International Journal of Art and Art History

December 2014, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 77-100

ISSN: 2374-2321 (Print), 2374-233X (Online)
Copyright © The Author(s). 2014. All Rights Reserved.
Published by American Research Institute for Policy Development
DOI: 10.15640/ijaah.v2n2a4
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.15640/ijaah.v2n2a4

The Masterpiece as a Question of Structure and Values: In Search of

Universals in Art

Michael Kausch*

1. To the Question

“What is a Masterpiece?”was the question asked by the famous British

historian of art Kenneth Clark in a small essay (Ill.1) in 1979. †

Ill. 1: Kenneth Clark: What is a Masterpiece? (1979)

*PD Mag. Dr. phil. habil, Eschenrieder Str. 11, D-82194 Gröbenzell, BRD, Austrian.
Telephone: +49 (0) 89 28803698
† Clark, Kenneth: What is a Masterpiece? London 1979.
78 International Journal of Art and Art History, Vol. 2(2), December 2014

He answeredthe question in the line of classical aesthetics and in reference to

works of art mainly of the classical European tradition. Although in our opinion many
of these answers respectively criteria are still valid, the exclusive frame of reference,
which here is still taken more or less for granted, today seems in multiple ways
doubtful:

1. The reference to classical aesthetics

2. The reference to classical art
3. The reference to European art and culture

To 1: Classical aesthetics essentially going back to the state of the 18th century
seems to have become relative by aesthetics of the open work of art, which is not
centered in the work, but – being based on the interaction between the work of art
and the recipient – in the observer.

To 2: The artistical frame of reference – which in Clark ends so to speak just

as a critical prospect with Picassos Woman with a Guitar(„Ma Jolie“) und Guernica - is
broken by modern age and its revolutionary artistic phenomena.

To 3:The limitation to European art and culture seems not any more tenable
in times of a global perspective heading for world art and in the frame of a
postcolonial perspective.

Now which conclusion has to be drawn from these results? Are there no
aesthetic criteria universally applicable to the arts and the cultures? Does each
(individual) work of art and each culture stand just for itself? Do we therefore have to
accept a situation of relativism, subjectivism, even solipsism? Or are there still
possibilities – starting from the classical tradition and in view of the conditions of
modern age – to work out a new aesthetics more open and flexible but universally
valid?

In this analysis arguments for the latter way shall be collected and presented –
which naturally requires an approach to the question without prejudice (!).

It is therefore necessary to liberate oneself as much as possible from

traditional and contemporary taboos and ideologies (to practice Epoché according to
Edmund Husserl).
Michael Kausch 79

Then it is obligatory to follow the fundamental purpose of science, that is to

analyse the phenomena without prejudice, to discern the typical and finally to
formulate sentences of general validity.

The process of modern age has come to a point, where relativism and
subjectivism threaten to erode the base on which just this modern age and its
conception of a free, open society are founded (example: universality of human
rights).‡

2. On the History of the Conception

The conception of the masterpiece probably originates in the medieval

formative system of the guilds, wherein the journeyman achieved the highest degree –
that of the master – by the production of the masterpiece. From this context, where
the craft aspect of techné was constitutive, comes the emphasis on the pole of the
work character in the sense of a differentiated, perfect execution.

It is known that with the nobilitation of the fine arts and the increasing
importance of the creative artistic personality since the Renaissance a shift of the
center of gravity came about: on the one hand to the subject of the artist and his idea,
on the other hand to differentiated theories of art and their teaching at the newly
founded academies.The masterpiece becomes a creation which is produced according
to established rules and criteria by the inspired artist, who is orientated towards idea.
So finally in theBalance des peintrespublished by Roger de Piles marks are given to the
painters in the categories ofcomposition, dessin, coloris andexpression.§

This balance was given up in Romanticism in favour of the pole of the

personality of the artist and its individual expression.Now the masterpiece is regarded
as the accomplished artistic transformationof the artist’s individuality in which the
artistic genius gives the rules to himself. The extreme consequence of this artistic
conception is demonstrated in a paradigmatic wayin Le Chef-d’oeuvre inconnu by Balzac
(1831).

