College of Education Structure of English

MODULE II

STRUCTURES
OF
ENGLISH

Prepared by: Mr. Rydwan A. Tanjili, LPT

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College of Education Structure of English

TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 3

SENTENCE DEFINITION AND TYPES

Sentence According to Function

Sentence According to Structure

UNIT 4

CONDITIONALS

Definition ………………………………………………………..

Types ……………………………………………………………

UNIT 5

PUNCTUATIONS

Period …………………………………………………………..

Comma …………………………………………………………

Semi-Colon …………………………………………………….

Colon …………………………………………………………...

Quotation/Speech Marks …………………………………….

Question Mark ………………………………………………...

Exclamation Mark …………………………………………….

Apostrophe …………………………………………………….

Hyphen …………………………………………………………

Dash ……………………………………………………………

Parenthesis ……………………………………………………

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College of Education Structure of English

Square and Round Brackets ………………………………...

Slash ……………………………………………………………

Ellipsis ………………………………………………………….

UNIT 6

SYNTAX

Syntactic Structures ……………………………………………

Structure of Predication ……………………………………….

Structure of Modification ………………………………………

Structure of Complementation ……………………………….

Structure of Coordination …………………………………….

Structure of Subordination ……………………………………

Structure of Correlation ……………………………………….

Structure of Negation …………………………………………

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College of Education Structure of English

Module 1

STRUCTURES OF ENGLISH

Introduction

The interplay among semantics, morphology and syntax are building blocks of
the language system. Language’s structure basically refers to the word form, word
meaning and word order. Thus, language encompasses a number of elements which
are structurally integrated and patterned by grammar to provide rules governing
communication in that language.

The words follow a hierarchy of positions and occupations when constructed

altogether to form phrases, clauses and sentences. The way words are put together,
according to grammatical category, defines how various utterances and statements
can be made and understood. This requires the comprehensive application of
grammar as a centerpiece of understanding the structure of language.

Moreover, identifying each of the constituents in the sentence, and

interpreting its grammatical attribute can deepen awareness, cultivate adeptness and
grasp mastery toward demonstrating grammatical fluency and accuracy. Through
that, one is able to elaborate complexities and aid confusions in grammar.
Overview

As English teachers-to-be embark on this subject, they will be taught about

the components of grammar, which are called the parts of speech: noun, pronoun,
adjective, adverb, verb, conjunction, preposition and interjection. Punctuation usage
is also included. In addition, sentential or propositional connectives and analysis of
syntactic structure, such as logic in sentence composition and hierarchical
classification of sentence constituents, will be introduced to expand grammatical
awareness into the range of complexities of grammar.

Specifically, the parts of speech refer to the naming words, substituting

naming words, descriptive or modifying words, action words, connecting and relating
words and interjectory words; and these will be discussed comprehensively in order
to solidify retention on the rudiments of grammar and to ensure consistency and
precision of usage.
Pre-conceptualization

 What is the difference between diction and vocabulary?

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College of Education Structure of English

 Describe how a person’s choice of words develops.

 Describe how we are built to learn language in relation to “mental grammar”.

UNIT 3: SENTENCE: DEFINITION AND TYPES

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

At the end of the week, the preservice teacher (PST) should be able to:

a. distinguish sentences according to function and structure;

b. identify ways to vary sentence structure;
c. construct different functions and structures of sentence; and
d. revise the given sentence structures using inverted order, coherent compounding
statements and modifying introduction.

Presentation

LESSON 1: SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FUNCTION

Sentence Functions: The Four Types

In addition to classifying sentences by the number of clauses they contain; you

can pigeonhole sentences according to their functions. There are four sentence
functions in English: declarative, exclamatory, interrogative, and imperative.

1. Declarative sentences state an idea. They end with a period. For example:

o The first toilet ever seen on television was on Leave It to Beaver.
o The problem with the gene pool is that there's no lifeguard.
2. Exclamatory sentences show strong emotions. They end with an exclamation
mark. For example:
o What a mess this room is!
o The cake is ruined!
3. Interrogative sentences ask a question. As you would expect, they end with a
question mark. For instance:
o Which type of sentence often omits the subject? Is it imperative
sentences?
o How you gonna keep 'em down on the farm when they've seen Paris?
o Why is it possible to tickle someone else but not to tickle yourself?
4. Imperative sentences give orders or directions, and so end with a period or an
exclamation mark. For instance:
o Sit down and listen!
o Fasten your seatbelts when the sign is illuminated

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College of Education Structure of English

There are four main types of sentences:

Declarative – used to convey information or make statements.

Interrogative – used to ask questions.
Imperative – used to issue orders or directives.
Exclamatory – used to make exclamations.
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES:
These are the most common type of sentences. They usually provide information,
and are used to make statements. Here are some examples:

 I can play the violin.

 We hope to see you tomorrow.
 She is studying English.
 
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES:
These are used to ask questions. You form a question when you want to ask
someone something, either to make a request, offer something, get information, or
clarification.

Interrogative sentence is a type of sentence that always has a question mark

at the end. There are a few different sub-types of interrogative sentences:

1 . Yes/No Interrogatives: These questions usually start with an auxiliary verb, such

as DO/DOES, CAN or WOULD (these can also be called ‘closed questions’) and the
answer would generally be yes or no. Here are some examples:
 Do you like my house?
 Are you English?
 Can you help me?
 Have you done your homework?

2. Alternative Interrogatives: These questions usually offer two or more alternative

responses, and give the other person some options. These also start with auxiliary
verbs. Here are some examples:

 Shall I call her or send an e-mail?

 Do you want tea, coffee or juice?
 Will you tell him or shall I?
 Do you prefer long hair or short?

3. Wh- Interrogatives: These questions generally start with words beginning with

wh- such as WHAT, WHO, WHEN, WHERE, and HOW can also be used even
though it doesn’t begin with wh-(These are also known as ‘open questions’). The
answer would generally be explanatory and open-ended. Here are some examples:

 What happened?
 How did you do that?
 Where did you go?
 What are you doing?

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College of Education Structure of English

4. Tag Questions: These questions usually have a declarative statement in the

question. Generally, the question is tagged onto the end of such a statement. They
consist of a main or auxiliary verb followed by a pronoun or existential ‘there’. Here
are some examples:

 Gina plays the piano, doesn’t she?

 You’re lying to me, aren’t you?
 There’s something wrong with her, isn’t there?

IMPERATIVE SENTENCES:
These are used to issue orders or directives, or make demands. In this type of
sentence the main verb is usually the base form.
This an exception to the rule that matrix clauses (a clause that contains a
subordinate clause) are always finite. Here are some examples:
 Do your homework.
 Close the door.
 Wait for me!
 Call me tomorrow.

Tag questions can sometimes be added onto the end of imperative sentences.
 Do your homework, will you?
 Send me an e-mail soon, won’t you?
 Buy some milk, will you?
 
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES:
As the title suggests, these sentences are used to make exclamations. Here are
some examples:
 You look so beautiful!
 What a silly man!
 Run! He’s coming here!
 
A FINAL POINT
I think it is worth mentioning that, there is not necessarily a direct relationship
between the form of a sentence and its function. Here are two examples:

1. This is a declarative sentence:

 You need some help.
But if it is spoken with a rising intonation, it becomes a question:
 You need some help?
2. Rhetorical questions have the form of an interrogative sentence, but they are
really statements, and do not require an answer!
 Who cares? (Meaning = I don’t care)
 Who knows? (Meaning = I don’t know)

LESSON 2: SENTENCES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE

 Simple sentences: A simple sentence is an independent clause with no

conjunction or dependent clause.

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College of Education Structure of English

 Compound sentences: A compound sentence is two independent clauses

joined by a conjunction (e.g., and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so).
 Complex sentences: A complex sentence contains one independent clause
and at least one dependent clause. The clauses in a complex sentence are
combined with conjunctions and subordinators, terms that help the dependent
clauses relate to the independent clause. Subordinators can refer to the
subject (who, which), the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements
(because, if) of the independent clause.
 Compound-complex sentences: A compound-complex sentence contains
multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. These
sentences will contain both conjunctions and subordinators.

