Soil science

Objectives of the module

 The students will be made to interact with their environment in the learning process
through applicatory questions inserted at various intervals of the module.

 To understand the relevance of soil in various perspectives

 To understand the formation of soil and relate it to the Zimbabwean context

 To understand the soil physical, chemical and biological traits, how they interact during
the formation of the soils, how they determine the soil properties and how they affect
plants

 To characterize the soils existing in the various Zimbabwean territories and name them
according to their functionality

 To be able to carry out basic soil tests for different parameters either in the laboratory of
field so that they could generate information useful for correctly managing the soil.

Chapter One

By the end of this chapter, students must be able to appreciate the various perspectives I
which the soil is relevant. They should therefore understand how the soil is formed and be
able to distinguish passive soil forming factors from the active soil forming factors.
Students should also be able to link the various geographic territories with the formed soils
that occupy those areas.

Think about what could happen to the land life if there was no soil?
What is soil?

Is a medium for plant growth, soil can be described as a complex natural material derived from
disintegrated and decomposed rocks, and organic materials, which provides nutrients, moisture,
and anchorage for land plants

 Layer of natural materials on the earth’s surface containing both organic and
inorganic materials and capable of supporting plant life.

 Soil may be covered by water, or it may be exposed to the atmosphere.

 Soil contains four main components: inorganic material, organic matter, water, and
air.

 Ideal soil should contain about 50% solid material and 50% pore space and the pore
space. About half of the pore space should contain water and half of the space should
contain air.

 Inorganic material consists of rock slowly broken down into small particles.

 The organic material is mad

 e up of dead plants and animals varying in stages of decay.

 The percentages of the four main soil components varies depending on the kind of
vegetation, amount of mechanical compaction, and the amount of soil water present.

 Soil is formed very slowly because it results from passive and active natural forces
acting on the mineral and rock portions of the earth’s surface. The passive natural
forces include topography, time and parent material whereas the active forces are
made up of biota and climatic parameters.

Soil Forming Factors

Identify the soils in your area justify the dominant soil forming factors that could have
resulted in the nature of your surrounding soils.

 The process of soil development is known as pedogenesis and the study of soil is
pedology.
  There are at-least five factors that contribute to the formation of soils. These are as
shown below:

1. Time

 Soils, deep or shallow, take a very long time to develop and the duration depends on the
extend of interaction between the soil forming factors. The first evidence of a layered soil
develops within a century whereas fully mature soils can take up to several thousands of
years to develop

 Destruction caused in a few years of careless farming can take centuries to repair.
Mismanagement practices result in land degradation, thus a loss of soil quality traits like
friable texture, good structure, nutrient and water losses. It is therefore easier to destroy
than to achieve a good soil.

2. Parental material
 This is the material from which the soil has developed and can vary from solid rock to
deposits like alluvium and boulder clay. It has been defined as ‘the initial state of the
soil system’.

 Soils that form directly from underlying rock had dominant soil minerals bearing a
direct relationship with the original rock. This is the simplest form of soil formation and
is referred to as residual soil. Residual soils are commonly found in most parts of the
world. Residual soils - develop on bare rock during primary succession

 When parent material is transported and deposited great distances away from the original
point, then the soil is referred to as transported soil. Transported soils - deposited in areas
by actions of wind, water, glaciers, etc. During the ice age, glaciers moved across areas of
the northern hemisphere. They ground, pushed, piled, gouged, and eventually deposited
great amounts of rocks, parent material, and already formed soil material. Loess deposits
are generally thought of as windblown silt. Alluvial and marine deposits are water borne
sediments. Alluvial deposits are left by moving fresh water in the flood plains. Marine
deposits are formed on ancient ocean floors. Organic deposits are partially decayed plants
that living plants are able to root and grow in. These are found in swamps and marshes.
In certain areas wind action transports and deposits material away from the source. These
sediments accumulate and over time they become parent material. Wind, in effect, is
responsible for removing soil as well as developing soil. The minerals in this soil have
very little or no resemblance to those of the parent material below it

 There are five major categories of parent material: minerals and rocks, glacial deposits,
loess deposits, alluvial and marine deposits and organic deposits.

 Minerals are solid, inorganic, chemically uniform substance occurring naturally in the
earth. Some common minerals for soil formation are feldspar, micas, silica, iron oxides,
and calcium carbonates.

 Rocks are different from minerals because they are not uniform. There are three types of
rocks, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

 Igneous rocks are those formed by the cooling of molten rock and some of them produce
soils that are acidic in nature like the granite.

 Sedimentary rocks are those formed by the solidification of sediment and produce sandy
soils.

 Metamorphic rocks are simply igneous or sedimentary rocks which have been reformed
because of subjection great heat or pressure.
 Jenny H (1941) Factors of soil formation. McGraw-Hill Book Co Inc pp281.

 The parent material can influence the soil in a number of ways:

a. Colour- basalt rock produce dark coloured soils whereas granite rocks produce light
coloured soils.

b. Texture- metamorphic rocks produce fine textured soils whereas the sedimentary rocks
produce coarse textured sands

c. Mineral composition- the mineral composition of the parental rock will determine the
quality and quantity of minerals the soil can bear or retain.

d. Permeability/drainage- igneous and sedimentary rocks produce soils that drain well.
Basalt rocks and other alkaline soil producing rocks results in poorly drained soils

3. Climate

 This is probably the most important factor (soils produced from the same parent material
under different climates contrast in their characteristics). Climate governs the rate and
type of soil formation and is also the main determinant of vegetation distribution. It is
therefore a major determinant of soil transformation.

 Climate has two major components; moisture (precipitation) and temperature, influencing
evaporation. When precipitation exceeds evaporation, leaching of the soil will occur.

 Temperature determines the rate of reactions; chemical and biological decay and so has
an influence on weathering and humification.

 Moisture, temperature and wind are important climatic variables that influence soil
formation by weakening and altering the rocks physical and chemical characteristics. Soil
moisture content is determined by the amount of precipitation and evaporation. A
combination of high moisture and high temperatures accelerate chemical reactions of the
soil

4. Organisms

Features like anthills, soil mounts, rotten matter etc, probably some of the
livestock lost their legs in pits and holes formed by various creatures are common
in Zimbabwe. Have you ever asked yourself what will be happening to various soil
properties over time because of these minute organisms? Try to identify some of
 the soil features around and match them with the organisms that formed them.

 Organisms influencing soil development range from microscopic bacteria to large

animals including man. Micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi assist in the
decomposition of plant litter. This litter is mixed into the soil by macro-organisms (soil
animals) such as worms and beetles.

