers, 13. i 2 . When p-n junction is formed, diffusion of charge take place at the junction where free electrons from type diffuse over to p-type, thereby recombining with holes in p-type. Due to this a layer of positive charge is built on n-side and a layer of negative charge is built on p-side of the p-n junction. This sets up potential difference across the junction and an internal electric field E, directed from n-side to p-side. Due to this field, an electron on p-side of the junction moves to 1-side and a hole on reside ‘moves to p-side. This motion of charge carriers due to electric field is called drift. E, becomes strong enough so thatthe layer sufficiently grows up within a very short time of the junction being formed, preventing any further movement of charge carriers (ie. electrons and holes) across the junction, Thus a potential difference Vg of the order of 0.1 to 03 V is set up across the p- junction called potential barrier or junction barrier potential. The thin region (on either side of the junction is formed containing EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14 - Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII immobile positive and negative charges is known as depletion layer. 14, Refer to answer 13. 15, Refer fo answer 13 16, Refer to answer 13. 17. Refer to answer 13 18, Fetious bec O58: @ZO3 O80 eresitore 4 Depletion yer The two processes are () Diffusion (i) Drift Diffusion Holes diffuse from p-sideton-side(p—> ») and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side(n > p) Drift : The motion of charge carriers, due to the applied electric field (E) which results in drifting of holes along E and of electrons opposite to that of electric field 19. Refer fo answer 13 20, (i) Forward biased : As forward Voltage opposes the potential barrier and effective barrier potential decreases. It makes the width of the depletion layer smaller. (ii) Reverse biased : As revel8e voltage supports the potential barrier and effective barrier potential increases. It makes the width of the depletion layer larger. 21, (i) From the given curve, we have voltage, V= 0.8 vot for current, 1=20 mA voltage, V = 0.7 volt for current, I= 10 mA 10V, we have 1x 10% A, IMA 10x10? Q EduSuccess/ 22. (i) Diode D, is reverse biased, so it offers an Infinite resistance. So no current flows in the branch of diode Dy (ii) Diode Dis forward biased, and offers negligible resistance in the circuit, So current in the branch vi wes Ry 22442” 20 > D, x0 sate so a By 23, According to the question > 20. 24, Circuit diagram of forward biased and reverse biased p-n junction diode is shown below ot @ Lol a 4 IF 2 » (Forward biased) (Revere biased) The width of depletion layer (1) decreases in forward bias Gi) imcreases in reverse bias 25. Semiconductor material (germanium) X is doped with indium which is trivalent, So it forms p-type semiconductor. Similarly, the semiconductor Y is doped with arsenic which is pentavalent. So it forms n-type semiconductor. EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII po x] ed F (Junction is reverse biased. (i) Ver graph vols Reverse [reve cearvrsi! (i) ‘The reverse current is due t© minority charge carriersand even a small voltage is suicient to sweep the minority carriers from one side ofthe junction to the other side ofthe junction, Here the currents not limited by the magnitude of the applied voltage but is limited due to the concentration of the minority carrier on either side of the junction. (ii) At critical voltage/breakdown voltage, a large number of covalent bonds break; resulting in availability of large number of charge carriers, Zener diode operates under the reveF¥e bias in the breakciown region. 27, (a) Forward biased characteristics : The circuit diagram for studying forward biased characteristics i shown in the figure. Starting from a low value, forward bias voltage is increased step by step (measured by voltmeter) and forward current is noted (by ammeter). A graph is plotted between voltage and current. The curve so obtained is the forward characteristic ofthe diode. EduSuccess/ Garren (mad ocrdaasbabs Volage( Ania tI satery @ © At the start when applied voltage is low, the current through the diode is almost zero. It is because of the potential barrier, which opposes the applied voltage. Till the applied voltage exceeds the potential barrier, the current inereases very slowly with increase in applied voltage (OA portion of the graph). With further increase in applied voltage, the current increases very rapidly (AB portion of the graph), in this situation, thediode behaves like a conductor. The forward voltage beyond which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly with voltage {s called threshold or cit-in voltage. If line AB is extended back, it cuts the voltage axis at potential barrier voliage (b) Reverse biased characteristics : The circuit diagram for studying reverse biased characteristics fs shown in the figure. ne Vonage) a0-8 6-4-2 Garren A) LIE Batery ID @) In reverse biased, the applied voltage supports the flow of minority charge carriers across the junction. So, a very small current flows across the junction due to minority charge carriers. “Motion of minority charge carriers is also supported by internal potential barrier, so all the minority carriers cross over the junction, EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII ‘Therefore, the small reverse current remains almost constant over 2 sulficiently long range of reverse bias, increasing very little with increasing voltage (OC portion of the graph). This reverse current is voltage independent upto certain voltage known as breakdown voltage and this voltage independent current is called reverse saturation current. 