VARYING SUBJECT OR WORD CHOICE

One of the easiest ways to spot text that requires variety is by noting how
each sentence opens. Writers can often overuse the same word, like an author’s
name, or a subject, like pronouns to refer to an author, when beginning sentences.
This lack of subject variety can be distracting to a reader. Review the following
paragraph’s sentence variety:
My philosophy of education is derived from my personal experiences. I have
been an educator for 4 years, and I have learned a lot from more experienced
teachers in my district. I also work mainly with students from a low
socioeconomic background; my background was quite different. I will discuss
how all of these elements, along with scholarly texts, have impacted my
educational philosophy.
Notice how the writer of this paragraph starts each sentence and clause with
a personal pronoun. Although the writer does alternate between “I” and “my”, both
pronouns refer to the same subject. This repetition of personal pronouns is most
common when writing a Personal Development Plan (PDP) or other personal
papers. To avoid this type of repetition, try adjusting the placement of prepositional
phrases or dependent clauses so the subject does not open each sentence:
My philosophy of education is derived from my personal experiences. Having
been an educator for 4 years, I have learned a lot from more experienced
teachers in my district. I also work mainly with students from a low
socioeconomic background that is quite different from mine. In this paper, I
will discuss how all of these elements, along with scholarly texts, have
impacted my educational philosophy.
VARYING SENTENCE LENGTH
Another way to spot needed sentence variety is through the length of each
sentence. Repeating longer sentences can inundate a reader and overshadow
arguments, while frequently relying on shorter sentences can make an argument feel
rushed or stunted.

Overusing Long Sentences

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College of Education Structure of English

The company reported that yearly profit growth, which had steadily increased
by more than 7% since 1989, had stabilized in 2009 with a 0% comp, and in
2010, the year they launched the OWN project, actually decreased from the
previous year by 2%. This announcement stunned Wall Street analysts, but
with the overall decrease in similar company profit growth worldwide, as
reported by Author (Year) in his article detailing the company’s history, the
company’s announcement aligns with industry trends and future industry
predictions.
Notice how this paragraph is comprised of just two sentences. While each
clause does provide relevant information, the reader may have difficulty identifying
the subject and purpose of the whole paragraph.

Overusing Short Sentences

In 2010, the company’s yearly profit growth decreased from the previous year
by 2%. This was the year they launched the OWN project. The profit growth had
steadily increased by more than 7% since 1989. (They stabilized in 2009.) This
announcement stunned Wall Street analysts. However, it aligns with the decrease in
similar company profit growth worldwide. It also supports future predictions for the
industry (Author, Year).
Notice how this paragraph uses the same information as the previous one but
breaks it into seven sentences. While the information is more digestible through
these shorter sentences, the reader may not know what information is the most
pertinent to the paragraph’s purpose.

Alternating Sentence Length

Alternating between lengths allows writers to use sentences strategically,
emphasizing important points through short sentences and telling stories with longer
ones:
The company reported that profit growth stabilized in 2009, though it had
steadily increased by more than 7% since 1989. In 2010, the year they
launched the OWN project, company profit growth decreased from the
previous year. This announcement stunned Wall Street analysts. According to
Author (Year), however, this decrease was an example of a trend across
similar company profit growth worldwide; it also supports future predictions for
the industry.
Starting a Sentence with an Adverb
Common order: She slowly turned the corner and peered into the murky basement.

Alternative variety: Slowly, she turned the corner and peered into the murky
basement.

Cautiously, he unlocked the kennel and waited for the dog’s reaction.

Solemnly, the policeman approached the mayor and placed him under arrest.

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College of Education Structure of English

Suddenly, he slammed the door shut and sprinted across the street.

Starting a Sentence with a Prepositional Phrase

CO: The bandaged man waited in the doctor’s office.

AV: In the doctor’s office, the bandaged man waited.

CO: My train leaves the station at 6:45 a.m.

AV: At 6:45 a.m., my train leaves the station.

CO: Teenagers exchange drugs and money under the railway bridge.

AV: Under the railway bridge, teenagers exchange drugs and money

Starting a Sentence with Inverting Subject and Verb

CO: A truck was parked in the driveway.

AV: Parked in the driveway was a truck.

CO: A copy of the file is attached.

AV: Attached is a copy of the file.

Joining Ideas Using an -ing Modifier

Original sentences: Steve checked the computer system. He discovered a virus.

Revised sentence: Checking the computer system, Steve discovered a virus.

Noticing the police car, she shifted gears and slowed down.

This means that she slowed down at the same time she noticed the police car.

Barking loudly, the dog ran across the driveway.

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College of Education Structure of English

This means that the dog barked as it ran across the driveway.

Modifier in the beginning part: Conducting a survey among her friends, Amanda
found that few were happy in their jobs.

Modifier in the end part: Maria filed the final report, meeting her deadline.

Joining Ideas Using an -ed Modifier

Original sentences: The Jones family was delayed by a traffic jam. They arrived
several hours after the party started.

Revised sentence: Delayed by a traffic jam, the Jones family arrived several hours
after the party started.

Joining Ideas Using a Relative Clause

Original sentences: The managing director is visiting the company next week. He

lives in Seattle.

Revised sentence: The managing director, who lives in Seattle, is visiting the

company next week.

Revised sentence: The managing director, who is visiting the company next week,
lives in Seattle.

Joining Ideas Using an Appositive

Original sentences: Harland Sanders began serving food for hungry travelers in

1930. He is Colonel Sanders or “the Colonel.”

Revised sentence: Harland Sanders, “the Colonel,” began serving food for hungry
travelers in 1930.

Appositive after noun: Scott, a poorly trained athlete, was not expected to win the
race.

Appositive before noun: A poorly trained athlete, Scott was not expected to win the
race.

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College of Education Structure of English

Practice

Combine each set of simple sentences into a compound or a complex

sentence. Write the combined sentence on your own sheet of paper.

1. Heroin is an extremely addictive drug. Thousands of heroin addicts die each

year.
2. Shakespeare’s writing is still relevant today. He wrote about timeless
themes. These themes include love, hate, jealousy, death, and destiny.
3. Gay marriage is now legal in six states. Iowa, Massachusetts, Connecticut,
Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine all permit same-sex marriage. Other
states are likely to follow their example.
4. Prewriting is a vital stage of the writing process. Prewriting helps you
organize your ideas. Types of prewriting include outlining, brainstorming,
and idea mapping.
5. Mitch Bancroft is a famous writer. He also serves as a governor on the local
school board. Mitch’s two children attend the school.

On your own sheet of paper, rewrite the following sentences by moving the
adverbs to the beginning.

1. The red truck sped furiously past the camper van, blaring its horn.
2. Jeff snatched at the bread hungrily, polishing off three slices in under a
minute.
3. Underage drinking typically results from peer pressure and lack of parental
attention.
4. The firefighters bravely tackled the blaze, but they were beaten back by
flames.
5. Mayor Johnson privately acknowledged that the budget was excessive and
that further discussion was needed.

On your own sheet of paper, rewrite the following sentences as inverted

sentences.

1. Teresa will never attempt to run another marathon.

2. A detailed job description is enclosed with this letter.
3. Bathroom facilities are across the hall to the left of the water cooler.
4. The well-dressed stranger stumbled through the doorway.
5. My colleagues remain unconvinced about the proposed merger.

On your own sheet of paper, rewrite the following sentence pairs as one
sentence using your own technique and style.
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College of Education Structure of English

1. Baby sharks are called pups. Pups can be born in one of three ways.
2. The Pacific Ocean is the world’s largest ocean. It extends from the Arctic in
the north to the Southern Ocean in the south.
3. Michael Phelps won eight gold medals in the 2008 Olympics. He is a
champion swimmer.
4. Ashley introduced her colleague Dan to her husband, Jim. She speculated
that the two of them would have a lot in common.
5. Cacao is harvested by hand. It is then sold to chocolate-processing
companies at the Coffee, Sugar, and Cocoa Exchange.

UNIT 4: CONDITIONALS

There are three basic English conditionals plus the so-called zero

conditional. There are some more conditionals that we do not use so often.

conditional Usage if-clause main-clause

type

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College of Education Structure of English

1 possible condition + probable present will + base verb

result simple

2 hypothetical condition + past simple would + base verb

possible result

3 expired past condition + past perfect would have + past

possible past result participle

0 real condition + inevitable result present present simple

simple

There are several structures in English that we

call conditionals or if conditionals. The word "condition" means "situation or
circumstance". If a particular condition is true, then a particular result happens:

The structure of most conditionals is very simple. There are two basic
possibilities. Of course, we add many words and can use various tenses, but
the basic structure is usually like this:

if conditio result
n

resul if conditio
t n

The basic conditional structures can be produced in the following sentences:

 If I see her, I will tell her.

