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Teaching & Learning Enhancement

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TEACHING AND LEARNING ENHANCEMENT Dr. Sudhiranjan Dey

The past decade has seen an explosion of interest among college faculty in the teaching methods variously
grouped under the terms 'active learning' and 'cooperative learning'. However, even with this interest, there
remains much misunderstanding of and mistrust of the pedagogical "movement" behind the words.

Throughout the history of education, primary average worker and a brilliant talent has been
emphasis has been on content transmission and measured and rewarded keeping at per
teacher-centered instruction. This type of discouraging excellence, commitments and
approach limited opportunity to develop critical passion while encouraging personal excellence
thinking in students and contributed to minimal also has its own pros and cons.
interest by educators toward issues relevant to
teaching thinking. However, current guidelines To address the paucity of our own professional
for education professional preparation and the literature, this article serves as a concise
recent National Education Standards indicate a discussion highlighting past and recent
growing concern by educators toward teaching educational literature most relevant to critical
skills of thinking. In addition, many initiatives thinking. Within this overview the classroom
undertaken as part of the current U.S. practitioner will be introduced to four areas
educational reform demonstrate efforts to that are predominant in the educational
restructure America’s schools to prepare literature. The first area focuses on perspectives
students for high thinking work rather than low regarding teaching for thinking expressed in the
skilled tasks. Reform strategies to develop this literature. Second, barriers to teaching for
kind of schooling have direct impact on teacher thinking will be described. Third, a discussion
educators, the structure of professional will follow on specific suggestions identified in
preparation programs, and entering teachers of the literature on how to reduce some of the
all disciplines. Meagerness of discussion in the barriers impeding the present paradigm shift
education literature on the topic of teaching for toward developing student thinking in
thinking provides minimal guidance to the educational practice. Last, accountability factors
teacher educator and others desiring to be for teaching thinking in education will be
more fully informed or to become an active, identified.
effective participant of the paradigm shift
toward teaching for thinking. Need for Teaching Thinking

However, lot has been written, spoken and 20 years back, Meyers (1987) points out that it
discussed but nothing had changed on Indian is evident in the literature there is a need to
soil when it comes to leaching and from address critical thinking at all levels of
Kindergarten to post graduate level it has been education in this country. While there are
‘monologue;, content transmission and teacher- various terms and definitions related to
centered instruction which is more like a thinking, educational theorists, philosophers,
knowledge transaction and not what can be cognitive psychologists, and researchers of
called imparting knowledge with the knowhow pedagogy generally agree that thinking is a skill
of their applications thus causing severe learned through opportunities for practice and
shortage of employable workforce. coaching by others, and it should have a more
important role in the learning process (deBono,
Personal excellence has been also discouraged 1994; French & Rhoder, 1992; Hester, 1994;
at the workplace with growing advocacy on Howard, 1990; Paul, 1995). Although theorists
collective outcome theories and organizations provide different definitions for thinking and
are only encouraging Teamwork overlooking believe their definition best conveys the basic
the exceptional talents and value of an ordinary concept of thinking, they do not view other

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definitions as wrong or not useful. The a point of concern and clarification continuing
proposed definitions are more similar than into current educational discussions. Several
different and should not allow an educator to experts on thinking, such as deBono (1994),
dismiss the importance of teaching for thinking Howard (1990), and Costa and Lowery (1989)
because the experts do not seem to find clarify that thinking skills are needed in addition
agreement on a definition among themselves to content, but not at the expense of
(Paul, Binker, Martin, Vetrano & Kreklau, 1989). eliminating the disciplines’ major concepts and
Even writers whose definitions of thinking differ key information. Salient to these individuals is
share consensus that it is an essential skill the idea that thinking skills need to be taught
needed for success in a rapidly changing world. directly as a part of classroom time. Advocates
of this approach offer evidence, which
The historical roots of critical thinking that most demonstrates increases in student
educators agree upon originate in the era of performance, and further suggest that this
ancient Greece with the teachings and treatises method shows students that thinking skills are a
of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The term key component of education.
“critical thinking” is commonly used in
education today. According to deBono (1994), Such an approach is based on a philosophy that
this term perpetuates the view of teaching kind of thinking can be taught separately as
engaged in by the “Greek Gang of Three” which process-based instruction, then taught in a
emphasized the skills of analysis, judgment, and meaningful context with deliberate teaching for
argument through a dialogue involving skill transfer through repeated practice (Costa &
continuous questioning. The word “critical” Lowery, 1989). However, within this field of
comes from the Greek word, kritikos, which thought differences abound as to how thinking
means “judge,” while “Socratic questioning” is a skills should be taught, that is, step-by step or
method of asking deep questions to probe in a holistic manner (Paul et al, 1989).
one’s thinking for rationality to claims of
knowledge. Socrates demonstrated over 2,500 Others, most notably Richard Paul (1995), a
years ago that even persons with power or in a leader on critical thinking from Sonoma State
high position representing authority could not University, espouses infusion of thinking and
always be depended upon for sound knowledge content as a single educational endeavor. From
and insight, hence the need for critical thought. this perspective it is believed that thinking can
only occur in the presence of content thereby
Although teaching for thinking began hundreds producing contextualization and indivisibility
of years ago, it continues to be of concern for between thought and its subject. This
today’s society. According to Hester (1994), represents a direct contrast to those who are
beginning in the 20th century, U.S. schools had advocating thinking skill instruction separate
a major goal of mastery of thinking or reasoning from teaching content. Sternberg (1987)
yet the achievement of this goal is still lacking. cautions educators to not be subject to binary
choices, such as separate instruction for
For example, concern over content vs. process teaching thinking versus instruction with
was expressed by Alfred North Whitehead in infusion of content and thinking. He advises
1929 who advocated for a needed change in careful deliberation of such artificial
education and suggested that the “ . . . real dichotomies and suggests teachers seek a third
fruits of education are the thought processes option better than the two presented, namely,
that result from the study of a discipline, not a combination of these approaches.
the information accumulated” (Meyers, 1987, p.
2). This early concern described by Whitehead
as separation of content from process has been