 Higher plants influence the soil in many ways. The nature of the soil humus is determined
by the vegetation cover and resultant litter inputs. Roots contribute dead roots to the soil,
bind soil particles together and can redistribute and compress soil. The greater the amount
of vegetation on the soil the greater the amount of organic matter in that soil

 The most fertile soils are those rich in humus (produced by soil organisms). Soil micro-
organisms convert plant nutrients like nitrogen compounds, phosphates and potassium
into simpler compounds that can easily absorbed by plants. When plants die the reducing
bacteria return the nutrients back into the soil

 Earthworms can turn up to 6.5 metric tons of soil per hectare. The mixing action
contributes phenomenally to soil formation and fertility
 Burrowing helps aerate the soil forming material and aids interaction with the other soil
forming factors. Ants are important organisms that mounts clay soils which have most of
the basic elements needed to sustain the plant’s growth. These ant hills are used in most
rural areas of Zimbabwe to moderate the structure and nutrition of unproductive sandy
soils.

Think about the soils in our area. Where do you think our “parent material”
came from?

5. Topography

 Relief is not static; it is a dynamic system (its study is called geomorphology). Slope is
defined as the angle of the soil surface from horizontal. It is expressed as the % of rise
over run.

 Slope affects the productive potential in numerous ways: Rain runoff, soil erosion, the
use of farm machinery, and contour farming.

Diagram showing the influence of topography on soil formation

 Relief influences soil formation in several ways:

a) It influences soil profile thickness i.e. as angle of slope increases so does the erosion
hazard

b) It has an effect on climate which is also a soil forming factor, i.e. most of the intense
relief rainfall is experienced on the windward side whereas the leeward side gets little
rainfall. Sometimes topography can also influence the formation of frontal rainfall.

c) Gradient affects run-off, percolation and mass movement. The upper slope
experiences higher rates of runoff as well as minimum percolation hence the soils on
upper slope are shallow and reddish. Soils become deeper as the gradient becomes
stable hence the valleys and lower parts of the slope have deep soils because of high
percolation rates and deposition of soils transported from the upper slope. In this
regard, soils at the bottom of the slope are darker in colour, some as a result of water
logging and some as a result of quicker rates of development.

d) It influences aspect which creates microclimatic conditions which results from longer
hours of soil surface exposure to intense light. Slope aspect determines the amount of
radiation received and subsequent evaporation.

e) Slopes that receive abundant radiation and rainfall will promote processes of soil
formation. Hillsides that have efficient drainage (increased runoff) and those that face
away from the sun generally have thin layers of soil and poor vegetation
development.

f) Valleys are characterised by deep soil layers because of efficient drainage and greater
radiation (heat) – ideal for chemical processes of soil formation

Imagine the catena that exist in your area, suggest how the landscape has affected
the soils in your area.

SOIL FORMING PROCESSES

By the end of this chapter, the students should be able to relate the different soil
forming processes that occur in their areas. There should be an appreciation of how
 different soil forming processes will result in soils occurring within their
surroundings.

 Four major processes change parent materials into soil:

 Translocations – Movement of ions and compounds from horizons above to horizons

below. Most of the chemical elements like nutrients are circulated through various
physical and biological activities. Water cycle, nitrogen and carbon cycle changes the
respective elements from one state to another but they will never get lost.

 Transformations – Chemical and physical alteration of soil material like decomposition of

organic matter. Transformations result in reduced particle size by weathering and mineral
transformations (primary to secondary). Clay and organic matter reactions could also result in
new properties.
 Additions – Anything that is added to the soil. Organic matter, fertilizer, and ions in rain
water represent additions to the soil. Precipitation, biological nitrogen fixation, energy
from radiation, material from the sediments and organic matter from biotic activities are
additions to the soil

 Losses – Minerals, ions, and organic matter are removed from the soil profile. Leaching,
plant uptake and erosion are the main loss processes. Chemical reaction is the soil will
result the loss of co2 and nitrogen gas through denitrification. Water is also lost through
evapotranspiration and soil is lost through erosion.

1. Weathering

 This refers to the breakdown and decomposition of rocks and minerals by factors
including air, water, sun and frost.

 Weathering can therefore be either chemical which alters the mineral composition of the
parental material or physical which reduces the size of the soil particles and further
exposes and weakens the aggregates to the other agents of weathering.

 When minerals are exposed to weather, they begin to break down into smaller pieces.
This is mostly done by heating and cooling of the minerals and rock. Some minerals like
sodium are water soluble which means they dissolve when exposed to water.

 Some rocks may contain some minerals that are water soluble and only that part of the
rock will dissolve, e.g. calcium carbonate result in some caves.

 When a tree or other types of plants begin growing in the cracks of rocks, this may speed
up the breakdown of the rock because of the pressure the roots may exert.
 Ice can also speed up the weathering process on rocks. If a rock has a crack that can fill
up with water, when the water freezes, it can literally crumble the rock into small pieces.

 Rocks can also be broken down by mechanical grinding such as wind blowing sand at
high speeds or glaciers causing rocks to grind each other.

 New soil is continually being made, but it takes a long time to create new soil and if it
isn’t managed properly, soil can be eroded away quicker than it can be made.

2. Leaching- is the process by which soluble constituents are removed from the top soil and
deposited beyond the root zone. This occurs when excess water moves through the soil
dissolving the solid soil constituents down the profile, slope, through a streamline or
human-made drains. Basic cations are leached first leaving acidic cations. After
prolonged leaching only quartz, kaolinite, Iron (iii) oxides and aluminium oxides remain.
Leaching will affect agriculture through the loss of fertilizers and manures as well as
dropping of soil pH, thus the soil will require regular liming.
3. Eluviation– loss in colloidal suspension of material ( clay, sesquoxides, humus), from the
upper soil horizons, if eluviation occurs to a large extend, an E, albic or eluvial horizon
which is sandy, pale coloured and very acidic forms. This is therefore the mechanical
washing of particles from the upper to a lower soil horizon.

4. Illuviation – deposition of eluviated material in the B horizon, may lead to the formation
of the clay rich zone argillic (Bt) horizon. Eluviation leaves the upper soil horizon paler
and weakly structured whereas illuviation makes the lower horizons darker and more
structured.
5. Organic matter accumulation- when organic litter falls on the soil, it can be broken
down to form humus or it accumulates to form a litter layer. Organic matter darkens the
soil colour. In conditions of poor drainage peat formation is encouraged
6. Gleying- the presence of water for long periods in the soil brings about anaerobic
conditions, bacteria in the soil reduce various compounds including iron. The reduced
iron is much more soluble and may be removed by draining water leaving the soil grey
coloured.
If there is a fluctuating water table, the iron (ii) compounds maybe reoxidized when the
water table drops forming mottles of rust coloured iron (iii) compounds. If the gley soil
rirreversibly into a layer called laterite.
7. Ferrallitization- the process is characteristic of hot, tropical climates and only occurs
after extreme weathering and leaching have occurred in soils. It involves the relative
accumulation of iron and aluminium oxides with the losses of silica and bases. The soils
produced are acidic with a characteristic red colour.
8. Podzolisation- the process occurs in cool humid parts of the world, often where siliceous
parent material is covered by coniferous forests. The conifers produce a very acidic leaf
litter. As the rain falls on the litter and then moves into the soil, it facilitates breakdown
 of compounds. Organic matter and iron are mobilized and removed from the surface
soils. Organo-metal complexes called chelates form. Silica (quartz) remains, giving a
characteristic bleached acidic E (albic) horizons below the surface. The soil is strongly
acidic and there is little earthworm or soil faunal activity.
9. Salinization- leads to accumulation of salts in the soils. Usually due to weathering, low
leaching and high evaporation rates. High ground waters can also give rise to saline soils.
Salinisation occurs when the parent material itself is rich in salts, particularly sodium or
when rainfall is erratic and inadequate to remove salts or when the quality of water used
is salty in nature or if the soils are inundated with salt water or seepage.