 I will tell her if I see her.

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College of Education Structure of English

First Conditional

 for real possibility

 If I win the lottery, I will buy a car.
 We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition
or situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is a real
possibility that this condition will happen. For example, it is morning. You are
at home. You plan to play tennis this afternoon. But there are some clouds in
the sky. Imagine that it rains. What will you do?

i condition Result
f

  Present Simple will + base verb

If it rains, I will stay at home.

Second Conditional

 for unreal possibility

 If I won the lottery, I would buy a car.
 The second conditional is like the first conditional. We are still thinking about
the future. We are thinking about a particular condition in the future, and the
result of this condition. But there is not a real possibility that this condition will
happen. For example, you do not have a lottery ticket. Is it possible to win?
No! No lottery ticket, no win! But maybe you will buy a lottery ticket in the
future. So you can think about winning in the future, like a dream. It's not very
real, but it's still possible.

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College of Education Structure of English

i condition Result
f

  Past Simple would + base

verb

If I won the I would buy a car.

lottery,

Third Conditional

 for no possibility
 If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a car.
 The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With
the third conditional we talk about the past. We talk about a condition in the
past that did not happen. That is why there is no possibility for this condition.
The third conditional is also like a dream, but with no possibility of the dream
coming true.
 Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win.

i condition result
f

  Past Perfect would have + past

participle

If I had won the I would have bought a car.

lottery,

Zero Conditional

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College of Education Structure of English

 for certainty
 If you heat ice, it melts.
 We use the so-called zero conditional when the result of the condition is
always true, like a scientific fact.
 Take some ice. Put it in a saucepan. Heat the saucepan. What happens? The
ice melts (it becomes water). You would be surprised if it did not.

i condition Result
f

  Present Simple Present Simple

If you heat ice, it melts.

Summary of Conditionals

 Here is a table to help you to visualize the basic conditionals.

 Do not take the 50% and 10% too literally. They are just to help you.

probability, Example time

conditional

100 zero If you heat ice, it melts. any

%

50% 1st If I win the lottery, I will buy a car. future

10% 2nd If I won the lottery, I would buy a car. future

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College of Education Structure of English

probability, Example time

conditional

0% 3rd If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a past

car.

People sometimes call conditionals "if structures" or "if sentences" because

there is usually (but not always) the word if in a conditional sentence.

Practice

1. What would you do if it ________ on your wedding day?

 rained
 will rain
 would rain

2. If she comes, I _____ call you.

 will
 would
 would have

3. If I eat peanut butter, I ________ sick.

 would have gotten

 would get
 get

4. What will you do if you ________ the history exam?

 would fail
 will fail
 fail

5. If they had not _____ the car, I would have driven you.

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College of Education Structure of English

 take
 taken
 would take

6. If it snows, ________ still drive to the coast?

 will you
 would you
 would you have

7. "He would have gone with you if you had asked him." Which conditional is this?

 first
 second
 third

8. "If I won a million dollars, I would buy my own airplane." Which conditional is this?

 zero
 first
 second

9. "If I forget her birthday, Andrea gets upset." Which conditional is this?

 zero
 first
 second

10. "What will she do if she misses the bus?" Which conditional is this?

 first
 second
 third
UNIT 5: PUNCTUATIONS

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 use punctuation marks correctly; and

 identify and explain of each punctuation marks.

Presentation

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College of Education Structure of English

LESSON 1: PERIOD

Punctuation Marks with Rules & Examples

Full Stop (.)

A full stop, also known as a period (.) in American English, is one of the most
commonly used punctuation marks in the English language. Analysis of texts
indicates that approximately half of all punctuation marks used are full stops.

The punctuation rules:

 Mostly used at the end of a declarative sentence, or a statement that is

considered to be complete.
 This punctuation mark is also used following an abbreviation.
 A full stop can also show the end of a group of words that don’t form a typical
sentence.

The full stop examples:

 My name’s Beth and I was 18 in July.

 Mr. White was talking with Mr. Smith.

LESSON 2: COMMA

Comma (,)

A comma (,) is used to show the difference between two separate ideas or elements
within a sentence. Commas have other uses as well, as they can be used to
separate numbers, and write dates.

The comma rules and examples:

(1) Add a comma when two separate sentences are combined

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College of Education Structure of English

Example: We purchased some cheese, and we purchased some fruit.

(2) Use commas between words in a series. Notice that a comma does not follow the
last word in the series

Example: He was tall, dark, and handsome.

(3) Use a comma to separate an introductory element from the rest of the sentence

Example: As the day came to an end, the firefighters put out the last spark.

(4) Use the comma to set off the words “yes” and “no”.

Example: No, thank you.

(5) Use a comma to set off a tag question from the rest of the sentence.

Example: She is your sister, isn’t she?

(6) Use a comma to indicate a direct address.

Example: Is that you, Mary?

(7) Add a comma when a participle phrase clause is used.

Example: Walking slowly, I could see the beautiful flowers.

(8) Use a comma to separate parts of the date.

Example: Tuesday, May 2, 2016, was when I graduated.

LESSON 3: SEMI-COLON

Semicolon (;)

A semicolon (;) is used to separate two independent clauses while still

demonstrating that a close relationship exists between them. The semicolon does a
better job of showing the connection between two statements than a full stop would.

Examples:

 My daughter is a teacher; my son is a doctor.

 There are eight members in the team: two from China, Japan; three from
France, Spain; two from Brazil; and one from India. 

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College of Education Structure of English

 Richard always slept with the light on; he was afraid of the dark.

LESSON 4: COLON

Colon (:)

A colon (:) is a fairly common punctuation mark with a varied number of uses. It can
be used to introduce a quotation, an example, a series, or even an explanation.
Secondly, it can be used to separate two independent clauses. Finally, a colon can
be used to show emphasis.

Examples:

 You have two choices: finish the work today or lose the contract.
 That’s because we have one goal: for you to consider your website a
success.
 John has all the ingredients: minced clams, milk, potatoes, and onions. 

LESSON 5: QUOTATION/SPEECH MARKS

Quotation Marks/Speech Marks (” “)

We use quotation marks (” “) for direct quotations in English.

Examples:

 “I feel I’ve really earned this, ” she said, taking up her mug of tea.
 ” I told a fib about my age, ” little Tom said.
 “It is a historic moment,” he told journalists.
 “Fine, thanks,” he replied in a cheerful manner.

LESSON 6: QUESTION MARK

Question Mark (?)

We use a question mark (?) after an interrogative sentence in English.

Examples:

 “Have you a pen I can borrow?” she asked.

 Where are you from?

LESSON 7: EXCLAMATION MARK

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College of Education Structure of English

Exclamation Mark (!)

An exclamation mark is used to show emphasis. It can be used in the middle of a

sentence or at the end of a sentence. When used at the end of a sentence, it also
takes on the role of a full stop or a period.

We often use an exclamation mark (!) to show strong emotion or give a command.

Examples:

 Stop!
 Yeah!
 Sit down!
 What a lovely view you have here!
 That’s fantastic!
 Johnny, don’t touch that!
 Help!
 Good heavens!
 Aaarrgh!

LESSON 8: APOSTROPHE

Apostrophe (‘)

An apostrophe (‘) is used to show that certain letters have been omitted from a
word. The punctuation symbol can also be used to show the possessive form of a
noun, in addition to indicating the plural form of lowercase letters.

The apostrophe rules:

(1) Use an apostrophe in contractions

 He is = He’s
 I am = I’m
 Do not = Don’t
 They have = They’ve
 It is = It’s
 I would = I’d
 Let us = Let’s
 She has = She’s
 Who is = Who’s

LESSON 9: HYPHEN

A hyphen (–) is a punctuation mark with three main uses. Many people confuse this
punctuation mark with the dash, but the two are quite different. The hyphen can be

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College of Education Structure of English

used in compound words, to link words to prefixes, and also as a way to show word
breaks.

The hyphen rules and examples:

(1) Use a hyphen to join two or more words together into a compound term. Do not
separate the words with spaces.

Examples:

 My eight-year-old boy loves reading.

 I work part-time.
 Self-expression
 Self-confidence
 Self-consciousness
 Nineteenth-century history
 Old-furniture salesman
 Off-the-peg suits
 Self-paced learning exercises
(2) To link prefixes to words.

For example: These things happened before the pre-enlightenment era.

(3) To indicate word breaks

For example: Unlike what some people might think, the twentieth-century was very
different from other preceding time periods.

