Self-Report Form Interpretive Report

by Peter K. Isquith, PhD, Gerard A. Gioia, PhD, Steven C. Guy, PhD, Lauren
Kenworthy, PhD, and PAR Staff

Client name : Sample Client

Client ID : 111
Gender : Male
Age : 16
Grade : 10th
Test date : 12/28/2015
This report is intended for use by qualified professionals only and is not to be shared
with the examinee or any other unqualified persons.

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BRIEF2: Interpretive Report Copyright © 1996, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2015 by PAR. All rights reserved. May not be
reproduced in whole or in part in any form or by any means without written permission of PAR.
Version: 2.4.0.0
 Validity
Before examining the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function®, Second Edition
(BRIEF®2) Self-Report profile, it is essential to carefully consider the validity of the data
provided. The inherent nature of rating scales carries potential biases to the ratings and
scores. The first step is to examine the protocol for missing data. With a valid number of
responses, the BRIEF2 Self-Report Inconsistency, Negativity, and Infrequency scales
provide additional information about the validity of the protocol.

Missing items Sample completed 55 of a possible 55 BRIEF2 Self-Report items.

For reference purposes, the summary table for each scale
indicates Sample’s actual rating for each item. There are no
missing responses in the protocol, providing a complete data set
for interpretation.

Inconsistency Scores on the Inconsistency scale indicate the extent to which

Sample answered similar BRIEF2 Self-Report items in an
inconsistent manner relative to the clinical samples. For example,
a high Inconsistency score might be associated with the
combination of marking Never in response to the item “I have
angry outbursts” and Often in response to the item “I have
outbursts for little reason.” Item pairs comprising the
Inconsistency scale are shown in the following summary table. T
scores are not generated for the Inconsistency scale. Instead, the
absolute value of the raw difference scores for the 8 paired items
are summed, and the total difference score (i.e., the Inconsistency
score) is compared with the cumulative percentile of similar
scores in the combined clinical sample and used to classify the
protocol as either Acceptable, Questionable, or Inconsistent. The
Inconsistency score of 1 is within the Acceptable range,
suggesting that Sample was reasonably consistent in his
responses.

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 Item # Inconsistency items Response
1 I have trouble sitting still Sometimes
0
12 I have a short attention span Sometimes

6 I have angry outbursts Never

0
14 I have outbursts for little reason Never

22 I get upset over small events Sometimes

0
27 I overreact Sometimes

I have good ideas but do not get the job done (I lack
23 Sometimes
follow-through)
I have trouble carrying out the things that are 0
52 needed to reach a goal (such as saving money for Sometimes
special items or studying to get good grades)

I have trouble remembering things, even for a few

28 Sometimes
minutes (such as directions or phone numbers) 1
41 I forget instructions easily Never

33 I am slower than others when completing my work Sometimes

0
42 It takes me longer to complete my work Sometimes

44 I have problems completing my work Sometimes

I have problems finishing long-term projects (such 0
55 Sometimes
as papers or book reports)

I have trouble thinking of a different way to solve a

45 Never
problem when I get stuck
0
I have difficulty coming up with different ways of
53 Never
solving a problem

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Negativity The Negativity scale measures the extent to which the
respondent answered selected BRIEF2 Self-Report items in an
unusually negative manner relative to the clinical sample. Items
comprising the Negativity scale are shown in the following
summary table. A higher raw score on this scale indicates a
greater degree of negativity, with less than 1% of respondents
scoring 5 or greater in the clinical sample. As with the
Inconsistency scale, T scores are not generated for this scale. The
Negativity score of 0 is within the acceptable range, suggesting
that Sample’s view of himself is not overly negative and that the
BRIEF2 Self-Report protocol is likely to be valid.

Item # Negativity items Response

16 I get out of control more than my friends Sometimes
19 I have trouble with jobs or tasks that have more than one step Sometimes
20 I don’t know when my actions bother others Sometimes
24 I talk at the wrong time Sometimes
30 I have problems waiting my turn Sometimes
43 My eyes fill with tears quickly over little things Sometimes
50 I am unaware of my behavior when I am in a group Sometimes
51 I have trouble changing from one activity to another Sometimes

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Infrequency The Infrequency scale measures the extent to which the
respondent endorsed items in an atypical fashion. The scale
includes three items that are likely to be endorsed in one
direction by most respondents. Marking Sometimes or Often to
any of the items is highly unusual, even for adolescents with
severe cognitive impairment.
Items comprising the Infrequency scale are shown in the
following summary table. A higher raw score on this scale
indicates a greater degree of infrequency, with less than 1% of
respondents scoring 1 or greater in the standardization sample.
As with the Inconsistency and Negativity scales, T scores are not
generated for this scale. The Infrequency score of 0 is within the
acceptable range, reducing the likelihood of an atypical response
pattern.