28. Refer to answer 27, 29, If p-type and n-type semiconductor are heavily doped. Then due to diffusion of electrons from nn-region to p-region, and of holes from p-region to n-region, a depletion region formed of size of order less than 1 yim, ‘The electric field directing from nn-region to p-region produces a reverse bias voltage of about 5 V and electric field becomes very large. BAY sc108 vim ‘Ae pm 30. Depletion layer: The small region in the vicinity of the junction which is depleted of free charge carriers and has only immobile ions is called the depletion layer. Barrier potential : Due to accumulation of negative charges in the p-tegion and positive charges in the region sets up a potential difference across the junction sets up. This acts as a barrier and is called potential barrier Vp which opposes the further diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction. (i) Amvinerease in doping concentration, the applied potential difference causes an electric field which acts opposite to the potential barrier. This rests in reducing the potential barrier and hence the width of depletion layer decreases. (ii) In forward biasing the) width//of depletion layer reduced and the external applied field is able to overcome the strong electric field of depletion layer. In reverse biasing the width of depletion layer increases and the electric field of depletion layer become more stronger: 31. Refer fo answers 13 and 30(ii) 32, Refer to answer 27, The battery is connected to the silicon diode through 4 potentiomenter, so that the applied voltage can be changed. For different value of voltage, the value of current is noted. EduSuccess/ igo 30 40 Hv) Wy 02 G4 og 08 10 THA) ‘Vl Characterstes of Silicon diode 33, Half wave rectifier: 4 Output r It consists of a diode D connected in series with load resistor R, across the secondary windings of a step-down transformer. Primary of transformer is connected to a.c. supply: During positive haf cycle of Input a.c, end A of the secondary winding becomes positive and end B negative. Thus, diode D becomes forward biased and conducts the current through it So, current in the circuit flows from A to B through load resistor R During negative half cycle of input a.c, end A of the secondary winding becomes negative and end B positive. Thus, diode D becomes reverse biased and does not conduct any current. So, no current flows in the circuit. Since electric current through load R, flows only during positive haf cycle, in one direction only i.e, from A to B, s0 d.c. is obtained across Ry, EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII 34, Full Wave Rectifier Cenre-Tap centre A full wave rectifier consists of two diodes connected in parallel across the ends of secondary winding of a center tapped step down transformer, ‘The load resistance R, is connected across secondary winding and the diodes between A and B as shown in the circu During positive half eycle of input ac, end A of the secondary winding becomes positive and end B negative. Thus diode D, becomes forward biased, whereas diode Da reverse biased. So diode D, allows the current to flow through it, while diode D, does not, and current in the circuit flows from Dy and through load R, from X to ¥. During negative half cycle of input ac, end A of the secondary winding becomes negative and end B positive, thus diode D, becomes reverse biased, whereas diode D, forward biased. $o diode D, does not allow the current to flow through it but diode D, does, and current in the circuit flows from D, and through load R, from X to ¥. Input Our waeorns Since in both the half eycles of input a.c, electric current through load R, flows in the same direction, so dc. is obtained across R;. Although direction of lectric current through R, remains same, but its ‘magnitude changes with time, so itis called pulsating de. 35. Refer to answer 34. EcluSuccess/ (i) A fall wave rectifier gives a continuous, unidirectional but pulsating outpat voltage or current, The rectified ouput is passed through a filter circuit which removes the ripple and an almost steady d.c. output (voltage or current) is obtained. 