LESSON 10: DASH

Dash

The dash is used to separate words into statements.

There are two kinds of dashes, the en dash, and the em dash. The en dash shows
range or connections. On the other hand, the em dash is used in places where a
comma could also be used. The dash can also be used to mark off words or
statements that are not important to the meaning of the statement. The dash can
also be used in places where a comma would be typically used.

En dash (–)

Slightly wider than a hyphen, the en dash is a symbol (–) that is used in writing or
printing to indicate a range or connections.

Examples:
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College of Education Structure of English

 1880 –1945
 Princeton–New York trains
Em dash (—)

Twice as long as the en dash, the em dash (—) can be used in place of a comma,
parenthesis, or colon to enhance readability or emphasize the conclusion of a
sentence.

Example: She gave him her answer—No!

LESSON 11: PARENTHESIS

Parentheses ( )

Parenthesis, ( () ) are quotation marks that show additional thoughts about a
statement. In many scenarios, they can be replaced by commas without any
changes to the meaning of the sentence.

We also often use parentheses to set off less important details.

Example: The two brothers (Richard and Sean) were learning how to play guitar.

LESSON 12: SQUARE AND ROUND BRACKETS

Brackets [ ]

Brackets are squared off quotations ([]) that are used to show information of a
technical nature. Even if this information is omitted entirely, the sentence would still
make sense.

For example: Was he [the defendant] there when you arrived?

The difference between a 'bracket' and a 'parentheses' can be a bit confusing.

Generally, 'parentheses' refers to round brackets ( ) and 'brackets' to square
brackets [ ]. However, we are more and more used to hearing these referred to
simply as 'round brackets' or 'square brackets'.

Usually we use square brackets - [ ] - for special purposes such as in technical

manuals. Round brackets - ( ) - are used in a similar way to commas when we want
to add further explanation, an afterthought, or comment that is to do with our main
line of thought but distinct from it. Many grammarians feel that the parentheses can,
in fact, be replaced by commas in nearly all cases.

Examples

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College of Education Structure of English

The government's education report (April 2005) shows that the level of literacy is
rising in nearly all areas.

I visited Kathmandu (which was full of tourists) on my way to the Himalayas for a
trekking expedition.

You can eat almost anything while travelling in Asia if you are careful to observe
simple rules (avoiding unboiled or unbottled water is one of the main rules to be
aware of.)

EF ENGLISH

We typically use square brackets when we want to modify another person's words.

Here, we want to make it clear that the modification has been made by us, not by the
original writer. For example:

to add clarification:

The witness said: "He [the policeman] hit me."

to add information:

The two teams in the finals of the first FIFA Football World Cup were both from
South America [Uruguay and Argentina].

to add missing words:

It is [a] good question.

to add editorial or authorial comment:

They will not be present [my emphasis].

to modify a direct quotation:

He "love[s] driving." (The original words were "I love driving.")

We also sometimes use square brackets for nesting, for example:

Square brackets can also be nested (using square brackets [like these] inside round
brackets).

https://www.englishclub.com/writing/punctuation-brackets.htm

LESSON 13: SLASH

Slash (/)

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College of Education Structure of English

A slash, which is also known as a forward slash, a virgule, or even an oblique dash,
has a number of uses. The slash can be used to separate lines in a song or poem
when they are written in a continuous line. The slash (/) is also used in place of the
word or. The slash can also be used to show two contradictory notions.

The slash punctuation rules and examples:

(1) Use slashes to separate parts of the internet (web) addresses and file names for
some computer programs.

Example: http://www.example.com/

(2) Use slashes for fractions

Example: 1/3 = one-third

(3) Use a slash to separate the day, month, and year in date.

Examples:

 w/o = without
 n/a or N/A = not applicable or not available
 R/C = radio control
(4) Use a slash to show the word “per” in measurements.

Example: 80 miles/hour = 80 miles per hour

(5) Use a slash to separate lines of poetry or rhymes in regular text.

Example: Twinkle, twinkle, little star, / How I wonder what you are. / Up above the
world so high, / Like a diamond in the sky.

(6) Use a slash to show alternatives in a sentence.

Example: Please press your browser’s Refresh/Reload button.    

LESSON 14: ELLIPSIS

Ellipsis (…)

An ellipsis is usually represented by three dots (…), although it can also be

represented by three asterisks (***). This punctuation symbol is used to show that
there has been an omission of some letters or words. In many cases, ellipses are
used to cut statement short to avoid unnecessary or irrelevant words that have no
impact on the meaning of the statement being made.

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College of Education Structure of English

We often use an ellipsis to show that parts of sentences are left out.

Examples:

 To be continued…
 You’ll never believe what I saw…

Practice

1. Which of the following has correct punctuation?

A.      Having examined all the data gathered for my study I was ready to
write the final chapter of my dissertation.
B.       Having examined all the data gathered for my study, I was ready to
write the final chapter of my dissertation.

2. Which of the following has correct punctuation?

A.       We have come up with five travel choices for this summer: Mexico
City, Dublin, Amsterdam, Hawaii, and Indianapolis.
B.       We have come up with five travel choices for this summer, Mexico
City, Dublin, Amsterdam, Hawaii and Indianapolis.
C.       We have come up with five travel choices for this summer; Mexico
City, Dublin, Amsterdam, Hawaii, and Indianapolis.

3. Which of the following has correct punctuation?

A.      The CEO gave this statement “I’m sorry it had to come to this. I
really believe I did my best.”
B.      The CEO gave this statement: “I’m sorry it had to come to this. I
really believe I did my best.”

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College of Education Structure of English

C.      The CEO gave this statement, “I’m sorry it had to come to this, I
really believe I did my best.”
D.       The CEO gave this statement: “I’m sorry it had to come to this, I
really believe I did my best.”

4. Which of the following has correct punctuation?

A.       Many companies make low-fat foods: these foods contain less than
five percent of fat per serving.
B.      Many companies make low-fat foods; these foods contain less than
five percent of fat per serving.
C.      Many companies make low-fat foods, these foods contain less than
five percent of fat per serving.

5. Which of the following has correct punctuation?

A.       The weeds in my yard are very green, unfortunately, the grass is
brown and dying.
B.      The weeds in my yard are very green; unfortunately the grass is
brown and dying.
C.       The weeds in my yard are very green; unfortunately, the grass is
brown and dying.
D.       The weeds in my yard are very green. Unfortunately the grass is
brown and dying.

6. Which of the following is preferred?

A.       The best days of my life have been January 3, 2000; March 26,
2007; and December 25, 1979.
B.       The best days of my life have been January 3, 2000, March 26,
2007, and December 25, 1979.

7. Which of the following has correct punctuation?

A.       Even though I tell the customers that their film will be ready the
next day, they still come back in one hour.
B.       Even though I tell the customers that their film will be ready the
next day; they still come back in one hour.
C.      Even though I tell the customers that their film will be ready the next
day. They still come back in one hour.

8. Which of the following has correct punctuation?

A.       Mike wants to go to the conference next semester; therefore, he
needs to submit a proposal soon.
B.       Mike wants to go to the conference next semester, therefore, he
needs to submit a proposal soon.
C.       Mike wants to go to the conference next semester; Therefore, he
needs to submit a proposal soon.

9. Which of the following has correct punctuation?

A.       The walls of this ancient city were ruined during a war in early 400
AD.
B.       The walls of this ancient city were ruined during a war in early 400
A.D.

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College of Education Structure of English

C.       The walls of this ancient city were ruined during a war in early 400
A.D..

10. Which of the following has correct punctuation?

A.       It is more fuel efficient to drive at 45 rather than 65 mph.
B.       It is more fuel efficient to drive at 45 rather than 65 m.p.h.

UNIT 6: SYNTAX

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 define syntax;
 identify principles of syntax; and
 deconstruct sentences by labelling what syntax principle is observed.

Presentation

LESSON 1: DEFINITION OF SYNTAX

Syntax is the grammatical structure of sentences. The format in which words

and phrases are arranged to create sentences is called syntax.

The word “syntax” comes from the Ancient Greek for “coordination” or
“ordering together.” In spoken and written language, syntax refers to the set of rules

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that determines the arrangement of words in a sentence. Along with diction, it is one
of the key ways writers convey meaning in a text. 