‡ This danger was seen in the famous 2004 Munich discussion between the German philosopher Jürgen
Habermas and Joseph Ratzinger, the later Pope Benedict by both interlocutors from their very
different philosophies and world views.
§See: Vouilloux, Bernard: Article Chef d’Œuvre. In : Morizot, Jacques ; Pouivet, Roger : Dictionnaire

d’esthétique et de philosophie de l’art. Paris 2007, p.77f..

80 International Journal of Art and Art History, Vol. 2(2), December 2014

The protagonist of the short story, the painter Frenhofer, goes over his work
so long until the subject has almost completely disappeared under an amorphous layer
of over paintings.Here the elements of the conceptual and of the processappear as
fundamental characteristics of modernism.**

Here and especially in abstract and non-representational art (f.e. Kandinsky,

Mark Rothko)the balance is largely tilted from the pole of Rezeptionsvorgabe to that of
the recipient and the Rezeptionsbedingungen. As it is already prepared in the artistic
structure of symbolism, the work of art is essentially constituted in the beholder’s
individual process of reception.If there is still something such as a masterpiece, it
probably consists in the structure of the Rezeptionsvorgabe.

Inversely in conceptual art (f.e.) the masterpiece – if there is still something

like that – could be found in the theoretical conception being formulated in the
medium of discursive language making up the work to a high extent.

On the side of theoretical reflection and definition, a radical extension of the

concept of the Masterpiece as given in the UNESCO Proclamation of the Masterpieces of
the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity (2001-2005), including any cultural
expression and space of outstanding value – such as religious ceremonies and even
technical skills- , may be of practical value for preservation of endangered cultural
phenomena, but necessarily reduces the contents of the concept to a rather
generalized, vague and therefore insignificant meaning..

3. Thesis

1. A masterwork is a work of art in which the minimally necessary,

constitutive basic structure of the work of art is given and is qualitatively achieved
resp. exceeded to a high, exemplary extent.

Subthesis 1: There are universal fundamental structures and processes of

general and artistic perception resp. of visual reception and production, which are
founded in human physiology resp. psychology.

**
See: Belting, Hans: Das unbekannte Meisterwerk. München 1998.
Rosenblum, Robert: Modern Painting and the Northern Romantic Tradition. London 1975.
Michael Kausch 81

These fundamental natural laws meet different differentiations in diverse artistic and
cultural regions.

Subthesis 2: As well there are anthropologic constants in the semantic field,

wether in the sense of archetypes (C.G. Jung) or in the sense of universal fundamental
values.

4. Masterpiece and Artistic Structure

4.1. Classical Criteria

First of all a series of criteriashall presented which recur in classical art critic as
well as in art historical analysis and which are considered as being constitutive of a
masterpiece. Many of these can be found in the already cited essay by Kenneth Clarke
and shall be presented from his paper:

- Complexity: „An even more moving example of self-surrender to a complex

character is his [Titian] portrait of Paul III at Naples. One can look at him for an
hour, as I have done, turning away and turning back, and discover something new at
each turn.“††
- Density, conciseness (“good form”), Unity and diversity: „First, the Descent
from the Cross by Rogier van der Weyden. It is both concentrated and complex.
The figures are effectively all on one plane, and could be rendered as sculpture. The
composition could be analyzed in great detail. Every part of it works, and no
passages are included simply to please the eye […] And yet all this elaborate art is
subservient to the subject.“‡‡
- Imagination und technical ability: „But Roger’s imaginative power, supported by
his great technical skill, forces us to suspend the criticisms of commonsense – in
fact, they do not even cross our mind.“§§
- Significant subjects (Tradition: mythology, Christian subjects, antique and biblical
history; in general: subjects being exemplary for man and society): „The highest
masterpieces are illustrations of great themes.“***(Arena Chapel, Padua)

††Clark, op. cit., p. 16.

‡‡ Clark, op. cit., p. 20f.
§§Clark, op. cit., p. 21.
***Clark, op.cit., p. 20.
82 International Journal of Art and Art History, Vol. 2(2), December 2014

- Truth and imitation: „Well, we may agree that devotion to truth is an attribute of
the human mind from which a masterpiece may grow, and most people who are
inclined to use the word masterpiece at all would apply it to Las Meninas of
Velazquez. In the simplest meaning of the word, Las Meninas shows a devotion to
truth that has never been equaled.