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Regardless of differences in how experts view information in order to benefit from it (deBono,
the relationship of content and thinking and 1994; French & Rhoder, 1992; Hester, 1994).
approaches to teaching thinking, they According to deBono (1994) who is a leading
enumerate a variety of valid reasons for authority in cognitive studies, our current
teachers to engender needed changes in thinking which is inherently non-critical is not
teaching for thinking. A reason often providing adequate for the rapidly changing world in
support for a paradigm shift toward teaching which we live and the attended demands.
for thinking is frequent reference to the latest
educational reform movement. Closely related to the "information age"
rationale is yet another argument, which
The impetus for the most recent reform focuses on the role of schooling in preparing
movement in this century began over 15 years students to enter today’s society and the new
ago with a federal publication identifying the century. Education needs to provide students
poor status of American education as shown with the thinking skills essential to becoming
through student achievement scores (Levine, autonomous, self-reliant citizens (French &
1996). Steinberg (1996) cites the significance of Rhoder, 1992) who, as independent and
the 1983 federal report, A Nation at Risk: The creative thinkers, problem-solvers and effective
Imperative for Educational Reform, and the decision-makers, can make positive impacts
trends indicated by data gathered from the upon their environment through innovation,
National Assessment of Educational Progress invention, and discovery (Hester, 1994).
(NAEP). The NAEP is a federally administered
assessment of students’ proficiency in According to economists, the future of our
mathematics, reading, writing, and science. country’s success is dependent upon the
Steinberg points out that scoring on the NAEP academic achievement of students fostering
relies less on rote memory of facts known by their ability to succeed in a highly competitive
students than their general skills, such as international economy (Steinberg, 1996).
writing a coherent, persuasive argument or Perhaps, deBono (1994) summarizes it best by
solving a problem using scientific information stating, “Thinking is the ultimate human
rather than demonstrating possession of the resource. The quality of our future will depend
knowledge alone. French & Rhoder (1992) entirely on the quality of our thinking”.
further elaborate on the importance of the
early 1980s results of the NAEP, often referred A fourth reason is a growing body of knowledge
to as the “Nation’s Report Card”, as evidence related to the thinking processes offered in the
that American students do not do well with literature and available to practitioners. Many
thinking. The same authors also report authors comment that teachers do not use
following the publication of A Nation at Risk teaching methods or pedagogy to encourage
that the Harvard School of Education in 1984 and develop thinking in students, but are
recommended adoption of critical thinking as a teaching just factual knowledge (French &
basic skill along with reading, writing and math. Rhoder, 1992; Meyers 1987; Raths,
Wassermann, Jonas & Rothstein, 1986). The
Today, the movement for teaching for thinking range and depth of this literature requires
is viewed as an integral part of school educators to do considerable reading to
improvement and efforts to improve student become familiar with descriptive information
learning (Hester, 1994). on differentiation in thinking, such as creative,
reflective, analytical, and lateral, coupled with
A second reason cited by experts on thinking is pedagogy appropriate to develop each type of
that we are living in an information age with thinking. Continuous and careful review of the
complex demands on people for organizing literature will assist educators to better