Identify the soil forming processes that are dominant in your area. Give reasons
why such soil processes are dominant and why others are less pronounced.

CHARACTERIZING SOILS

The Soil Profile

 A soil profile is a vertical cross- section of a soil from the top horizon to the parent rock.
It is divided into a number of distinct layers, referred to as horizons.
 The horizons are normally designated by symbols and letters. The presence or absence of
particular horizons allows pedologists (soil scientists) to classify the soil.

 In addition, the organic or O horizon can form above the mineral soil- commonly in
forested areas, resulting from the dead plant and animal remains.

 Most soils have three distinct layers called horizons.

 The horizons are called A Horizon (topsoil), B horizon (subsoil), and C horizon (parent
material).
 o

The major horizons are as follows.

O = organic matter on the soil surface that is in various states of decay.

A = the surface of the mineral soil that is composed of mineral and organic material. The
top soil is the most productive because that is where all the nutrients are found.

E = the horizon between the surface and subsurface that has some part of it removed and
transported to the subsurface by the flow of precipitation through the soil. Clay, iron,
aluminum, and humus are most often the materials removed through the process of
illuviation.

B = the subsurface zone where materials from the horizons above are deposited by the
water that continually moves down from the surface through the process of elluviation.

C = A zone of partially weathered rock.

R = bedrock in its unchanged state.

SOIL STRUCTURE 
 Understand the concept of soil structure and how it differs from soil texture.

 Understand how soil structure influences other soil properties.

 Learn how soil structure affects other soil properties and why it is important to maintain
soil structure.

 Learn how land use and management affects soil structure.

Soil structure is the arrangement of the primary soil particles (sand, silt, and clay) and
other soil materials into discrete aggregates.

(a) Massive Structure: No aggregation e.g. big block of clay or mass of sand grains. In
clay, the more the dryness, the deeper the cracks from the surface.

(b) Prismatic or Columnar Structure : Caused by vertical cracking. Vertical dimensions

will be greater than the horizontal vertex. Usually found in lower horizons.

(c) Blocky Structure: If the blocky structure is worked upon by man, the spheriodal or
granular or crumb structure is obtained. Irregular blocks that are usually 1.5 - 5.0 cm in
diameter.

(d) Platelike Structure: The horizontal dimension is greater than the vertical dimension.
It therefore implies that there is more lateral water movement than gravitational water
movement. It also impedes the downward penetration of the roots. Platy structure is
associated with the soil pan, compacted soils and surfaces of water logged soils.
 (e) Single grained structure: The soil is structureless and appears as single grains, e.g.
sand soil. The soil is well drained and aerated but has poor moisture and nutrient
retention capacity.

(f) Blocky structure: The soil has no definite shape and appears in clods of compact soil.
It has poor drainage, aeration and discourages comprehensive plant growth. It is also
heavy to till and quickly dries out though it takes less time to flood. It characterized
by myriad micropores.

(g) Crumb structure: Soils with a crumb structure are important for plant growth. They
have a well balanced soil fraction capacity and are therefore the most conducive for
crop yield production.

Relate the agricultural activities carried out I your surroundings to the soil
structure.

Importance Good Soil Structure:

 Necessary for good water and root penetration into the soil

 Water holding capacity should be adequate enough to meet the plant available water

 Ease of working the soil so that it does not alter its characteristics and be able to recover
quickly from shocks.

 Favourable movement of soil air to support the root respiration for the active plant
mineral uptake and microbial respiration

 Availability of plant nutrients for pant growth in their respective quantities at the
appropriate time and also to retain them against leaching.

 Good internal drainage to avoid water logging and retain the field capacity status
SOIL TEXTURE

By the end of this chapter, students must appreciate the texture of the soils within
their surroundings. They should therefore be able to relate the various soil
properties like water holding capacity, nutrient retention, bulk density and particle
density among others of various soils because of their texture. A practical ability to
identify the name of soil given the proportions of different components should also
be understood.

 This refers to the relative proportions of the various soil separates (sand, silt and
clay) in a soil. Texture refers to the proportions of sand, silt and clay in the soil.

 Soil texture = proportional composition of sand, silt and clay in a given soil
sample

 Property of the soil controlled by the size of individual grains or particles and soil
is usually made up of particles of widely varying sizes. Soil texture expresses the
average or combined effect of all these grain sizes.

 Course-textured soils are sandy and do not hold water well, while fine-textured
soils contain clay and tend to hold more surface moisture. Terms such as sandy
loam, silty clay, and clay loam are therefore used to identify soil texture.

 Sand: In the moist condition sand should feel gritty and will be loose and single grained.
Squeezed when wet, it will fall apart when the pressure is released

 Clay: when moist is quite plastic and sticky when wet. When the moist soil is
squeezed out between the thumb and fore finger, it will form long flexible
ribbons.

 Silty Soil: when dry and pulverized will feel soft and floury. When wet the soil
readily runs together and puddles. When squeezed between the thumb and finger
it will ribbon but the ribbon will appear checked and cracked.

 The various soil components can be separated using mechanical analysis. Sand
can be separated by sieving. For silt and clay, separation is by the rate of settling
which can be obtained in a pipette or hydrometer analysis. They are put in a
solution and the time of settling is noted, the heavier, coarse sand particles settles
first, followed by the medium fined silt particles and finally the least dense clay
particles.

 The actual soil texture is determined using the Soil Textural Triangle, e.g. for a
soil with 50% sand, 20% silt and 30% clay, the texture is Sandy Clay Loam.
Texture Nutrient Infiltration Water-Holding Aeration Tilth

Capacity Capacity

Clay Good Poor Good Poor Poor

Silt Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium

Sand Poor Good Poor Good Good

Loam Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium

 SOIL COLOUR
Focusing on the terrain, notice the soil colour differences and match them with
possible causes of the differences.