But can mere imitation be the basis of a masterpiece? A small detail – what
used to be called a trompe l’oeil – can hardly claim to be a masterpiece. But when the
discovery of truth is extended to a group of persons situated in a large room, and
involved in a delicate human situation, then the painter’s intellectual grasp and his
technical skill can be combined to produce a masterpiece.“†††

- (Human) values: „Thus the Entombment [Titian, Louvre] has that double
relationship with us, which is the prerogative of the masterpiece. It is a superb piece
of design and a profound assertion of human values.

The human element is essential to a masterpiece. The artist must be deeply

involved in the understanding of his fellow men. We can say that certain portraits are
masterpieces because in them a human being is recreated and presented to us as an
embodiment, almost a symbol, of all we might ever find in the depths of our
hearts."‡‡‡

- Tradition and innovation: „[…]two of the characteristics of a masterpiece

[Donatello, Annunciation, Santa Croce, Florence]: a confluence of memories and
emotions forming a single idea and a power of recreating traditional forms so that
they become expression of the artist’s own epoch and yet keep a relationship with
the past.[See Pathosformel]„§§§

††† Clark, op. cit., p. 16.

‡‡‡ Clark, op. cit., p. 12.
§§§ Clark, op. cit., p. 10f.

This definition is very close to the Pathosformel by Aby Warburg. Irma Emmrich in Weltbild und
ästhetische Struktur distinguishes two ways resp. degrees of reception and transformation: the
conservative one of modification and the revolutionary one of innovation.
See: Emmrich, Irma: Weltbild und ästhetische Struktur. Dresden 1982.
Michael Kausch 83

4.2. Criteria from the Perspective of Psychology of Perception

Many of these criteria of the tradition of classical aesthetics and theory of art
can be conceived and justified in a better way from the perspective of modern
scientific knowledge. For the field of the formal aspects and structures of the work of
art the psychology of perception and here especially Gestalt psychology has provided
essential insights.

Precursors of this conception can already be found in the theory of art of the
19th century: So for example the German sculptor Adolf v. Hildebrand in his
workDas Problem der Form in der bildenden Kunst (1893) following the contemporary
physiology of perception differentiated between Nahsichtand Fernbild. Due to distance
only the latter would be able to perceive the structure of a work of art clearly; this
ought to be composed of simple, clearly perceivable Gestalt forms.

The actual origin of Gestalt psychology resp. of the term and the conception
of Gestalt lies with the psychologist Christian v. Ehrenfels (1890), who pointed out
that a melody cannot be explained solely by its tones(elements): at a transposition of
the tones the melody stays the same; it is “Gestalt”, the typical structure of the series
of tones, which makes up music.****

The conception and working out of Gestalt psychology as a scientific theory

and method was then carried out by Max Wertheimer (1927) ††††, Wolfgang Köhler
(1933)‡‡‡‡ and Wolfgang Koffka (1936)§§§§; it was carried on in the postwar period by
Wolfgang Metzger (1953) *****. For the application to the field of the fine arts the name
of Rudolf Arnheim stands out (1954). †††††

**** After: Schuster, Martin; Beisl, Horst: Kunstpsychologie. „Wodurch Kunstwerke wirken“. Köln
1978, p. 24 f..
Ehrenfels, Chr. V.: Über Gestaltqualitäten. In: Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie.
1890.
†††† Wertheimer, Max: Gestaltpsychologie. In: Saupe (Hrsg.), Einführung in die neuere Psychologie

(1927).
‡‡‡‡ Köhler, Wolfgang: Psychologische Probleme. Berlin 1933.
§§§§ Koffka, Wolfgang: Principles of Gestalt psychology. London 1936.
***** Metzger, Wolfgang: Gesetze des Sehens. Frankfurt 1953.
††††† Arnheim, Rudolf: Art and Visual Perception – a psychology of the creative eye. Berkeley and Los

Angeles, 1954.
84 International Journal of Art and Art History, Vol. 2(2), December 2014

According to manifold experiments and their results the cited researchers

formulated a series of Gestalt laws.‡‡‡‡‡The best known is

- The law of figure and ground:It means that one always splits up the seen image in
two components, in a figure which is seen in the foreground in a sharp and well-
structured way, and a ground which is assumed to be rather diffusely in the
background. The contour, the form belongs to the outlined figure, the background is
formless. (It is not so that the things around us would offer sharp figures and diffuse
backgrounds by themselves). The best known example is the so-called Rubin vase
(Ill.2), a realization in art is found in Invisible Bust of Voltaire (1940, Salvador Dali
Museum, St. Petersburg, Florida, Ill.3) by Salvador Dali.

