1.

VERIFICATION OF OHM’S LAW

Aim:

To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential difference

versus current.
Apparatus Required:

A resistance wire, Voltmeter (0-3) V, ammeter (0-3) A, a battery, a rheostat,

a meter scale, one way key, connecting wires.

Theory:

According to the Ohm’s law “the current flowing through a conductor is

directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical
conditions (temperature, dimensions, pressures) of the conductor remains the same.
If I be the current flowing through a conductor and V be the potential difference
across its ends, then according the Ohm’s law

V I

V= IR

Where R depends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensions of the
conductors. A graph between the potential difference (V) and the current (I) must be
straight line

R = V / I ohm

Where, R is the resistance in ohm

V is the potential difference in volt
I is the current through the resistor in ampere [A]

Resistivity of the given material is calculated by,

 = R D2 /4L Ω m

Where,  specific resistances of the given wire in ohm-m

R is the unknown resistance in ohm
D is the diameter of the given wire in m (0.35 mm)
L length of the wire in m (l=1m)
D2 / 4L = 0.096X10-6 m

 = R X 0.096X10-6 Ω m
Procedure:

❖ Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove the
insulations, if any.
❖ Neat, clean and tight connections are made according to the circuit
diagram.
❖ The least count of Voltmeter and ammeter is determined and the Zero error
is also noted if any.
❖ The key K is inserted and rheostat contact is slided and we should ensure
that voltmeter and ammeter is working properly.
❖ The nob is turned at 2V in the battery eliminator and the constant point in
rheostat is put at fixed position. The reading in voltmeter and ammeter is
recorded.
❖ Without disturbing the rheostat, turn the nob of the battery to different
voltage such that 4,6,8,10 and 12 V and corresponding readings in
voltmeter and ammeter is recorded.
❖ At least 5 sets of independent reading are taken.

Result:

Resistivity of copper wire is _________ Ω m

Resistivity of Nichrome wire is _________ Ω m

The graph between V and I is a straight line.

Sources of Errors:

❖ The instrument screws may be loose

❖ Thick connecting wires may not be available
❖ Rheostat may have high resistance
Circuit Diagram:
Graph :

Table 1:

TO FIND THE RESISTANCE OF THE WIRE 1

R = V/I
S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Ammeter readings (I)
ohm (Ω)
1

CALCULATION:

Table 2:

TO FIND THE RESISTANCE OF THE WIRE 2

R = V/I
S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Ammeter readings (I)
ohm (Ω)
1

CALCULATION:
 2. TO VERIFY THE LAWS OF COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES-

METRE BRIDGE (SERIES)

Aim:

To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistance using a metre bridge

(slide wire bridge).

Apparatus Required:

A metre bridge, a lechlanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey,

two resistance wires, a set square, sand paper, connecting wires.

Formula:

The resistance(R) of a resistance wire or coil is given by X = [(100-L/L] x R

Where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap and L is the
length of the metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.

When two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in series, their combined

resistance, Rs = R1 + R2

Procedure:

❖ Find the resistance value of two coils using metre bridge.

❖ Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in series as in circuit 1 in the right gap of
metre bridge and the resistance of this combination is found out.
❖ The coils are connected in parallel in the right gap as shown in circuit 2. The
resistance of this combination is found out. Atleast three sets of observations
are taken.
❖ The observations are recorded.

Result:

The value of unknown resistance of the coils R1 = ____ Ω and R2 = _____ Ω

Resistance in series, Experimental Value = _____ Ω, Theoretical Value = ______ Ω

Within limits of experimental error, the difference between experimental and

theoretical values of R = ______ Ω. Hence law of resistance in series is verified.

Sources of Errors:

❖ The instrument screws may be loose.

❖ The plugs may not be clean.
❖ The wire may not have uniform thickness.

❖ The screw gauge may have faults like backlash error and wrong pitch.

Circuit Diagram:

Unknown
Known Length length Mean
Resistance Resistance
coil S No resistance (ɭ) (100 -ɭ) Resistance
X

Ω cm cm Ω Ω

R1 2

R2 2

1
R1 & R2 in
2
Series
3
 3. HALF DEFLECTION METHOD AND FIGURE OF MERIT

Aim:

To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to

find its figure of merit.