 Is described by using the Munsel notation. The 3 properties are always given in the order
of hue, value and chroma, and are chosen using a special Munsel book which has a
standard set of chips. Hue refers to colour, chroma refers to intensity and value refers to
brightness. When dry, moist and dry colours are determined.
 The chip with the colour corresponding to that of the soil is selected and its hue, value
and chroma written as the soil colour.
 Soil colour is a function of basically the amount of diffuse organic matter and the
chemical state of iron, manganese and aluminium compounds in the mineral fraction.
Individual minerals like light coloured quartz and black heavy minerals also affect the
overall state of the soil cplour. Physical conditions like water logging which determines
the state of oxidation as determined by the level of aeration and the state of the subsoil
could also be reflected in the soil colour. Presence of organic matter confers darkness and
masks the oxidation effects. Oxidation reactions give red colours whereas anaerobic
conditions confers blue-grey colours, the gleying process.

Importance of soil colour

 Colour is influenced by parent material, topography, drainage, climate and age and it is a
reflection of the physical and chemical activities that interact with the soil components at
any given time and space
 Uniform red, brown indicates a well drained environment
 Mottles (light + dark) indicate imperfectly drained soils with a fluctuating water table
 Grey colours with chroma less than 1 indicate poorly drained environments that are
mainly water logged
 SOIL FRACTIONS

1. Organic matter

 Is a product of decomposition, i.e., the breakdown of animal and plant derived material
into its simpler organic constituents. This is accomplished by enzymes, earthworms,
mites and other organisms. The major input of organic matter in soil is from plant,
animal, and microbial biomass. Humus is the ultimate product of degradation of organic
matter. Humus is aromatic in character. This is because the humus backbone is derived
from the heterogeneous plant polymer lignin which is less readily degradable than other
plant polymers (cellulose and hemicellulose).

 SOM consists of a broad spectrum of chemical classes, including amino acids, lignin,
polysaccharides, proteins, cutins, chitins, melanins, suberins and paraffinic
macromolecules, as well as organic chemicals produced by humans.

 In most soils, the proportion of organic matter is relatively small (2-5%) as this depends
on the level of development of the soil as well as the climatic characteristics of an area.
 Its importance in soil formation and production is much higher than the small % would
suggest.

 Soil organic matter has decaying plants and animals. As they die, they are attacked by
microorganisms: fungi, bacteria, and others.

 There are two types of organic matter:

This can be in the form of original tissue is that portion of the organic matter that can still
be recognized. Twigs and leaves covering a forest floor are good examples. It can also be
in the nature of humus which is organic matter that is decomposed to the point where it is
unrecognizable. The brown color you sometimes see in soil is a good example.
Humification is the breakdown of plant remains - leading to the formation of different
types of humus. It is probably the most important
biological process taking place in soils.

 MULL humus develops under deciduous woodland, where base-rich plant remains are
actively broken down by a prolific soil biota.

 MODER humus is intermediate between mor and mull.

 MOR humus usually develops beneath coniferous woodland or heather moorland, under
cool, wet climatic conditions. Breakdown is slow due to the absence of soil biota.

 Humus has a three dimensional sponge-like structure that can absorb water and solutes in
the water. Humus is only slowly utilized by soil organisms and has a turnover rate of 1 to
2% per year. In general soils with higher organic matter contents have higher numbers of
microbes and higher levels of activity.

 Humus shares two properties with clay: it is highly charged and it has a large surface area
to volume ratio.

 The quantity of organic matter found in soil depends on climate. Soils found in
temperate climates with high rainfall have increased levels of organic matter. Levels of
organic matter found in soil range from essential no organic matter.

 Helps strengthen soil aggregates thus improving aeration, water infiltration and water-
holding capacity

 Provides significant amounts of CEC that helps retaining the essential cations necessary
for improved plant growth. It provides buffering against rapid change in soil reaction acid
0r alkaline forming materials are added to soil and forms stable organic compounds that
can increase the availability of micronutrients. It therefore provides a source of many
plant nutrients. It helps retaining water-soluble nutrients potassium, magnesium,
ammonia
  Provides a food source for soil microorganisms and serves as food for soil organisms

Give an estimate of the proportion of the soil fractions in your surroundings. What
possible factors could have resulted in the distortion of those fractions? What needs
to be done to correct the fractions?

 Purposes of organic matter: affects the soil structure by serving as a cementing agent,
retains plant nutrients to soil (P, S, N), helps store soil moisture, makes soil more tillable
for farming, provides food (energy) for soil microorganisms, which makes the soil
capable of plant production

2. Mineral matter

 45% of volume of soil is made up of mineral matter and is made up of both

micronutrients and macronutrients all of which are essential for improved plant growth
and productivity.

 Macronutrients are required in large quantities and the plant cannot complete its life cycle
without them. Plants lacking macronutrients will therefore show a severe disorder.
Examples include;

 -nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (NPK)

 -calcium, magnesium, sulfur

 Micronutrients (trace elements) are required in minute quantities

 -iron, copper, zinc, cobalt, boron, aluminium, molybdenum,

3. Water and air

 These constitute 50% of volume of soil and fills pore spaces

 Different soils have different pore size

 sand – large (macropores)

  silt – medium (mesopores)

 clay – small (micropores)

 A good soil for crop production is expected to have a mixture of all the pores.
 SOIL EROSION

 Erosion is the process of detachment and transport of soil particles by erosive agents
(Ellison, 1944)

 Erosion is a natural geologic process that can be in the form of either water erosion or
wind erosion or both.

 Tillage translocation generally shifts the position of the soil being manipulated through
mixing and placement to create a conducive growth environment for a specific period of
time.

 Saltation detaches particles, smaller particles suspended while larger particles creep and
sandy and silty soils are the most susceptible. Soil accumulates in ditches and fence rows

Reducing wind erosion

 Maintain surface cover

 crop residue through the application of minimum tillage

 cover crops like prostrate plants like melons and pumpkins

 Increase stubble height and installation of windbreaks

  effective 15x height

 Irrigation could help in increasing the soil density and improve aggregation

 Strip crops perpendicular to prevailing wind

Effects of erosion

 Loss of organic matter, clay, and nutrients reduces productivity

 Damage to plants can be caused through exposing their roots which may lodge them.

 Formation of rills and gullies affects management discourages water infiltration and
surface stability

 Sedimentation in waterways, diversions, terraces, ditches that blocks the irrigation canals.

 Delivery of nutrients to surface water in reservoirs (eutrophication)

SOIL COLLOIDS, BASES AND ACIDITY

 Colloids: These are finely molecules suspended within a soil fraction and can be;

 Inorganic: chemical properties of clay (Clay minerals)

 Organic: humus

 They are the most chemically active fraction of soils that are very small, less than
2 µm in diameter

 Chemical properties include that they are sources of ions for plant nutrition and
they are a source of electro-negativity (CEC). They have buffering capacity and
are chemical cement agents.

 Physically, they have a large surface area per unit mass of soil which helps giving
the soil plasticity

 Bases: Bases include most of the mineral elements that are required to sustain plant
growth

 Clay minerals which are negatively charged.

  This is neutralized by the attraction to their surface of positively-charged ions
(cations) of minerals.

 Calcium (C), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K) and sodium (Na) – Bases

 Bases are recycled to the soil by the decomposition of plants and animals.

