Hag Soil Science Notes
Hag Soil Science Notes
The students will be made to interact with their environment in the learning process
through applicatory questions inserted at various intervals of the module.
To understand the soil physical, chemical and biological traits, how they interact during
the formation of the soils, how they determine the soil properties and how they affect
plants
To characterize the soils existing in the various Zimbabwean territories and name them
according to their functionality
To be able to carry out basic soil tests for different parameters either in the laboratory of
field so that they could generate information useful for correctly managing the soil.
Chapter One
By the end of this chapter, students must be able to appreciate the various perspectives I
which the soil is relevant. They should therefore understand how the soil is formed and be
able to distinguish passive soil forming factors from the active soil forming factors.
Students should also be able to link the various geographic territories with the formed soils
that occupy those areas.
Think about what could happen to the land life if there was no soil?
What is soil?
Is a medium for plant growth, soil can be described as a complex natural material derived from
disintegrated and decomposed rocks, and organic materials, which provides nutrients, moisture,
and anchorage for land plants
Layer of natural materials on the earth’s surface containing both organic and
inorganic materials and capable of supporting plant life.
Soil contains four main components: inorganic material, organic matter, water, and
air.
Ideal soil should contain about 50% solid material and 50% pore space and the pore
space. About half of the pore space should contain water and half of the space should
contain air.
Inorganic material consists of rock slowly broken down into small particles.
The percentages of the four main soil components varies depending on the kind of
vegetation, amount of mechanical compaction, and the amount of soil water present.
Soil is formed very slowly because it results from passive and active natural forces
acting on the mineral and rock portions of the earth’s surface. The passive natural
forces include topography, time and parent material whereas the active forces are
made up of biota and climatic parameters.
Identify the soils in your area justify the dominant soil forming factors that could have
resulted in the nature of your surrounding soils.
The process of soil development is known as pedogenesis and the study of soil is
pedology.
There are at-least five factors that contribute to the formation of soils. These are as
shown below:
1. Time
Soils, deep or shallow, take a very long time to develop and the duration depends on the
extend of interaction between the soil forming factors. The first evidence of a layered soil
develops within a century whereas fully mature soils can take up to several thousands of
years to develop
Destruction caused in a few years of careless farming can take centuries to repair.
Mismanagement practices result in land degradation, thus a loss of soil quality traits like
friable texture, good structure, nutrient and water losses. It is therefore easier to destroy
than to achieve a good soil.
2. Parental material
This is the material from which the soil has developed and can vary from solid rock to
deposits like alluvium and boulder clay. It has been defined as ‘the initial state of the
soil system’.
Soils that form directly from underlying rock had dominant soil minerals bearing a
direct relationship with the original rock. This is the simplest form of soil formation and
is referred to as residual soil. Residual soils are commonly found in most parts of the
world. Residual soils - develop on bare rock during primary succession
When parent material is transported and deposited great distances away from the original
point, then the soil is referred to as transported soil. Transported soils - deposited in areas
by actions of wind, water, glaciers, etc. During the ice age, glaciers moved across areas of
the northern hemisphere. They ground, pushed, piled, gouged, and eventually deposited
great amounts of rocks, parent material, and already formed soil material. Loess deposits
are generally thought of as windblown silt. Alluvial and marine deposits are water borne
sediments. Alluvial deposits are left by moving fresh water in the flood plains. Marine
deposits are formed on ancient ocean floors. Organic deposits are partially decayed plants
that living plants are able to root and grow in. These are found in swamps and marshes.
In certain areas wind action transports and deposits material away from the source. These
sediments accumulate and over time they become parent material. Wind, in effect, is
responsible for removing soil as well as developing soil. The minerals in this soil have
very little or no resemblance to those of the parent material below it
There are five major categories of parent material: minerals and rocks, glacial deposits,
loess deposits, alluvial and marine deposits and organic deposits.
Minerals are solid, inorganic, chemically uniform substance occurring naturally in the
earth. Some common minerals for soil formation are feldspar, micas, silica, iron oxides,
and calcium carbonates.
Rocks are different from minerals because they are not uniform. There are three types of
rocks, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Igneous rocks are those formed by the cooling of molten rock and some of them produce
soils that are acidic in nature like the granite.
Sedimentary rocks are those formed by the solidification of sediment and produce sandy
soils.
Metamorphic rocks are simply igneous or sedimentary rocks which have been reformed
because of subjection great heat or pressure.
Jenny H (1941) Factors of soil formation. McGraw-Hill Book Co Inc pp281.
a. Colour- basalt rock produce dark coloured soils whereas granite rocks produce light
coloured soils.
b. Texture- metamorphic rocks produce fine textured soils whereas the sedimentary rocks
produce coarse textured sands
c. Mineral composition- the mineral composition of the parental rock will determine the
quality and quantity of minerals the soil can bear or retain.
d. Permeability/drainage- igneous and sedimentary rocks produce soils that drain well.