Ill.2: TheRubin Vase

‡‡‡‡‡Presentation after: Schuster, op.cit., S. 25ff.

Michael Kausch 85

Ill. 3: Salvador Dali, Invisible Bust of Voltaire, 1940, Salvador Dali Museum, St.
Petersburg, Florida

The fundamental law of figure and ground is completed by other Gestalt laws:

- The law of proximity: Neighbouringpoints or lines are more likely combined in a

common figure than distant ones.
- The law of closure: Enclosed things easily form a figure.
- The law of similarity: Similar elements are combined in a figure. Things already forming
a figure due to proximity can enter into a new perceptive structure by similar, more
distant things.
- The law of past experience: The beholder introduces familiar things into strange things
or accidental structures. Such perceptive Gestalten which one has already often seen
and with which one has some experience, are easily differentiated as a figure from
the whole visual field. This is a point of connection and interference between
individual and social experience and its cultural history one hand’s side and the
physiological basis of perception on the other hands side.§§§§§
- The law of prägnanz: Gestalten being prägnant (pithy), standing particularly out and
being perceivable without difficulty are more easily perceived as figures.

§§§§§A well-known analytical and therapeutical adaptation is the Rorschach test which works by
projection of visual structures including their emotional or conceptual contents.
See also Leonardo’s advice in hisTrattatodellapittura to developfigures (resp. Gestalten) from
humiditystains on walls.
86 International Journal of Art and Art History, Vol. 2(2), December 2014

The mentioned laws can be resumed in the law of good gestalt. This law means
that forms, especially if they are not perceived precisely, are improved, are made
prägnant.******Improvement of gestalt therefore means: Filling in of gaps, production
of symmetry, approach of the form towards a known object, production of higher
regularity, turning away from an accidental distribution of figurative elements.Now if
these fundamental insights of the Gestalt psychology are related to the traditional
criteria of aesthetics – especially to the formal ones – partially cited in Clarke’s essay,
the following becomes clear:

Simple geometric basic forms such as the triangle (pyramidal composition, f.e.
Madonnas by Raphael, Ill.3) or the circle, but also the rectangle, the ellipse or the
diagonal, are found not by chance and not only in certain styles or cultures. For
evidently they have a psychological, a physiological and in the end an anthropological
base: that means they are based in the constitution of man. The organizing strife for
prägnanz, for the good form is effective as well in the depiction of singular objects as
in the shaping of the global composition.

******If
for example simple figures (circle, triangle, square) showing a gap in the flow of the line are
offered for a very short time, the beholder is closing these gaps, that means he does not notice the
gaps.
Siehe also the special experiments mentioned in Schuster.
In: Schuster, op.cit., p. 31f..
Michael Kausch 87

Ill. 4 Raphael, Madonnadel Cardellino (Goldfinch), 1505-6, Florence, Galleria

degli Uffizi

Here, however, the pole of plurality as a compensation counterpart for the

traditional principle of “unity and variety” comes at play. This is probably based
among others in the physiological need of stimuli respectively the change of stimuli.