23 | P a g e
understand their role in nurturing thinking in weaknesses of opposing points of view), but
ways, perhaps, that were neither addressed nor rather require no more thought than recall
taught in their undergraduate professional (Paul et al, 1989).
education courses.
Stated more strongly than being a product of
Barriers to Teaching for Thinking the past experiences, Hass and Keeley (1998)
describe faculty resistance to teaching for
Realities of present day schooling and the thinking in higher education as a common
educational world present a variety of barriers problem. According to the authors, although
that interfere with attempts by teachers to college instructors purport to acknowledge
create a learning environment for teaching critical thinking as an educational outcome for
thinking. The type of barrier fluctuates their students, it is evident many faculty fail to
according to the level of education as well as make critical thinking a reality in their
specific educational setting. However, each classrooms. Reasons cited for this failure are:
barrier serves as a reminder of typical restraints critical thinking was not included as part of their
impinging upon the practitioner who is making own educational experiences, their mentors
a serious attempt at teaching for thinking. exhibited only teaching methods of lecture and
served primarily as dispensers of information, a
Within the school environment are several lack of confidence in teaching what they have
identifiable barriers impeding teachers’ not been trained to do, and belief that attention
progress toward participating in the paradigm to critical thinking is incongruent with content
shift toward teaching for thinking. Factors such coverage and interferes with content
as large class size, faculty reward structures that transmission. Meyers (1987) adds that few
work against a critical thinking emphasis, and opportunities to learn about teaching critical
the time and effort required to shift one’s thinking are available through professional
teaching orientation are cited as possible development disciplinary conferences and
barriers by Haas and Keeley (1998). Teaching to everyday collegial dialogue.
tests which are based on recall of what has
been read and heard serves as an obstacle to Another barrier to teaching for thinking is the
developing student competence as thinkers limitation of most textbook writers to
(Raths et al., 1986). Another barrier identified incorporate consistent aspects of critical
by Meyers (1987) are the 50 to 60 minute class thinking terminology and use of thinking skills
times which allow little time for students to by students (Raths et al, 1986). When there is
adequately process or interact with subject some effort to include checklists for evaluating
matter and to reflect upon what has occurred in reasoning or analysis of an argument, there is
a learning activity. an overall avoidance of asking the textbook
reader to view the argument as a whole and
Even if time were not a factor, Meyers evaluate it as a whole. Frequently arguments
characterizes teachers as products of the way are not presented as complete arguments and
they were taught so they continue to rely upon students receive only portions of the issue.
assignments, methods, and objective tests that Many texts suggest debates as extensions of
emphasize recall of information rather than teaching, but do not emphasize the need for
offer potential for higher order thinking skills. students to rationally evaluate their views,
Teachers seldom engage students in dialogical assess arguments, or justify their conclusion.
(thinking that involves dialogue or extended Likewise, many texts only ask students to either
exchange between different points of view or agree or disagreewith the conclusion, again
frames of reference) or dialectical reasoning without providing reasoned evaluation (Paul et
(thinking that tests the strengths and al, 1989).

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A final obstacle to teacher engagement in training related to those preparing to become
teaching for thinking cited in the literature is teachers, and second, proactive strategies are
the attitude of intellectual passivity or needed to address the resistance by current
disengagement of students in classrooms that educational practitioners to teach for thinking.
replaces the sense of wonder or inquisitiveness
exhibited in them as children. Natural curiosity Although often there is a lack of courses in
can be thwarted as early as the middle grades in teacher preparation that give systematic
elementary school creating a challenging instructional training in how to implement
situation for those teaching higher order teaching for thinking (Raths et al, 1986), some
thinking in subsequent grades (Meyers, 1987). authors in the educational literature mention
increased resources available to those who
Steinberg (1996), author of Beyond the desire to participate in training future teachers
Classroom, offers an interesting view on the differently. Consensus for recommendations of
evolving student disengagement displayed in specific resources to use in teacher education
schools. He first proposes students perform programs is not clear. Likewise there is a lack of
according to the method of evaluation, thus any discussion of approaches or models employed
attempts to teach for thinking is resisted by by university and college teacher education
students who continue their passivity because units to successfully prepare individuals to
they know involvement in thinking skills is not teach for thinking.
requisite to evaluation activities. His second
explanation is based on his studies on forces Some writers with an interest in higher
outside of the school affecting students’ education do provide information regarding
interest and performance in school. Their opportunities for resisting change by faculty at
findings suggest that schools are not alone colleges and universities who often do little
accountable for the poor performance of more than embrace thinking as a major
students, lack of motivation, and general teaching goal. For example, Meyers (1987)
disengagement. Contributors to these latter offers hope for such college and university
problems include parents who display serious professors by stating, “Happily, things are
disengagement regarding interest in the child’s beginning to change” (p. 102). In his opinion,
performance and progress in school, peer more resources are available to these
culture which affects students from trying as educators, and there is increasing interest in a
hard as they can for fear of what friends will number of professional organizations to include
say, and students’ activity schedules that workshops to exchange teaching ideas. National
interfere with any energy directed to schooling conferences, interdisciplinary in nature, are
beyond the classroom. Thus, student being offered that focus on critical thinking.
disengagement is more likely to result from According to Haas & Keeley (1998), the right
external forces such as parents and employers incentives and a supportive environment
who contribute to the devaluing of education encourage educators to attempt to make
which is then transferred and reflected in the changes in teaching.
students’ attitudes and values about education.
Solutions to Overcoming Barriers Writers in the Specifics described by the authors are teaching
educational literature spend little time in philosophy changes to show emphasis on
providing ideas or solutions on how to development of thinking skills with follow-up
overcome the barriers facing teachers in the changes to reflect the change in emphasis in
move away from didactic teaching recognized forms of evaluation used by administrators,
as counterproductive to teaching for thinking. peers, and students. Individual exploration and
Most ideas can be narrowed to two areas of group meetings to discuss teaching concerns in
concern. First, aconcern is expressed to provide initiating changes for teaching thinking are staff