Basalt rocks and other alkaline soil producing rocks results in poorly drained soils
3. Climate
This is probably the most important factor (soils produced from the same parent material
under different climates contrast in their characteristics). Climate governs the rate and
type of soil formation and is also the main determinant of vegetation distribution. It is
therefore a major determinant of soil transformation.
Climate has two major components; moisture (precipitation) and temperature, influencing
evaporation. When precipitation exceeds evaporation, leaching of the soil will occur.
Temperature determines the rate of reactions; chemical and biological decay and so has
an influence on weathering and humification.
Moisture, temperature and wind are important climatic variables that influence soil
formation by weakening and altering the rocks physical and chemical characteristics. Soil
moisture content is determined by the amount of precipitation and evaporation. A
combination of high moisture and high temperatures accelerate chemical reactions of the
soil
4. Organisms
Features like anthills, soil mounts, rotten matter etc, probably some of the
livestock lost their legs in pits and holes formed by various creatures are common
in Zimbabwe. Have you ever asked yourself what will be happening to various soil
properties over time because of these minute organisms? Try to identify some of
the soil features around and match them with the organisms that formed them.
Higher plants influence the soil in many ways. The nature of the soil humus is determined
by the vegetation cover and resultant litter inputs. Roots contribute dead roots to the soil,
bind soil particles together and can redistribute and compress soil. The greater the amount
of vegetation on the soil the greater the amount of organic matter in that soil
The most fertile soils are those rich in humus (produced by soil organisms). Soil micro-
organisms convert plant nutrients like nitrogen compounds, phosphates and potassium
into simpler compounds that can easily absorbed by plants. When plants die the reducing
bacteria return the nutrients back into the soil
Earthworms can turn up to 6.5 metric tons of soil per hectare. The mixing action
contributes phenomenally to soil formation and fertility
Burrowing helps aerate the soil forming material and aids interaction with the other soil
forming factors. Ants are important organisms that mounts clay soils which have most of
the basic elements needed to sustain the plant’s growth. These ant hills are used in most
rural areas of Zimbabwe to moderate the structure and nutrition of unproductive sandy
soils.
Think about the soils in our area. Where do you think our “parent material”
came from?
5. Topography
Relief is not static; it is a dynamic system (its study is called geomorphology). Slope is
defined as the angle of the soil surface from horizontal. It is expressed as the % of rise
over run.
Slope affects the productive potential in numerous ways: Rain runoff, soil erosion, the
use of farm machinery, and contour farming.
a) It influences soil profile thickness i.e. as angle of slope increases so does the erosion
hazard
b) It has an effect on climate which is also a soil forming factor, i.e. most of the intense
relief rainfall is experienced on the windward side whereas the leeward side gets little
rainfall. Sometimes topography can also influence the formation of frontal rainfall.
c) Gradient affects run-off, percolation and mass movement. The upper slope
experiences higher rates of runoff as well as minimum percolation hence the soils on
upper slope are shallow and reddish. Soils become deeper as the gradient becomes
stable hence the valleys and lower parts of the slope have deep soils because of high
percolation rates and deposition of soils transported from the upper slope. In this
regard, soils at the bottom of the slope are darker in colour, some as a result of water
logging and some as a result of quicker rates of development.
d) It influences aspect which creates microclimatic conditions which results from longer
hours of soil surface exposure to intense light. Slope aspect determines the amount of
radiation received and subsequent evaporation.
e) Slopes that receive abundant radiation and rainfall will promote processes of soil
formation. Hillsides that have efficient drainage (increased runoff) and those that face
away from the sun generally have thin layers of soil and poor vegetation
development.
f) Valleys are characterised by deep soil layers because of efficient drainage and greater
radiation (heat) – ideal for chemical processes of soil formation
Imagine the catena that exist in your area, suggest how the landscape has affected
the soils in your area.
By the end of this chapter, the students should be able to relate the different soil
forming processes that occur in their areas. There should be an appreciation of how
different soil forming processes will result in soils occurring within their
surroundings.
Losses – Minerals, ions, and organic matter are removed from the soil profile. Leaching,
plant uptake and erosion are the main loss processes. Chemical reaction is the soil will
result the loss of co2 and nitrogen gas through denitrification. Water is also lost through
evapotranspiration and soil is lost through erosion.
1. Weathering
This refers to the breakdown and decomposition of rocks and minerals by factors
including air, water, sun and frost.
