PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMMING USING C

Course Objectives:
• To learn the fundamentals of computers.
• To understand the various steps in program development.
• To learn the syntax and semantics of C programming language.
• To learn the usage of structured programming approach in solving problems.

Course Outcomes:
At the end of the Course the students will be able to:
• Apply the fundamentals of computer and programming language, to draw flow chart, algorithm to solve
given program.
• Comprehend the general structure of C program using control structures, functions, recursion to support
reusability.
• Apply searching and sorting algorithms for the given list of elements
• Design an application to solve real world problem.

Module- 1: INTRODUCTION
Introduction to components of a computer: Memory, processor, I/O Devices, storage, operating system;
Concept of assembler, compiler, interpreter, loader and linker.
Idea of Algorithms: Algorithms, Flowcharts, Pseudo code with examples, from algorithm to Programs and
Source Code.
Introduction to C Programming Language: History of C, Basic structure of a C program, Process of compiling
and running a C program; C Tokens: Keywords, Identifiers, Constants, Strings, Special symbols, Variables, Data
types; Operators, Precedence of Operators, Expression evaluation, Formatted Input/Output functions, Type
Conversion and type casting.

Module-2: CONTROL STRUCTURES

Decision Making Statements: Simple if, if-else, else if ladder, Nested if, switch case statement;
Unconditional Control Structures: break, continue and goto statements.
Loop control statements: for, while and do while loops, nested loops.

Module-3: ARRAYS AND FUNCTIONS

Arrays: Introduction, Single dimensional array and multi-dimensional array: declaration, initialization, accessing
elements of an array; Operations on arrays: traversal, reverse, insertion, deletion, merge, search; Strings: Arrays
of characters, Reading and writing strings, String handling functions, Operations on strings; array of strings.
Functions: Concept of user defined functions, Function declaration, return statement, Function prototype, Types
of functions, Inter function communication, Function calls, Parameter passing mechanisms; Recursion; Passing
arrays to functions, passing strings to functions; Storage classes.

Module-4: POINTER AND STRUCTURES

Pointers: Basics of pointers, Pointer arithmetic, pointer to pointers, array of pointers, Generic pointers, Null
pointers, Pointers as functions arguments, Functions returning pointers; Dynamic memory allocation.
Structures: Structure definition, initialization, structure members, nested structures, arrays of structures,
structures and functions, structures and pointers, self-referential structures; Unions: Union definition,
initialization, accessing union members; bit fields, typedef, enumerations, Preprocessor directives.

Module-5: FILE HANDLING AND APPLICATIONS IN C

Preprocessor: Commonly used Preprocessor commands like include, define, undef, if, ifdef, ifndef
File Handling: Concept of a file, text files and binary files, streams, standard I/O, formatted I/O, file I/O
operations, error handling, Line I/O, miscellaneous functions; Applications in C.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Byron Gottfried, “Programming with C”, Schaum's Outlines Series, McGraw Hill Education, 3rd Edition, 2017.
2. Reema Thareja, “Programming in C”, Oxford university press, 2nd Edition, 2016.

UNIT -I
INTRODUTION TO
COMPONENTS OF A
COMPUTER
SYSTEM
 Programming for Problem Solving 2

INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAME

A Programe is a set of instructions given to the computer to do various tasks what the user wishes too.
The instructions can be in the form of commands also. A Program(or) Instructions (or) commands are given by
the user to computer to fulfill the desired task. As computer cannot understand human language so it needs the
translators like compiler, interpreter, assembler to convert the human language of instructions to binary.

1.1 Introduction to Components of a Computer Systems :

Definition Of Computer:
• It is a high speed electronic device .
• It helps to store large volumes of data safely and securely & retrieves it whenever required by the
user.
• It receives input from user through input devices, process it, and sends output through output
devices to user again

Computer Systems :
• It is made up of 2 major components They are:
1) Hardware 2) Software

Computer Hardware :
• These are the physical components of a computer.
 Programming for Problem Solving 3

• It consists of 5 Parts

1. Input Devices

2. Output Devices

3. CPU

4. Primary Storage

5. Secondary Storage

• These are the physical components of a computer It consists of 5 Parts

1. Input Devices

2. Output Devices

3. CPU

4. Primary Storage

5. Secondary Storage

Block diagram of a Computer :

Input Devices

• These are used to enter data and programs into the computer

• These are for man to machine communication

Ex: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, touch screen, audio input, Digitizer, light pen, joysticks,
 Programming for Problem Solving 4

Track ball, Space ball, z-mouse, Digital Camera, Microphone, finger print reader, barcode
reader, Data Glove, web cam,

Output Devices

• These are used to get the desired output from the computer

• These are for machine to man communication

• Ex: Printer, Monitor, Speakers, projector, disk drive, flash drive

• If the output is shown on monitor then it is called “Soft copy”

• If the output is printed on a paper using printer then it is called “hard copy”

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

• It is responsible for processing the instructions

• It consists of 3 parts

1. ALU – Arithmetic & Logic Unit

2. CU- Control Unit

3. Memory

• ALU performs arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division

and logical operations like comparisons among data.

• CU is responsible for movement of data inside the system

1.1.1 Disks
 Programming for Problem Solving 5

A disk is a hard or floppy round, flat, and magnetic platter capable of having information read from and written
to it. The most commonly found disks with a computer are the hard disks and floppy disks (floppy diskette)
shown in the picture to the right.

Hard drives

A hard-disk drive (HDD) is a non-volatile device used for storage, located inside the computer case. Like the
floppy drive, it holds its data on rotating platters with a magnetic upper exterior which are changed or read by
electromagnetic tipped arms that move over the disk as it spins.

1.1.2 Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. The memory is divided into large
number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to
memory size minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 =
65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

• Memory is used for storage of data and programs. It is divided into 2 parts.