36. Refer to answer 33, 37, Refer to answer 34 38. Refer to answer 34 39, (a) X= Half wave reetifier ull wave rectifier i, Output (a wave seetien) Cswe-Tap Tear, lade py A, ouput (all versie) (b) Refer to answer 34 (©) A capacitor of large capacitance is connected in parallel to the load resistor Ry. When the pulsating voltage supplied by the rectiferisrising, the capacitor € gets charged. If there is no external load, the capacitor would have remained charged to the peak voltage of the rectified output, However, when there is no load and the rectified voltage stars falling, the capacitor gets discharged through the load and the to fll lowly. EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII 40, Device" isa full wave rectifier. Coste Tap ee ede, AL, Rectifier isa circuit which converts alternating current (ac) into direct current (é.c). The principle (on which rectifier works is that p-n junction diode is unidirectional device, ie, it allows the current to flow through it only in one direction, when it isin forward bias. Refer to answer 34 42. Region BC of the graph has a negative slope, hence in region BC semiconductor has @ negative resistance. 43. Photodiode is used to detect the ight signal and to measure light intensi 44, The device is zener diode. The zener diode is used as voltage regulator. 43, In solar radiations, intensity is maximum near 15 eV. In GaAs Gallium Arsenide), B, = 1.53 eV, so solar cell made of GaAs has high absorption coefficient of solar radiations 46. Working of photodiode : A junction’ diode ‘made from light sensitive semiconductor is called a photodiode. A photodiode is a p-n junction diode arranged in reverse biasing, “he ® ‘The mumber of charge carriers increases when light of suitable frequency is made to fall on the pen junction, because new electron holes pairs are created by absorbing the photons of suitable frequency. Intensity of light controls the number of charge carriers. Due to this property photodiodes are used to detect optical signals. EduSuccess/ 47, (a) (i) There is very litle resistance to limit the current in LED. Therefore, a resistor must be used in series with the LED to avoid any damage to it (ii) Therreverse breakdown voltages of LEDsarevery low, typically around 5 V. So care should be taken while fabricating a p-n-junction diode so that the p side should only attached to the positive of battery and vice versa as LED easily get damaged by a small reverse voltages. (6) the semiconduba used for\Bbrication of visible LEDs must have at least a band gap of 18 eV because spectral range of visible light is about 0.4 um to 0.7 Um, ie, about3 eV 10 18 eV. 48, Consider the case of an m-type semiconductor. The majority carrier density (n) is considerably larger than the minority hole density p (ie..m>> p) On illumination, let the excess electrons and holes generated be Anand Ap, respectively nant An B= ptap Here n’ and p’ are the electron and hole concentrations at any particular illumination and n and p are carriers concentration when there is no illumination. Remember An = Ap and n>> p. Hence, the fractional change in the majority carriets (i... n/n) would be much less than that in the minority carriers (ie. Apip). In general, we can slate that the fractional change due to the photo- efliects on the minority carrier dominated reverse bias current is more easily measurable than the fractional change inthe forward bias current, Hence, photodiodes are preferably used in the reverse bias condition for measuring light intensity. 49. A light emitting diode is simply a forward biased p-n junction which emits spontaneous light radiation. At the junction, energy is released in the form of photons due to the recombination of the excess minority charge carrier with the majority change carrier Advantages (i) Low operational voltage and less power. (ii) Fast action and no warm up time required. 50. (a) ‘The energy for the maximum intensity of the solar radiation is nearly 1.5 eV. In order to have photo excitation the energy of radiation (hy) must bee greater than energy band gap (B,). ie, hv > E,. ‘Therefore, the semiconductor with energy band gap EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14 - Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII about 1.5 eV or lower and with higher absorption coefficient, is likely to give better solar conversion efficiency. ‘The energy band gap for Si is about 1.1 eV, while for GaAs itis about 1.53 eV. The gas GaAs is better inspite of its higherband gap than Si because it absorbs relatively more energy from the incident solar radiations being of relatively higher absorption coefficient. ) ; (open crt t voltage) x (orccireait current) (i) V-Teurve is drawn in the forth quadrant, because a solar cell deos not draws current but supply current tothe load. (ii) In V-Fcurve, the point A indicates the maximum voltage Vic being supplied by the given solar cell ‘when no current is being drawn from it. Vic is called the open circuit voltage (iii) In V-Icurve, the point B indicates the maximum current Ii: which can be obtained by short circuiting the solar cell without any load resistance. eis called the short circuit current, 51, Zener diode i) Reverse bias ver Forward bias 0) 1A) Working : The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode is shown in the above figure. When the applied reverse bias voltage (V) reaches the breakdown voltage (V2) of the Zener diode, there is a large change in the current. After the breakdown voltage V.,a large change in the current can be produced by almost insignificant change in the reverse bias voltage. In EduSuccess/ other words, Zener voltage remains constant, even though current through the Zener diode varies over a wide range. This property of the Zener diode is used for regulating supply voltages so that they are constant. 