Weathering can therefore be either chemical which alters the mineral composition of the
parental material or physical which reduces the size of the soil particles and further
exposes and weakens the aggregates to the other agents of weathering.
When minerals are exposed to weather, they begin to break down into smaller pieces.
This is mostly done by heating and cooling of the minerals and rock. Some minerals like
sodium are water soluble which means they dissolve when exposed to water.
Some rocks may contain some minerals that are water soluble and only that part of the
rock will dissolve, e.g. calcium carbonate result in some caves.
When a tree or other types of plants begin growing in the cracks of rocks, this may speed
up the breakdown of the rock because of the pressure the roots may exert.
Ice can also speed up the weathering process on rocks. If a rock has a crack that can fill
up with water, when the water freezes, it can literally crumble the rock into small pieces.
Rocks can also be broken down by mechanical grinding such as wind blowing sand at
high speeds or glaciers causing rocks to grind each other.
New soil is continually being made, but it takes a long time to create new soil and if it
isn’t managed properly, soil can be eroded away quicker than it can be made.
2. Leaching- is the process by which soluble constituents are removed from the top soil and
deposited beyond the root zone. This occurs when excess water moves through the soil
dissolving the solid soil constituents down the profile, slope, through a streamline or
human-made drains. Basic cations are leached first leaving acidic cations. After
prolonged leaching only quartz, kaolinite, Iron (iii) oxides and aluminium oxides remain.
Leaching will affect agriculture through the loss of fertilizers and manures as well as
dropping of soil pH, thus the soil will require regular liming.
3. Eluviation– loss in colloidal suspension of material ( clay, sesquoxides, humus), from the
upper soil horizons, if eluviation occurs to a large extend, an E, albic or eluvial horizon
which is sandy, pale coloured and very acidic forms. This is therefore the mechanical
washing of particles from the upper to a lower soil horizon.
4. Illuviation – deposition of eluviated material in the B horizon, may lead to the formation
of the clay rich zone argillic (Bt) horizon. Eluviation leaves the upper soil horizon paler
and weakly structured whereas illuviation makes the lower horizons darker and more
structured.
5. Organic matter accumulation- when organic litter falls on the soil, it can be broken
down to form humus or it accumulates to form a litter layer. Organic matter darkens the
soil colour. In conditions of poor drainage peat formation is encouraged
6. Gleying- the presence of water for long periods in the soil brings about anaerobic
conditions, bacteria in the soil reduce various compounds including iron. The reduced
iron is much more soluble and may be removed by draining water leaving the soil grey
coloured.
If there is a fluctuating water table, the iron (ii) compounds maybe reoxidized when the
water table drops forming mottles of rust coloured iron (iii) compounds. If the gley soil
rirreversibly into a layer called laterite.
7. Ferrallitization- the process is characteristic of hot, tropical climates and only occurs
after extreme weathering and leaching have occurred in soils. It involves the relative
accumulation of iron and aluminium oxides with the losses of silica and bases. The soils
produced are acidic with a characteristic red colour.
8. Podzolisation- the process occurs in cool humid parts of the world, often where siliceous
parent material is covered by coniferous forests. The conifers produce a very acidic leaf
litter. As the rain falls on the litter and then moves into the soil, it facilitates breakdown
of compounds. Organic matter and iron are mobilized and removed from the surface
soils. Organo-metal complexes called chelates form. Silica (quartz) remains, giving a
characteristic bleached acidic E (albic) horizons below the surface. The soil is strongly
acidic and there is little earthworm or soil faunal activity.
9. Salinization- leads to accumulation of salts in the soils. Usually due to weathering, low
leaching and high evaporation rates. High ground waters can also give rise to saline soils.
Salinisation occurs when the parent material itself is rich in salts, particularly sodium or
when rainfall is erratic and inadequate to remove salts or when the quality of water used
is salty in nature or if the soils are inundated with salt water or seepage.
Identify the soil forming processes that are dominant in your area. Give reasons
why such soil processes are dominant and why others are less pronounced.
CHARACTERIZING SOILS
A soil profile is a vertical cross- section of a soil from the top horizon to the parent rock.
It is divided into a number of distinct layers, referred to as horizons.
The horizons are normally designated by symbols and letters. The presence or absence of
particular horizons allows pedologists (soil scientists) to classify the soil.
In addition, the organic or O horizon can form above the mineral soil- commonly in
forested areas, resulting from the dead plant and animal remains.
The horizons are called A Horizon (topsoil), B horizon (subsoil), and C horizon (parent
material).
o
A = the surface of the mineral soil that is composed of mineral and organic material. The
top soil is the most productive because that is where all the nutrients are found.
E = the horizon between the surface and subsurface that has some part of it removed and
transported to the subsurface by the flow of precipitation through the soil. Clay, iron,
aluminum, and humus are most often the materials removed through the process of
illuviation.