1. Primary Memory/ Main Memory

2. Secondary Memory/ Auxiliary Memory

3. Cache Memory

1. Primary Memory :
• It is also called main memory or volatile memory.
• Data is stored temporarily i.e. data gets erased when computer is turned off.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without the primary memory
• Ex: RAM , ROM
 Programming for Problem Solving 6

i) RAM (Random Access Memory)

• It is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and program result.
• It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working.
• once the machine is switched off, data is erased.
RAM is of two types −
a) Static RAM (SRAM)
b) Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
a) SRAM (static RAM) : The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is
being supplied.
Characteristic of Static RAM

• Long life
• No need to refresh
• Faster
• Used as cache memory
• Large size
• Expensive
• High power consumption
b) DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
• DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small.
• All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

• Short data lifetime

• Needs to be refreshed continuously
• Slower as compared to SRAM
• Used as RAM
• Smaller in size
• Less expensive
• Less power consumption

ii) ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY)

• The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
• This type of memory is non-volatile.
 Programming for Problem Solving 7

• The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.

• A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer.
• This operation is referred to as bootstrap.
• ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing
machine and microwave oven.

Types of ROM Chips :

1. PROM - (Programmable Read only memory).
2. EPROM - (Erasable Programmable Read only Memory ).
3. EEPROM - (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read only Memory ).
Advantages of ROM :
The advantages of ROM are as follows −

• Non-volatile in nature
• Cannot be accidentally changed
• Cheaper than RAMs
• Easy to test
• More reliable than RAMs
• Static and do not require refreshing
• Contents are always known and can be verified
 Programming for Problem Solving 8

Difference between RAM & ROM

S.no RAM ROM

1. Stands for Random-Access Memory Stands for Read-only memory

ROM is read only memory and it can not be

2. RAM is a read and write memory
overwritten. EPROMs can be reprogrammed

3. RAM is faster ROM is relatively slower than RAM

RAM is a volatile memory. It means that the data ROM is permanent memory. Data in ROM will stay
4.
in RAM will be lost if power supply is cut-off as it is even if we remove the power-supply

There are mainly two types of RAM; static There are several types of ROM; Erasable ROM,
5.
RAM and Dynamic RAM Programmable ROM, EPROM etc.

RAM stores all the applications and data when the ROM usually stores instructions that are required for
6. computer is up and running starting (booting) the computer

7. Price of RAM is comparatively high ROM chips are comparatively cheaper

8. RAM chips are bigger in size ROM chips are smaller in size

Content of ROM are usually first transferred to RAM

9. Processor can directly access the content of RAM and then accessed by processor. This is done in order
to be able to access ROM content at a faster speed.

Storage capacity of ROM installed in a computer is

10. RAM is often installed with large storage.
much lesser than RAM

Table 1.1: Difference between RAM and ROM

2. Secondary Memory

• It is also called as auxiliary memory or non volatile memory.

• Data is stored permanently so that user can reuse the data even after power loss.
• It is known as the backup memory.
• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
• Slower than primary memories
Ex: Hard disk, CD, DVD, Floppy etc.
 Programming for Problem Solving 9

3. Cache memory

• Cache memory is a fastest & cheapest memory.

• Cache memory is the smallest volatile memory

• It is placed between the CPU and main memory, to operate at the speed of the CPU.

• It is also called as CPU’s memory.

• It stores or fetches the frequently repeated instructions or data.

Cache memory is located in two general locations

✓ inside the processor (internal cache) and

✓ on the motherboard (external cache)

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

• Cache memory is faster than main memory.

• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

• It stores data for temporary use.

 Programming for Problem Solving 10

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

• Cache memory has limited capacity.

• It is very expensive.

Difference between Primary Memory & Secondary Memory

Subject Primary Memory Secondary Memory

Volatility This is volatile This is non volatile

Access time is higher than secondary Access time is lower than primary
Access time
memory memory

Memory status This is Temporary memory This is Permanent memory

Capacity Storage capacity is less Storage capacity is more

Higher than HDD or secondary

Price Lower than primary memory
memory

Connection Connected via slots Connected via cables

Accessible It is directly accessible to the CPU It is not directly accessible to the CPU

Table 1.2: Difference between Primary Memory and secondary memory

1.1.3 PROCESSOR :

• A processor is an intExrated electronic circuit that performs the calculations that run a computer.

• A processor performs arithmetical, logical, input/output (I/O) and other basic instructions that are
passed from an operating system (OS).

• The processor is sometimes referred to as the Central Processing Unit (CPU).

1.1.4 COMPUTER SOFTWARE:

• Software is defined as intangible parts of computer.

 Programming for Problem Solving 11

• Software is a collection of programs.

• Software makes the hardware of the computer to function properly

• Computer software is divided into 2 catExories.

1. System software

2. Application software
1. System Software:
• They constitute set of programs that manage the hardware resources of a computer
• It is divided into 3 types.

Operating System
• It acts as an interface between the user and the hardware
• It makes the system to operate in an efficient manner. Ex: MS DOS, Windows, UNIX, LINUX,
etc.

System Support

• They provide some utilities and other operating services

• Ex: Sort utilities, disk formatting utilities, Security monitors

System Development
It includes
a) Language translators – Used for converting programs into machine language
b) Debuggers – for error free programs
c) CASE tools – Computer Assisted Software Engineering Tools
 Programming for Problem Solving 12
2. Application Software
• It contains programs for performing tasks

• It is divided into 2 classes

Application
Software

General Application
purpose Specific

Figure 1.9: Classification of Application Software

General purpose software

• These are purchased from software developers

• They can be used for more than one application

• Ex: word processors, DBMS etc…

Application Specific Software

▪ It can be used only for intended purpose i.e. for which they were designed

▪ Ex: Accounting system, hospital management system, banking system. Etc.

Hardwa

Figure 1.10: Relationship among Application and System Software

1.1.5. COMPILERS

• It is a Translator.
• A compiler is a software program which is used to convert human readable code into machine
understandable code.(Or)
• It’s a computer program which reads source code and outputs assembly code or executable code is
 Programming for Problem Solving 13
called compiler.
• It Scans the entire program once and translates it as a whole into machine code.
• It reduces the execution time, it is the fastest translator.
• It generates the error message only after scanning the whole program. Hence debugging is
comparatively hard.
• Programming language like C, C++ use compilers.

Figure 1.11: Compiler

1.1.6 COMPILING AND EXECUTING A PROGRAM / CREATING AND RUNNING PROGRAMS

• Program consists of set of instructions written in a programming language

• The job of a programmer is to write and test the program.