Among others on this – within a wider frame – the range of variation and the
change of individual and period styles are based. So f.e. Sander (1931) – following on
the thesis of Heinrich Wölfflin – tried to put down the difference between
Renaissance and Baroque to different architectonic ways of construction, which apply
the law of good gestalt.
88 International Journal of Art and Art History, Vol. 2(2), December 2014

According to Sander/Wölfflin Renaissance art is characterized by: Beautiful

calm form; liberating beauty has an effect like a general feeling of wellbeing; the
constructive elements convey sensations of a steady increase of vitality; the forms are
free, light and complete; they have a slow, lasting effect; they radiate quiet; they
provoke the desire to stay with them.This effect is based on the following basic forms
and construction principles††††††: The square and the rectangle of the golden section
are dominating among rectangle forms; circular curves, spheres, right angles,
metrically regular sequences of windows etc., symmetrical horizontal structure,
equilibrium, frontal parallel plane, demarcation line are emphasized. (Ill. 5, 6)

Ill. 5 Giorgio Vasari il Giovane, Facciata di Palazzo Rucellai, Florence,

Gabinetto Disegni e Stampe degli Uffizi

Ill. 6 Leon Battista Alberti, Palazzo Rucellai, 1446-58, Florence

††††††See also psychological experiments on the effect of forms resp. the assignment of forms to
artificial names.
Michael Kausch 89

On the contrary Baroque art is characterized by: It wants to seize; attacks with
the power of affect, it overwhelms, produces excitement, ecstasy, transport, is
determined to the impression of the moment, conveys the experience of
development, events, the forms leave the beholder unsatisfied, give the impression of
restlessness, produce tension, the condition of passion.

This effect is based on the following basic forms and construction principles:
Rectangles being near to the square or exceeded in length or width, elliptic curves,
obtuse or acute angles, sequences with not equal distances (windows), the axis of
symmetry is moved out of the center, no frontally parallel plane, solid demarcation
lines broken up.

So the artistic conception of Baroque is founded on other basic forms and

compositional principles, on other “good gestalts” than that of the Renaissance.
However, to a certain degree, the former ones can be understood as a deviation resp.
a variation of the latter ones – what corresponds to the dialectics of the evolution of
style.‡‡‡‡‡‡ (Ill. 7)

‡‡‡‡‡‡ This is also or even more true for the relationship between Renaissance and Mannerism.
90 International Journal of Art and Art History, Vol. 2(2), December 2014

Ill. 7: Lukas v. Hildebrandt, Belvedere, 1714-23, Vienna

Now in a similar way the conceptions resp. the principles of depiction of

regions of art outside the area of European tradition can be analyzed. Here it becomes
clear that there are - not only within the artistic evolution of a large cultural area – as
shown above - but also between the various large cultural areas - different preferences
within the repertory of “goods Gestalts”. Looking at the example of Japanese art, for
instance the colour wood engravings, the principles of a construction by planes
without central perspective and that of the diagonal can be observed (Ill.8).
Michael Kausch 91

Ill.8: Katsushika Hokusai, the Big Wave of Kanagawa, about 1830

That means that in a global, transcultural perspective, too, evidently a certain,

limited repertory of good Gestalts does exist, the different cultural areas having
different basic preferences. These good Gestalts are rooted in the fundamental human
structure of perception (and that of the creative process), so in the end in the
fundamental anthropological structure of man.
92 International Journal of Art and Art History, Vol. 2(2), December 2014

On the other hand, within each culture resp. artistic area, there is a range of
sometimes even contradictory varieties which take form in the course of cultural and
artistic development or even in the way of synchronic varieties.

To give an example taken from another, in regard of Europe probably

autonomous culture, let us take the famous Maya-Toltec Chacmool figure (Ill.9).

Ill.9: Chacmool from Chichén Itzá, Maya – Toltec, 11.-12.centuries AD, México
City, Museo Nacional de Anthropología

First of all we should remember that it is a constitutive quality of sculpture

that it creates a quasi-real, corporal presence of the human being resp. the human
figure – in this case of a pre-Columbian god. So the anthropological universal of
human corporal existence (and personal identity) is at play. Then, in the case of this
Maya – Toltec style, simplifying the human figure by abstraction, a good Gestalt being
easily to perceive has been created.