Apparatus Required:

A western type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery of battery eliminator, two

(10000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance boxes, two one way key, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a
metre scale, an ammeter of a given range, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper.

Formula:

(i) The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half deflection

Method G = RS/(R-S) where R is the resistance connected in series

(ii) K = E/(R+G).θ where E is the EMF of the cell and θ is deflection

produced with resistance R.

(iii) The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer

Ig = nk where n is the total number of divisions on the galvanometer

scale on either side of zero.

Procedure:

❖ Make the connections as in the circuit diagram.

❖ Apply the high resistance using resistance box as the dial of the resistance
box is turned.
❖ The value of R is adjusted so that the deflection is maximum.
❖ The deflection is noted. Let it be θ.
❖ Key k2 is inserted, without changing the value of R the value of S is
adjusted, such that deflection in galvanometer reduces to exactly to half the
value obtained.
❖ The value of resistance S is noted and steps 2 to 4 is repeated three times
by changing the value of R.
 ❖ Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its EMF by a
voltmeter by connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and -ve of
the voltmeter with –ve of the cell. Let it be E.
❖ The connections are made as in circuit diagram.
❖ Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection θ when the circuit is
closed.
❖ Note the values of resistance R and deflection θ.
❖ The steps are repeated with both the cells of the battery with different
voltages like 2, 4, 6, 8 volts from battery eliminator.
❖ Find length of merit k using the formula.

Result:
The resistance of given galvanometer G = ___________ Ω
The figure of merit of given galvanometer = _________ A/div

Sources of Errors:
❖ The screws of the instrument may be loose.
❖ The plugs of the resistance may not be clean.
❖ The EMF of battery may not be constant.
❖ The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

Circuit Diagram:
Table for Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method

Shunt
Deflection in Half Galvanometer
Resistance Resistance
S.No the Deflection resistance
ohm S
Galvanometer θ/2 G= R.S / R-S
ohm

G = _________ Ω

Table for figure of merit

Number of emf of the cells Resistance

Deflection Figure of Merit
cells E(v) or reading from R.B
S.No k = E/ (R+G) θ
(battery of battery R θ
X 10-5 (A/div)
eliminator) eliminator ohm (div)

K = ________ X 10-5 (A/div)

 4. CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER

Aim:

To convert the given galvanometer of known resistance and figure of merit into
voltmeter of 4 desired range and verify the same.

Apparatus Required:

A western type galvanometer, A voltmeter (0-3) V, Range of battery of two cells

or battery eliminator, two (10000 Ω, 200 Ω) resistance boxes, two one way keys, a
rheostat, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper

Formula:

The shunt resistance required for conversion

S = Ig. G Where I is the range of conversion

I - Ig
The series of resistance required for conversion

R=V -G Where V is the range of Conversion

Ig

Procedure:

Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter

• Calculate the value of series resistance R to be connected in series with the

galvanometer for the given range V.
• Adjust the resistance box to a high resistance value.
• Insert the key K and adjust the movable contact of the rheostat so that the
deflection of the galvanometer becomes maximum.
• Note the readings of galvanometer and voltmeter.
• Move the variable contact c of the rheostat and take atleast five
observations covering the whole range of the voltmeter i.e 0 – 3 Volts.

Result:

As the difference in actual and measured value of potential difference is very

small the conversion is perfect.
Sources of Errors:

• The screws of the instruments may be loose

• The plugs of the resistance box may not be clean
• The e.m.f of the battery may not be clean.
• The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

Circuit Diagram:

Observation:

Standard
Reading of converted galvanometer to Difference
Voltmeter
Voltmeter Error
Reading
Sl
No
P.D in volts
Deflection V2 V2 - V1
V1 = θ x L.C

5
 5. FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR

Aim:

To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and
find the focal length.

Apparatus Required:

An optical bench with three uprights, concave mirror, mirror holder, two
optical needles, a knitting needle, a half metre scale.

Formula:

From mirror formula,

1 1 1 𝑢𝑣
= + ; f=
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣 𝑢+𝑣

where,
f – focal length of the concave mirror,
u - distance of object needle from pole of the mirror,
v - distance of image needle from pole of the mirror

Procedure:

• Mount the concave mirror in mirror holder.

