Sheina Mae D.
Eyas BSEd - Mathematics 2A
MM106 Modern Geometry
Elaborate the following:
1. Informal logic
● Informal logic is a broad term for any of the various methods of analyzing and
evaluating arguments used in everyday life. Informal logic is commonly regarded as
an alternative to formal or mathematical logic. Also known as non-formal logic or
critical thinking.
2. Theorems and proofs
● In geometry, a postulate is a statement that is assumed to be true based on basic
geometric principles. An example of a postulate is the statement “through any two
points is exactly one line”. A long time ago, postulates were the ideas that were
thought to be so obviously true they did not require a proof. A theorem is a
mathematical statement that can and must be proven to be true. You've heard the
word theorem before when you learned about the Pythagorean Theorem. Much of
your future work in geometry will involve learning different theorems and proving they
are true.
● What does it mean to “prove” something? In the past you have often been asked to
“justify your answer” or “explain your reasoning”. This is because it is important to be
able to show your thinking to others so that ideally they can follow it and agree that
you must be right. A proof is just a formal way of justifying your answer. In a proof
your goal is to use given information and facts that everyone agrees are true to show
that a new statement must also be true.
● A “theorem” is just a statement of fact. A “proof” of the theorem is a logical
explanation of why the theorem is true.
3. RAA proofs
● RAA, reductio ad absurdum, is Latin for "reduction to absurdity." One of the
fundamental rules of logic is that one can NEVER derive falsity from truth. True
premises together with proper reasoning guarantees a true conclusion. As a
historical matter, indirect proof has played a major role in the development of
Western thinking and mathematics. Attempts by Reimann and Lobaschevsky to
prove Euclid's parallel postulate through IP lead to the development of non-Euclidian
geometry.
● Reductio Ad Absurdum (RAA) is a proof technique that takes advantage of our newly
found ability to introduce any assumption into a proof at any time (with the proviso
that we properly discharge the assumption). You will recall that one way to
demonstrate that an argument is valid is to show that the truth of the premises is
inconsistent with the falsity of the conclusion. IP exploits this fact by allowing us to
demonstrate validity by showing that the premises of an argument together with the
negation of the conclusion logically entail contradiction (a statement of the form p ●
~p).
4. Negation
● Sometimes in mathematics it's important to determine what the opposite of a given
mathematical statement is. This is usually referred to as "negating" a statement. One
thing to keep in mind is that if a statement is true, then its negation is false (and if a
statement is false, then its negation is true).
5. Quantifiers
● In mathematics, the phrases 'there exists' and 'for all' play a huge role in logic and
logic statements. In fact, they are so important that they have a special name:
quantifiers. Quantifiers are words, expressions, or phrases that indicate the number
of elements that a statement pertains to. In mathematical logic, there are two
quantifiers: 'there exists' and 'for all.'
6. Implication Law of excluded middle and proof by cases
● The law of excluded middle can be expressed by the propositional formula p_¬p. It
means that a statement is either true or false. Think of it as claiming that there is no
middle ground between being true and being false. Every statement has to be one or
the other.
7. Incidence geometry Models
● We may use dots and dashes to to represent points and lines so that the axioms
appear to be correct statements. We view these dots and dashes as a model for the
incidence geometry.
Example 1. Consider a set {A, B, C} of three letters, which are called “points.” The
“lines” are those subsets consisting of two letters, i.e., {A, B}, {A, C}, {B, C}. A “point”
is interpreted as “incident” with a “line” if it is a member of that subset. For instance,
point A is lies on lines {A, B} and {A, C}. Every two distinct lines meet at a unique
point (referred to elliptic parallel property). There are no parallel lines. It is impossible
in incidence geometry to prove that parallel lines exist.
8. Isomorphism of models
● Two models of incidence geometry are said to be isomorphic if there is a one-to-one
correspondence P ↔ P between the points of the models and a one-to-one
correspondence ` l ↔ l ` between the lines of the models such that P lies on l if and
only if P lies on l. Such a correspondence is called an isomorphism from one model
onto the other.
Sources:
● https://flexbooks.ck12.org/book/ck-12-geometry-concepts-honors/section/4.1/
● https://www.thoughtco.com/informal-logic-term-1691169
● http://cstl-cla.semo.edu/hhill/pl120/notes/indirect%20proof.htm
● https://www.math.toronto.edu/preparing-for-calculus/3_logic/we_3_negation.html
● https://study.com/learn/lesson/quantifiers-mathematical-logic-overview-examples.html
#:~:text=Quantifiers%20are%20words%2C%20expressions%2C%20or,exists%27%2
0and%20%27for%20all.
● https://web.stanford.edu/~bobonich/glances%20ahead/IV.excluded.middle.html#:~:te
xt=The%20law%20of%20excluded%20middle%20can%20be%20expressed%20by%
20the,be%20one%20or%20the%20other.
● https://www.math.hkust.edu.hk/~mabfchen/Math4221/Incidence%20Geometry.pdf
●