 Bases can be replenished by artificial supply – fertilizer

 Bases are essential as nutrients for plant growth.

Acidity

This is measured on a pH scale

Soil pH

 Soil reaction (acidic, neutral, alkaline) refers to the relative concentration of hydrogen
ions (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-) in the soil

 The acidity or alkalinity of the soil

 pH is not a fixed characteristic of the soil and, depending on a number of conditions,

varies over time.

 Soils in climates with high rainfall & humidity generally tend to be acid. (This is due
to the leaching of base elements as well as by harvested crops usage of sodium,
potassium, calcium, & magnesium)

 Soils in arid climates tend to be alkaline.

 Soil reaction describes the acidity or alkalinity of the soil

 pH of 0 to 7 is acid whilst pH of 7 to 14 is base or alkaline, 7 is neutral

 pH is the negative log of the H ion concentration

Causes of acidity
1. Nitrification: Ammonium to Nitrate (oxidation of NH4+). Addition of two molecules
of oxygen will result in the formation of nitrates, a water molecule and two hydrogen
atoms as shown in the equation below.

 NH4+ + 2O2 ---> NO3- + H2O + 2 H+

2. O.M. decomposition
  organic acids ionized :

 R-COOH---> R-COO- + H+

 respiration: CO2 + H2O ---- H2CO3 = H+ HCO3-

4. Uptake of basic cations by plants

This will leave acidic cations and some are displaced from the stable compounds by
the substitution process. Basic cations are sources of OH- to the soil solution. Basic
cations that are taken up by plants no longer contribute OH- to the soil solution. H+
ions are released to the soil solution.

5. leaching

In humid climates, rain exceeds evapotranspiration such that the net water movement is
downward which takes with it the diluted bases, thus the soil may become acidic in
nature.

In semi-arid climates, evapotranspiration exceeds rainfall and net water movement is

upward (capillary) which draws the alkaline salts to the soil surface, thus the soil
becomes alkaline

6. Respiration

 CO2 from roots combines with water to form weak carbonic acid

 (j) CO2+H2OàH2CO3àHCO3-+H+

 Nitrifying bacteria form ammonia which combines with water + H ions

 (K) NH4++2O2àNO3-+H2O+2H+

7. Acid rain

 Precipitation that has a pH of less than that of natural rainwater (which is about 5.6 due to
dissolved carbon dioxide).

 It is formed when sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxides, as gases or fine particles in the
atmosphere, combined with water vapour and precipitate as sulphuric acid or nitric acid
 in rain, snow, or fog. The principal cause of acid rain is from human sources, industrial
factories, power-generating plants and vehicles. Sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
are released during the fuel burning process (i.e. combustion)

 When water vapour condenses, or as the rain falls, they dissolve in the water to form
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). While the air in cleaned of the pollutants
in this way, it also causes precipitation to become acidic, forming acid rain

 To lower soil pH

 Sulfur powder (S), aluminum sulfate [Al2(SO4)3], iron sulfate (FeSO4) can be used
to increase the soil acidity.

 For solution, use:

 Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4 ------------► 2H+ + SO4-2)

 Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4 ------------► 3H+ + PO4-3)

 Nitric Acid (HNO3 ------------► H+ + NO3-)

Causes of alkalinity

 Liming - powdered limestone/limewater added to water and soil to neutralize acid. It is

an expensive, short-term remedy that matches the crop to the soil pH. Liming material
can be in the following types

1) Ground limestone =CaCO3

2) Dolomitic limestone= CaCo3 &MgCo3

3) Burned lime=CaCo3àCaO+Co2 gas

4) Hydrated lime=CaO+H2OàCa(OH)2

5) Gypsum (CaSO4)

 Ca replaces H and Al on exchange sites

4Ca(OH)2à4Ca+2 +8(OH-)

 Marian Boderick. (1994). Weather and Climate. Hong Kong: Time Life Asia.
  Katherine K. Rothschild. (1994). Matter and Chemistry. Hong Kong: Time Life Asia.

Why soil pH is important

 It determines the nutrient availability therefore the deficiency of plant nutrients and plant
toxicity can be avoided by manipulating the soil pH at a certain conducive level. Fe
deficiency is prominent at high pH whereas Al toxicity at low pH is high.

 Microorganism activity that is needed for decomposition of organic matter (OM) is

supported at a pH level that does not denature the protein of the microbes.

 Nitrogen fixation is important natural process that adds nitrates to the soil. Biological
nitrogen fixation is efficient at high C/N ratio. Low C/N ratios will result in
denitrification.

Chemical capacity

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

 CEC is an important measure of the fertility and potential productivity of a soil. Clay and
organic matter have a net negative charge that attract the positively charged cations. The
ability of soil particles to absorb (adsorb) and store cations (i.e., Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, NH4+) is
measured in meq/100 g soil. Clay particles are high in CEC

 Ca++, Mg++ K++ NH4++ are basic plant nutrients

 Na++ & H++ affect soil chemical & physical characteristics by promoting sodicity and
acidity respectively.

Anion Exchange Capacity (AEC)

 The ability of soil particles to absorb (adsorb) and store anions (i.e., NO 3-, SO42-, Cl-) and
is measured in meq/100 g soil

 Most soils have little or no AEC because they exist in a form that is less adsorptive

SOIL WATER
 Water is held in the soil at various degrees of tenacity which varies with the amount of
water present.

 The tension force of water in unsaturated soils has been described by several expressions
such as soil-pull, the force of suction and capillary tension. Suction can be defined as the
force per unit area that must be exerted to remove water from the soil. Suction or tension
is measured in bars.

 When the soil is saturated or nearly so, the amount of suction is almost zero, but as the
soil water depletes, greater amount of energy must be applied to extract water.

 The soil can be initially saturated and if it is drained, field capacity can be reached. Some
water is still held by surface tension.

 Field Capacity is the greatest amount of water the soil can hold under drainage.

 For most soils, it is obtained after two days of drainage after the soil was saturated by
heavy rain or irrigation.

 It is the optimum amount of water needed for agriculture.

 Below Field capacity, the plant finds it more and more difficult to extract water until the
suction or tension reaches 15 atmospheres permanent wilting point is obtained, which is
the maximum tension the plant can exert on the soil to extract water.

 Available water is the difference between the moisture contents at field capacity and
permanent wilting point.

 Clay holds more water but the plants exert more tension to extract water more than sand.

Soil phase relations

 Where Va is the volume of air, Vw is the volume of water, Vs is the volume of solids, Vp
is the volume of fluids (air and water), V is the total volume of the soil (soil solids and
soil fluids)

Particle density

 It is defined as the mass per unit volume of soil solids usually expressed as g/cm 3 or
Mg/m3.

 i.e. Particle density = Ms/Vs where Ms is the mass of dry soil

 Particle density is essentially the same as the specific gravity of a soil substance and
varies within a narrow range of 2.60 to 2.75 g/cm 3 with the average being assumed as
2.65 g/cm3 for a typical soil with 1 to 5% organic matter content.