• There are 4 steps for converting a ‘C’ program into machine language.

1) Writing and editing the program

2) Compiling the program

3) Linking the program

4) Executing the program

1) Writing and editing the program

• ‘Text editors’ are used to write programs.

• Users can enter, change and store character data using text editors

• Special text editor is often included with a compiler

• After writing the program, the file is saved to disk. It is known as ‘sourcefile’

• This file is input to the compiler

 Programming for Problem Solving 14

2) Compiling the program

• “Compiler” is a software that translates the source file into machine language

• The ‘C’ compiler is actually 2 separate programs

a) Preprocessor

b) Translator

a) Preprocessor

• It reads the source code and prepares it for the translator

• It scans for special instructions known as ‘preprocessor’ commands which start with ‘ #’
symbol

• These commands tell the preprocessor to look for special code libraries and make
substitutions

• The result of preprocessing is called ‘translation’ unit

b) Translator

• It does the actual work of converting the program into machine language

• It reads the translation unit and results in ‘object module’ i.e., code in machine language

• But it is not yet executable because it does not have the ‘C’ and other functions included.
 Programming for Problem Solving 15

3) Linking programs
• ‘Linker’ assembles input /output functions, mathematical library functions and some of the
functions that are part of source program into final executable program. It is called as executable
file that it is ready for execution.

4) Executing Programs
• ‘Loader’ is the software that gets the program that is ready for execution into the memory

• When everything is loaded, the program takes control and the ‘Runner’ bExins its execution.

• In the process of execution, the program reads the data from the user, processes the data
and prepares the output.

Figure 1.16: Creating and Running a Program

 Programming for Problem Solving 25
1.2 Introduction to Algorithms:

• It is a step – by – step procedure for solving a problem

• If algorithm is written in English like sentences then it is called as ‘PSEUDO CODE’

1.2.1 Properties of an Algorithm

An algorithm must possess the following 5 properties. They are

1. Input

2. Output

3. Finiteness

4. Definiteness

5. Effectiveness

1. Input : An algorithm must have zero (or) more number of inputs

2. Output: Algorithm must produce one (or) more number of outputs

3. Finiteness : An algorithm must terminate in countable number of steps

4. Definiteness: Each step of the algorithm must be stated clearly

5. Effectiveness: Each step of the algorithm must be easily convertible into program statements
1.2.2 Frequently used mnemonics in algorithm:
• Start = this label in algorithm indicates starting the task
• Repeat =do the step, logic or process for some time till condition gets failed
• goto=it states that control should go to a specific label and then start its execution
• break = it’s a termination point i.e control has to come out of the block or loop where the break is
specified
• Continue = When a continue statement is encountered inside a loop, control jumps to the bExinning
of the loop for next iteration, skipping the execution of statements inside the body of loop for the
current iteration.
• If-then-else= this decision making statement is used when we have two choices for selection
• Stop=This indicates end of algorithm
 Programming for Problem Solving 26

1.2.3 Examples on Algorithms

Example-1

Algorithm for finding the average of 3 numbers

1. start

2. Read 3 numbers a,b,c

3. Compute sum = a+b+c

4. compute avg = sum/3

5. Print avg value

6. Stop
Example 2: Convert Temperature from Fahrenheit (℉) to Celsius (℃)

Algorithm:
Step 1: Read temperature in Fahrenheit,
Step 2: Calculate temperature with formula C=5/9*(F-32),
Step 3: Print C,

1.2.4 Introduction to Flowchart

Diagrammatic or pictorial representation of an algorithm is called flow chart

1.2.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Flowchart

➢ It is very easy to understand because the reader follows the process quickly from the flowchart
instead of going through the text.

➢ It is the best way of representing the sequence of steps in an algorithm

➢ It gives a clear idea about the problem

➢ Various symbols are used for representing different operations

➢ Arrows are used for connecting the symbols and show the flow of execution
Disadvantage :
1. Drawing flowchart for complex logic programs is difficult.
 Programming for Problem Solving 27

2. If alterations are required the flowchart may require re-drawing completely. This will usually waste
valuable time.

1.2.4.2 Symbols used in flowchart

Table 1.17: List of symbols used in drawing flowchart

1.2.4.3 Examples on Flowcharts

Example 1:

Flowchart for finding the average of 3 numbers

 Programming for Problem Solving 28

Example 2: Flow chart for converting foreign heat to centigrade :

Figure 1.18: Flowchart for converting foreign heat to centigrade

1.2.5 Introduction to Pseudo code :
Pseudo code is an artificial and informal language that helps programmers develops algorithms. Pseudo
code is similar to everyday English, it is convenient and user friendly although it is not an actual computer
programming language. Pseudo code programs are not actually executed on computer rather they merely
 Programming for Problem Solving 29

help the programmer “think out” a program before attempting to write it in a programming language such
as C.

1.2.5.1 Advantages and Disadventages of Pseudocode

Advantages:

• It can be written easily.

• It can be read and understood easily.

Disadvantages:

• It is not visual.
• We do not get a picture of the design

1.2.5.2 Example on Pseudocode

Example 1 : Pseudo Code to print Fibonacci series upto 50 terms

1. Declare an integer variable called n
2. Declare an integer variable sum
3. Declare an integer variable f1
4. Declare an integer variable f2
5. set sum to 0
6. set f1 and f2 to 1
7. set n to 50
8. repeat n times
a. sum = f1 + f2
b. f2 = f1
c. f1 = sum
d. print sum
9. end loop
1.2.6 Program design and structured programming

• Programming is a problem solving task / activity

 Programming for Problem Solving 30

• Programmers use the software development method for solving problems

• It consists of the following 6 phases

1) Requirements
2) Analysis
3) Design
4) Coding
5) Testing
6) Maintenance
❖ Requirements

• Information about the problem must be stated clearly and unambiguously

• Main objective of this phase is to eliminate unimportant aspects and identify the root problem

❖ Analysis

• It involves identifying the problem inputs, outputs, that the program must produce

• It also determines the required format in which results should be displayed

❖ Design

• It involves designing algorithms, flowcharts (or) GUI’s (Graphical User Interfaces)

• Designing the ‘algorithm’ is to develop a list of steps called algorithm to solve the problem and
then verify that the algorithm solves the problem intended.
• “Top – down design” is followed i.e. list the major steps (or) sub problems that need to be solved

• “Flow charts” are used to get the pictorial representation of the algorithm.