Item # Infrequency items Response

18 I forget my name Never
36 I have trouble counting to three Never
54 I cannot find the front door of my home Never

End of Validity Section

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 Introduction
The BRIEF®2 Self-Report Form is a 55-item standardized self-report measure developed
to capture older children’s and adolescents’ (aged 11 to 18 years with a fifth-grade or
better reading level) views of their own executive functions, or self-regulation, in their
everyday environment. The BRIEF2 Self-Report Form was intended to complement
parent and teacher ratings of the adolescent’s executive function on the BRIEF2 Parent
and Teacher forms to meet the need for capturing adolescent’s views of their
self-regulatory strengths and weaknesses. In addition to a more comprehensive
assessment, an understanding of the adolescent’s perspective with respect to difficulties
in self-control is critical when considering intervention strategies. Explicitly assessing,
valuing, and providing feedback about his viewpoint can facilitate rapport and a
collaborative working relationship, which in turn can serve as a starting point for
interventions. Indeed, the adolescent’s level of self-understanding and awareness
becomes an important factor in gauging the amount of support he will require. For
those who possess a high awareness of their executive and regulatory difficulties and
who are eager to ameliorate their struggles, the intervention process can be facilitated.
For those who lack awareness or acceptance, a much higher degree of external support
may be required. While response patterns on self-report behavior rating scales such as
the BRIEF2 Self-Report Form can range from strong agreement with other informants to
aggressive denial of any problems, rich clinical information can be gleaned from
directly assessing their opinions.
As is the case for all measures, the BRIEF2 Self-Report Form should not be used in
isolation as a diagnostic tool. Instead, it should be used in conjunction with other
sources of information, including detailed history, BRIEF2 parent and teacher ratings,
clinical interviews, performance test results, and, when possible, direct observation in
the natural setting. By examining converging evidence, the clinician can confidently
arrive at a valid diagnosis and, most importantly, an effective treatment plan. A
thorough understanding of the BRIEF2 Self-Report Form, including its development
and its psychometric properties, is a prerequisite to interpretation. As with any clinical
method or procedure, appropriate training and clinical supervision is necessary to
ensure competent use of the BRIEF2 Self-Report Form.
This report is confidential and is intended for use by qualified professionals only. This
report should not be released to the parents or teachers of the adolescent being
evaluated or directly to the adolescent. If a summary of the results specifically written
for the responding adolescent is desired and clinically appropriate, the BRIEF2
Self-Report Form Adolescent Feedback Report can be generated and given to the

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adolescent, preferably in the context of verbal feedback and a review of the Adolescent
Feedback Report with the clinician.
T scores are used to interpret the adolescent’s self-reported profile of executive
functioning on the BRIEF2 Self-Report Form. These scores are linear transformations of
the raw scale scores (M = 50, SD = 10). T scores provide information about an
individual’s scores relative to the scores of respondents in the standardization sample.
Percentiles, which are also presented in this report, represent the percentage of children
in the standardization sample with scores at or below the same value. For all BRIEF2
clinical scales and indexes, T scores from 60 to 64 are considered mildly elevated, and T
scores from 65 to 69 are considered potentially clinically elevated. T scores at or above
70 are considered clinically elevated.
In the process of interpreting the BRIEF2 Self-Report Form, review of individual items
within each scale can yield useful information for understanding the specific nature of
the adolescent’s elevated score on any given clinical scale. Placing too much interpretive
significance on individual items is not recommended, however, due to lower reliability
of individual items relative to the scales and indexes.