B = the subsurface zone where materials from the horizons above are deposited by the
water that continually moves down from the surface through the process of elluviation.
SOIL STRUCTURE
Understand the concept of soil structure and how it differs from soil texture.
Learn how soil structure affects other soil properties and why it is important to maintain
soil structure.
Soil structure is the arrangement of the primary soil particles (sand, silt, and clay) and
other soil materials into discrete aggregates.
(a) Massive Structure: No aggregation e.g. big block of clay or mass of sand grains. In
clay, the more the dryness, the deeper the cracks from the surface.
(c) Blocky Structure: If the blocky structure is worked upon by man, the spheriodal or
granular or crumb structure is obtained. Irregular blocks that are usually 1.5 - 5.0 cm in
diameter.
(d) Platelike Structure: The horizontal dimension is greater than the vertical dimension.
It therefore implies that there is more lateral water movement than gravitational water
movement. It also impedes the downward penetration of the roots. Platy structure is
associated with the soil pan, compacted soils and surfaces of water logged soils.
(e) Single grained structure: The soil is structureless and appears as single grains, e.g.
sand soil. The soil is well drained and aerated but has poor moisture and nutrient
retention capacity.
(f) Blocky structure: The soil has no definite shape and appears in clods of compact soil.
It has poor drainage, aeration and discourages comprehensive plant growth. It is also
heavy to till and quickly dries out though it takes less time to flood. It characterized
by myriad micropores.
(g) Crumb structure: Soils with a crumb structure are important for plant growth. They
have a well balanced soil fraction capacity and are therefore the most conducive for
crop yield production.
Relate the agricultural activities carried out I your surroundings to the soil
structure.
Necessary for good water and root penetration into the soil
Water holding capacity should be adequate enough to meet the plant available water
Ease of working the soil so that it does not alter its characteristics and be able to recover
quickly from shocks.
Favourable movement of soil air to support the root respiration for the active plant
mineral uptake and microbial respiration
Availability of plant nutrients for pant growth in their respective quantities at the
appropriate time and also to retain them against leaching.
Good internal drainage to avoid water logging and retain the field capacity status
SOIL TEXTURE
By the end of this chapter, students must appreciate the texture of the soils within
their surroundings. They should therefore be able to relate the various soil
properties like water holding capacity, nutrient retention, bulk density and particle
density among others of various soils because of their texture. A practical ability to
identify the name of soil given the proportions of different components should also
be understood.
This refers to the relative proportions of the various soil separates (sand, silt and
clay) in a soil. Texture refers to the proportions of sand, silt and clay in the soil.
Soil texture = proportional composition of sand, silt and clay in a given soil
sample
Property of the soil controlled by the size of individual grains or particles and soil
is usually made up of particles of widely varying sizes. Soil texture expresses the
average or combined effect of all these grain sizes.
Course-textured soils are sandy and do not hold water well, while fine-textured
soils contain clay and tend to hold more surface moisture. Terms such as sandy
loam, silty clay, and clay loam are therefore used to identify soil texture.
Sand: In the moist condition sand should feel gritty and will be loose and single grained.
Squeezed when wet, it will fall apart when the pressure is released
Clay: when moist is quite plastic and sticky when wet. When the moist soil is
squeezed out between the thumb and fore finger, it will form long flexible
ribbons.
Silty Soil: when dry and pulverized will feel soft and floury. When wet the soil
readily runs together and puddles. When squeezed between the thumb and finger
it will ribbon but the ribbon will appear checked and cracked.
The various soil components can be separated using mechanical analysis. Sand
can be separated by sieving. For silt and clay, separation is by the rate of settling
which can be obtained in a pipette or hydrometer analysis. They are put in a
solution and the time of settling is noted, the heavier, coarse sand particles settles
first, followed by the medium fined silt particles and finally the least dense clay
particles.
The actual soil texture is determined using the Soil Textural Triangle, e.g. for a
soil with 50% sand, 20% silt and 30% clay, the texture is Sandy Clay Loam.
Texture Nutrient Infiltration Water-Holding Aeration Tilth
Capacity Capacity
Is described by using the Munsel notation. The 3 properties are always given in the order
of hue, value and chroma, and are chosen using a special Munsel book which has a
standard set of chips. Hue refers to colour, chroma refers to intensity and value refers to
brightness. When dry, moist and dry colours are determined.
The chip with the colour corresponding to that of the soil is selected and its hue, value
and chroma written as the soil colour.
Soil colour is a function of basically the amount of diffuse organic matter and the
chemical state of iron, manganese and aluminium compounds in the mineral fraction.