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development strategies advocated for play with appropriate skilled intervention/
overcoming resistance by faculty. Group teaching.”
discussions with leaders who have
experimented with critical thinking approaches 'Children learn by doing, thinking, exploring,
offer structure and focus to collegial exchange. through quality interaction, intervention and
At least one faculty member needs to be relationships, founded on children’s interests
knowledgeable, thereby garnering the respect and abilities across a variety of contexts. All
and interest of colleagues. In a similar fashion these factors combining to build the four
students who began as resisters but developed capacities for each child.'
into enthusiastic critical thinkers can share their
experiences with student resisters. 'Environments that offer differential play and
challenge, staff who are well informed and able
Active Learning to challenge learning, child-centred and building
on previous experiences, fun absolutely
In many countries throughout the world, active essential, children planning and evaluating their
learning is seen as an appropriate way for learning.'
children and young people to develop vital skills
and knowledge and a positive attitude to Four capacities of Active Learning
learning.
Active learning can support learners'
Active learning is learning which engages and development of the four capacities in many
challenges children and young people’s thinking ways. For example, they can develop as:
using real-life and imaginary situations. It takes
full advantage of the opportunities for learning successful learners through using their
presented by: imagination and creativity, tackling new
experiences and learning from them, and
• spontaneous play developing important skills including literacy
• planned, purposeful play and numeracy through exploring and
• investigating and exploring investigating while following their own interests
• events and life experiences confident individuals through succeeding in
• focused learning and teaching their activities, having the satisfaction of a task
accomplished, learning about bouncing back
All active learning opportunities can be from setbacks, and dealing safely with risk
supported when necessary through sensitive responsible citizens through encountering
intervention to support or extend learning. All different ways of seeing the world, learning to
areas of the curriculum, at all stages, can be share and give and take, learning to respect
enriched and developed through an active themselves and others, and taking part in
approach. making decisions effective contributors through
interacting together in leading or supporting
Active learning has long been an established roles, tackling problems, extending
approach in early years settings, and when communication skills, taking part in sustained
asked to reflect on what active learning might talking and thinking, and respecting the
look like in early primary school, delegates to a opinions of others.
Curriculum for Excellence conference for early
years suggested: “A true building on
experiences in nursery. Hands-on independent

26 | P a g e
The past decade has seen an explosion of working together in, for example, designing
interest among college faculty in the teaching assignments, choosing texts, and presenting
methods variously grouped under the terms material to the class. Clearly, collaborative
'active learning' and 'cooperative learning'. learning is a more radical departure from
However, even with this interest, there remains tradition than merely utilizing techniques aimed
much misunderstanding of and mistrust of the at enhancing student retention of material
pedagogical "movement" behind the words. presented by the instructor; we will limit our
The majority of all college faculty still teach examples to the "less radical" active and
their classes in the traditional lecture mode. cooperative learning techniques. "Techniques
Some of the criticism and hesitation seems to of active learning", then, are those activities
originate in the idea that techniques of active which an instructor incorporates into the
and cooperative learning are genuine classroom to foster active learning.
alternatives to, rather than enhancements of,
professors' lectures. We provide below a survey Exercises for Individual Students
of a wide variety of active learning techniques
which can be used to supplement rather than Because these techniques are aimed at
replace lectures. We are not advocating individual students, they can very easily be used
complete abandonment of lecturing, as both of without interrupting the flow of the class. These
us still lecture about half of the class period. exercises are particularly useful in providing the
The lecture is a very efficient way to present instructor with feedback concerning student
information but use of the lecture as the only understanding and retention of material. Some
mode of instruction presents problems for both are especially designed to encourage students'
the instructor and the students. There is a large exploration of their own attitudes and values.
amount of research attesting to the benefits of Many (especially numbers 4 - 6) are designed to
active learning. increase retention of material presented in
lectures and texts.
"Active Learning" is, in short, anything that
students do in a classroom other than merely The "One Minute Paper" - This is a highly
passively listening to an instructor's lecture. effective technique for checking student
This includes everything from listening practices progress, both in understanding the material
which help the students to absorb what they and in reacting to course material. Ask students
hear, to short writing exercises in which to take out a blank sheet of paper, pose a
students react to lecture material, to complex question (either specific or open-ended), and
group exercises in which students apply course give them one (or perhaps two - but not many
material to "real life" situations and/or to new more) minute(s) to respond. Some sample
problems. The term "cooperative learning" questions include: "How does John Hospers
covers the subset of active learning activities define "free will"?", "What is "scientific
which students do as groups of three or more, realism"?", "What is the activation energy for a
rather than alone or in pairs; generally, chemical reaction?", "What is the difference
cooperative learning techniques employ more between replication and transcription?", and so
formally structured groups of students assigned on. Another good use of the minute paper is to
complex tasks, such as multiple-step exercises, ask questions like "What was the main point of
research projects, or presentations. today’s class material?" This tells you whether
Cooperative learning is to be distinguished from or not the students are viewing the material in
another now well-defined term of art, the way you envisioned.
"collaborative learning", which refers to those
classroom strategies which have the instructor
and the students placed on an equal footing