Secondly, the God is represented in one of the basic corporal postures due to
human anatomy, the reclining figure.
Michael Kausch 93

In modern European art, this type of the Reclining Figure has become one of
the major artistic structures in the work of the British sculptor Henry Moore. Moore
got to know the Chacmool figure by a plaster cast which he saw in the Trocadéro
Museum in Paris. It became the work of reference for the creation of his famous
Leeds Reclining Figure (Ill.10)

Ill.10: Henry Moore, Reclining Figure, 1929,Brown Hornton Stone, Leeds,

Leeds Museum and Galleries (City Art Gallery)

As it happened often during the development of modern abstraction, a good

Gestalt was adopted from a work of art resp. a style of ancient art, then transformed
and adapted to the needs of the Western artist’s artistic thinking. In many cases - such
as for example in that of the cubism of Picasso, Matisse and others - this process was
restricted to the formal resp. the Gestalt structure. In the case of Henry Moore, as
regards contents, the male figure of a Pre-Columbian god (a rain god – according to
one traditional interpretation) was transformed into a kind of archetypal female figure
– a kind of secular, modern goddess of motherhood and fertility. In a certain sense,
one could speak of a culturally induced transformation of archetypes.
94 International Journal of Art and Art History, Vol. 2(2), December 2014

Another example of the adoption and transformation of a non-European

work of art by Henry Moore is that of the Malagan figure from New Ireland
(Oceania). The sculptor had seen several examples in the Collections of the British
Museum (Ill.11):

Ill. 11: Malagan Mortuary Figure, North coast of New Ireland, Late 19th – Early
20thCentury AD, London, British Museum

Figures like this one where made for funeral ceremonies in New Ireland
(Oceania), which were a part of the Malagan system determining the whole life of
man. According the interpretation of Susanne Küchler, the structure was destined to
take in the life force of the deceased. This life force, called noman – a metaphor of
energy and vitality – was linked to the female capability of reproduction.§§§§§§

§§§§§§See:
Gunn, Michael: Ritual Arts of Oceania – New Ireland in the Collections of the Barbier-
Mueller Museum. Genova – Milano 1997.
Michael Kausch 95

In this case, too, Henry Moore, when developing the artistic idea of
Internal/External Form in 1951 (Ill.12), was primarily interested in the formal
structure:

Ill. 12: Henry Moore, Upright Internal/External Form, 1952-53, Plaster,

London, Tate Gallery
96 International Journal of Art and Art History, Vol. 2(2), December 2014

The structure of the Malagan figure fitted perfectly in his artistic thinking of
this period, which strived to open up consequently the compact, solid sculptural mass
by creating voids and “holes”.

But moreover - in addition to the correspondence of the formal side - there is

also a connection as regards contents, as it was already the case in a similar way with
the pair of Chacmool and the Reclining figure. In the beginning of the process of the
development of this conception by adaption and transformation this connection was
probably unconscious and intuitive. However, Henry Moore’s Internal/External
Form being a figuration of the mother – child archetype which dominates his artistic
thinking, a close connection with the complex of female fertility and reproduction in
the Malagan figure is obvious.

These two examples give not only evidence of the existence of an

intercultural, universal repertory of formal structures in the sense of good Gestalts.
They also allow the presumption, that to a certain extent this is also true for the
contents resp. the archetypal symbolism. Not astonishing at all, Henry Moore wanted
to create a universal language of art, the way being this process of international
exchange and adaptation, the roots being the anthropologic base of cultural forms.

As a result of this analysis it may be said, that good Gestalts resp. the principle
of good Gestalts is omnipresent in world art. So it is legitimate to conclude that the
artistic achievement of these may be regarded as fundamental values in works of art
resp. in the process of artistic creation.

4.3. The Image of Man and the Conception of the World – Values - Ethics

Following the discussion of some aspects belonging to the formal side of the
structure of the work of art resp. of the masterpiece now such ones as regards
contents shall be mentioned – being definitely aware that the dichotomy of
form/contents is an artificial perspective which is applied later to the work of art as a
means of analysis.

First of all we refer once again to the essay by Kenneth Clarke: Here criteria
of a masterwork as regards contents were named:
Michael Kausch 97

1. The illustration of great themes

2. Truth in the depiction
3. (Human) values resp. their symbolic depiction

Ad 1.The demand for the illustration of important themes has been a central
point of classical art theory since antiquity and this not only in the area of the fine
arts, but particularly also in the genre of literature. Here above all in drama – wetherin
Shakespeare, in French classical theatre with Corneille or Racine or in Weimar
classics, that is in Goethe and above all in Schiller. Already in the further course of the
19th century the subject area of important themes was broadened from great issues of
upper class figures to figures of the working classes – wether it is about Thomas
Hardy’s Tess of the d’Urbervilles or Die Weber by Gerhard Hauptmann.