4 Essential Rules of Syntax in the English Language

The rules of syntax can be quite complex and vary greatly by language (as
well as by time period and place). Depending on the language you are speaking or
writing in, these rules might be very restrictive, or quite flexible. When it comes to
English syntax, there are four baseline rules to keep in mind:

1. A complete sentence requires a subject and a verb and expresses a

complete thought. This is also called an independent clause. A sentence
without a subject and a verb is considered a fragment.
2. Separate ideas generally require separate sentences. A sentence
containing multiple independent clauses that are improperly joined is
considered a run-on sentence.
3. English word order follows the subject-verb-object sequence. (It’s usually
the same in French and Spanish.)
4. A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb—but it doesn’t express
a complete thought.

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LESSON 2: PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX

COMPOSITIONALITY

Sentences are composed of clauses and phrases, which are in turn make up
of smaller clauses and phrases of words. This supports the idea that a sentence is
required to have a subject and a verb to be able to express a complete idea.
Although it does not follow that the arrangement of the subject and the verb should
be the same across languages, both the subject and the verb could be singular or
grow into longer phrases. The grammar of every language is hierarchical and
compositional. According to the principle of compositionality, the meaning of the
utterance is created by the meaning of the constituents and the syntactic structure of
a particular language.

Examples:

 You and I should run fast now.

 You run fast now.
 You run fast.
 You run.
 Run.

Gotlob Fregean explains further the principles of compositionality as to how

elements in the sentence and their arrangements affect the totality of the meaning as
a whole. This is called the Fregean principle of compositionality. Gotlob Fregen
assumed that the phrases in the sentences are interdependent.

RECURSION

The principle of recursion states that a certain set of elements in the sentence
could reoccur or repeat. Accordingly, a grammatical process can apply more than
once, which allows the speakers to produce sentences of indefinite length and
complexity. This is very essential in the study of language because it explicates the
human capability of producing infinite sentences embedded in other sentences.

According to this principle, a sequential repetition of structural elements could

happen within a sentence, as one structural component could be inserted into
another structural component.

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Examples:

Introduction to Linguistics allows us to investigate the deeper features of

language independent of the factors by which individual acquires or learns language,
with the views and theories on how languages share common properties which tell
us that difference or complexity of language use is shaped by experience and is
conditioned by personalized process.

The quick, brow fox, jumps over the sleeping, huge, lazy, K9 dog.
“Didn’t matter if the fe-fe was a VP, VIP, stay-at-home wife, his wife, his sister, a
lover, an employee, an associate, a groupie, a counterpart, smart, fine, dumb, ugly, a
model, a hooker, a Christian, his best friend, or his mother.”

-Mary Morrison’s He’s Just A Friend

Recursions could be EMBEDDING, thus, one can always add additional

subordinate clauses within a frame of the sentence.

Examples:

That was the house that we built.

That was the mat that laid in the house that we built.
That was the mat that laid, on the floor in the house that we built.
That was the dog that slept on the mat, that laid on the floor in the house that we
built.

Recursions could also be COORDINATION, which uses coordination

conjunction (and, but, or, etc.) to link an indefinite number of sentences.

Example:

My daughter went to the airport and I went to the bus station but daddy cancelled his
trim and went to work.

CONSTITUENCY

The principle of constituency describes that certain groups of words from the
close units. A constituent is a word or group of words that serves as a single unit
within the grammatical structure. It could be a morpheme, a word, phrase, or clause.
All words and phrases within the sentence are constituents of the particular
sentence.

Example:

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College of Education Structure of English

Sweet Mary brought candies.

“Sweet Mary” is the noun phrase, and “brought candies” is the verb phrase.

Constituents include noun constituent (noun phrase) and verbal constituent

(verb phrase. Proper nouns usually function as the head of the nominal group, all
other constituents are modifiers of the head

The examples above show the chunking of a sentence into constituents. As

shown, a sentence is built upon noun and verb phrase which reduces to minor
constituents. Leonard Bloomfield (1933) called the process as Immediate
Constituent Theory. According to Bloomfield, “every structure may be divided into its
immediate constituents almost in two ways and each way may, in turn, be divided
and subdivided until ultimate constituents are reached (words).”

PROJECTION

The projection principle follows a theory of projection in syntax, which explains

that a phrase structure is built by a simple adjunction operation and a qualifier.
Projection is a principle of syntax, which refers to the words inserted into the
structures that project phrase of the same category such as the NP and VP. These
form larger constituents that compose a sentence. When heads project the phrase,
the phrase is termed as a projection.

Examples:

The students of CNU study hard.

The big house with a parked red car is mine.
The man with a white shirt is my brother.
I saw several occurrences of the situation.
He will read books with interesting plots.

MERGE

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College of Education Structure of English

When two structures are combined, they form a new syntactic unit. This
process is called merge. Structure building starts with the predicate, which is the
core element of a clause. In predicate merge, one phrase can be combined with
another. To do that, the grammar must have a mechanism that combines phrases.
Several phrases can be merged to form into one set. Though the entire predicate
contains more than one phrase, it is merged as one unit: a verb phrase.

Example:

My mobile data will expire in few weeks.

Take note that:

- few weeks is a noun phrase

- in a few weeks is a prepositional phrase
- will expire is a verb phrase

All of the above chunks of phrases can be merged into one single phrase
which is a verb phrase (VP), which is “will expire in a few weeks.”

In the sentence “I want a puppy”, the determiner phrase (DP) is produced by

adding a determiner to a noun. Further, the verb phrase merge (VP) is a combination
of the verb and the determiner phrase or noun phrase.

ADJUNCTION

Merge joins phrases by placing one phrase into the complement or specifier
of another phrase. It is also possible to merge phrases that are not complements or
specifiers of their host phrase. This is called adjunction. Adjunction adds modifiers to
phrases. Some parts of a sentence are indispensable and when removed will make
the remainders incomplete. These are HEAD, COMPLEMENTS, and SPECIFIERS
that make up the core meaning of the phrase. Adjuncts, however, are the opposite.
They add extra descriptions. Adjuncts are phrases or clauses that are dispensable
and replaceable. Adjuncts include additional descriptions and modifiers to phrases.

Examples:

I had my exercise routine this morning.

We had fun throughout the weekend.
You definitely surprise me.
We left the school early.
I bought new clothes yesterday.
Those little children in the park want a puppy badly.

I studied thoroughly for several hours a night.

I thoroughly studied at night for several hours.
I studied for several hours at night thoroughly.

MOVEMENT

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College of Education Structure of English

Besides constructing phrase structures, syntax can also move the elements of
phrase structures around by removing them from the position in which they were
originally inserted in the structure and moving them somewhere else. This is called
movement. Syntax categorizes two types of movement: AUXILIARY MOVEMENT
and PHRASAL MOVEMENT.

Examples of auxiliary movements:

I communicate with my friend.

Did you communicate with your friend?
Whom did you communicate with?
Are you the one communicating with your friend?
What are you doing?

Let us take a look at the following syntactic movements:

What is that? (wh + verb + demonstrative pronoun)

Is that true? (Verb + demonstrative pronoun + noun)
Did you do that? (Do + pronoun + main verb + demonstrative pronoun)
Where did that happen? (wh + do + demonstrative pronoun + noun
What is going on? (wh + LV + prepositional verb)

Movement does not only occur in interrogatives. In declarative sentence, the

movement occurs in the positioning of phrases in the sentence while retaining the
meaning and the grammaticality. This is called phrasal movement.

Examples of phrasal movement:

Sarah is wedded to Mateo.

Mateo is wedded to Sarah.
Their family brought gifts for them.
For them, their family brought gifts.

SUBSTITUTION

The substitution principle denotes the capability of substituting a certain word

in the sentence. This act of substitution does not change the meaning of the
sentence.

Examples:

Maria prepared for her lesson; she is a teacher.

The teacher prepared for her lesson.
She prepared for her lesson.
She prepared for that.

The last sentence, “she prepared for that”, is a pro-form substitution, “she”
needs an antecedent to complete its reference. It is kind of anaphora or a

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College of Education Structure of English

grammatical substitute to words such as pronouns or pro-verb. Even though

sentences are linear on the surface, their constituents are organized hierarchically.

In noun replacement, only an entire nominal constituent can be replaced with

a pronoun.

Examples:

The girl in school uniform ate an apple.

She ate an apple.
Versus
She in school uniform ate an apple

In verb replacement, only an entire verbal constituent can be replaced with do

verb.

Examples:

The girl in the school uniform ate an apple.

She ate an apple and so did I.
Versus
She ate an apple and so did I a banana.