 Montmorillonite can have a particle density of 2.74 g/cm 3, quartz, 2.65 and
kaolinite, 2.61 g/cm3.

Bulk density

 It is defined as the mass of a unit volume of dry soil. This includes both solids and
pores. i.e. bulk density = M s/V; Ms is the mass of dry soil and V is the total volume of
undisturbed soil.

 The major method of measuring bulk density in the field is to collect a known volume of
undisturbed soil (V) in a soil core, and drying it in the oven to remove all the water to
obtain Ms. The values of bulk density range from 1.0 for loose open soil to 1.7 g/cm 3 for
compacted soil.
 Values of bulk density are mainly affected by soil texture (sandy soils have more density
than silty and clay soils), degree of soil aggregation and is reduced by soil organic
matter content.

 Bulk density also tells much about the management of the soil, the trends over time
reflect on whether management is positive or negative. It also reflects on the impact of
various crops and climatic conditions on the soil. Higher bulk densities reflect a
deteriorating soil whereas lower bulk densities indicates a better management that caters
for the long term sustainability of the soil.

Porosity

 It is defined as the proportion of the volume of soil pores (air and water) in comparison
with the total volume of soil.

 i.e. Porosity, P = Volume of Pores, Vp / V

 It normally ranges from 0.2 (20%) to 0.6 (60%).

 One of the main reasons for measuring soil bulk density is that this value can be used to
calculate soil porosity.

 For the same particle density, the lower the bulk density, the higher the porosity.

SOILS OF ZIMBABWE
THE ZIMBABWEAN SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
 The Zimbabwean soil classification system was developed by Thompson (1965) and is
based on the principles used by the Inter-African Pedological Service (SPI) for the soil
map of Africa. The classification is based on the properties that reflect the degree of
weathering and leaching that soils derived from specific parent materials have undergone.
 There are four taxonomic levels that include the Order, Group, Family and Series.

Order
 There are four orders namely that include Amorphic, Calcimorphic, Kaolinitic and
Natric. The amorphics have undergone an insignificant level of profile development. The
calcimorphic and kaolinitic orders are distinguished on the basis of nutrient losses the
soils have experience with the extend of leaching being more significant in the later than
the former hence there is substantial chemical activity in the former than the later. The
soils in the calcimorphic order are thus more base richer than in the kaolinitic order. The
nitric order consists of the soils that have high levels of exchangeable sodium, thus the
soils could be referred to as sodic. Classification of soils using the orders is not effective
because there is substantial generalization and most of the overlapping characteristics are
rarely taken into consideration. These are however addressed in the lower taxonomic
levels

Group
 The soils can be put into 8 groups using the reference of anatomical, mineralogical and
chemical traits as indicated in the table below
Outline of the Zimbabwean soil classification system

Order Group
I. Amorphic- soils with very feeble 1. Regosol – deep sands
development of genetic horizons 2. Lithosols- extremely shallow soils
II. Calicimorphic – unleached soils 3. Vertisol – very active clay
with large reserves of weatherabe 4. Siallitic – active clay
minerals, high base saturation, clay
fractions predominantlt active
III. Kaolinitic- moderately to strongly 5. Fersiallitic – mixed clay
leached soils, clay fractions mainly 6. Paraferallitic – inert clay
inert together with appreciable 7. Orthoferrallitic –very inert clay
amounts of sesquioxides of iron and
aluminium
IV. Natric – soils in which the profile 8. Sodic
is attributable to the presence of
significant amount of exchangeable
sodium
Source: Purves, et al., 1981

Order Group Some typical soil Some

families typical
 soil series
I. Amorphic 1. Regosol 1K (regosols formed on Kalahari Nyamadhlovu
sands, Karoo sandstones 1K2

2. Lithosol 2P (Lithosols on Siliceous

gneisses Triangle 2P.O
2E (on mafic rocks etc.)
Matopos
2E.O

II. 3. Vertisol 3B (Vertisols derived from Chisumbanje

Calcimorphi basalt) 3B.2
c 3X (from ultra –mafic rocks) Selous3X.2
3E (from mafic rocks Harare 3E.4
4. Siallitic
4PE( Siallitic soils frommafic Triangle
gneisses 4EP.2
4U (from alluvium) Sabi 4U.2
4E (frommafic rocks) Kwekwe 4E.2

III. 5. Ferrallitic 5E ( Fersiallitic red clays derived Harare 5E.2

Kaolinitic frommafic rocks) Raffingora
5A (relatively silt soils derived 5A.2
from arenacious matasediments Harare 5G.3
5G (coars grained sandy soils Makoholi
derived from granite 5G.2
6. Paraferrallitic

6G (Paraferrallitic soils with

7. coarse grained sand fraction Harare 6G.2
Orthofarrallitic fromgranite)
Chipinge
7E (Orthoferrallitic red clays 7E.2
frommafic rocks
7M (fine grained sandy loams Chipinge
from sandstones and quartzites) 7M.2
7G (soils with coarse grained Marondera
sand fractions from granite) 7G.2

IV. Natric 8.Sodic 8n (weakly sodic oils) Matopos

8N (strongly sodic soils) 8nG.5
8h (saline sodic soils Matopos
8NG.6
Tuli 8hG.2
Sabi 8HU.5

Symbols used to denote the parent materials at the Family level

A – siliceous sediments, volcanics, metasediments and metavolcanics that give rise to
light to medium textured soils but in which the silt content is significantly high
B – basalt. This rock is differentiated from other parent materials in that in Zimbabwe, it
invariably gives rise to dark clayey soils even in areas of high rainfall
C – colluvim
E – igneous and mafic rocks other than basalt that give rise to soils of high clay content
 G – granite and gneissic granites that give rise to soils in which the sand fraction is coarse
grained. Clay content varies according to the degree of weathering and catenal position
I – ferruginous metasediments that give rise to medium to heavy textured soils in which
the silt content is not significantly high
K – unconsolidated fine to medium grained sands without weatherable minerals. Most of
these are Kalahari sands
M – sandstones and quartzites that give rise to predominantly sandy soils in which the silt
content is not significantly high
P – siliceous gneisses that give rise to light textured soils in which the sand fraction is
fine to medium textured
S – combined argilleceous sediments and metasediments with volcanics and
metavolcanics that all give rise to heavy textured soils in which silt content is
significantly high
U – alluvium
X – ultramafic rocks. These invariably give rise to clayey soils in which the exchangeable
magnesium is greater than exchangeable calcium i.e. the calcium/magnesium ratio is
inverse. In these soils, the presence of heavy metals such as nickel and chromium in toxic
amounts is common.