Today nobody will seriously maintain that in the latter works of art less
important themes are treated than in the first ones. For both artistic conceptions
concern the creation of humanly important subjects, which are fundamental for
human social existence. In the sense of the analytical psychology of C.G. Jung these
are archetypal subjects and motives such as oedipal conflicts, the relation of the sexes,
motherhood (see the dominant presence of this archetype in the creation of Henry
Moore and its interpretation by Erich Neumann) etc. or anthropologically speaking,
anthropological constants.

If one accepts the criterion of artistic density, symbolization resp. of the

paradigmatic as a basic principle and a characteristic of quality (in contrast to
“kitsch”), the claim for important subjects – here, too, in a broadened conception –
seems quite relevant to the current situation.

Ad 2.The criterion resp. the claim for truth in art is as old as occidental
aesthetics and philosophy of art. It is known to be rooted in the Platonic doctrine of a
close connection of the good, the true and the beautiful, a conception which –
although in a transformed and lessened form – remained valid until the 19th century.
Even Plato, however, criticized the artistic depiction of reality as being untrue for
creating just copies of copies (of the ideas) and therefore for pedagogical reasons
banished it from his ideal state.
98 International Journal of Art and Art History, Vol. 2(2), December 2014

Already in the 18th century a process of new determination of the aesthetic

resp. the beautiful started: here Immanuel Kant holds a key position. In his Critique of
Judgment he subjected this field to a fundamental analysis. Kant delimited the aesthetic
way of cognition from the rational and conceptual one (the field of theoretical reason)
and defined: „Schön ist das, was ohne Begriff allgemein gefällt“*******. To the relation to the
good resp. ethics (of practical reason) a strict limit is set: While the judgement of taste
(Geschmacksurteil) was without interest, pleasure (Wohlgefallen) was useful to the
good. Thereby the traditional connection of the beautiful with the good – at least on
this fundamental theoretical and ontological level – is severed. Nevertheless for Kant
the beautiful remains to be a symbol of the moral good (Sittlich-Gutes)†††††††, though
in the sense of an analogy.

With Aestheticism, l’Art pour l‘art and in the conception of modernism this
development got to its extreme consequence: The work of art is conceived as being
autonomous with regard to the categories of scientific establishment of truth and to
ethical claims and norms.This conception, however, proves to be an extreme position,
to which numerous artistic movements of modernism stand really in
contrast:Expressionism, realisms such as Neue Sachlichkeit or even Socialist Realism,
social – critical and political directions, environmental – critical and ecological
tendencies are committed to truth in the sense of uncovering and depiction of aspects
of reality. In a time where art with regard to the perspective of science is increasingly
conceived as an original instrument of recognition, the conception of autonomy of
modernism reveals itself as obsolete.

*******Kant, Kritik der Urteilskraft, §9.

†††††††Kant, Kritik der Urteilskraft, § 59. Thereit says:
Nun sage ich: das Schöne ist das Symbol des Sittlich-Guten; und auch nur in dieser Rücksicht (...) gefällt es, mit einem
Anspruche auf jedes anderm Beistimmung, wobei sich das Gemüt zugleich einer gewissen Veredlung und Erhebung über
die bloße Empfänglichkeit einer Lust durch Sinneseindrücke bewußt ist, und anderer Wert auch nach einer ähnlichen
Maxime ihrer Urteilskraft schätzet.(...)
Die Rücksicht auf diese Analogie ist auch dem gemeinen Verstande gewöhnlich; und wir benennen schöne Gegenstände
der Natur oder der Kunst, oft mit Namen, die eine sittliche Beurteilung zum Grunde zu legen scheinen. Wir nennen
Gebäude oder Bäume majestätisch und prächtig, oder Gefilde lachend und fröhlich; selbst Farben werden unschuldig,
bescheiden, zärtlich genannt, weil sie Empfindungen erregen, die etwas mit dem Bewußtsein eines durch moralische Urteile
bewirkten Gemütszustandes Analogisches enthalten. Der Geschmack macht gleichsam den Übergang vom Sinnenreiz
zum habituellen moralischen Interesse, ohne einen zu gewaltigen Sprung, möglich, indem er die Einbildungskraft auch in
ihrer Freiheit als zweckmäßig für den Verstand bestimmbar vorstellt und sogar an Gegenständen der Sinne auch ohne
Sinnenreiz ein freies Wohlgefallen finden lehrt.
Michael Kausch 99