Practice

1. 
He cut the meat with a knife. The word in italic is: 

o A. 

Theme.

o B. 

Instrument.

o C. 

Source.
 
2. 
I like tea very much. The word in italic is:

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College of Education Structure of English

o A. 

Theme.

o B. 

Instrument.

o C. 

Source.
 
3. 
My father always feels proud of me. The word in italic is:

o A. 

Agent.

o B. 

Goal.

o C. 

Experiencer.
 
4. 
My cup of coffee was drunk! The word in italic is:

o A. 

Agent.

o B. 

Experiencer.

o C. 

Theme.
 
5. 
Great people think alike. The word in italic is:  

o A. 

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College of Education Structure of English

Experiencer.

o B. 

Agent.

o C. 

Location.
 
6. 
I went home early yesterday. The word in italic is:

o A. 

Theme.

o B. 

Location.

o C. 

Goal.
 
7. 
We get milk from cows. The word in italic is:

o A. 

Source.

o B. 

Theme.

o C. 

Instrument.
 
8. 
She sat on a chair and started reading. The word in italic is:

o A. 

Theme.

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College of Education Structure of English

o B. 

Location.

o C. 

Instrument.
 
9. 
Do you love me? The word in italic is:

o A. 

Agent.

o B. 

Experiencer.

o C. 

Goal.
 
10. 
She always buy her clothes at expensive stores. The word in italic is:

o A. 

Source.

o B. 

Goal.

o C. 

Location.

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UNIT 6: SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. identify the structure of predication, modification, coordination and

complementation; and
2. organize sentence structure according to appropriate complexity and variety.

Presentation

STRUCTURE OF PREDICATION, MODIFICATION, COORDINATION,

SUBORDINATION, CORRELATION, COMPLEMENTATION, AND
NEGATION

PREDICATION

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College of Education Structure of English

Diligence pays. (S + V)

She does her work with diligence. (S + VP)

The sentence above consists of a subject and a verb or predicate. The

structure of predication is the association between the subject and the predicate of
the sentence. A predicate is one of the major constituents in a sentence, the other
one is the subject. Both subjects and predicates may constitute a word or group of
words.

The sentence “diligence pays” contains a single verb as a predicate while the
“she does her work with diligence” come with a verb phrase as a predicate.

Predicates could be a single word, a phrase, or any of the syntactic structures

of modification, coordination, and complementation. The predicate is the best mark
for the structure of predication. If a predicate is a structure of complementation, there
is always a verb at its core. An example is “John is kind.” The predicate structures
starts with is and is complemented by an adjective.

If the predicate is a structure of coordination, the predicate is always marked

by a verb as coordinate members. An example is “John sings and dances.” The
predicate is introduced by an intransitive verb and added with another intransitive
verb using a conjunction and.

If the predicate contains a structure of modification, it always begins with a

transitive verb. An example is “John drives a luxurious car.” The predicate is marked
with the verb drives followed by direct object car modified by the word luxurious.

Examples of predicates:

Joshua likes movie so much. (likes movie so much)

Jenny and Ava are friends. (are friends)

We are advised to stay at home. (are advised to stay at home)

The man prepared food for the family. (prepared food for the family)

DISTINCTION OF VERBS

FORMS

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College of Education Structure of English

Verbs are mainly distinguished according to their form. These include the
“sform” and the “base-form.” Verbs always agree with the subject in number. The
sform is used when the subject is in the third person singular, while the base-form is
used in the third person plural.

Examples of verbs in s-forms (inflection s):

John talks to Rose.

John travels on foot.

Verb forms also include the distinctions between regular and irregular
verbs. Regular verbs are those that form their past and past participle by adding –ed
or –d to the base form while irregular verbs are those that change their form when
used as past tense or past participle.

Examples of regular verbs:

Jacob agreed to the suggestions posed.

He compared the present data to the previous one.

Examples of irregular verbs:

Jacob read the information thoroughly.

He hurt his head while reading.

KINDS AND FUNCTIONS

The predicate structures always vary according to the kinds of verbs used in
the sentence. These include linking verbs, auxiliary verbs, transitive verbs,
intransitive verbs, ditransitive verbs, ergative verbs, prepositional verbs, and modal
verbs.

Linking verbs are also called copulative verbs. These are verbs that connect
a subject to a complement. Linking verbs include be-verbs that link the subject to the
complement such as is, am, are, was, and were. Linking verbs also involve the verbs
that appeal to the senses.

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College of Education Structure of English

Examples:

The teachers are productive (S + LV + Complement)

Jane is her name. (S + LV + Complement)

Auxiliary verbs are those that help the main verbs complete the ideas in the
sentences. These include (a) be verbs: is, am, are, was, were; (b) do verbs: do,
does, did; (c) have verbs: has, have, had; (d) modals: can, could, would, might, may,
will, etc.

Examples:

The teacher is planning for her lesson. (auxiliary be + present participle)

The students have studied for the class. (auxiliary have + past participle)

Did you do your homework? (auxiliary do + base form)

I will start the program. (modal + base form)

Transitive Verbs are those that need an object to receive the action. The
objects could be nouns or pronouns that are direct receiver of the action.

Examples:

My friend fixed my television. (S + TV + DO)

The teacher examines her work. (S + TV + DO)

Intransitive Verbs are those that do not need an object to receive the action.
This is the direct opposite of a transitive verb. A prepositional phrase may be added
after the intransitive verb, which, when deleted, would not change the message of
the sentence.

Examples:

The girl ran away into the forest. (S + In V)

She hesitates for the job. (S + In V)

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College of Education Structure of English

Ditransitive Verbs are verbs that allow two objects such as nouns and
pronouns to complete the meaning.

Examples:

He offered me a job. (S + Di V + IO + DO)

She handed me the fees. (S + Di V + IO + DO)

Ergative Verbs are verbs that may or may not require object nouns and
pronouns to complete the message.

Examples:

Mila broke the glass. (the glass- object)

The glass broke into pieces. (into pieces- may be deleted)

Prepositional Verbs are verbs that need prepositions to complete the ideas.
This includes verb-preposition combinations. Verb-preposition combination may form
phrasal verbs and idioms.

Examples:

He gets along with me fast. (gets along – one verb unit)

My students dropped out of school. (dropped out – one verb unit)

Verbs Aspects and Tenses

Verb tenses are categorized into the present, past and future. The present
tense includes action that happen in the present at a regular occurrence or factual.
Past tense includes actions that are done in the past. Future tenses are actions that
are yet to happen. These tenses of the verbs are often associate with the aspects.
The aspects include simple, progressive, perfect and perfect progressive. Combining
the tenses and aspects would answer the questions: When did the action happen
and how did it happen?

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College of Education Structure of English

In constructing simple past tense, the verb is always in the past form. The
verbs in the simple past tense are actions that are completed in a particular or over a
period of time. It also indicates habitual action in the past, actions that are in series,
and actions that are true or narrated from a story.

Examples:

I had my research yesterday. (completed action)

She presented a good summary of the story. (completed action)

Yesterday, the sun set at 6:00 pm. (factual event)

In constructing simple present tense, the verb is either in s-form or base

form depending on the plurality of the subject. The simple present tense is used for
habitual actions, factual information, used in comments, present feelings and
emotions, and current events.

Examples:

The sun rises in the east. (factual)

I jog everyday. (habitual)

I feel safe being with you. (emotion)

You are silent today. (comment)

In constructing simple future tense, the main verb should be in base-form

preceded by will or shall. This indicates actions that will happen in the future
including plans, promises, and predictions.

Examples:

I will visit you. (plan)

I shall return. (promise)

I will graduate. (plan/expected)

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Past progressive tense denotes action that occurred at a certain time in the
past or happened while another action took place. In constructing past progressive
tense, the pattern is subject + was/were + present participle and other phrases.

Examples:

I was eating when you called. (Two actions at a

time) The earthquake was happening around 4:00 pm yesterday. (Progressive
action

in the past)

Present progressive tense denotes action that is happening at a particular

time at the present or an event that is happening at a certain time in the future. The
duration of the action is evident. In constructing present progressive tense, the
pattern is subject + is/am + present participle.

Examples:

She is teaching Math at now. (on-going action)

I am going to buy some groceries. (futuristic action)

Future progressive tense denotes action that is expected to happen at a

particular time in the future. In constructing future progressive tense, the pattern is
subject + will + be + present participle.