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Overview Sample completed the Self-Report Form of the Behavior Rating
Inventory of Executive Function, Second Edition (BRIEF2) on
12/28/2015. There are no missing item responses in the protocol.
Responses are reasonably consistent. The respondent’s ratings of
his own self-regulation do not appear overly negative. There
were no atypical responses to infrequently endorsed items. In the
context of these validity considerations, Sample’s ratings of his
everyday executive function suggest some areas of concern. The
overall index, the GEC, was mildly elevated (GEC T = 62, %ile =
84).
The CRI is potentially clinically elevated (T = 66, %ile = 93), but
the BRI (T = 54, %ile = 73) and ERI (T = 57, %ile = 78) are within
the average range.
Within these summary indicators, all of the individual scales are
valid. One or more of the individual BRIEF2 Self-Report scales
were at least mildly elevated, suggesting that Sample reports
difficulty with some aspects of executive function. Concerns are
noted on the following behaviors: get going on tasks, activities,
and problem-solving approaches, sustain working memory and
plan and organize his approach to problem solving
appropriately. Sample describes his abilities on the following
behaviors as not problematic: resist impulses, be aware of his
functioning in social settings, adjust well to changes in
environment, people, plans, or demands and react to events
appropriately.

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 BRIEF®2 Self-Report Score Summary Table

Index/Scale Raw score T score Percentile 90% C.I.

Inhibit 13 56 77 50-62
Self-Monitor 7 51 71 44-58
Behavior Regulation Index (BRI) 20 54 73 49-59
Shift 12 55 73 49-61
Emotional Control 10 59 85 52-66
Emotion Regulation Index (ERI) 22 57 78 52-62
Task-Completion 14 64 91 58-70
Working Memory 16 66 94 60-72
Plan/Organize 21 64 92 59-69
Cognitive Regulation Index (CRI) 51 66 93 63-69
Global Executive Composite (GEC) 93 62 84 59-65

Validity scale Raw score Percentile Protocol classification

Negativity 0  98 Acceptable
Inconsistency 1  98 Acceptable
Infrequency 0 99 Acceptable
Note: Male, age-specific norms have been used to generate this profile.
For additional normative information, refer to Appendix C in the BRIEF®2 Professional Manual.

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 Profile of BRIEF®2 Self-Report T Scores

Note: Male, age-specific norms have been used to generate this profile.
For additional normative information, refer to Appendix C in the BRIEF®2 Professional Manual.

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 Clinical Scales
The BRIEF2 Self-Report clinical scales measure the extent to which Sample reports
problems with different behaviors related to the seven domains of executive
functioning captured within the BRIEF2 Self-Report Form. The following sections
describe the scores obtained on the clinical scales and the suggested interpretation for
each individual clinical scale.

Inhibit The Inhibit scale assesses inhibitory control and impulsivity. This
can be described as the ability to resist impulses and the ability to
stop one’s behavior at the appropriate time. Sample’s T score of
56 (%ile = 77) on this scale is within the expected range compared
with his peers. This suggests that he views himself as typically
able to resist impulses, to consider consequences before acting,
and generally to be in control of himself.

Item # Inhibit items Response

1 I have trouble sitting still Sometimes
10 I am impulsive (I don't think before doing) Never
16 I get out of control more than my friends Sometimes
24 I talk at the wrong time Sometimes
30 I have problems waiting my turn Sometimes
39 I interrupt others Sometimes
48 I think or talk out loud when working Never
49 I don’t think of consequences before acting Never

Self-Monitor The Self-Monitor scale assesses awareness of the impact of one’s

behavior on other people and outcomes. It captures the degree to
which a child or adolescent perceives himself as aware of the
effect that his behavior has on others and how his behavior
compares with standards or expectations for behavior. Sample’s
score on the Self-Monitor scale is within normal limits,
suggesting that he perceives himself as appropriately aware of
his functioning in social settings (T = 51, %ile = 71).

Item # Self-Monitor items Response

4 I am not aware of how my behavior affects or bothers others Never
I have a poor understanding of my own strengths and
13 Never
weaknesses (I try things that are too difficult or too easy for me)

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 Item # Self-Monitor items Response
20 I don’t know when my actions bother others Sometimes
I don’t notice when my behavior causes negative reactions until it
26 Never
is too late
50 I am unaware of my behavior when I am in a group Sometimes

Shift The Shift scale assesses the ability to move freely from one
situation, activity, or aspect of a problem to another as the
circumstances demand. Key aspects of shifting include the ability
to make transitions, tolerate change, problem solve flexibly,
switch or alternate attention between tasks, and change focus
from one mindset or topic to another. Mild deficits may
compromise efficiency of problem solving and result in a
tendency to get stuck or focused on a topic or problem, whereas
more severe difficulties can be reflected in perseverative
behaviors and marked resistance to change. Sample’s score on
the Shift scale is within the average range as compared with
peers (T = 55, %ile = 73). This suggests that he views himself as
able to adjust to changes in environment, people, plans, or
demands well.