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Muddiest (or Clearest) Point - This is a variation lecture). But with this approach (particularly if
on the one-minute paper, though you may wish entries are assigned for homework), you may
to give students a slightly longer time period to ask more complex questions, such as, "Do you
answer the question. Here you ask (at the end think that determinism is correct, or that
of a class period, or at a natural break in the humans have free will? Explain your answer.",
presentation), "What was the "muddiest point" or "Do you think that Dr. Kevorkian's actions are
in today's lecture?" or, perhaps, you might be morally right? What would John Stuart Mill
more specific, asking, for example: "What (if say?" and so on. Or you might have students
anything) do you find unclear about the concept find and discuss reports of scientific studies in
of 'personal identity' ('inertia', 'natural popular media on topics relevant to course
selection', etc.)?". material, such as global warming, the ozone
layer, and so forth.
Affective Response - Again, this is similar to the
above exercises, but here you are asking Reading Quiz - Clearly, this is one way to coerce
students to report their reactions to some facet students to read assigned material! Active
of the course material - i.e., to provide an learning depends upon students coming to class
emotional or valuative response to the material. prepared. The reading quiz can also be used as
Obviously, this approach is limited to those an effective measure of student comprehension
subject areas in which such questions are of the readings (so that you may gauge their
appropriate (one should not, for instance, level of sophistication as readers). Further, by
inquire into students’ affective responses to asking the same sorts of questions on several
vertebrate taxonomy). However, it can be quite reading quizzes, you will give students guidance
a useful starting point for courses such as as to what to look for when reading assigned
applied ethics, particularly as a precursor to text. If you ask questions like "What color were
theoretical analysis. For example, you might ask Vidya’s eyes?" (as my high school literature
students what they think of Dr. Jack Kevorkian's teacher liked to do), you are telling the student
activities, before presenting what various moral that it is the details that count, whereas
theorists would make of them. By having questions like "What reason did Vidya give, for
several views "on the table" before theory is murdering Sebastian?" highlight issues of
presented, you can help students to see the justification. If your goal is to instruct (and not
material in context and to explore their own merely to coerce), carefully choose questions
beliefs. It is also a good way to begin a which will both identify who has read the
discussion of evolutionary theory or any other material (for your sake) and identify what is
scientific area where the general public often important in the reading (for their sake).
has views contrary to current scientific thinking,
such as paper vs. plastic packaging or nuclear Clarification Pauses - This is a simple technique
power generation. aimed at fostering "active listening".
Throughout a lecture, particularly after stating
Daily Journal - This combines the advantages of an important point or defining a key concept,
the above three techniques, and allows for stop, let it sink in, and then (after waiting a bit!)
more in-depth discussion of or reaction to ask if anyone needs to have it clarified. You can
course material. You may set aside class time also circulate around the room during these
for students to complete their journal entries, pauses to look at student notes, answer
or assign this as homework. The only questions, etc. Students who would never ask a
disadvantage to this approach is that the question in front of the whole class will ask
feedback will not be as "instant" as with the questions during a clarification pause as you
one-minute paper (and other assignments move about the room.
which you collect the day of the relevant

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Response to a demonstration or other teacher an important and useful one; the following
centered activity - The students are asked to techniques suggest variations which enhance
write a paragraph that begins with: I was this method, avoiding some of these pitfalls.
surprised that ... I learned that ... I wonder
about ... This allows the students to reflect on
what they actually got out of the teachers’ Wait Time - Rather than choosing the student
presentation. It also helps students realize that who will answer the question presented, this
the activity was designed for more than just variation has the instructor WAITING before
entertainment. calling on someone to answer it. The wait time
will generally be short (15 seconds or so) - but it
Questions and Answers may seem interminable in the classroom. It is
important to insist that no one raise his hand
While most of us use questions as a way of (or shout out the answer) before you give the
prodding students and instantly testing OK, in order to discourage the typical scenario
comprehension, there are simple ways of in which the five students in the front row all
tweaking our questioning techniques which immediately volunteer to answer the question,
increase student involvement and and everyone else sighs in relief. Waiting forces
comprehension. Though some of the every student to think about the question,
techniques listed here are "obvious", we will rather than passively relying on those students
proceed on the principle that the obvious who are fastest out of the gate to answer every
sometimes bears repeating (a useful question. When the wait time is up, the
pedagogical principle, to be sure!). instructor asks for volunteers or randomly picks
a student to answer the question. Once
The "Socratic Method" students are in the habit of waiting after
questions are asked, more will get involved in
Taking its namesake from the most famous the process.
gadfly in history, this technique in its original
format involved instructors "testing" student Student Summary of Another Student's
knowledge (of reading assignments, lectures, or Answer - In order to promote active listening,
perhaps applications of course material to a after one student has volunteered an answer to
wider context) by asking questions during the your question, ask another student to
course of a lecture. Typically, the instructor summarize the first student's response. Many
chooses a particular student, presents her with students hear little of what their classmates
a question, and expects an answer forthwith; if have to say, waiting instead for the instructor to
the "chosen" student cannot answer the either correct or repeat the answer. Having
question presented, the instructor chooses students summarize or repeat each others'
another (and another) until the desired answer contributions to the course both fosters active
is received. This method has come under participation by all students and promotes the
criticism, based on claims that it singles out idea that learning is a shared enterprise. Given
students (potentially embarrassing them), the possibility of being asked to repeat a
and/or that it favors only a small segment of the classmates' comments, most students will listen
class (i.e., that small percentage of the class more attentively to each other.
who can answer any question thrown at them).
In addition, once a student has answered a The Fish Bowl - Students are given index cards,
question they may not pay much attention as it and asked to write down one question
will be a long time before the teacher returns to concerning the course material. They should be
them for a second question. In spite of these directed to ask a question of clarification
criticisms, we feel that the Socratic method is regarding some aspect of the material which