52, Refer to answer 46, 53, (i) Principle: A sola cell workson the principle of photo voltaic effect according 1 which wien light photons of energy greater than energy band gap of a semiconcluetor are incident on p-n junction of that semiconductor, electron-hole pairs are generated ‘hich give rise to an emi, Thus, working principle of solar cell is same as that ofa photodiode. However, nobis is applied ina solar cell and the junction area {kept much larger so that more solar radiation may be incident. ogn Deletion layer Generation of emf : Three basic processes are involved inthe generation of emfby asolar cell when solar radiations are incident om it. These are: (a) ‘Ihe generation of electron-hole pairs close to the junction due to incidence of light with photo energy hv2 E, (b) “The separation of electrons and holes due to the clecttc field of the depletion region. So, electrons are swept to n-side and holes to p-sie. (©) The electrons reaching the n-side are collected by the front contact and holes reaching p-side are collected by the back contact. Thus, p-side becomes positive and n-side become negative giving rise to a photovoltage. ‘When an external load R; is connected as shown in figure, a photocurrent I, begins to flow through the load (Gi) Refer to answer 50 (a) 54, Refer to answers 46 and 48 35. (a) A zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping both p- and r-sides ofthe junction so that its depletion region formed is very thin and the electric field of the junction is extremely high, even for a small reverse bias voltage. EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XIl (b) Zener diode as a voltage regulator BR Unregulated voltage (V2) a, Regulated. * veliage(V,) — To get a constant dic. voltage form the de. unregulated output of a rectifier, we use a Zener diode. The unregulated dec. voltage is connected to the Zener diode through a series resistance R, such that the Zener diode is reverse biased. If the input voltage increase, the current through R, and Zener diode also increases. This increases the voltage drop across R, without any change in the voltage across the Zener diode. Similarly, if the input voltage decreases, the current through R, and Zener diode also decreases. The voltage drop across R, decreases, without any change in the voltage across the Zener diode, Thus any increase/decrease in the input voltage results in, increase/decrease of the voltage drop across R, without any change in voltage across the Zener diode. ‘hus the Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator 56. (a) A photodiode is fabricated by allowing light to fallon adiode through a transparent window. Its, fabricated such that the generation of e-K pairs take place near the depletion region, (b) Refer to answer 46, V-Icharacteristies: Lot, 57, (i) Semiconductor diode is zener diode. (i) Refer to answer 55 (6). 58, Refer to answer 57, 59, Refer to answer 53. 60, LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a forward biased p-n junction diode which emit spontaneous radiations. EduSuccess/ " [Meta contact Advantages (Low operational voltage and less power. (ji) Fastaction and no warm up time required. (ii) Long lie 61. Principle : Radiation is emitted whenever an excited electron falls from higher energy state to 2 lower energy state. maya 8 : Metallic Jeantact Working : Light emitting diode is a forward-biased ‘p-n junction. Electrons are excited to higher energy state, Possible spontaneous emissions are as shown, Nawaitive When electron falls from the higher to lower energy level, the energy is released in the form of light radiations. The energy of radiation emitted by LED is equal to or less than the band gap of the semiconductor. Semiconductor used in LED is chosen according to the required wavelength of emitted radiation. To get visible wavelength least band gap required is L.8 eV. Advantages 1. Low operational voltage and less power 2. Fastaction and no warm up time required. 62. (i) Values displayed by Meeta, are curiosity to learn and good observation. Values displayed by her father are patience and knowledgeable. EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XIl (ii) Meeta's father most probably explained her the benefits of using tiny bulbs (LEDs) over a single bull (a) Tiny lights are semiconductor devices which consume very less power than a single bulb. (b) Tiny lights are very cheap. (©) Ifsome ofthese tiny lights are not working, then traffic system will not be affected. But ifa single bulb is fused, trafic system will be disturbed. (iii) Tiny lights in traffic signals are called LEDs, LEDs are operated in forward biasing and emits spontaneous radiation, 63. (i) Being an engineer, Rohit was well awared about energy saving and use of modern technology. (i) CFLs and LEDs consumes less power in Comparison of traditional incandescent lamp and also give more light and it can save upto 85% on energy bill. (iil) The earth wire acts as negative terminal ‘The flowing current from positive cable to earth grounding will not be counted by electric meter because it does not pass the negative cable. In this ‘way, ou can reduce the electricity bill and save your ‘money. 