Individual minerals like light coloured quartz and black heavy minerals also affect the
overall state of the soil cplour. Physical conditions like water logging which determines
the state of oxidation as determined by the level of aeration and the state of the subsoil
could also be reflected in the soil colour. Presence of organic matter confers darkness and
masks the oxidation effects. Oxidation reactions give red colours whereas anaerobic
conditions confers blue-grey colours, the gleying process.
1. Organic matter
Is a product of decomposition, i.e., the breakdown of animal and plant derived material
into its simpler organic constituents. This is accomplished by enzymes, earthworms,
mites and other organisms. The major input of organic matter in soil is from plant,
animal, and microbial biomass. Humus is the ultimate product of degradation of organic
matter. Humus is aromatic in character. This is because the humus backbone is derived
from the heterogeneous plant polymer lignin which is less readily degradable than other
plant polymers (cellulose and hemicellulose).
SOM consists of a broad spectrum of chemical classes, including amino acids, lignin,
polysaccharides, proteins, cutins, chitins, melanins, suberins and paraffinic
macromolecules, as well as organic chemicals produced by humans.
In most soils, the proportion of organic matter is relatively small (2-5%) as this depends
on the level of development of the soil as well as the climatic characteristics of an area.
Its importance in soil formation and production is much higher than the small % would
suggest.
Soil organic matter has decaying plants and animals. As they die, they are attacked by
microorganisms: fungi, bacteria, and others.
This can be in the form of original tissue is that portion of the organic matter that can still
be recognized. Twigs and leaves covering a forest floor are good examples. It can also be
in the nature of humus which is organic matter that is decomposed to the point where it is
unrecognizable. The brown color you sometimes see in soil is a good example.
Humification is the breakdown of plant remains - leading to the formation of different
types of humus. It is probably the most important
biological process taking place in soils.
MULL humus develops under deciduous woodland, where base-rich plant remains are
actively broken down by a prolific soil biota.
MOR humus usually develops beneath coniferous woodland or heather moorland, under
cool, wet climatic conditions. Breakdown is slow due to the absence of soil biota.
Humus has a three dimensional sponge-like structure that can absorb water and solutes in
the water. Humus is only slowly utilized by soil organisms and has a turnover rate of 1 to
2% per year. In general soils with higher organic matter contents have higher numbers of
microbes and higher levels of activity.
Humus shares two properties with clay: it is highly charged and it has a large surface area
to volume ratio.
The quantity of organic matter found in soil depends on climate. Soils found in
temperate climates with high rainfall have increased levels of organic matter. Levels of
organic matter found in soil range from essential no organic matter.
Helps strengthen soil aggregates thus improving aeration, water infiltration and water-
holding capacity
Provides significant amounts of CEC that helps retaining the essential cations necessary
for improved plant growth. It provides buffering against rapid change in soil reaction acid
0r alkaline forming materials are added to soil and forms stable organic compounds that
can increase the availability of micronutrients. It therefore provides a source of many
plant nutrients. It helps retaining water-soluble nutrients potassium, magnesium,
ammonia
Provides a food source for soil microorganisms and serves as food for soil organisms
Give an estimate of the proportion of the soil fractions in your surroundings. What
possible factors could have resulted in the distortion of those fractions? What needs
to be done to correct the fractions?
Purposes of organic matter: affects the soil structure by serving as a cementing agent,
retains plant nutrients to soil (P, S, N), helps store soil moisture, makes soil more tillable
for farming, provides food (energy) for soil microorganisms, which makes the soil
capable of plant production
2. Mineral matter
Macronutrients are required in large quantities and the plant cannot complete its life cycle
without them. Plants lacking macronutrients will therefore show a severe disorder.
Examples include;
A good soil for crop production is expected to have a mixture of all the pores.
SOIL EROSION
Erosion is the process of detachment and transport of soil particles by erosive agents
(Ellison, 1944)
Erosion is a natural geologic process that can be in the form of either water erosion or
wind erosion or both.
Tillage translocation generally shifts the position of the soil being manipulated through
mixing and placement to create a conducive growth environment for a specific period of
time.
Saltation detaches particles, smaller particles suspended while larger particles creep and
sandy and silty soils are the most susceptible. Soil accumulates in ditches and fence rows
Irrigation could help in increasing the soil density and improve aggregation
Effects of erosion
Damage to plants can be caused through exposing their roots which may lodge them.
Formation of rills and gullies affects management discourages water infiltration and
surface stability
Sedimentation in waterways, diversions, terraces, ditches that blocks the irrigation canals.
Colloids: These are finely molecules suspended within a soil fraction and can be;
Organic: humus
They are the most chemically active fraction of soils that are very small, less than
2 µm in diameter
Chemical properties include that they are sources of ions for plant nutrition and
they are a source of electro-negativity (CEC). They have buffering capacity and
are chemical cement agents.