29 | P a g e
they do not fully understand; or, perhaps you but the information is not used as part of the
may allow questions concerning the application course grade; summative assessment is any
of course material to practical contexts. At the evaluation of student performance which
end of the class period (or, at the beginning of becomes part of the course grade. For each
the next class meeting if the question is feedback method, the instructor stops at
assigned for homework), students deposit their appropriate points to give quick tests of the
questions in a fish bowl. The instructor then material; in this way, she can adjust the lecture
draws several questions out of the bowl and mid-course, slowing down to spend more time
answers them for the class or asks the class to on the concepts students are having difficulty
answer them. This technique can be combined with or moving more quickly to applications of
with others (e.g., #8-9 above, and #2). concepts of which students have a good
understanding.
Quiz/Test Questions - Here students are asked
to become actively involved in creating quizzes Finger Signals - This method provides
and tests by constructing some (or all) of the instructors with a means of testing student
questions for the exams. This exercise may be comprehension without the waiting period or
assigned for homework and itself evaluated the grading time required for written quizzes.
(perhaps for extra credit points). In asking Students are asked questions and instructed to
students to think up exam questions, we signal their answers by holding up the
encourage them to think more deeply about the appropriate number of fingers immediately in
course material and to explore major themes, front of their torsos (this makes it impossible for
comparison of views presented, applications, students to "copy", thus committing them to
and other higher-order thinking skills. Once answer each question on their own). For
suggested questions are collected, the example, the instructor might say "one finger
instructor may use them as the basis of review for 'yes', two for 'no'", and then ask questions
sessions, and/or to model the most effective such as "Do all organic compounds contain
questions. Further, you may ask students to carbon [hydrogen, etc.]?". Or, the instructor
discuss the merits of a sample of questions might have multiple choice questions prepared
submitted; in discussing questions, they will for the overhead projector and have the
significantly increase their engagement of the answers numbered (1) through (5), asking
material to supply answers. Students might be students to answer with finger signals. In very
asked to discuss several aspects of two different large classes the students can use a set of large
questions on the same material including cardboard signs with numbers written on them.
degree of difficulty, effectiveness in assessing This method allows instructors to assess
their learning, proper scope of questions, and student knowledge literally at a glance.
so forth.
Flash Cards - A variation of the Finger Signals
Immediate Feedback approach, this method tests students’
comprehension through their response to flash
These techniques are designed to give the cards held by the instructor. This is particularly
instructor some indication of student useful in disciplines which utilize models or
understanding of the material presented during other visual stimuli, such as chemistry, physics
the lecture itself. These activities provide or biology. For example, the instructor might
formative assessment rather than summative flash the diagram of a chemical compound and
assessment of student understanding, ask "Does this compound react with H2O?". This
Formative assessment is evaluation of the class can be combined with finger signals.
as a whole in order to provide information for
the benefit of the students and the instructor,