6A, (a) A zener diode is considered as a special purpose semiconductor diode because itis designed to operate under reverse bias atthe breakdown. V-I characteristics of Z (b) 1 9 @ vv vn 02 Oa 06 08 TO Kua) ‘We know that reverse current is due to the flow of clectrons (minority carriers) from p ~> n and holes from n—> p. As the reverse bias voltage is increased, the electric field atthe junction becomes significant. When the reverse bias voltage V= V.. Then the electric field strength is high enough to pull valence electrons form the host atoms on the p-side which are accelerated to n-side. These electrons account for high current observed atthe break down, EduSuccess/ (©) Refer to answer 55(b) 65, Refer to answer 55(b) 66. Refer to answer 60. 67. Refer to answer 55(b) and 48. 68. Applications of LED (LEDs are used as indicator fa radio and other electronic systems (i) LEDs are used a8 optical fibre transmitters and {n digital electronic eiteuits to show whether input are ‘high or ‘low’. Refer to answer 47(b). 69, (i) Collector current will decrease, as more of the majority carriers going fiom emitter to eollector get neutralised in base by electron-hole combination. (Gi) Base current will increase. 70. If the value of tesistor R is reduced, then the voltage will increase and lamp will glow more brightly 71. (i) Brightness of lamp will increase (ii) Voltmeter reading increases The given. circuit is a common emitter (CE) configuration of an n-p-n transistor. The input circuit is forward biased and collector circuit is reverse biased. (On decreasing the resistance Rin emitterbase circuit i.e. input circuit the forward biasing increases, Which in turn increases the emitter current , base current and collector currents. Te= n+ Ic "Now due to extra collector current through lamp, the lamp will glow brighter and potential drop across it ice. V also increases. 72. af efrend i : 6 8 0 1D 16 CColletor to emir voltage (Hp) in wots Output resistance is the reciprocal ofthe slope of the linear part of the output characteristics [st] ole J EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XIl 73. Action of p-n-p transistor The forward bias ofthe emitter-base circuit repels the holes of emitter towards the base. As the base is very thin and lightly doped, most of the holes (=95 %) entering it pass on to collector while a very few of them (5 %) recombine with the electrons of the base region. As soon as a hole combines with an electron, an electron from the negative terminal ofthe battery Vin enters the base. This sets up a small base current I Holes entering the collector region see the negative terminal of the battery Veg and hence they easily reaches the collector terminal. This creates collector current Io, Both the base current Ij, and collector current fz combine to form emitter current Ip I=ln+ Ic pep {ti 74. The transfer characteristic eurve of a base bi transistor in CE configuration is shown below. Cutoff Active region region Saturation, ezion v Fe.) For using the transistor as an amplifier we will use the active region of the V, versus V; curve. The slope of the linear part of the curve represents the rate of change of the output with the input. If we consider AY, and AV, as small changes in the output and input voltages then AV,/AV; is called the small signal voltage gain Ay of the amplifier. EduSuccess/ 75. (i) ‘The input resistance r, of transistor in CE configuration is defined as the ratio of small change in base emitter voltage to the corresponding small change in the base current, when the collector emitter voltage is kept constant, ic, y=( Avee © Uala Jy eansdn (id) The current amplifction factoP of a transistor in CE configuration is equal to the ratio of the small change in the collector current (Al) to the small change in base currenthen collector-emitter voltage is kept constant ie, 6 (ea San 76.) Resitance ain =52= To =6 Voltage gai = Current gain x Resistaice gain = 30%6= 180 (jd) On passing a strong current, beyond its rated value, the semiconductor diode is damaged or destroyed due to overheating 77. (i) Funetions of tree segments of transistor Emitter + It supplies a large number of majority charge carriers for the flow of current through the transistor. Base: It controls the flow of majority charge carriers from emitter to collector. Collector + It collects a major portion of the majority carriers supplied by emitter for the circuit operation. Gi {rit agnor sting ep and (a) Input characteristics + Input characteristic ‘means we have to plot the graphical representation between Ipand Vip. Vapis the emitter to base voltage or the forward bias voltage and Iyis the base current In this forward biasing, Eis at lower potential than B.We will be plotting jy versus V ye Because base is at EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII higher potential than emitter, so that will be reflected here. Now go on varying Vag: For silicon diode we have knee voltage around 0.7 V . After overcoming the knee voltage, current will rise sharply. The input characteristic will be different if we go on increasing the Vc, It will be shifting right, means for the same Vg we will be getting lower input current Ip, Hd) BE OT as OFT Tah Input resistance (r): This is defined as the ratio of change in base-emitter voltage (AVgz) to the resulting change in base current (Ap) at constant collector-emitter voltage (Ves). ‘Uhis is dynamic (ac resistance) and as its value varies with the operating current in the transistor it (ee) * Aly Vee (b) Output characteristics + A graph showing the variation of collector current J, with collector emitter voltage Vep at constant base current Ip is called the output characteristic ofthe transistor A study of these curves reveals the following features ()_ When the voltage Vix increases from Oo about 02 Vthe collector eurret fc increases rapidly (i) Once the voltage Veg exceeds the knee voltage the output current fg varies very slowly but linearly with Veg fora given base current I ase were current (Ie) ia 0A oos tis 225 3 as 4 ‘Clletor to emitter vlgate (Vin volts (iii) Output resistance (r;) : This is defined as the ratio of change in collector-emitter voltage (AV¢,) EduSuccess/ to the change in collector current (A/,) ata constant base current I “i 78. Re 10°, Vew= x, x 10°. Coll I Yes 2 Caeor caret em FEA =1x10°A=1mA. Inputbase current y= fe = 10" B 100 =1x10°A=10pA, Input signal voltag Vin = lan Ry = 10° 10? 107V = 10 mV 79. Refer to answer 77 (i). Carrent amplification factor (B) : This is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current to the changein base current ata constant ollector-emitter voltage (Ver) when the transistor is in active state. ‘This is also known as small signal current gain and its value is very large 80. To operate the transistor as an amplifier it is necessary to fixits operating point somewhere in the idle ofits active region ‘The working of an amplifier can be easily understood, if we first assume that v= 0. Then applying Kirchhof’s law to the output loop, we get Voo= Vor + leRe Like wise, the input loop gives Vy = Var + Tes When y; is not zero, we get Vas-+ ¥;= Vag + lita + Aly (Ry + 1) EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII The change in Vg can be related to the input resistance r,and the change in Iy. Hence = Alp (Rp +1) =rAlp The change in Tp causes a change in Io. We define a parameter x. which is similar to the By defined Ae _ic Bac ‘Aig iy Which is also known as the ac current gain Aj Usually ix is close to Bin the linear region of the output characteristics The change in Jcdue ta change in [y causes. change in Veg and the voltage drop across the resistor Ry because Vir is fixed. These changes can be given by as AVeo= AVoe + RiAle or Vep=-RiATc ‘The change in Vey is the output voltage vy. From wwe get ¥= AV e= BacRyAlp The voltage gain of the amplifir is pate Ner Bak Mp ‘The negative sign represents that output voltage is opposite with phase with the input voltage. 81. (a) Refer to answer 74. (b) Refer fo answer 80, Fate with Condition : The transistor must be operated close to the centre of its active region. Alternatively : The base emitter junction of the transistor must be (suitably) forward biased and the collector emitter junction must be (suitably) reverse biased 83, () Dynamic output resistance isthe slope of Ver~le Graph 7 (| ___ 2-8 le )iyscosam 36-34) X10 EcluSuccess/ 10k 35mA _35xil 30WA ~ 30x10 de current gain is the ratio of output current i.e. cand input current Ip Al (ii) By, = Me = ETA _ LNT = 6 Alp (40-30)HA 10 x10°° ac current gain is the ratio of change in output current [cto the change in input current I. 84, Transfer characteristics : The graph between Vo and V; is called the transfer characteristics of the 120 base-biased transistor, is shown in figure. ato region Acne ie Satiration ‘egian Transrcharestvistic ‘When the transistor isused in thecutoff or saturation state tacts asa switch, ‘Transistor asa switch : The circuit diagram of transistor asa switch is shown in fig, se-biased transistor in CE ‘configuration, As long as V; is low and unable to forward bias the twansistor, Vp is high (at Vcc). If Vis high enough to drive the transistor into saturation, then Vj is low, very near to zero When the transistor is not conducting it is said to be switched off and when itis driven into saturation it is said to be switched on. This shows that if we define low and high states as below and above EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII certain voltage levels corresponding to cut-off and saturation of the transistor, then we can say that a low input switches the transistor offand a high input switches it on, 85. on Active Sstution on Transfer characterise In active region the transistor is used as an amplifier (0) Input Resistance = It is the ratio of change in emitter base voltage (AVg,) to the corresponding change in base current (Aly) at constant collector- emitter voltage (Vey) ie