Examples:

I will be going to a party later. (future on-going action)

I will be visiting my cousin during the summer break. (future on-going action)

Past perfect tense denotes a duration of action that was completed at a

certain time in the past. It also describes the action that is preceded at another past
time or events that are expected and hoped for. In constructing the past perfect
progressive, the pattern is subject + had + past participle.

Examples:

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Sam had called his agent before he departed.

I had imagined you standing in front of me before you actually arrived.

I had been teaching since 2004.

Present perfect tense denotes an action that happened in the past and is
completed at the present. In constructing the present perfect progressive, the pattern
is subject + has/have + past participle.

Examples:

I have been to different places in the country.

(the action is done at the time of speaking)

I have already read the Twilight Saga.

(the action is done at the time of speaking)

Future perfect tense denotes an action that will be completed in the before
another action. This includes the conditionals and actions that will occur at a
determined time. In constructing the future perfect tense, the pattern is subject +
will/would + has/have + past participle.

Examples:

If I had not transferred work, I would have been promoted.

Before you become a teacher, you will have mastered this subject matter.

Past Perfect Progressive denotes an action that is on-going at the past

resulting in another action or interrupted by earlier actions. In constructing past
perfect progressive form, the pattern is subject + had + been + present participle.

Examples:

The students had been preparing for the examination before the teacher entered the
testing room.

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I had always been expecting to hear from her before she asked me to confess my
sentiments.

Present Perfect Progressive denotes an action that began at a particular

time in the past, still going on at the present, and will possibly continue in the future.
In constructing past perfect progressive, the pattern is subject + has/have + been +
present participle.

Examples:

I have been studying my lessons in linguistics, so now, I need to relax.

You have been using my laptop, and it’s my turn now.

The teacher has been preparing lessons, and she is teaching them today.

Future Perfect Progressive denotes an action that is presently happening

and will continue in the future. In constructing past perfect progressive, the pattern is
subject + wil/shall + have + been + present participle.

Examples:

I will have been staying in this town for years.

I will have been turning eighteen on Monday, next week. By

January 1, we will have been teaching for 15 years.
If it’s midnight, he will have been sleeping for four hours by at this time.

At the heart of every predicate is a verb. The predicate structures undeniably

begin with verbs. Verbs come in different forms, kinds, functions, aspects, and
tenses. Getting familiar with each will help you understand and identify the structures
of predicates.

MODIFICATION

Modification is the use of words or phrases to show further information or

description about a thing, a person, a place, an action, or any quality being labeled.
In general, modification is a structural construction, where one grammatical element
is modified by another. In such a case, one element has a stuructural dependence
on the other.

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The element of higher significance in the sentence is called the head, while
the accompanying element is called the modifier. These make up the structure of
modification.

The structure of modification is composed of two elements: 1.) the main word
or the head and 2.) the modifier, which describers the head and in a way affecting
the head’s meaning. The modifier may be a word or a phrase. The basic modifiers
are adjectives and adverbs.

Examples:

The lovely woman performed the dance gracefully.

Frankly speaking, I think that is a losing case.

The cute girl, sweet and smart, is my student.

Adjectives are modifiers of nouns and adverbs are modifiers of verbs.

Adjective modifiers may come in series, where words of different grammatical labels
have one grammatical function: adjective modifying a noun.

Examples:

These fort little ginger kittens. (pronoun, number, size, color + noun)

The first three eager applicants. (article, ordinal, cardinal, quality + noun)

Nouns and verbs usually the head of the phrase, but not at all times. The
head also includes other grammatical categories such as adjective as head, and
adverb and preposition as a head.

Examples:

I am so happy to see you. (adjective head)

I would like to see you very soon. (adverb head)

I dropped it straight down the drain. (preposition as head)

The structures of modifications are categorically listed as:

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The noun phrase structure of modification occurs when the noun is the head of the
phrase.

Examples:

a complicated story
a beautiful caricature
the very kind people

A verb phrase structure of modification occurs when the verb is the head of the
phrase.

Examples:

Meticulously work
Honorably stood
Manage gracefully
Have always practiced
can actually prove

An adjective phrase structure of modification occurs when the adjective is the head
of the phrase.

Examples:

quite fabulous
gorgeously
handsome not too
skinny just so
clueless

A prepositional phrase structure of modification occurs when the preposition is the

head of the phrase.

Examples:

such in favor right

to my head broken
to the bones

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An adverb phrase structure of modification occurs when the adverb is the head of
the phrase.

Examples:

very rapidly more

consistently very
gradually so
indifferently

COORDINATION

Coordination comes from the Latin word “consilio inito” which means “join
together”. In linguistics, coordination is a syntactic structure that joins together two or
more elements called conjoins or conjuncts. These conjoins are linked by a
coordinator or conjunction, which signals coordination.

The structures of coordination are classified as syndetic, asyndetic, or

polysyndetic. The structure is said to be syndetic if the elements are joined by
coordination conjunctions. On the contrary, the structure is asyndetic when the
coordinators are not necessarily present but could be inserted. Polysyndetic, on the
other hand, is when the coordinator is reoccurring between each pair of units.

Examples:

She wakes up early but she came late. (syndetic)

She wakes up early, (yet) she came late. (asyndetic)

She wakes up fast and early and she arrived to school on time. (polysyndetic)

Classifications of Conjunctions

Conjunctions are classified as coordination, subordinating, correlative and

conjunctive adverbs.

Coordinating conjunctions include for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so (fanboys),
which join words, phrases, clauses or sentences.

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Examples:

cup and saucer make or

break Sam o John reading
and writing
small but terrible

SUBORDINATION

Subordinating conjunctions or the subordinators link the dependent and

independent clauses. Subordinating conjunctions mostly appear in complex
sentences. When adverbs acting as conjunctions are placed at the beginning of the
clause that precedes that precedes the main clause, a comma is needed.

Examples:

If I were you, I would talk to him.

While some wait for the storm to pass, others adjust the sail.

The complete list of subordinating conjunctions according to purpose is as

follows:

Concession: though, although, even though, while

Reason: because, since, why, in order that, so that

Comparison: than, whereas, rather than, whether, otherwise, as much as

Manner: how, although, as if

Indicates time: after, by the time, till, while, as long as, now that, until, as soon as,
once, when, before, since, whenever

Condition: unless, if, only if, provided that, even if, in case that, lest, until, assuming
that

Relative adjective: whatever, what, which, that

Place: where, wherever

Relative pronoun: whom, whomever, whose, who, whoever

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Correlative conjunctions are connectors that come in pairs and connect the parts
of the sentence that show equal importance. When two subjects are singular or
plural, the subject closest to the verb affects the verb. Sentences with correlating
conjunction have to be constructed in a way that the conjoins are parallel, such as
joining words of the same grammatical category.

Correlative conjunctions include:

as … as hardly …
when if … then
whether … or just
as … so either …
or not … but not
only … but also
both … and
neither … nor what
with … and no
sooner … than just
as … so rather …
than since …
therefore so … as
whether … or not
whereas …
therefore

Examples:

Not only that it could bring harm but also a huge disaster if left unsolved.

If that is the case, then I would rather quit.

He both wants to eat pizza and to drink soda.

Just as you think about it, so it becomes important to you. Whether

it is true or not, we have to be more careful.

Conjunctive adverbs are used as a linking device between elements or ideas.

They denote the logical relationship between clauses and sentences. The functions
of conjunctive adverbs are either connect and contrast ideas or indicate results.

Conjunctive adverbs include:

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Connecting similar ideas: besides, likewise, also, furthermore, moreover

Connecting contrasting ideas: nevertheless, still, instead, rather, however,

nonetheless, conversely, otherwise

Indicate results: consequently, meanwhile, therefore, thus, accordingly, hence, then

Examples:

The students are trained well, therefore, they can execute better.

They exerted effort in practicing, consequently, they won.

There were times that they could play around, instead, they spent all their time
practicing.

She was injured during the event, still, she emerged as winner.

COMPLEMENTATION

Every day is an opportunity.

A complement is a word or phrase that completes the statement. In the sentence

above, “every day” is the subject, “is” is the verb that links the subject and the
complement, which is “an opportunity”. When the linking verb and the complement
are merged as one unit, they become a verb phrase. This makes up the structure of
complementation.

A structure of complementation is a verb phrase comprising two major component: a

verbal component and a complement.

Complement structure categories:

A subject complement is a word or group of words that follow the linking verb.