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Quotations - This is a particularly useful method society holds to be morally right is in fact
of testing student understanding when they are morally right". After students have responded
learning to read texts and identify an author's to the questions individually, have them
viewpoint and arguments. After students have compare answers in pairs or small groups and
read a representative advocate of each of discuss the ones on which they disagree. This
several opposing theories or schools of thought, technique may also be used to assess student
and the relevant concepts have been defined knowledge of the subject matter in a pre-/post-
and discussed in class, put on the overhead lecture comparison. The well-known "Force
projector a quotation by an author whom they Concept Inventory" developed by Hestenes to
have not read in the assigned materials, and ask measure understanding of force and motion is
them to figure out what position that person another good example of this.
advocates. In addition to testing comprehension
of the material presented in lecture, this Puzzles/Paradoxes - One of the most useful
exercise develops critical thinking and analysis means of ferreting out students' intuitions on a
skills. This would be very useful, for example, in given topic is to present them with a paradox or
discussing the various aspects of evolutionary a puzzle involving the concept(s) at issue, and to
theory. have them struggle towards a solution. By
forcing the students to "work it out" without
Critical Thinking Motivators some authority's solution, you increase the
likelihood that they will be able to critically
Sometimes it is helpful to get students involved assess theories when they are presented later.
in discussion of or thinking about course For example, students in a course on theories of
material either before any theory is presented truth might be asked to assess the infamous
in lecture or after several conflicting theories "Liar Paradox" (with instances such as 'This
have been presented. The idea in the first case sentence is false'), and to suggest ways in which
is to generate data or questions prior to such paradoxes can be avoided. Introductory
mapping out the theoretical landscape; in the logic students might be presented with complex
second case, the students learn to assess the logic puzzles as a way of motivating truth tables,
relative merits of several approaches. and so forth. In scientific fields you can present
experimental data which seems to contradict
parts of the theory just presented or use
The Pre-Theoretic Intuitions Quiz - Students examples which seem to have features which
often dutifully record everything the instructor support two opposing theories.
says during a lecture and then ask at the end of
the day or the course "what use is any of this?", Share/Pair
or "what good will philosophy [organic
chemistry, etc.] do for us?". To avoid such Grouping students in pairs allows many of the
questions, and to get students interested in a advantages of group work students have the
topic before lectures begin, an instructor can opportunity to state their own views, to hear
give a quiz aimed at getting students to both from others, to hone their argumentative skills,
identify and to assess their own views. An and so forth without the administrative "costs"
example of this is a long "True or False" of group work (time spent assigning people to
questionnaire designed to start students groups, class time used just for "getting in
thinking about moral theory (to be groups", and so on). Further, pairs make it
administered on the first or second day of an virtually impossible for students to avoid
introductory ethics course), which includes participating thus making each person
statements such as "There are really no correct accountable.
answers to moral questions" and "Whatever a

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Discussion - Students are asked to pair off and to work with throughout the term. Each student
to respond to a question either in turn or as a then takes their partner's work and depending
pair. This can easily be combined with other on the nature of the assignment gives critical
techniques such as those under "Questions and feedback, standardizes or assesses the
Answers" or "Critical Thinking Motivators" arguments, corrects mistakes in problem-
above. For example, after students have solving or grammar, and so forth. This is a
responded to statements, such as "Whatever a particularly effective way to improve student
society holds to be morally right is in fact writing.
morally right" with 'true' or 'false', they can be
asked to compare answers to a limited number Cooperative Learning Exercises
of questions and to discuss the statements on
which they differed. In science classes students For more complex projects, where many heads
can be asked to explain some experimental data are better than one or two, you may want to
that supports a theory just discussed by the have students work in groups of three or more.
lecturer. Generally, this works best when As the term "cooperative learning" suggests,
students are given explicit directions, such as students working in groups will help each other
"Tell each other why you chose the answer you to learn. Generally, it is better to form
did". heterogeneous groups (with regard to gender,
ethnicity, and academic performance),
Note Comparison/Sharing - One reason that particularly when the groups will be working
some students perform poorly in classes is that together over time or on complex projects;
they often do not have good note-taking skills. however, some of these techniques work well
That is, while they might listen attentively, with spontaneously formed groups.
students do not always know what to write Cooperative groups encourage discussion of
down, or they may have gaps in their notes problem solving techniques and avoid the
which will leave them bewildered when they go embarrassment of students who have not yet
back to the notes to study or to write a paper. mastered all of the skills required.
One way to avoid some of these pitfalls and to
have student’s model good note-taking is to Cooperative Groups in Class - Pose a question
have them occasionally compare notes. The to be worked on in each cooperative group and
instructor might stop lecturing immediately then circulate around the room answering
after covering a crucial concept and have questions, asking further questions, keeping the
students read each others' notes, filling in the groups on task, and so forth.. After an
gaps in their own note-taking. This is especially appropriate time for group discussion, students
useful in introductory courses or in courses are asked to share their discussion points with
designed for non-majors or special admissions the rest of the class.
students. Once students see the value of
supplementing their own note-taking with Active Review Sessions - In the traditional class
others', they are likely to continue the practice review session the students ask questions and
outside of class time. the instructor answers them. Students spend
their time copying down answers rather than
Evaluation of Another Student's Work - thinking about the material. In an active review
Students are asked to complete an individual session the instructor posses questions and the
homework assignment or short paper. On the students work on them in groups. Then
day the assignment is due, students submit one students are asked to show their solutions to
copy to the instructor to be graded and one the whole group and discuss any differences
copy to their partner. These may be assigned among solutions proposed.
that day, or students may be assigned partners