Families of sodic soils

n – weakly sodic: soils in which ESP within 80cm of the surfaceranges from 10 to 15 and
the conductivity of the saturation is less than 4 millisiemens/cm
N – strongly acidic: ESP>15 and specific conductivity <4 millisiemens/cm
h – saline-sodic: ESP>10 and specific conductivity >4 millisimiens/cm
The family name for a sodic soil will have a group number 8, the symbol to indicate the
sodicity/salinity and the parent material.

General description and characteristics of the soil groups

The Lithosol group

 Soils with a common characteristic of shallowness
 Soils may have various differences but the depth is used to group the soils
 All soils having a depth of less than 25cm whether they override hard or partially
weathered rock
 The soils had no adequate time to develop beyond their present depth because of climatic
conditions or other environmental factors
 They are susceptible to erosion hence the limited chances of solum thickening
 Are prominent in areas of very little rainfall that result in limited weathering due to
moisture stress
 In higher rainfall areas, lithosols are associated with broken and hilly terrain where the
greater erosion potential becomes responsible for the shallowness
  They are too shallow for arability
 The most ecologically sound land use is gaming and national parks reserves creation

The Regosols
 These soils are made up of thick sandy profile
 They have less than 10% combined with silt and clay within the upper 2m
 Characterized by the absence of weatherable minerals that should release the finer
materials of silt and clay
 Have little evidence of horizon development beyond the presence of an A horizon. The A
horizon development levels varies with the levels of climate and the position on the
catena
 The minerals are predominantly quartz with small amounts of feldspars and opaque
minerals
 Occur at flat to gentle sloppy areas
 The sand grains making up the regosols are round
 A fairly closed woodland or thorny scrub cold develop to protect the sands from erosion
and generate enough litter for the creation of the A horizon
 They have poor nutrient supply and the vegetation will therefore depend on the
underground nutrients that will have to laterally move from other areas
 Mostly found in the western parts of Zimbabwe in Nyamadhlovu, Victoria Falls, Hwange
and Nkai
 Also common in the Gonarezhou National Park
 Have low limitation to agricultural use because of low nutrient levels and relatively high
permeability associated with low water and nutrient retention capacity
 Could support the growth of hard crops like the small grained plants like sorghum and
millet. Low yielding maize, pumpkins and water melons are also grown successfully in
Nyamadhlovu
 Forestry has been the preferred landuse practice because trees have the high potential to
utilise the high amounts of water released by the aquifers. Both the indigenous and exotic
trees are commercially produce on the soils
 Commercial production of honey is an additional income generation programme
 Agroforestry can also be implemented with the trees helping to retain the stability of the
soils and domesticated plants can be planted in between the trees

The vertisols
 In Zimbabwe, vertisols can be classified basing on the three main traits. These include the
presence of a surface mulch (loose surface with a crumb or granular structure), the
presence of slickensides in the subsoil and S/C and E/C values that are greater than 60 in
either case
 Can also be further distinguished basing on the seasonal cracking, gilgai microrelief, well
developed prismatic subsurface structure and high clay content of the expansive
characteristic
 The most prominent vertisols are associated with protruded basalts, some occur on the
mafic and ulteamafic rocks as well as mudstones. Vertisols derived from the mudstones
have relatively high levels of exchangeable sodium
 Most vertisols are moderately deep, have a depth ranging between 80cm and slightly
above a metre.
 They could be dark grey, brownish black or black in colour with a chroma less than one
 They contain a substantial amounts of carbonates. A large amount of calcium are also
presnt especially in the vertisols of Beatrice and Furtherstone that recieves an amount of
rainfall that is as high as 800mm. Vertisols that occur around the Great Dyke have a
relatively higher amount of magnesium as compared to the calcium
 All Zimbabwean vertisols have higher amounts of clay content that is above 60%. The
major component of the clay content in is montimorillonite. All these develop wider
cracks into the subsoils during the dry season
 The vertisols are more dominant in arid areas where there is limited weathering and low
degree of leaching of the weathered products. This in harmony with the nature of the
parent material will result in the formation of smectites and other active clays
 Forms the best irrigable land in Zimbabwean semi-arid areas. They therefore support the
cultivation of winter wheat and rainfed cotton in summer. Citrus and other tre species can
also be cultivated especially in Chisumbanje.
 The soils are relatively fertile and rich in bases but require supplementary nitrogen and
other micronutrients to ensure
 They have workability problems because of higher levels of the active clays

The Siallitic Group

 These soils are poorly leached and hence have a higher base status. They E/C value of not
less than 35 and S/C value of not less than 31. Both of these two values could even be
greater than in the vertisols.
 The clays that dominate these soils are kandites and 2:1 clay minerals. Depending on the
parent material from which these soils can be derived from, they generally tend to have
higher amounts of smectites or vermiculite properties
 The majority of these soils tend to have considerable amounts of feldspar and other
weatherable minerals and the clay content is generally moderate.
 Though they are believed to young soils, the horizons they contain are more distinct and
well reflected. The lower horizons have illuviated calcium carbonate
 Siallitic soils are mainly found in low rainfall receiving areas like the south-eastern
lowvels and the Zambezi valley. These areas experience higher temperatures that
ultimately cause high evaporation rates. Weathering is therefore limited and there is
insufficient moisture for leaching to take place as well.
 Though the areas with these soils receive little rains, precipitation often exceeds the
infiltration rates leading to significant runoff which carries away the top soils through
sheet erosion on sloppy areas. Soils on flat land re therefore deeper than those at the
sloppy land.
 Siallitic soils are found in the Sabi-Limpopo Valley of Zimbabwe and Beitbridge.
 Siallitic soils have substantial agricultural potential though they are restricted because of
the aridity of the areas in which they are found. High productivity can therefore be
realized under irrigation systems particularly in the sugarcane estates of Triangle. They
also support extensive Mopane woodlands which supports cattle ranching. The vegetation
that exist in these lands is highly palatable and nutritious