The patter is subject + linking verb + subjective complement, such as “She is

graceful.” “She” is a subject, “is” is a linking verb, and “graceful” is a complement,
which is an adjective. The complements could be a noun or pronoun, an object, an
adjective, an adverb, a function word, an infinitive, a present participle.

Examples:

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Today is my day. (noun)

Today is all there is. (function word)

Today is hot and humid. (adjective)

Today is almost over. (adverb)

Her plan today is to go back to the beach (verb infinitive)

An object complement is a predicative expression that follows a direct object or

states what the “object” has become. The pattern for the objective complement is
subject + transitive verb + direct object, such as “I saw the baby sleeping” is the
objective complement, where “is sleeping” is describing what “the baby” is doing.

Objective complement could be a single a word indefinite pronoun, a single noun,

an infinitive verb phrase, a gerund, or a clause.

Examples:

She feels something. (single word indefinite pronoun)

She sees the pen. (single word – noun)

She wants to write about it. (infinitive verb phrase)

She desires writing the story. (gerund)

She knows what he is doing. (clause)

An object complement is also a combination of an indirect and direct object. The

pattern is: subject + transitive verb + indirect object + direct object.

Examples:

The judges awarded him first prize.

Subject: the judges

Transitive verb: awarded

Indirect object: him

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Direct object: first prize

My parents left me an inheritance.

Subject: My parents

Transitive verb: left

Indirect object: me

Direct object: an inheritance

Another structure of an objective complement is a transitive verb, a direct object,

and an object of the preposition. The pattern is: subject + transitive verb + direct
object + object of preposition.

Examples:

The judges awarded the first prize to him.

Subject: the judges

Transitive verb: awarded

Direct object: the first prize

Object of the preposition: to him

My parents left an inheritance to me.

Subject: my parents

Transitive verb: left

Direct object: an inheritance

Object of the preposition: to me

NEGATION

Negative Structures in English

 Negative verb conjugation: A negative verb is formed by adding "not" to a

main verb, making the whole statement untrue.

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 Negative imperative: A negative imperative sentence is used to instruct or

command someone not to do something. It is formed by placing "do not"
before the main verb in a sentence.
 "No" and "not + any" negative sentences: "No" and "any" are two words
that can make a sentence negative. "Any" word sentences also have a "not"
and have negative verbs while "no" word sentences have positive verbs.
 Double negatives: Double negatives are incorrect structures in English that
combine two "not" words in one sentence to make a positive statement.
 "Never" negative sentences: These negative sentences go beyond saying
that something is untrue. They make the statement that something is not
ever true by using "never" and a positive verb together to convey negative
meaning.
 "Neither...nor" negative sentences: A "neither...nor" negative sentence
expresses two separate but related negatives by linking two positive
statements together with "neither" and "nor".

Negative Verb Conjugation

The most common negative construction in English is the negative

conjugation of a verb using the word "not". Main verbs can be made negative by
placing "not" directly after the auxiliary verb in a conjugation.

The sentence structure for a negative verb conjugation is: Subject + auxiliary

verb + "not" + main verb + object[s].
The combination of "not" and an auxiliary verb is often contracted in English.
For example: do not = don't, will not = won't, and has not = hasn't.
Here are some examples of negative verb conjugations.

 She won't come to the party tomorrow.

 Tom has not finished the report.
 We aren't studying Russian this semester.

Negative Imperative
Imperative sentences are used to instruct or command others. Use "do not"
(or "don't") before the main verb of a sentence to create a negative imperative—an
instruction not to do something. No subject is required in the negative imperative
form.
The negative imperative sentence structure is: "Do" + "not" + verb + object[s].
Here are some examples of negative imperative sentences.

 Do not begin without me.

 Don't waste any time.
 Do not touch the glass.

"No" and "Not + Any" Negative Sentences

"No" negative sentences and "not + any" negative sentences are very similar.
There are a number of "no" words (such as nowhere, nobody, nothing, and no one)
and "any" words (such as anyone, anybody, anything, and anywhere) that can serve
the same purpose in making a sentence negative.
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"Any" words take negative verb structures and "no" words take positive
structures. "Any" word sentences require a "not" as well, which precedes it. "No" and
"not + any" can be used interchangeably.

The sentence structure of a "no" word negative sentence is: Subject +

auxiliary verb + main verb + "no" word + object[s].
Here are some examples of "no" word negative sentences.

 They have no pets.
 To make this a "not + any" negative sentence: They do not have
any pets.
 I have nothing more to say.
 The boys invited no one to their party.
 Timothy has gone nowhere this summer.
 She bought nobody a present.

The sentence structure of an "any" word negative sentence is: Subject + auxiliary

verb + "not" + main verb + "any" word + object[s].
Here are some examples of "not + any" negative sentences.

 Mary isn't going to eat any dinner.

 Susan did not see anybody at work today.
 Peter hasn't done anything for the past three days.
 I'm not meeting anyone tomorrow.
 To make this a "no" negative sentence: I'm meeting no one tomorrow.
 Alex hasn't traveled anywhere outside of the United States.

Double Negatives
Double negatives are a common but incorrect negative structure in
English. They are characterized by the use of two "no" words (such as not and
nowhere) in one sentence. Most people that use double negatives are trying to make
a "no" word negative sentence but mistakenly add "not" to it as well. Double
negatives are incorrect because two negative words or phrases cancel each other
out to contribute positive meaning to a phrase.
Here are some examples of double negatives.

 He doesn't like nothing.
 Angela has not visited no one this month.
 They aren't traveling nowhere for the holidays.

Do not, under any circumstances, use double negatives. Instead, use either
one "no" word on its own or one "any" word (with an accompanying "not") to form a
negative sentence.

"Never" Sentences
"Never" describes something that does not happen at all and therefore must
be used with a positive verb to convey negative meaning. Auxiliary verbs are not
needed for negative sentences in the present simple or past simple tense—the
"never" already indicates that something is not ever done (an auxiliary conjugation).

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The sentence structure of a "never" negative sentence is: Subject + auxiliary

verb + "never" + verb + object[s].
Here are some examples of "never" negative sentences.

 She never takes time off work.

 Mary has never returned my calls.
 Peter never walked to school when he was young.

"Neither...Nor" Sentences

Use the phrase "neither ... nor" when expressing two negatives together.
Unlike in double negatives, "neither...nor" sentences use no negatives to express
negative meaning. Rather, they contain two positive alternatives made untrue by
"neither" and "nor". The verb in one of these sentences applies to all objects
because the speaker is making two related untrue statements that do not stand
alone.

The sentence structure that "neither...nor" negative sentences most often

follow is: Subject + auxiliary verb + "neither" + direct object + "nor" + direct object
+ infinitive verb + subject complement.

An optional dependent clause can also be inserted immediately after "nor".

"Neither...nor" sentences are not as difficult to construct as they seem. Here

are some examples of "neither...nor" negative sentences.

 I have neither the time nor have I had the desire to do my work.

 She has neither the time nor the money to help her friends.
 Alex has neither the means nor does he have the ability to find a new job.

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Practice

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Make as many sentences as you can out the words contained in the box. Given the
knowledge on the principles of syntax and syntactic structures variation, you can
manipulate the sentence order.

Make a syntax tree for each of the following sentences.

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FINAL ASSESSMENT

Exchange

The topics provided in this module detail how the grammatical elements are
interrelated to formulate sentences, such as the sentence structures, patterns,
phrases, clauses, predication, modification, complementation, subordination, and
correlation. These enable students to have a penetrating knowledge on how
composition of sentence works.

References

Concrete Reference/s:

Philippine National Research Center for Teacher Quality (2020), pp. 36-45.
Prototype Syllabi for Pre-service Teacher Education Compendium Series;
Compendium 4: Bachelor of Secondary Education English Specialization Courses.
Teacher Education Council. Department of Education

Electronic Reference/s (URL):

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Syntactic structures (slideshare.net)

https://www.thoughtco.com/identifying-sentences-by-function

https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/sentence/sentence-structure

https://mlpp.pressbooks.pub/writingsuccess/chapter/7-1-sentence-variety/

https://writingexplained.org/grammar-dictionary/syntax#:~:text=Syntax%20is%20the
%20grammatical%20structure%20of%20sentences.%20The,sentence%20can
%20be%20rearranged%20to%20create%20varied%20syntax.

https://lx.berkeley.edu/research/syntax-and-semantics

https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/sentence/sentence-structure.

https://study.com.pk/types-of-sentences-according-to-function

https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-conditional.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_Structures

https://www.thoughtco.com/negative-structures-1209910

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