• Algorithm for a programming problem consists of at least the following sub problems

1. Get the data

2. Perform the computations

3. Display the results

❖ Coding / Implementation

• This step involves writing algorithm as a program by selecting any one of the high – level
languages that is suitable for the problem.
 Programming for Problem Solving 31

• Each step of the algorithm is converted into one (or) more statements in a programming language.

❖ Testing

• Checking / verifying whether the completed program works as desired is called “ Testing”

• Running the program several times using different sets of data verifies whether a program
works correctly for every situation provided in the algorithm.

• After testing, the program must be free from the following errors.

a) Syntax errors

b) Logical errors

c) Run-time errors

❖ Maintenance
• It involves modifying a program to remove previously undetected errors and to keep it up-to-
date as government rExulations (or) company polices change.
• Many organizations maintain a program for some period of time i.e. 5 years.

Figure 1.19: Water fall model

1.3 INTRODUCTION TO ‘C’ PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

⚫ ‘C’ is a high –level programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at AT & T Bell
Laboratories
 Programming for Problem Solving 32

⚫ It was primarily developed for systems programming i.e. for designing operating systems, compilers etc
1.3.1 Importance of ’C’ Language
1. It is a robust language, whose rich set of built-in functions and operations can be used to write any
complex program
2. The ‘C’ compiler combines the capabilities of an assembly language with the features of a high-level
language and therefore it is well suited for writing both system software and business packages.
3. ‘C’ Programs are efficient and fast, this is because it has variety of data types and powerful
operators
4. C is highly portable, that is c programs written for one computer can be run on another w ith little (or)
no modification.
5. ‘C’ Language is well suited for structured programming, thus requiring the user to think of a problem
in terms of function modules (or) blocks. The proper collection of these module make a complete
program. This modular structure makes program debugging, testing and maintenance easier.
6. ‘C’ program has the ability to extend itself. A 'c' program is basically a collection of functions that are
supported by the 'C' library. we can add our own functions to 'C' library..
7. 'C' is highly portable .I.e. 'C' programs written for one computer can be run on another with little or no
modifications .portability is important if we to run a program on a new computer with different
operating system. I.E "C " is a machine independent language.
8. 'C' is high-level language which allows the programmer to concentrate on the problem with out worry
about the machine that program will be using.
1.3.2 Data Types
Data Types
❖ Data type specifies the set of values and the type of data that can be stored in a variable.
❖ They allow the programmer to select the type appropriate to the needs of application.
Types: ANSI supports 3 classes of data types namely
Primary data type/fundamental data type/ Basic data type
1) Derived data type
2) User-defined data type
 Programming for Problem Solving 33

1. Primary data types

Figure 1.20: Data Types

Void:
⚫ Designated by the keyword ' void '. The void type has no values.
⚫ It is used to specify the type of a functions. The type of functions will be void if it not returning
any value to the calling functions.
⚫ It is also used to define a pointer to generic data.
⚫ It is used to designate that a function has no parameters as in main function.
Integral type:
Integral data types are used to store whole numbers and characters
C have 3 Integral types namely
i) Boolean
ii) Character
iii) Integer
i) Boolean:
• This is named after French mathematician "George Boole".
• It can represent two values namely true and false. It can be in memory as 0(false)
and 1(true).
ii) Character data type
• A single character can be defined as a character (Char)type data.
 Programming for Problem Solving 34

• These characters are internally stored as integers

• Each character has an equivalent ASCII value
• This data type is used to store character
iii) Integer:
• An integer type is a number without a fractional part or a whole number.
• In order to provide some control over the range of numbers and storage spaces C
supports 4 different size of integers.
Integer Data type
Type size (in bytes) Range Control string
Short int (or) signed short int 1 -128 to 127 %h
Unsigned short int 1 0 to 255 %uh
-32768 to
int (or) signed int 2 % d or %i
32767
unsigned int 2 0 to 65535 %u
-2147483648 to
Long int (or) signed long int 4 %ld
2147483647
0 to
Unsigned long int 4 %lu
4294967295
long long int 8
• short int, int and long int are in both signed and unsigned forms
Table 1.18: Integer Data Types
-- the function size of (data type) gives the size of the data type in bytes.
C follows the followings relation ship
sizeof( short) < sizeof(int) < sizeof(long int) < sizeof(long long int)

Floating – point Data types

'C' standard recognizes 3 floating point types
i) Real
ii) Imaginary
iii) Complex

i) Real:
 Programming for Problem Solving 35

✓ It is used to store real numbers (i.e., decimal point numbers).

✓ C has 3 different sizes of real types
✓ For 6 digits of accuracy/precision, ‘float’ is used.
✓ For 14 digits of accuracy, ‘double' is used.
✓ For more than 14 digits of accuracy, ‘long double’ is used..
the relation among the real type
sizeof (float) < sizeof (double) < sizeof (long double)

ii) Imaginary:
It is real number multiplied by root of -1
It has 3 different size of imaginary types
a. float imaginary
b. double imaginary
c. long double imaginary
iii) Complex type
--It is combination of real and an imaginary number
-- It have 3 different sizes
a. float complex
b. double complex
c. long double complex

Floating point data type

Type Size (in bytes) Range Control string
float 4 3.4 E – 38 to 3.4 E + 38 %f
double 8 1.7 E – 308 to 1.7 E +308 %lf
long double 10 3.4 E – 4932 to 1.1 E +4932 %Lf

Table 1.19: Floating point Data Types

1.3.3. Types of Errors

While writing c programs, errors (also known as bugs) may occur unwillingly which may prevent the program
to compile and run correctly as per the expectation of the programmer.

Basically there are three types of errors in c programming:

1. Runtime Errors
 Programming for Problem Solving 36

2. Compile Errors
3. Logical Errors

1. Runtime Errors:

C runtime errors are those errors that occur during the execution of a c program and generally occur due to
some illExal operation performed in the program.