• Obtain the image of a distant object and move the mirror forward and
backward to get a sharp image on the screen.
• Measure the distance between the mirror and the wall. This will be equal to
the rough focal length of the mirror.
• Take the thin optical needle as object needle (O).
• Move the object needle at a distance greater than focal length.
• Adjust height of the object needle.
• Obtain an inverted and enlarged image of the needle on the screen.
• Note the position of the index mark on the screen.
• Mount the thick optical needle.
• Adjust the height of the image needle and note the position of index mark.
 • Find index correction for distance between pole of mirror and tip of the
object needle.
• Move the object upright in steps o 1 cm towards as well as away from the
mirror and repeat the experiment.

Result:

The focal length of the given concave mirror as determined from

𝑢𝑣
Focal length calculated from f= = - _________ cm
𝑢+𝑣

(u-v) graph = - __________ cm

Sources of Errors:

• The uprights may not be the vertical.

• Parallax removal may not be perfect.

Object Distance Image Distance f = uv/u+v

Sl No
u cm v cm cm

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
 6. FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS

Aim:

To find the focal length of convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or
1/u or 1/v

Apparatus Required:

Electrical Lamp, Screen, lens holder, a convex lens, metre scale, etc.

Formula:

1 1 1 𝑢𝑣
= − f=
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝑢−𝑣

f – focal length of convex lens

u – Distance of object needle from optical centre of lens.

v – Distance of image needle from optical centre of lens

Procedure:

• Mount the convex lens in the lens holder

• Obtain the image of a distant object and move the lens forward and
backwards to get a sharp image on the screen
• Measure the distance between the lens and the screen. This will be equal to
the rough focal length of the lens.
• Take the thin optical needle as object needle (O).
• Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance greater than focal
length.
• Adjust height of the object needle.
• Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle.
• Clamp the holder with convex lens, keeping reflecting surface of the mirror
towards lens. Adjust the height of the mirror. Move towards zero end.
• An inverted image of the object needle will be obtained in the screen.
• Mount the thick optical needle.
• Adjust the height of the image needle.
 • Note the position of index mark and record it the observation.
• Find index correction for distance between pole of convex mirror and tip of
the image needle.

Result:

The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from

𝑢𝑣
Focal length from f= = _______ cm
𝑢−𝑣

(u-v) graph = ________ cm

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Clean lens must be used

2. There should not be any obstacle in the path of the lens

Sources of Errors:

• The uprights may not be the vertical.

• Parallax removal may not be perfect.

Object Distance Image Distance f = uv/u+v

u cm v cm cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
 7. TO FIND REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A GLASS PRISM –

MINIMUM DEVIATION METHOD

Aim:

(i) To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a

graph between angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.

(ii) To determine the refractive index of material of the prism.

Apparatus Required:

Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre
scale, office pins. graph paper, a protactor.

Formula:

The refractive index (n) of the material of the prism is given by,

n = Sin (A+Dm/2)/Sin A/2 (no unit)

where, Dm – angle of minimum deviation

A – Angle of prism (60°)

Procedure:

• Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing
pins or tape.
• Draw a straight line XX’ parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the
middle of the paper.
• Mark points Q1, Q2, Q3……. on the straight line XX’ at suitable distances of
about 5 cm.
• Draw normals N1Q1, N2Q2, N3Q3, ……. on points Q1,Q2,Q3……. as shown.
• Draw straight lines R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3 …………. making angles of 35o, 40o,
……….. 60o respectively with the normals.
• Mark the corner of the Prism as A and take it as the edge of the prism for all
observation.
• Put it prism with its refracting face AB in the line XX’ and point Q in middle
of AB.
 • Mark the boundary of the prism.
• Fix two or more office pin P1 and P2 vertically on the line R1Q1. The
distance between the pins should be 10 mm or more.
• Look at the images of point P1 and P2 through face AC.
• Close the left eye and bring open the right eye in line with two images.
• Fix two office point pins P3 and P4 vertically and 10 cm apart such that the
open right eye see pins P4 and P3 and images of P2 and P1 in one straight
line.
• Repeat steps 7 to 13 with points Q2, Q3 for i = 40°………..60°.
• Draw straight lines through points P4 and P3 to obtain emergent S1T1, S2T2,
S3T3 ………..
• Produce T1S1, T2S2, T3S3 ………. inward in the boundary of the prism to meet
produced incident rays R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3 ……….. at points F1, F2, F3 ………
• Measure angles K1F1S1, K2F2S2, K3F3S3 …………. These give angle of
deviation D1, D2, D3………..
• Write values of these angles on the paper.
• Measure angle BAC in the boundary of the prism. This gives angle A.
• Record your observations.