Physically, they have a large surface area per unit mass of soil which helps giving
the soil plasticity
Bases: Bases include most of the mineral elements that are required to sustain plant
growth
Calcium (C), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K) and sodium (Na) – Bases
Bases are recycled to the soil by the decomposition of plants and animals.
Acidity
Soil pH
Soil reaction (acidic, neutral, alkaline) refers to the relative concentration of hydrogen
ions (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-) in the soil
Soils in climates with high rainfall & humidity generally tend to be acid. (This is due
to the leaching of base elements as well as by harvested crops usage of sodium,
potassium, calcium, & magnesium)
Causes of acidity
1. Nitrification: Ammonium to Nitrate (oxidation of NH4+). Addition of two molecules
of oxygen will result in the formation of nitrates, a water molecule and two hydrogen
atoms as shown in the equation below.
2. O.M. decomposition
organic acids ionized :
R-COOH---> R-COO- + H+
This will leave acidic cations and some are displaced from the stable compounds by
the substitution process. Basic cations are sources of OH- to the soil solution. Basic
cations that are taken up by plants no longer contribute OH- to the soil solution. H+
ions are released to the soil solution.
5. leaching
In humid climates, rain exceeds evapotranspiration such that the net water movement is
downward which takes with it the diluted bases, thus the soil may become acidic in
nature.
6. Respiration
CO2 from roots combines with water to form weak carbonic acid
(j) CO2+H2OàH2CO3àHCO3-+H+
(K) NH4++2O2àNO3-+H2O+2H+
7. Acid rain
Precipitation that has a pH of less than that of natural rainwater (which is about 5.6 due to
dissolved carbon dioxide).
It is formed when sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxides, as gases or fine particles in the
atmosphere, combined with water vapour and precipitate as sulphuric acid or nitric acid
in rain, snow, or fog. The principal cause of acid rain is from human sources, industrial
factories, power-generating plants and vehicles. Sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
are released during the fuel burning process (i.e. combustion)
When water vapour condenses, or as the rain falls, they dissolve in the water to form
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). While the air in cleaned of the pollutants
in this way, it also causes precipitation to become acidic, forming acid rain
To lower soil pH
Sulfur powder (S), aluminum sulfate [Al2(SO4)3], iron sulfate (FeSO4) can be used
to increase the soil acidity.
Causes of alkalinity
4) Hydrated lime=CaO+H2OàCa(OH)2
5) Gypsum (CaSO4)
4Ca(OH)2à4Ca+2 +8(OH-)
Marian Boderick. (1994). Weather and Climate. Hong Kong: Time Life Asia.
Katherine K. Rothschild. (1994). Matter and Chemistry. Hong Kong: Time Life Asia.
It determines the nutrient availability therefore the deficiency of plant nutrients and plant
toxicity can be avoided by manipulating the soil pH at a certain conducive level. Fe
deficiency is prominent at high pH whereas Al toxicity at low pH is high.
Nitrogen fixation is important natural process that adds nitrates to the soil. Biological
nitrogen fixation is efficient at high C/N ratio. Low C/N ratios will result in
denitrification.
Chemical capacity
CEC is an important measure of the fertility and potential productivity of a soil. Clay and
organic matter have a net negative charge that attract the positively charged cations. The
ability of soil particles to absorb (adsorb) and store cations (i.e., Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, NH4+) is
measured in meq/100 g soil. Clay particles are high in CEC
Na++ & H++ affect soil chemical & physical characteristics by promoting sodicity and
acidity respectively.
The ability of soil particles to absorb (adsorb) and store anions (i.e., NO 3-, SO42-, Cl-) and
is measured in meq/100 g soil
Most soils have little or no AEC because they exist in a form that is less adsorptive
SOIL WATER
Water is held in the soil at various degrees of tenacity which varies with the amount of
water present.
The tension force of water in unsaturated soils has been described by several expressions
such as soil-pull, the force of suction and capillary tension. Suction can be defined as the
force per unit area that must be exerted to remove water from the soil. Suction or tension
is measured in bars.
When the soil is saturated or nearly so, the amount of suction is almost zero, but as the
soil water depletes, greater amount of energy must be applied to extract water.
The soil can be initially saturated and if it is drained, field capacity can be reached. Some
water is still held by surface tension.
Field Capacity is the greatest amount of water the soil can hold under drainage.
For most soils, it is obtained after two days of drainage after the soil was saturated by
heavy rain or irrigation.
Below Field capacity, the plant finds it more and more difficult to extract water until the
suction or tension reaches 15 atmospheres permanent wilting point is obtained, which is
the maximum tension the plant can exert on the soil to extract water.