Examples of some illExal operations that may produce runtime errors are:

• Dividing a number by zero

• Trying to open a file which is not created
• Lack of free memory space
✓ When you instruct your computer to find logarithm of a nExative number.
✓ When you instruct your computer to find the square root of a nExative integer.

Compile Errors: Compile errors are those errors that occur at the time of compilation of the program. C
compile errors may be further classified as:

o Syntax Errors
o Semantic Errors
• Syntax Errors:

A collection of rules for writing programs in a programming language is known as syntax.When the rules of the
c programming language are not followed, the compiler will show syntax errors.A program containing syntax
error cannot be compiled successfully.

For example, consider the statement,

int a,b:

The above statement will produce syntax error as the statement is terminated with : rather than ;

Ex: A variable is used without declaration.

Example, in C, if you don’t place a semi-colon after the statement (as shown below), it results in a syntax error.
printf(“Hello,world”) – error in syntax (semicolon missing)
printf("Hello,world"); - This statement is syntactically correct.
 Programming for Problem Solving 37

• Semantic Errors

Semantic errors are reported by the compiler when the statements written in the c program are not meaningful to
the compiler.

For example, consider the statement,

1b+c=a;

In the above statement we are trying to assign value of a in the value obtained by summation of b and c which
has no meaning in c. The correct statement will be
1a=b+c;
• Logical Errors

Logical errors are the errors in the output of the program. The presence of logical errors leads to undesired or
incorrect output and are caused due to error in the logic applied in the program to produce the desired output.
Also, logical errors could not be detected by the compiler, and thus, programmers have to check the entire
coding of a c program line by line.

1.3.4 Operators & Types of Operators:

Operators:

A operator is a symbol that tells the computer to perform certain mathematical (or) Logical manipulations.
An operator indicates the operation to be performed on data that yields a value.
C Operators can be classifieds into
1. Arithmetic operators
2. Relational Operators
3. Logical Operators
4. Assignment Operators
5. Increment & Decrement Operators
6. Conditional Operators
7. Bitwise Operators &
8. Special Operators
1) Arithmetic operators:
❖ These operators are used for numerical calculations (or) to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
 Programming for Problem Solving 38

subtraction etc.
❖ Arithmetic Operator involving only real operands is called “ Real Arithmetic”
❖ When one of the operands is real and other is integer then expansion is called as “ Mixed – Mode
arithmetic Expression “"

Operator Description Example a =20, b=10 output

+ Addition a+b 20+10 30

- Subtraction a-b 20-10 10

* multiplication a*b 20*10 200

/ Division a/b 20/10 2 (quotient)

% Modular division a%b 20%10 0 (remainder)

Table 1.20: Arithmetic Operators

Note :
❖ C does not have exponentiation.

The modulo Operator (%) can't be used on floating point data

❖ Program on Arithmetic Operators:
main ( )
{
Output
int a= 20, b = 10;
30
printf (“ %d”, a+b);
printf (“ %d”, a-b); 10
printf (“ %d”, a*b);
200
printf (“ %d”, a/b);
printf (“ %d”, a%b); 2
}

2) Relational operators:
The comparisons can be done with relational operators .
C supports six relational operators .
The output of relational expression is either one or zero (i.,e True or False).
 Programming for Problem Solving 39

Relational expression syntax:

arg1 relational_operator arg2

here arg1 & arg2 are arithmetic expressions which may be simple constants variables or combination of
them .
The output of a relational expression is either true (1) (or) false (0)
Operator Description Examble a =10, b=20 output
< less than a<b 10<20 1
<= less than (or) equal to a<=b 10< = 20 1
> greater than a>b 10>20 0
>= greater than (or) equal a>=b 10> =20 0
to
== equal to a= =b 10 = = 20 0
!= not equal to a! = b 10 ! =20 1
Table 1.21: Relational Operators
❖ Program to demonstrate relational operators
main ( ) Output
{

int a= 10, b = 20;

1
printf (“ %d”, a<b);
printf (“ %d”, a<=b); 1
printf (“ %d”, a>b);
0
printf (“ %d”, a>=b);
printf (“ %d”, a = =b); 0
printf (“ %d”, a ! =b);
}
Note:

In above six operators each one is complement of another operator

> is Complement of <=
< is complement of >=
== is complement of !=
 Programming for Problem Solving 40

3) Logical operators:
C has three logical operators namely
- Logical AND (&&)
- Logical OR (||)
- Logical NOT(!)
Logical Operators && and || used when we want to test more than one condition
Logical expression will yield a value i.e. either one or zero (true or false)
❖ These are used to combine 2 (or) more expressions logically
Logical AND ( && )

exp1 exp2 exp1&&exp2

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F
Table 1.22: Logical AND ( && )

exp1 exp2 exp1&&exp2

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

Table 1.23: Logical OR( || )

exp !(exp)
T F
F T

Table 1.24: Logical NOT(!)

 Programming for Problem Solving 41

Program To Demonstrate logical operators :

main ( )
Output
{
int a= 10, b = 20, c= 30; 0
printf (“ %d”, (a>b) && (a<c));
1
printf (“ %d”, (a>b) | | (a<c));
printf (“ %d”, ! (a>b)); 1

}
4) Assignment operators:
It is used to assign the result of an expression to a variable.
Types :
⚫ Simple Assignment
⚫ Compound Assignment

Operator Description Example

= Simple assignment a=10

+ =, - =, Compound assignment a+=10

a=a+10
* =, / =, %=
a-=10
a=a-10

Table 1.25 Assignment operators

General assignment operator (=) and syntax:
v operator= exp;
Same as v =v operator (exp);
here v --> variable
exp--> expression
Operator--> Binary operation
example 1: x+=y
x= x+y
2: x-=y
x= x-y
3: x*=y+1
x= x*(y+1)
 Programming for Problem Solving 42

4: x/=y+1
x= x/(y+1)
5: x%=y
x= x%y

Increment & Decrement operators:

The increment and decrement operators are ++ and -- respectively.
a) Increment operator (++):
❖ It is used to increment the value of a variable by 1
❖ 2 types : i) pre increment ii) post increment
❖ Increment operator is placed before the operand in preincrement and the value is first incremented
and then operation is performed on it.
Ex: z = ++a; first: a=
a+1 second:
z=a