This is basically obvious

1. For anthropologically man is predisposed to recognition of reality as a base for the

transformation of reality being necessary for survival
2. For – from the perspective of system theory –the system of art has to be seen as a
just partly autonomous subsystem of the total social system being in connection
and exchange with this resp. with other partial systems like other areas such as
culture, politics, economy etc.

Ad 3.This is also valid for the 3rd area - as regards contents - cited in Clarke,
namely that of (human) values resp. that of ethics:

In the modern age the intention and the extensive realization of a partial or
complete liberation of the work of art from the relationship with morals and the
social laws which regulate “real” life can be observed. And – connected to this –the
abandonment resp. the refusal of a pedagogical conveying of contents coming from
outside of art. The sphere of art and artistry are regarded as a special area, being more
or less independent, which shall serve the unrestrained and unlimited expression of
the ego resp. the free creation of fictional aesthetic worlds.

Admittedly from this follows the possibility of completion and compensation

of the conditions of the „real“ world, not least by the creation of the unconscious and
the repressed.‡‡‡‡‡‡‡

Nevertheless, with reference to the field of the relation between art and ethics,
too, it has to be emphasized:

1. The work of art (as basically every cultural product) is a vehicle of values
2. It is related with the system of values resp. of ethical principles, norms and rules

Therefore we propose to speak about a „weak“ ethical relevance of the work

of art.

‡‡‡‡‡‡‡Connected to this is the function of individual and collective healing (corresponding to the
perspective of psychoanalysis resp. of Analytical Psychology of C.G. Jung) by (re-)integration of the
suppressed into the ego – on the level of the individual or society and culture and thereby the
restoration of the sane integrality.
100 International Journal of Art and Art History, Vol. 2(2), December 2014

As regards contents here the question arises, which values can be valid as
obligatory in the sense of criteria of a good work of art resp. masterwork.

Regarding this it suggests itself to start first of all at the own cultural tradition,
that means at the basic values as they have developed out of the European resp.
western history. Naturally we mean the development, which on the foundation of
Greco-Roman antiquity through Christianity, humanism and the enlightenment has
led to the modern conception of human rights. In the sense of philosophy and
cultural history – especially in an increasingly globalized world – it is not reasonably
possible to fall back from this stage of development.§§§§§§§ In this respect here the
position of a (moderate) universalism shall be hold. A moderate universalism, for,
firstly, in the actual situation the other big cultural traditions of the globe, too, bring in
their experiences relating to this and, secondly, in other cultures there have been
movements of enlightenment, too.********

In this respect there are works of art – and in this category those being
generally accepted as masterworks and having been accepted in the canon are largely
included – which depict these basic human values explicitly or just only implicitly in a
condensed form. On the other hand’s side it is known that also works of art do exist,
which propagate demerits or disparage or deride man in general, a social group resp.
certain ways of life in a contemptuous way.

In the end in this question one has to refer to anthropological basic values
which can be ascertained in an intercultural and transcultural perspective. Examples
may be the respect for human life, the respect for nature/environment, the value of
the transmission of life in the context of parenthood – mother – child, etc.††††††††

§§§§§§§History,of course, shows many examples of this falling back from a higher philosophical, cultural
or technical level, the best known and most famous being the development in late Roman antiquity.
Nevertheless the achieved level remained valid as a point of reference and a source of cultural
technology for all later epochs and, as we know, was taken up in all Renaissances.
See: Panofsky, Erwin: Renaissance and renaissances in western art. New York 1969
********One standard has always to be: the liberty of man to create his life with respect for the liberty of

others.
††††††††About the research on anthropological constants and universals see:

Antweiler, Christoph: Was ist den Menschen gemeinsam? Über Kultur und Kulturen. Darmstadt 2007.