AV ye Inpuresance =( 524) 8 Ngee ‘The input resistance is very small, of the onder of a few ohms, because a small change in Vgg causes a large change in Ip (Gi) Output Resistance : It is the ratio. of change in collector-emitter voltage to the corresponding change in collector current at constant base current Ip i SB) "Alc ) agi ‘The output resistance is very high, ofithe oven of several-tens Kilo ohm because a large change in collector-emitter voltage causes a very small change in collector current. (iii) Current amplification factor of @ transistor ‘The current gain fis defined as the ratio of change in collector current to the change in base current for constant value of collector voltage in common emitter configuration ie, o-(a 2am The value ofB ranges from 20 to 200, EcluSuccess/ 86. (i) Transfer characteristics: The graph between Vpand Vs called the transfer characteristics ofthe boase-biased transfer in CE configuration as shown in figure. uot spon, Active | | | Sauron | Orepon i | | ¥, Transfer characte (2) When the transistor is Used in the cutoi or saturation stteyt acts asa switch (©) ‘he transistor acts as amplifier in the active region, Gi) Thecircut detailsfor using an -p-n transistor as commion emitter amplifier are shown in the figure. Clap sit enter When no ac. signal is applied, the potential difference Vey between the collector and the emitter, isgiven by Vee= Veo FcR, @ Phase relationship between input and output signals : When an ac. signal is fed to the input circuit, its positive half cycle increases the forward biasof the circuit which in turn increases the emitter current and hence the collector current. The increase in collector current increases the potential drop across R,, Which makes the output voltage Vey less positive or more negative. So as the input signal goes through its positive half cycle, the amplified output signal goes through a negative half eye. Similarly, as the input signal goes through its negative hay cycle, the amplified output signal goes through its positive half eyele. Hence in a common emitter amplifier the input and output voltages are 180° out of phase or in ‘opposite phase. EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII 87, Refer to answer 86(ti) 88, Transistor as an oscillator : In an oscillator, the output at a desired frequency is obtained without applying any external input voltage. The common emitter n-p-n transistor as an oscillator is shown in the following figure. A variable capacitor C of suitable range is connected in parallel to coil L to give the variation in frequency. Duper Oscillator action ‘As in an amplifier, the base-emitter junction. is forward biased while the base collector junction is reverse biased, When the switeh S is put on, a surge of collector, current flows in the coil 75. The inductive coupling between coil T; and T, cause a current to flow in the emitter circuit ie, feedback from input to output. Asa result of positive feedback, the collector current reaches at maximum, When there will be no further feedback from T, to Ty, the emitter current begins to fall and collector current decreases. Therefore, the transistor has reverted back to its original state, The whole process now repeats itself ‘The resonance frequehcy (/) of the osilator is given Thetank oftuned circuit is connected in the oscillator side. Hence itis known as tuned collector oscillator. EcluSuccess/ 89. Refer to answer 86(i). ‘The phase difference between the input signal and output signal is 180°. Common emitter amplifier is preferred because ~ Power gain is very hight b. Voltage gain is greater. 90. (i) The values displayed by grandmother are (@) Curiosity (b) Awareness ‘The inculcation of these values in students can be promoted by positive mental state, improvement in ‘motives and healthy supportive environment. (ii) The function of an amplifier to increase the amplitude of variation of alternating voltage or current or power. (ii) Transistor is the basic electronic device used in the amplifier. 91. (a) Device X—> Cy Amplifier Power gain A, of the transistor may be expressed ‘Ae power gain (4,) = Current gain (Py) x Voltage gain (A,) eR A, = BI Gautamis As power is always positive, hence power gain Ay is always postive Refer to answer 80, (B) Refer tocanswer 74, 92. (a) Every transistor consists of three regions. (i). Emitter is the section on one side of transistor, that supplies charge carriers. Itis heavily doped and of modrate size it is always forward biased with respect to base, so that it can supply a large number of charge carriers to the base. (ii) Collector is the section on the other side of transistor, that collects the charge carriers. It is moderately doped but larg in size andi always kept in reverse bias with respect to base. (iii) Base is the middle section of transistor, that forms two p-n junctions with emitter and collector. Itis very thin and lightly doped so as to pass most of. the emitter injected charge carriers to the collector. (b) A transistor will be in active state if the input circuit is forward biased and the output circuit is reverse biased. (6) Refer to answer 80, 93. Refer to answer 88. EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII 94, (a) N B N hy Vin Yew Ai, ‘As soon as an electron from the emitter combines with a hole in the base region, an electron leaves the negative terminal of the battery Vy and at the same time the positive terminal of battery Vzp receives an clectron from the base, This sets a base current Ip, Similarly, corresponding to each electron that goes from collector to positive terminal of Vo, an electron enters the emitter from negative terminal of Vip. Hence Ip=Igtlo Upc] Here Jp is a small fraction of I; depending on the shape of transistor, thickness of base, doping levels, bias voltage ete Yi t, 4) Kp (©) Refer to answer 80 95. Refer to answer 79. 