Result:

i – D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of
deviation (D) first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm) and then starts
increasing for further increase in angle of incidence.

Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = _________

Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = _________ (no unit)

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The pins should be fixed vertical
2. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays
Sources of Errors:
1. Pin pricks may be thick.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
Diagram:

Angle of
Angle of incidence
Sl. No. minimum deviation
i°
d°

1 35

2 40

3 45

4 50

5 55
 8. P-N JUNCTION DIODE VI CHARACTERISTICS

Aim:

To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction diode in forward bias and
reverse bias.

Apparatus Required:

A p-n junction (semi conductor) diode kit, connecting wires, pieces of sand
paper.

Formula:

Junction resistance for forward & Reverse – bias is

∆𝑉
𝑅=
∆𝐼

Theory:

Forward Bias Characteristics

When the p section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of a battery

and n section is connected to negative terminal of a battery then junction is said to
be forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, the forward current increases
slowly in the beginning and the rapidly. At about 0.7 v of si diode (0.2 v for Ge), the
current increases suddenly. The value of forward bias voltage, at which the forward
current increases rapidly is called cut in voltage or threshold voltage.

Reverse Bias Characteristics:

When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is very small reverse
current flow, which remains almost constant with bias. But when reverse bias
voltages increases to sufficiently high value, the reverse current suddenly increases
to a large value. This voltage at which breakdown of junction diode occurs is called
zener breakdown voltage or inverse voltage
Procedure:

• Make all connections, neat clean and tight.

• Increase the forward – bias voltage upto 0.3 V for Ge diode current remains
zero.
• Increase VF to 0.4 V. Milli – ammeter records a small current.
• Increase VF in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding current. Current
increases first slowly and then rapidly, till VF becomes 0.7 V.
• Make VF = 0.72 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents
forward “break – down” stage.
• Move the contact towards negative end to apply a reverse bias voltage (VR) of
0.5 V, a feebly reverse current starts flowing.
• Increase VR in steps of 0.2 V, current increases first slowly and then rapidly
until VR becomes 20 v. Note the current.
• Make VR = 25 v. The current increases suddenly. This represents “reverse
break – down” stage. Note the current and take out the key at once.

Result:
Junction resistance for forward – bias is _________ Ω
Junction resistance for reverse – bias is ___________ Ω
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be neat and clean
2. Keys should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being
used
Sources of Errors:
The junction diode supplied may be faulty.
Forward bias:
TABLE 1:

Forward bias voltage Forward bias current

Sl No
VF volt IF mA
1
2
.
.
.
20

Reverse bias:

TABLE 2:

Reverse bias voltage Reverse bias current

Sl No
VR volt IR mA
1
2
.
.
.
20
ACTIVITY
Activity 1: Measurement of resistance, voltage (AC/DC), current (DC) and

check continuity of a given circuit using multimeter.

Aim:

To measure resistance, voltage (AC/DC), current (AC) and check continuity of

a given circuit using multimeter.

Apparatus Required:

Multimeter, Rheostat, Step-down Transformer, three carbon resistors, cell,

connecting wires, one standard resistance coil, key, etc.

Theory:

A multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several

measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such
as ability to measure voltage, current and resistance.

Procedure:

(1) Colour Code of carbon Resistors:

(i) 1st band indicates 1st significant figure.

(ii) 2nd band indicates 2nd significant figure.
(iii) 3rd band indicate power of 10 with which the above 2 significant figures
must be multiplied to get resistance value in ohms.
(iv) 4th band indicates tolerance or possible variation in % of indicated value.
If this band is absent, it implies tolerance of ± 20%.
(2) Measurement of Resistance:

When a resistor R is connected in a circuit, we can measure the potential

difference across the two ends of resistor by connecting the multimeter in parallel with
the circuit.
(i) Separate the metallic probs from the lead and connect the resistance box
with the multimeter.
(ii) Insert a known resistance R in the circuit from the resistance box.
(iii) Note the multimeter reading which shows the values of resistance of the
resistor in the circuit.
(iv) Use different resistors and repeat above steps.
(3) Measurement of D.C voltage:

(i) Select a D.C. source of potential difference, 6 V battery eliminator or a battery.