❖ Increment operator is placed after the operand in post increment and the value is incremented
after the operation is performed
Ex: z = a++;
first: z=a
second: a= a+1

Program pre increment

main ( ) Program
main ( )
{
int a= 10, z;
z= ++a
printf (“z= %d”, z);
printf (“ a=%d”, a);
}
 Programming for Problem Solving 43

Program post increment

main ( ) Program
main ( )
{
int a= 10, z;
z= a++
printf (“z= %d”, z);
printf (“ a=%d”, a);
}
b) Decrement operator: (- -)
❖ It is used to decrement the values of a variable by 1
2 types : i) pre decrement
ii) post decrement
❖ decrement operator is placed before the operand in predecrement and the value is first decremented and
then operation is performed on it.
Ex: z = - - a; first: a= a-1;
second: z=a ;

❖ decrement operator is placed after the operand in post decrement and the value is decremented after the
operation is performed

Ex: z = a--; first: z=a;

second: a= a-1;

Program: main ( )
main ( ) {
{
int a= 10, z;
int a= 10, z;
Output
z= --a Output z= a--;
z=10
printf (“z= %d”, z); z=9 printf (“z= %d”, z); a=9
printf (“ a=%d”, a); a =9
printf (“a=%d”, a);
}
}
 Programming for Problem Solving 44

Conditional Operators:
A ternary operator pair “ ? : ” is used to construct conditional expressions.
Syntax:
exp1 ? exp2 : exp3;

where exp1,exp2,exp3 are expressions .

-->If exp1 is true,then exp2 is evaluated.
-->If exp1 is false,the exp3 is evaluated.
Note: Only one expression either exp2 or exp3 is evaluated.
Example: a=10 b=5
x=(a>b)?a:b;
x is assign with 'a' value since the exp1 is true.
Special operators:
C supports special operators such as:
--comma operator
--size of operator
--pointer operator(& and *)
--member selection operator(. And )
Comma operator-
Link the related expressions together
Evaluated left to righ
Ex: value=(x=10,4=5,x+y);
Size of operator
It is a compile time operator with operand
It returns numbers of bites the operand occupies
Ex: m=size of (sum);
n=size of (int)
Note: to print the character %, by placing it immediately after another % character in control statement.
Ex: printf(“a%%b=%d”,a%b);
out put: a%b=5
Program:
main ( )
{
 Programming for Problem Solving 45

int a=10;
float b=20 ;
printf (“ a= %d b=%f’, a,b );
printf (“ Adderss of a =%u “ &a ) ;
printf (“ Adderss of b =%u” &b ) ;
printf (“Size of a = %d ” , sizeof (a) ) ;
printf ( “ Size of b = %d ” . sizeof (b) ) ;
} a b
Output : 10 20.00

int a=10 float b=20.00 1234 5678

Adderss of a =1 2 3 4
Adderss of b = 5 6 7 8
Only for this example
Size of a = 2 bytes Size of b = 4 bytes

1.3.5 Introduction to Expressions

EXPRESSIONS
An expression is sequence of operands and operators that reduces to single value.
⚫ An operand is a data item on which an operation is performed.
⚫ An operator indicates an operation to be performed on data
Ex:10+5 ,this is an expression whose value is 15
1.3.5.1 Types of Expression
An expression can be a
• Simple Expression: Expression which contain single operator is called as simple expression Ex:
11+5; -a
• Complex Expression: Expression which contain more than one operator is called as complex
expression. Ex:2*3+5-1
Expression is of 6 catExories namely

1.3.5.2 Precedence And Associativity

Precedence:
The order in which the operators in a complex expression are evaluated is determined by a set of priorities
known as precedence.
 Programming for Problem Solving 49

Associativity :
Associativity is used to determine the order in which operators with same precedence are evaluated in
complex expression
Associativity can be i) Left to Right. ii) Right to left .
i) Left to Right associativity evaluates the expression by starting on left and moving to the
right side of expression.
ii) Right to Left associativity evaluates the expression by starting on right and moving to the
left side of expression.
Side effect:
A side effect is an action that results from the evaluation of a expression..
Ex: int x=3;
x = x+ 4;
here initial value of x is 3 and the value of the expression on right side of assignment is 7 (ie 3+4).so the final
value of x is 7 this is side effect.

1.3.5.3 Rules for Evaluation of Expression

✓ First, parenthesized sub-expression from left to right are evaluated
✓ If parentheses are nested, the evaluation bExins with the innermost sub-expression.
✓ The precedence rule is applied in find the order of operators in evaluating subexpression
✓ The associativity rule is applied when two or more operators have same precedence in sub
expression.
✓ Arithmetic expressions are evaluated from left to right using the rules of precedence
✓ When parenthesis are used, the expression with parenthesis assume highest priority.
Examples on Precedence and Associativity:

Ex 1: evaluate 2+3*4
Since * has high precedence than the + so multiplication is performed first than followed by addition
i.e. 2+ 12---- 14
Ex 2: evaluate –b++ where b=5;
In the above expression both – and ++ are having same precedence i.e 2 nd so we consider associativity for these
operators ,which is left to right…hence given expression is evaluated as –(b++) which yield to 5 and value of b
after completion of expression is 6( since b++ is post increment)
Ex 3: evaluate 3 * 8 / 4 % 4 * 5
 Programming for Problem Solving 50
In the given expression all three operators(* / %) are belonging to same precedence and their associativity is
from left to right. so given expression should be evaluated from left to right
i.e. ((((3*8)/4)%4)*5)
(((24/4)%4)*5)
((6%4)*5)
❖ 2*5
❖ 10
Ex 4: Evaluate a+=b*=c-=5 where a=2,b=3 and c=7
In the given expression all assignment operators i.e += ,*=,-= are with same precedence and have associativity
from right to left . So the rightmost expression is evaluated first and the value is assigned to operand on the left
of the assignment operator and next expression is evaluated.
Given expression is a+=b*=c -=5
❖ (a+=(b*=( c-=5)))
❖ (a+=(b*=( c=c-5)))
❖ (a+=(b*=( c=7-5)))
❖ (a+=(b*=2))
❖ (a+=(b=b*2))
❖ (a+=(b=3*2))
❖ (a+=6)
❖ a=a+6
❖ a= 2+6
❖ 8
After the side effect a=8,b=6 and c=2
Ex 5: Evaluate - -a * (3+b) / 2 - c++ * b, where a =3,b=4 and c=5
In the given expression () is having higher precedence so it is evaluated fist
--a*(3+4)/2-c++ *b
• -- a *7/2 -c ++ * b ( in this expression - - and ++ have higher precedence than * / - and
associativity is right to left.)
• --a*7/2 -5*b // post increment takes place after evaluating expression i.e after these ‘c’ value is 6
• 2*7/2 -5 *b // --a is pre decrement so a is decreased by 1
In the above expression operators * / are having same and higher precedence than’ –‘ and their associativity is
left to right so
❖ (2*7)/2 –5 *b
❖ 14/2 – 5*b
❖ 7- 5 *4 // in this expression * has high precedence than – so it is evaluate first
 Programming for Problem Solving 51
❖ 7-20
❖ 13
After the side effect a=2 ;b=4 and c=6
Ex6: evaluate x = a - b / 3 + c * 2 -1,where a=9,b=12,c=3
9 - 12 / 3 + 3* 2–1 since / and * have same and high precedence than + and – with
left to right assoiciativity .
❖ Step1: x=9 - 4 + 3* 2 -1
❖ Step2: x= 9 -4 + 6 -1 // - and + have same precedence and left to right Associativity
❖ Step3: x= 5+6-1
❖ Step4:x=11-1
❖ Stept5: x=10
 Programming for Problem Solving 50

1.3.6 Storage classes

There are 4 storage classes (or) storage class specifiers supported in ‘C’ they are:
❖ auto
❖ extern
❖ static
❖ rExister
1. Automatic variables / Local variables.
Automatic variables are declared inside a function in which they are to be utilized.
They are created when the function is called and destroyed automatically when the functio n is exited, hence the
name automatic.
Automatic variables are therefore private(or local) to the function in which they are declared. Because of this
property, automatic variables are also referred to as local or internal variables.
A variable declared inside a function without storage class specification is, by default, an automatic variable.
For instance, the storage class of the variable number in the example below is automatic.
main()
{
int number;
-----------
----------
}
We may also use the keyword auto to declare automatic variables explicitly.
main()
{
auto int nimber;
-------------
-------------
}
One important feature of automatic variables is that their value cannot be changed accidentally by what happens
in some other functions in the program. This assures that we may declare and use the same variable in different
functions in the same program.
1. External variables
They are also known as global variables. Unlike local variables, global variables can be accessed by any function
in the program. External variables are declared outside a function.
 Programming for Problem Solving 51

Note: External variables should not be initialized.

For example
main()
{
y = 5;
-------
-------
}
int y; //global declaration
fun1( )
{
y=y+1;
}
In the above example as far as main is concerned, y is not defined. So, the compiler will issue an error message.
Unlike local variables, global variables are initialized to zero by default. The statement
y = y + 1; in fun1 will therefore assign 1 to y.
External declaration
In the program sExment above, the main cannot access the variable y as it has been declared after the main
function. This problem can be solved by declaring the variable with the storage class extern.
main()
{
extern int y ;//external declaration
y = y + 5;
printf(“%d\n”, y);
func1( );
}
int y;
func1()
{
y = y + 1;
printf(“%d”, y );
}
 Programming for Problem Solving 52

Output:
5
6
Ex:2:
#include<stdio.h>
void display();
void main()
{
extern int i; i=10
printf(“i=%d”,i);
display();
getch();
return;
}
int i;
void display()
{
printf(“i=%d”,i);
return;
}
Static variables
The value of a static variable persists until the end of the program. A variable can be declared static using the
keyword static like static int x;
A static variable may be either an internal type or an external type depending on the place of declaration.
Internal static variables are those which are declared inside a function. The scope of internal static variables
extends up to the end of the function in which they are defined. Therefore, int ernal static variables are similar to
auto variables, except that they remain in existence (alive) throughout the remainder of the program. Therefore,
internal static variables can be used to retain values between function calls. For example it can be used to count
the number of calls made to a function.
Ex:
void func1 ( void ) ; //function prototpye
void main( )
 Programming for Problem Solving 53

{
int i;
for( i = 0; i < 3 ; i ++ )
func1( ); //function call
}
void func1 ( void )
{
static int x = 0;
x=x +1;
printf(“x = %d \n ”, x );
}
Output

x=1
x=2
x=3
A static variable is initialized only once, when the program is compiled. It is never initialized again. During the
first call to func1, x is incremented to 1. Because x is static, this value persists and therefore, the next call adds
another 1 to x giving it a value of 2. The values of x becomes 3 when the third call is made.
If we declared x as an auto variable, the output would have been:
x=1
x=1
x=1
This is because each time func1 is called, the auto variable x is initialized to zero. When the function terminates,
its value of 1 is lost.
An external static variable is declared outside of all functions and is available to all functions in that program.
The difference between a static external variable and a simple external variable is that the static external
variable is available only within the file where it is defined while the simple external variable can be accessed
by other files.
Rexister variables
Keyword : rExister
❖ RExister variables values are stored in CPU rExisters rather than in memory where normal variables are
stored.
❖ RExisters are temporary storage units in CPU .
 Programming for Problem Solving 54

❖ The time required to access rExister value is less than values stored in memory.
Restriction on RExister variables:
i) RExister variable address is not available to user.
ii) We can not use address operator(&) and indirect operator (*) on rExister variable.
iii) RExistered variables does not allow implicit conversions.
Ex:
main ( )
{
rExister int i;
for (i=1; i< =5; i++)
printf (”%d ”,i);
}
Output: 1 2 3 4 5
1.3.7 Type conversions
Converting one data type into another is the concept of type conversion

2 types
1. Implicit type conversion
2. Explicit type conversion
1) Implicit type conversion
❖ ‘C ‘ compiler converts one data type to another automatically so that expression can be evaluated
without losing any significance. This automatic conversion is known as “implicit type conversion”
❖ Implicit type conversion is automatically done by the compiler by convert ing smaller data type into a
larger data type.
❖ During the evaluation , ‘C’ uses a rule that in all expressions except in assignment, any implicit type
conversion are made from lower size type to higher size type as shown below
 Programming for Problem Solving 55