96. (a) Base provides the proper junetion for inter- connection between emitter and collector. tis made thin and lightly doped, so the number of majority carriers is low. So less number of electrons-hole recombination take place and a large number of charge carriers emitted from the emitter is passed to the collector (b) Refer to answer 79. 97, Refer to answer 80, 98. (a) Refer to answer 79. (b) Refer to answer 84 9, X—> Amplifier Y— Feedback network Refer to answer 88 EdluSuccess/ 100. Gi araneten brain the ipa oapat Soractrstebo mp anssterin CE conigration. Refer to answers 74 and 80, TOL. Refer to answer 88, 102. (a) Refer to answer 79, () Refer to answer 88, 103. Refer to answer 84 104. Refer to answer 79, 105, Refer 1 answers 79 and 80. 106. (i) Symbol of p-n-p transistor (ii) Symbol of n-p-m transistor Refer 10 answer 96(a) and 73 107.It is the combination of AND and NOT gates. Logical symbol: —_l>- Input Output > > 108. ‘Truth table EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252EduSuccess/ ee = ae Chapter 14 - Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII ‘The output X ofthe given combination of gates oeteae d xox) el 1 ° L Truth table fr given combination 0 1 1 AB | x’=a |X =(B4X), 1 1 0 ofo, 1 1 oft] t 1 sib } > tfof tf 1 a ¥ rife 1 AND eate Nor gate 109. Loy yg 114, Truth table forthe given circuit anes) 4/3 er x [NAND gate o fof |i [ro ‘Truth table otal ao a Input Output Fn ane Taf of op 1] From the table, we can Conclude that the given circuit o 9 represents an OR gate 0 1 ‘The logic symbol and truth table for an OR gate 8 1 0 given below. 1 1 0 F 110. This logic gate is NOT gate andits symib6li 4 a 111. The gate is NOR gate andits Symbol is a yeaa B 112, Here, R represents OR gate and S represents AND gate, ‘The output Y of the given combination of gates y=¥A Truth table for the given combination alely Yaa olfol|o ofifa rlolt tfifti 115. Logic circuit AB Y=AsB[Y=¥A oot ° x|y ¥ | X47 |z-%47 oft 0 oft o/. 0 eo Fete : ifo 1[4 0 Eee i oo r[o 0 113, Here, Prepresents NAND gate and Q represents ififofo]o 1 OR gate. The equivalent gate of given circuit is AND gate EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14- Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII 116. It represent NAND gate. EduSuccess/ ‘Truth table for given circuit test symbol : 4 | 8 lecus ‘Truth table t 4 A a Input Output o| g y 7 a | a | y-ae 1| Sif IS ‘The combination formedis a AND gate o|o L ae is 0 1 o | L ise ee ° 117, Hereboth the input terminals A and Bare short . circuited g ‘Truth table Input Output Gate P isa NAND gate, and gate Q isan OR gate. (ii) Boolean expression for the above logic circuit is. a B X=A-B+ B=A+B+B=A+t o o 0 X= 1 [using boolean identities} ° 1 1 ‘hus output at Xs going to be I for all the possible 7 7 ; inputs at A and B. 1 n el 121, ¥=AsB=A+B ‘The equivalent gate is OR gate. So, the equivalent gate is OR gat. rapfeucto en ce eh 2s i Tnput ‘Output & A B Y combination is, 7 : 0 AGB 7 : i ‘Therefore, the given logic circuit acts as OR gate. 7 7 1 Hence, output is high when both or one of them is high. 1 L 1 wpa xT LW Accordingly the waveform of output is shown in figure. 119. It is a logic circuit in which X is NAND gate and Y is NOT gate. 122. For the NAND gate, the Boolean expression is Y=A-B=A+B For the given wave form, we have the following values for A, Band Y. Fortime t< A= 1,B=1 For; tof, For f;t0 15, For fs 101A For tt0f5,A For ts t0 fy, For tg> tn A EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252Chapter 14 - Semiconductor Electronics | EduSuccess - Physics XII Thus, the wave form for output Y's given as, 123.The gate P is AND gate and gate Q is a NOT gate. Equivalent gate representing this circuit is NAND gate. Logic symbol of NAND gate : ae Truth table for given circuit —lel-Tel =I =[elelel= al-l-} |< 124, Ze 2-RBHAB Hence, the equivalent gate is AND gate. Logic symbol a-—f Y= AB a—_| EduSuccess/ Ouiput y= ¥,+¥,=A4B -B=A-B ‘Thus, the complete circuit acts as AND gate. The symbol and truth table for complete circuit are given =D~ = NAND gate output i 128, Logic gate represented by the circuit is AND gate ‘Truth table uy uy Input pa — A B B NAND = NAND 3 AND 0 0 0 Truth able 0 1 0 Inpat Output 1 o 0 a a Y=AB 1 1 1 ° ° 0 125, Refer to answer 124 ° 1 0 126, Output of gate (A) Y=4 1 ° 0 ouput of gate (8) 1 t 1 Y= 8 >>> EduSuccess Smart Learning Centers | www.edusuccess.in | Contact # +91- 85 0606 1616 / 5252