(ii) Plug the probes black in com and red in +.
(iii) Select D.C. volt, by turning the selector switch to range 10 V D.C. volts,
(iv) Touch and press other ends of probes such that red is on battery terminal
marked + and black on and not the reading.
(v) Insert red probe in terminals marked 4 V, 2 V in succession and note readings.

(4) Measurement of A.C Voltage:

(i) Turn the selector A.C. (200 Volt).

(ii) Touch and press the probes other ends to two terminals of A.C. source of
potential drop and note the reading.
(iii) Use red probe in terminals 4 V and 2 V in succession and record the reading.

(5) Measurement of DC Current:

(i) Select the function switch and the range switch for proper D.C current
measurement.
(ii) Connect the multimeter to the battery. By convention, connect the red lead to
positive terminal and black lead to negative terminal of the battery.
(iii) Note down the reading from multimeter.
(iv) Now introduce a resistance in the circuit from the resistance box.
(v) Close the circuit by inserting the plug and then take measurement from
multimeter.

(6) Continuity of given circuit:

(i) Set the selector switch to ohm, range MΩ.

(ii) Touch and press the ends of probes at A and B, full scale deflection indicates
continuity.
(iii) Similarly check in succession the continuity between terminals B and C and
terminals C and D. Never place the probes ends between terminals connected
with the terminals of the battery.
In digital electronic multimeter for continuity test rotor is set to mark 0 and a
buzzer, sounds when probes are connected to ends of components tested.
CONCLUSIONS:

✓ The A.C/D.C voltage, D.C current and resistance were measured by

multimeter.
 ✓ The value of A.C/D.C Voltage is same as that of A.C/D.C source.
✓ Value of resistance measured by multimeter is same as that by color coding.
OBSERVATIONS:
 Activity 2 – Assembling the various components of the circuit

AIM: To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Unknown resistance coil, battery eliminator, voltmeter,

ammeter, rheostat, one way key, connecting wires.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the components as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. To measure the current in the circuit, connect the ammeter in series with
its red terminal (+ve) on +ve scale of battery.

3. To measure the potential drop, connect the voltmeter in parallel tubing care
that its red terminal is close to the end of load where the current enters the
component.

4. Assembling is done by connecting the components using thick copper

connecting wires with plug key taken out.

5. Check the circuit again before switching on power.

6. If everything is proper then plug in the key.

CONCLUSION: Assembly of all components in electrical circuit is complete.

Circuit Diagram:
 Activity 3 – Marking the components that are not connected properly

AIM: To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery, a
resistor, a rheostat, one way key, ammeter and voltmeter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: A given open circuit comprising at least a cell or a

battery, a plug key, a unknown resistor, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, wires, sand
paper.

THEORY:

(a) Functional electrical circuit: An electrical circuit is functional only when all
the components of the circuit are connected in proper order, assuming that all
circuit are connected in proper order, assuming that all circuit components/devices
are in working condition and key is closed.

(b) Open electrical circuit: An open circuit means that there is a break in
some part of circuit. The break may be deliberate such as key is in open or there is a
fault such as broken wire on burnt out components or loose connection.

PROCEDURE:

1. Write the various components in the given circuit diagram in the

observation table.

2. Mark those components which are not connected in proper order.

3. Draw the correct circuit diagram.

4. Now make the correct connections using the electrical components in the

manner given in the corrected circuit diagram.

5. Now close the plug key and check up whether the corrected circuit is now

functional.

CONCLUSION:

The corrected circuit assembled using components in proper order is

found functional on checking.