Figure 1.21: Implicit type conversion

Here, the above expression finally evaluates to a ’double’ value
The sequence of rules that are applied while implicit type conversion is as follows:
All short and char are automatically converted to int; then
1. 1 if one of the operands is long double, the other will be converted to long double and the result will be
long double
2. else, if one of the operands is double, the other will be converted to double and the result will be double.
3. else, if one of the operands is float, the other will be converted to float and the result will be float.
4. else, if one of the operands is unsigned long int, the other will be converted to unsigned long int and the
result will be unsigned long int .
5. else, if one of the operands is long int, the other will be converted to long int and the result will be long int .
6. else, if one of the operands is unsigned int, the other will be converted to unsigned int and the result will be
unsigned int.
The final result of an expression is converted to the type of the variable on the left of the assignment sign before
assigning the value to it. However the following changes are introduced during the final assignment.
Float to int causes truncation of the fractional part.
Double to float causes rounding of digits.
Long int to int causes dropping of the excess higher order bits.
Example for Implicit conversion :
int i,x;
float f;
double d;
long int l;
 Programming for Problem Solving 56

Here, the above expression finally evaluates to a ’double’ value

2)Explicit type conversion
It is done by the user by using (type) operator
Ex: int a,c;
float b;
c = (int) a + b

int float
float
int

Here, the resultant of ‘a+b’ is converted into ‘into’ explicitty and then assigned to ‘c’
Example for Explicit conversion :
main ( )
{
Output
printf (“%d”, 5/2); printf 2
(“%f”, 5.5/2); printf 2.75
(“%f”, (float) 5/2); 2.5

}
 Programming for Problem Solving 57

1.3.8 The main method and command line arguments

Command line arguments in C:

The most important function of C is main() function. It is mostly defined with a return type of int and without
parameters : int main() { /* ... */ }
We can also give command-line arguments in C Command-line arguments are given after the name of the
program in command-line shell of Operating Systems.
To pass command line arguments, we typically define main() with two arguments : first argument is the number
of command line arguments and second is list of command-line arguments.

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { /* ... */ }

or

int main(int argc, char **argv) { /* ... */ }

▪ argc (ARGument Count) is int and stores number of command-line arguments passed by the user
including the name of the program. So if we pass a value to a program, value of argc would be 2 (one for
argument and one for program name)
▪ The value of argc should be non nExative.
▪ argv(ARGument Vector) is array of character pointers listing all the arguments.
▪ If argc is greater than zero,the array elements from argv[0] to argv[argc-1] will contain pointers to strings.
▪ Argv[0] is the name of the program , After that till argv[argc-1] every element is command -line
arguments.
Example:

// Name of program mainreturn.c

#include <stdio.h>

int main(int argc, char* argv)

{
Printf (“no.of arguments passed through command prompt is %d”,argc);
Printf (“arguments are:\n”);
for (int i = 0; i < argc; ++i)
printf(“%s”, argv[i]);

return 0;

}
 Programming for Problem Solving 58

1.4 Bitwise operators:

This operators are used to manipulate the data at bit level.
Used to test the bits , shift the bits to right or left.
Note:
Bitwise operators may not be applied to float or double.
Unlike other operators, bitwise operators operate on bits (i.e. on binary values of on operand)
1.4.1 Bitwise AND, OR, XOR and NOT operators
Operator Description

& Bitwise AND

| Bitwise OR

^ Bitwise XOR

<< Left shift

>> Right shift

~ One’s complement

Table 1.27 :List of Bitwise operators

Bitwise AND

a b a &b

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Table 1.28: Bitwise AND operator

Bitwise OR

a b a|b

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1
 Programming for Problem Solving 59

1 1 1

Table 1.29: Bitwise OR operator

Bitwise XOR

a b a ^b

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

Table 1.30: Bitwise XOR operator

let let a= 12, b=10

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1
a =12 1 1 0 0 a =12 1 1 0 0
b =10 1 0 1 0 b =10 1 0 1 0
a &b 1 0 0 0 a|b 1 0 1 0

a&b = 8 a | b = 14

8 4 2 1 a^b
a =12
1 1 0 0

b =10 1 0 1 0

a ^b 0 1 1 0

a^b=6
Program
Output
main ( )
{ 8

int a= 12, b = 10; 14

printf (“ %d”, a&b);
6
printf (“ %d”, a| b);
printf (“ %d”, a ^ b);
 Programming for Problem Solving 60

Left Shift
❖ If the value of a variable is left shifted one time, then its value gets doubled
❖ eg: a = 10 then a<<1 = 20
32 16 8 4 2 1
a=10
1 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 0 a<<1 Fill it with zero

a<<1 = 20
Formula: n * 2s where n is the given number and s in the number of shifts.

Example: left shift 4 by 2 (i.e 4<<2),here n=4 and s=2 then result is 16 i.e(4* 2 2 )
Right shift :
If the value of a variable is right shifted one time, then its value becomes half the original value
❖ eg: a = 10 then a>>1 = 5
8 4 2 1
a=10
1 0 1 0

a>>1 0 Discard it
1 0 1

a>>1 = 5
formula: n / 2s where n is the given number and s in the number of shifts.

Example: Right shift 4 by 2 (i.e. 4>>2),here n=4 and s=2 then result is 1 i.e.(4 / 22 )
Ones complement
❖ If converts all ones to zeros and zeros to ones
❖ Ex: a = 5 then ~a=2 [only if 4 bits are considered]
8 4 2 1
a=5
1 0 1 ~a
0 1 0 ~a = 2
 Programming for Problem Solving 61

Program
main ( ) Output

{ 40
int a= 20, b = 10,c=10;
5
printf (“ %d”, a<<1);
printf (“ %d”, b>>1); 11
printf (“ %d”, ~c);

}
Signed
1’s complement = - [ give no +1]
Eg : ~10 = - [10+1] = -11
~-10 = - [-10+1] = 9
unsigned
1’s complement = [65535 – given no]