Available water is the difference between the moisture contents at field capacity and
permanent wilting point.
Clay holds more water but the plants exert more tension to extract water more than sand.
Particle density
It is defined as the mass per unit volume of soil solids usually expressed as g/cm 3 or
Mg/m3.
Particle density is essentially the same as the specific gravity of a soil substance and
varies within a narrow range of 2.60 to 2.75 g/cm 3 with the average being assumed as
2.65 g/cm3 for a typical soil with 1 to 5% organic matter content.
Montmorillonite can have a particle density of 2.74 g/cm 3, quartz, 2.65 and
kaolinite, 2.61 g/cm3.
Bulk density
It is defined as the mass of a unit volume of dry soil. This includes both solids and
pores. i.e. bulk density = M s/V; Ms is the mass of dry soil and V is the total volume of
undisturbed soil.
The major method of measuring bulk density in the field is to collect a known volume of
undisturbed soil (V) in a soil core, and drying it in the oven to remove all the water to
obtain Ms. The values of bulk density range from 1.0 for loose open soil to 1.7 g/cm 3 for
compacted soil.
Values of bulk density are mainly affected by soil texture (sandy soils have more density
than silty and clay soils), degree of soil aggregation and is reduced by soil organic
matter content.
Bulk density also tells much about the management of the soil, the trends over time
reflect on whether management is positive or negative. It also reflects on the impact of
various crops and climatic conditions on the soil. Higher bulk densities reflect a
deteriorating soil whereas lower bulk densities indicates a better management that caters
for the long term sustainability of the soil.
Porosity
It is defined as the proportion of the volume of soil pores (air and water) in comparison
with the total volume of soil.
One of the main reasons for measuring soil bulk density is that this value can be used to
calculate soil porosity.
For the same particle density, the lower the bulk density, the higher the porosity.
SOILS OF ZIMBABWE
THE ZIMBABWEAN SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The Zimbabwean soil classification system was developed by Thompson (1965) and is
based on the principles used by the Inter-African Pedological Service (SPI) for the soil
map of Africa. The classification is based on the properties that reflect the degree of
weathering and leaching that soils derived from specific parent materials have undergone.
There are four taxonomic levels that include the Order, Group, Family and Series.
Order
There are four orders namely that include Amorphic, Calcimorphic, Kaolinitic and
Natric. The amorphics have undergone an insignificant level of profile development. The
calcimorphic and kaolinitic orders are distinguished on the basis of nutrient losses the
soils have experience with the extend of leaching being more significant in the later than
the former hence there is substantial chemical activity in the former than the later. The
soils in the calcimorphic order are thus more base richer than in the kaolinitic order. The
nitric order consists of the soils that have high levels of exchangeable sodium, thus the
soils could be referred to as sodic. Classification of soils using the orders is not effective
because there is substantial generalization and most of the overlapping characteristics are
rarely taken into consideration. These are however addressed in the lower taxonomic
levels
Group
The soils can be put into 8 groups using the reference of anatomical, mineralogical and
chemical traits as indicated in the table below
Outline of the Zimbabwean soil classification system
Order Group
I. Amorphic- soils with very feeble 1. Regosol – deep sands
development of genetic horizons 2. Lithosols- extremely shallow soils
II. Calicimorphic – unleached soils 3. Vertisol – very active clay
with large reserves of weatherabe 4. Siallitic – active clay
minerals, high base saturation, clay
fractions predominantlt active
III. Kaolinitic- moderately to strongly 5. Fersiallitic – mixed clay
leached soils, clay fractions mainly 6. Paraferallitic – inert clay
inert together with appreciable 7. Orthoferrallitic –very inert clay
amounts of sesquioxides of iron and
aluminium
IV. Natric – soils in which the profile 8. Sodic
is attributable to the presence of
significant amount of exchangeable
sodium
Source: Purves, et al., 1981
The Regosols
These soils are made up of thick sandy profile
They have less than 10% combined with silt and clay within the upper 2m
Characterized by the absence of weatherable minerals that should release the finer
materials of silt and clay
Have little evidence of horizon development beyond the presence of an A horizon. The A
horizon development levels varies with the levels of climate and the position on the
catena
The minerals are predominantly quartz with small amounts of feldspars and opaque
minerals
Occur at flat to gentle sloppy areas
The sand grains making up the regosols are round
A fairly closed woodland or thorny scrub cold develop to protect the sands from erosion
and generate enough litter for the creation of the A horizon
They have poor nutrient supply and the vegetation will therefore depend on the
underground nutrients that will have to laterally move from other areas
Mostly found in the western parts of Zimbabwe in Nyamadhlovu, Victoria Falls, Hwange
and Nkai
Also common in the Gonarezhou National Park
Have low limitation to agricultural use because of low nutrient levels and relatively high
permeability associated with low water and nutrient retention capacity
Could support the growth of hard crops like the small grained plants like sorghum and
millet. Low yielding maize, pumpkins and water melons are also grown successfully in
Nyamadhlovu
Forestry has been the preferred landuse practice because trees have the high potential to
utilise the high amounts of water released by the aquifers. Both the indigenous and exotic
trees are commercially produce on the soils
Commercial production of honey is an additional income generation programme
Agroforestry can also be implemented with the trees helping to retain the stability of the
soils and domesticated plants can be planted in between the trees
The vertisols
In Zimbabwe, vertisols can be classified basing on the three main traits. These include the
presence of a surface mulch (loose surface with a crumb or granular structure), the
presence of slickensides in the subsoil and S/C and E/C values that are greater than 60 in
either case
Can also be further distinguished basing on the seasonal cracking, gilgai microrelief, well
developed prismatic subsurface structure and high clay content of the expansive
characteristic
The most prominent vertisols are associated with protruded basalts, some occur on the
mafic and ulteamafic rocks as well as mudstones. Vertisols derived from the mudstones
have relatively high levels of exchangeable sodium
Most vertisols are moderately deep, have a depth ranging between 80cm and slightly
above a metre.