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Work at the Blackboard - In many problem can use the "T" method to list all of the
solving courses (e.g., logic or critical thinking), (potential) benefits and harms of an action, and
instructors tend to review homework or teach then discuss which side is more heavily
problem solving techniques by solving the "weighted". In science classes this would work
problems themselves. Because students learn well with such topics as massive vaccination
more by doing, rather than watching, this is programs, nuclear power, eliminating
probably not the optimal scenario. Rather than chlorofluorocarbons, reducing carbon dioxide
illustrating problem solving, have students work emissions, and so forth.
out the problems themselves, by asking them to
go to the blackboard in small groups to solve Jigsaw Group Projects - In jigsaw projects, each
problems. If there is insufficient blackboard member of a group is asked to complete some
space, students can still work out problems as a discrete part of an assignment; when every
group, using paper and pencil or computers if member has completed his assigned task, the
appropriate software is available. pieces can be joined together to form a finished
project. For example, students in a course in
Concept Mapping - A concept map is a way of African geography might be grouped and each
illustrating the connections that exist between assigned a country; individual students in the
terms or concepts covered in course material; group could then be assigned to research the
students construct concept maps by connecting economy, political structure, ethnic makeup,
individual terms by lines which indicate the terrain and climate, or folklore of the assigned
relationship between each set of connected country. When each student has completed his
terms. Most of the terms in a concept map have research, the group then reforms to complete a
multiple connections. Developing a concept comprehensive report. In a chemistry course
map requires the students to identify and each student group could research a different
organize information and to establish form of power generation (nuclear, fossil fuel,
meaningful relationships between the pieces of hydroelectric, etc.). Then the groups are
information. reformed so that each group has an expert in
one form of power generation. They then tackle
Visual Lists - Here students are asked to make a the difficult problem of how much emphasis
list--on paper or on the blackboard; by working should be placed on each method.
in groups, students typically can generate more
comprehensive lists than they might if working Role Playing - Here students are asked to "act
alone. This method is particularly effective out" a part. In doing so, they get a better idea of
when students are asked to compare views or the concepts and theories being discussed.
to list pros and cons of a position. One Role-playing exercises can range from the
technique which works well with such simple (e.g., "What would you do if a Nazi came
comparisons is to have students draw a "T" and to your door, and you were hiding a Jewish
to label the left- and right-hand sides of the family in the attic?") to the complex. Complex
cross bar with the opposing positions (or 'Pro' role playing might take the form of a play
and 'Con'). They then list everything they can (depending on time and resources); for
think of which supports these positions on the example, students studying ancient philosophy
relevant side of the vertical line. Once they have might be asked to recreate the trial of Socrates.
generated as thorough a list as they can, ask Using various sources (e.g., Plato's dialogues,
them to analyze the lists with questions Stone's The Trial of Socrates, and Aristophanes'
appropriate to the exercise. For example, when The Clouds), student teams can prepare the
discussing Utilitarianism (a theory which claims prosecution and defense of Socrates on the
that an action is morally right whenever it charges of corruption of youth and treason;
results in more benefits than harms) students each team may present witnesses (limited to

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characters which appear in the Dialogues, for readily. For example, when students are
instance) to construct their case, and prepare introduced to the concepts of "laws of nature"
questions for cross-examination. and "the scientific method", it is hard to convey
through lectures the nature of scientific work
Panel Discussions - Panel discussions are and the fallibility of inductive hypotheses.
especially useful when students are asked to Instead, students play a couple rounds of the
give class presentations or reports as a way of Induction Game, in which playing cards are
including the entire class in the presentation. turned up and either added to a running series
Student groups are assigned a topic to research or discarded according to the dealer’s pre-
and asked to prepare presentations (note that conceived "law of nature". Students are asked
this may readily be combined with the jigsaw to "discover" the natural law, by formulating
method outlined above). Each panelist is then and testing hypotheses as the game proceeds.
expected to make a very short presentation,
before the floor is opened to questions from
"the audience". The key to success is to choose
topics carefully and to give students sufficient
direction to ensure that they are well-prepared
for their presentations. You might also want to
prepare the "audience", by assigning them
various roles. For example, if students are
presenting the results of their research into
several forms of energy, you might have some
of the other students role play as concerned
environmentalists, transportation officials,
commuters, and so forth.

Debates - Actually a variation of #27, formal

debates provide an efficient structure for class
presentations when the subject matter easily
divides into opposing views or ‘Pro’/‘Con’
considerations. Students are assigned to debate
teams, given a position to defend, and then
asked to present arguments in support of their
position on the presentation day. The opposing
team should be given an opportunity to rebut
the argument(s) and, time permitting, the
original presenters asked to respond to the
rebuttal. This format is particularly useful in
developing argumentation skills (in addition to
teaching content).
Dr. Sudhiranjan Dey is a senior corporate executive
Games - Many will scoff at the idea that one turned Professor with wealth of 3 decades of global
industry and academic experience. Prof. Dey is a
would literally play games in a university
highly successful marketing professional and has
setting, but occasionally there is no better been involved in applied research and successfully
instructional tool. In particular, there are some spearheaded the large profit centers in large
concepts or theories which are more easily intercontinental markets. He is presently Professor
illustrated than discussed and in these cases, a and Director of New Delhi Institute of Management
well-conceived game may convey the idea more (NDIM), New Delhi, India.

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