The fersialitic group

 Are moderately leached soils within the kaolinitic order
 The S/C value is between 6 and 30 and the E/C value is between 12 and 35
 2:1 lattice clays are also present but in small proportions but the actual amount is not
quantified
 They contain appreciable amounts of sesquioxides and weatherable minerals
 They have a low phosphate sorption capacity and have minimum problems of P fixation
because of the presence of more inert clays
 The horizons of clay accumulation are also clearly recognizable and the structural
development is determined by the parental material from which the soil was derived
 Their mineralogy is also a function of the parent material
 The impact of climate is a major component for consideration especially rainfall that
should aid the leaching. They are therefore mostly located in areas of moderate rainfall
and their nature is determined by the interaction between the parental material and the
rainfall. As the rainfall increases, they become more confined to the mafic parent
material.
 The main attribute is the accumulation of clay, sesquioxides and the leaching of bases.
 On the plateau, the physical pattern of the underlying parent rock could inhibit the
internal drainage and may also be resistant to weathering. These conditions prevent
leaching
 The sloping ground that is related to encroaching erosion cycles rejuvenates the
landscape that leads to the formation of soils that have substantial weatherable minerals
and a higher base status than the soils that are located on older but more level surface
 Fersiallitic soils are the most extensive soils in Zimbabwe and are there agriculturally
significant as they are put to diverse activities in the production of goods and provision of
services
 Six major entities contribute to the fersiallitic group and these include the red clays,
relatively silty clays, and highly micaceous soils, sandy soils derived from granite, sandy
soils derived from sandstones and fersiallitic soils subject to hydromorphy.
  The red clay soils are regarded as the most productive because they are more fertile.
Zimbabwean early farming has been concentrated around these soils. The soils have ideal
quality and are also associated with the gold mines that also provide a ready market for
the agricultural produce. Their fertility levels are, good hydrodynamic properties and
physical stability and their occurrence in areas of relatively higher and more reliable
rainfall aids them for more exploitation than any other soils in Zimbabwe. The stable
hydrodynamic properties enable irrigation to be carried out in areas where the soils are
sufficiently deep. The rainfall ranges just above 700mm in intrusive dolerite dykes and
sills found within the granites of the basement complex for the red clays to be produced.
Red clays have high clay content, have numerous structural make-up depending on the
extend of leaching and S/C value, have well-defined crumb or granular micro-structure
especially in the upper profile, sub-angular structure in the subsoil in the drier situations,
2,5YR hues in terms of subsoil colour and the hues redder are a reflection of higher iron
content.
 Red clays can also have gravel in the subsoils in some instances that have angular
shattered quartz. Ferromanganese properties concretions are also present if the subsoils
are closer to the parent material. The periodic segregation of manganese and iron during
the rainy season in association with poor drainage conditions will lead to ferromanganese
concretions and stains.
 The relatively silty clays are the other type of fersiallitic soils that are characterized by
high silt content that imposes problem on the management of these soils. They have
poorly developed and unstable microstructures with thin crust. These soils compact and
crusts easily because of the high amount of very fine particles. The subsoil of the silty
clays reflects some degree of mottling that occurs even in some instances where the top
soils are not subjected to the seasonal wetness and mottling is closely associated with
significant oxygen gradients within these soils. The substantial oxygen concentration is
attributed by its uneven distribution due to sealing of the surface by the crust and the poor
structure. The crusting impedes the protrusion of seedlings and the high compaction
levels limit the water and aeration within these soils regardless of their inherent fertility
characteristic. The improvement of these soils could therefore be through the addition of
organic matter and minimize the use of heavy machinery during the operations.
Harmonization of field operation through the use of multi-purposed equipment can also
be regarded as the strategy to combat compaction.

Paraferrallitic Group

 The soils are highly leached because they occur in higher rainfall associated areas. They
are therefore associated with an S/C value of not more than 6, E/C value of no greater
than 12 and at least 5% of the weatherable minerals will be present in these soils
 They are dominated by the Kandite (1:1) clays particularly the kaolinite clays and
substantial amounts of sesquioxides
  Paraferrallitic soils on the upper slope tend to have higher clay content than the fersiallitic
soils from the same position due to the higher stability that is conferred to these soils by
higher amounts of sesquioxides in comparison with the granitic fersiallitic soils.
 In Zimbabwe, paraferrallitic soils are associated with the granite soils on the upland of
high altitude areas.
 Despite the low fertility component, they are used for tobacco production. It is also
because they are associated with high rainfall that they become easy to manipulate for
high agricultural productivity. Ranching can also be done on these soils. Leguminous
crops that can fix nitrogen can also make use of these soils especially the cowpea and
groundnut crops. An addition of nitrogen and phosphorous is a requirement but
potassium is in abundance since the parent granite rocks are potassium rich. Liming for
pH correction could also be a significant management operation.

Orthoferrallitic Group

 The orthoferrallic soils have an S/C value of not more than 5, E/C value of not more than
11, less than 5% of weatherable minerals in sandy soils and the clay fraction is
consistently 1:1 clay minerals and sesquioxides.
 They are normally very deep, specifically not less than 2m in depth and have well defined
but weak crumb structure. The porosity is very high because the clay fraction is fairly
inert such that the clays have no stickiness feeling
 Most of these soils are brightly coloured due to high oxide content and extremely good
drainage.
 The boundaries are generally fuse though the top horizon has high amount of organic
matter
 The Orthoferrallitic are a result of deep weathering of the underlying rock followed by
intense leaching of the bases. They have free drainage but though the minerals are
removed from the top soils, some soils have substantial base saturation in the subsoils
 The Orthoferrallitic are distributed in areas of high rainfall of above 1000mm
 Their main use is forestry and wildlife management, they are rarely used for crop
production because of poor nutrient status. Culturing of the tree crops like tea and coffee
is also feasible
 Ruminant animals like the dairy cattle can also be a viable option as done in chipinge
because the high amount of the natural rainfall supports the growth of sustainable fodder

The sodic group

 The group constitutes all the soils that have horizons in which the exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP) value is greater than 9 within the upper 80cm of the soil surface
 The classification basing on morphology is silent but some of the anatomical
considerations include a characteristic of dense and impermeable B horizon commencing
within the 80cm of the soil surface, the presence of pale eluvial albic or E horizon
between the A and B horizon and the transition between the A and B horizons is abrupt
 The pH values in the upper part of the weakly sodic horizons are low. Their high
impermeability make them prone to erosion
 The top soil has granular structure and the subsoils have a mixture of columnar and
prismatic structure
 They have higher bulk densities in the subsoils
 The parental materials include the sandstones, mudstones, grits and conglomerates of
Karoo age dominating the Zambezi valley. The parent material has a lot of weatherable
sodium.
 The loss of clay content in the upper horizon is subject to eluviations
 Some soils have been subject to seasonally fluctuating water tables
 The sodicity is determined by parent material rich in sodium-releasing feldspars and
restricted drainage that reserves the accumulation of bases in the soil
 The existing families are given the notations as follows; n for weakly sodic , h for saline
sodic soils and N for the strongly sodic soils
 Most sodic soils are most common in the low rainfall areas of Zimbabwe like the
Zambezi and Save valley. Sometimes the sodic soils occur as scattered patches where the
mean annual rainfall is less than 800mm
 The topography and climate have an influence on the formation of the sodic soils in
harmony with the parent material. The role of the climate is to supply the water needed to
leach the sodium in the soil and the topography will assist to determine the direction and
rate of drainage of the dissolved salts.
 Sodic soils are too reactive and are therefore shunned for both agricultural and
engineering services. The chemical properties are not desirable because the high amount
of ESP results in the dispersion of the clay fraction that clogs the available pores and will
reduce the hydraulic conductivity in the process. The soils develop a high bulk density in
the subsoil and the clogged soils that becomes harder becomes impenetrable by the roots
and water
 The soils are sometimes utilized by the peasants to cultivate millet and sorghum as well
as cotton varieties that are tolerant to the high pH levels.
 The resistance to wetting and susceptibility to piping makes them undesirable for
establishment of dams, roads and foundations of other engineering structures.