They could be dark grey, brownish black or black in colour with a chroma less than one
They contain a substantial amounts of carbonates. A large amount of calcium are also
presnt especially in the vertisols of Beatrice and Furtherstone that recieves an amount of
rainfall that is as high as 800mm. Vertisols that occur around the Great Dyke have a
relatively higher amount of magnesium as compared to the calcium
All Zimbabwean vertisols have higher amounts of clay content that is above 60%. The
major component of the clay content in is montimorillonite. All these develop wider
cracks into the subsoils during the dry season
The vertisols are more dominant in arid areas where there is limited weathering and low
degree of leaching of the weathered products. This in harmony with the nature of the
parent material will result in the formation of smectites and other active clays
Forms the best irrigable land in Zimbabwean semi-arid areas. They therefore support the
cultivation of winter wheat and rainfed cotton in summer. Citrus and other tre species can
also be cultivated especially in Chisumbanje.
The soils are relatively fertile and rich in bases but require supplementary nitrogen and
other micronutrients to ensure
They have workability problems because of higher levels of the active clays
Paraferrallitic Group
The soils are highly leached because they occur in higher rainfall associated areas. They
are therefore associated with an S/C value of not more than 6, E/C value of no greater
than 12 and at least 5% of the weatherable minerals will be present in these soils
They are dominated by the Kandite (1:1) clays particularly the kaolinite clays and
substantial amounts of sesquioxides
Paraferrallitic soils on the upper slope tend to have higher clay content than the fersiallitic
soils from the same position due to the higher stability that is conferred to these soils by
higher amounts of sesquioxides in comparison with the granitic fersiallitic soils.
In Zimbabwe, paraferrallitic soils are associated with the granite soils on the upland of
high altitude areas.
Despite the low fertility component, they are used for tobacco production. It is also
because they are associated with high rainfall that they become easy to manipulate for
high agricultural productivity. Ranching can also be done on these soils. Leguminous
crops that can fix nitrogen can also make use of these soils especially the cowpea and
groundnut crops. An addition of nitrogen and phosphorous is a requirement but
potassium is in abundance since the parent granite rocks are potassium rich. Liming for
pH correction could also be a significant management operation.
Orthoferrallitic Group
The orthoferrallic soils have an S/C value of not more than 5, E/C value of not more than
11, less than 5% of weatherable minerals in sandy soils and the clay fraction is
consistently 1:1 clay minerals and sesquioxides.
They are normally very deep, specifically not less than 2m in depth and have well defined
but weak crumb structure. The porosity is very high because the clay fraction is fairly
inert such that the clays have no stickiness feeling
Most of these soils are brightly coloured due to high oxide content and extremely good
drainage.
The boundaries are generally fuse though the top horizon has high amount of organic
matter
The Orthoferrallitic are a result of deep weathering of the underlying rock followed by
intense leaching of the bases. They have free drainage but though the minerals are
removed from the top soils, some soils have substantial base saturation in the subsoils
The Orthoferrallitic are distributed in areas of high rainfall of above 1000mm
Their main use is forestry and wildlife management, they are rarely used for crop
production because of poor nutrient status. Culturing of the tree crops like tea and coffee
is also feasible
Ruminant animals like the dairy cattle can also be a viable option as done in chipinge
because the high amount of the natural rainfall supports the growth of sustainable fodder