SL CIRCUIT CORRECT WRONG
NO COMPONENT CONNECTION CONNECTION

Polarity is connected Polarity of battery is

1 A cell/battery
+ ve and - ve wrong

2 Key Closed key Open Key

Connected to parallel to Connected to parallel

3 Unknown Resistance
Voltmeter to Voltmeter

4 Rheostat Correctly Connected Connected in Series

5 Voltmeter Connected parallel Connected Series

6 Ammeter Connected series Connected Parallel

Activity 4: Identification of a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor

from a mixed collection of such items

Aim:

To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection

of such items.

Apparatus required:

Mixed collection of diode, LED, Capacitor, Resistor, Multimeter.

Procedure:

➢ Set up the multimeter in resistance mode.

➢ If the multimeter shows definite deflection in both forward and reverse
direction then the component is a resistor.
➢ If the multimeter shows deflection when black probe is connected to common
and shows no deflection when the black probe is connected to P without
emission of light then the component is a diode.
➢ If the diode emits light then it is an LED.
➢ If the multimeter shows full scale deflection initially and later the deflection
becomes zero then the component is a capacitor.

CONCLUSIONS:

A diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor are identified from a mixed

collection of given items.

DIAGRAMS:
OBSERVATIONS:

TABLE FOR CHECKING THE STATE OF LEGS & CONDUCTION

S.No Possible current

Name of flow Name of
S.No No.of legs
device device

Unidirectional
1 More than 3 IC 4 DIODE
emit no light
Unidirectional
2 Three TRANSISTOR 5 LED
emit light
Conducts in both
CAPACITOR,
3 Two 6 directions. RESISTOR
DIODE, LED
(Steady)
Initial high but
7 CAPACITOR
decays to zero

Activity 5 – Nature of image in concave mirror/convex lens

AIM: To study the nature and size of the image formed by (a) convex lens (b) concave
mirror, on a screen by using a candle and a screen for different location of object.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Concave mirror/convex lens, screen, lens/mirror holder,

scale, light source.

PROCEDURE:

1. Determine the approximate focal length of the given concave mirror/convex

lens by focusing a distant object.
2. Keep the object ie., the candle at various positions (between F & 2F/
between F & C (2sets), beyond 2F/beyond c, (2 sets), at 2F/C (1 set) from
lens/ mirror)
3. Obtain a sharp image on the screen and measure the image distance.
4. Observe the size and nature of image and record it in tabulation.

CONCLUSION: The nature and size of the image formed by the (a) concave mirror

(b) convex lens on a screen by using candle and a screen has been
studied.
 Images formed by concave Mirror

Object Position Image Position Image Size Nature of Image

At infinity At F Highly diminished Real & Inverted

Beyond C Between F & C Diminished Real & Inverted

At C At F Same size Real & Inverted

Between C & F Beyond Enlarged Real & Inverted

At F At infinity Highly Enlarged Real & Inverted

Between O & F On the same side of lens Enlarged Virtual & erect
 Images formed by convex lens

Object Position Image Position Image Size Nature of Image

Highly
At infinity AT Focus F2 Real & Inverted
diminished
Beyond 2F1 Between F2 & 2F2 Diminished Real & Inverted

At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real & Inverted

Between F1 & 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real & Inverted

At F1 At infinity Highly Enlarged Real & Inverted

On the same side of
Between F1 & O Enlarged Virtual & erect
lens
 Activity 6 – Combination of lens

AIM: To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two
lenses from the given set of lenses.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Two convex lens, lens holder, screen, scale.

THEORY: 1. Let f1 & f2 be the focal lengths of the two lenses and F be the focal
length of lens combination. Then 1/f = 1/f1 + 1/f2.

2. With a convex lens the real and inverted image of a distant object is formed
at a distance equal to the focal length of the convex lens.

PROCEDURE:

1. Take a convex lens (with f1= 20cm) and fix it into lens holder. Put the lens
holder on the left of screen and move the lens towards or away from screen till a
sharp, inverted image of distant object is obtained on the screen.

2. Measure the distance with the help of metre rod between the lens holder
and screen where the sharp, inverted image of the distant object is focused. This
distance gives the focal length of the convex lens.

3. Replace the first lens by second one (with f2 =20 cm) and repeat the above
steps to measure the focal length of the second lens. Now take a lens holder which
can hold two lenses touching each other.

4. Again repeat the steps again to find the focal length of the lens combination
(say F)

CONCLUSION: The focal length of the lens combination = 10 cm.