Item # Shift items Response

I have trouble accepting a different way to solve a problem with
2 Sometimes
things such as schoolwork, friends, or tasks
I have trouble getting used to new situations (such as classes,
11 Sometimes
groups, or friends)
17 I get stuck on one topic or activity Never
It bothers me when I have to deal with changes (such as routines,
31 Sometimes
foods, or places)
I try the same approach to a problem over and over even when it
40 Never
does not work (I get stuck)
I have trouble thinking of a different way to solve a problem
45 Never
when I get stuck
51 I have trouble changing from one activity to another Sometimes
I have difficulty coming up with different ways of solving a
53 Never
problem

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Emotional Control The Emotional Control scale measures the impact of executive
function problems on emotional expression and assesses an
individual’s ability to modulate or control his or her emotional
responses. Sample’s score on the Emotional Control scale falls
within the average range compared with peers (T = 59, %ile = 85).
This suggests that Sample experiences himself as having
appropriate ability to modulate or regulate emotions overall.
Sample generally described himself as reacting to events
appropriately: without outbursts, sudden or frequent mood
changes, or excessive periods of emotional upset.

Item # Emotional Control items Response

6 I have angry outbursts Never
14 I have outbursts for little reason Never
22 I get upset over small events Sometimes
27 I overreact Sometimes
34 I am easily overwhelmed Sometimes
43 My eyes fill with tears quickly over little things Sometimes

Task Completion The Task Completion scale reflects the ability to finish or
complete tasks appropriately and/or in a timely manner,
emphasizing difficulties with the production of work or
performance output. Although “task completion” is not
commonly considered an executive function, it represents the
outcome of other executive difficulties including working
memory, planning, organization, and inhibitory control. Sample’s
score on the Task Completion scale is mildly elevated compared
with peers (T = 64, %ile = 91). This suggests that Sample may
have difficulties finishing homework or other projects in a timely
fashion. Examination of other scales may reveal potential sources
of difficulty completing tasks, including struggles with working
memory, planning, and organization or with the ability to inhibit
task-irrelevant actions.

Item # Task Completion items Response

23 I have good ideas but do not get the job done (I lack Sometimes

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 Item # Task Completion items Response
follow-through)
25 I have trouble finishing tasks (such as chores or homework) Sometimes
33 I am slower than others when completing my work Sometimes
38 I have difficulty finishing a task on my own Sometimes
42 It takes me longer to complete my work Sometimes
44 I have problems completing my work Sometimes
I have problems finishing long-term projects (such as papers or
55 Sometimes
book reports)

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Working Memory The Working Memory scale measures the capacity to hold
information in mind for the purpose of completing a task,
encoding information, or generating goals, plans, and sequential
steps to achieving goals. Working memory is essential to carrying
out multistep activities, completing mental manipulations such
as mental arithmetic, and following complex instructions.
Sample’s score on the Working Memory scale is potentially
clinically elevated compared with peers (T = 66, %ile = 94). This
suggests that Sample experiences substantial difficulty holding
an appropriate amount of information in mind or in active
memory for further processing, encoding, and/or mental
manipulation. Further, Sample’s score suggests difficulties
sustaining working memory, which has a negative impact on his
ability to remain attentive and focused for appropriate lengths of
time. Caregivers or teachers often describe children or
adolescents with fragile or limited working memory as having
trouble remembering things (e.g., phone numbers or instructions)
even for a few seconds, losing track of what they are doing as
they work, or forgetting what they are supposed to retrieve when
sent on an errand. Such individuals may miss information that
exceeds their working memory capacity such as instructions for
an assignment. Clinical evaluators may observe that Sample
cannot remember the rules governing a specific task (even as
they work on that task), rehearses information repeatedly, loses
track of what responses he has already given on a task that
requires multiple answers, and struggles with mental
manipulation tasks (e.g., repeating digits in reverse order) or
solving arithmetic problems that are orally presented without
writing down figures.
Appropriate working memory is necessary to sustaining
performance and attention. Parents of children and adolescents
with difficulties in this domain often report that they cannot stick
to an activity for an age-appropriate amount of time and
frequently switch or fail to complete tasks. Although working
memory and the ability to sustain it have been conceptualized as
distinct entities, behavioral outcomes of these two domains are
often difficult to distinguish.

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 Item # Working Memory items Response
When I am given three things to do, I remember only the first or
3 Often
last
12 I have a short attention span Sometimes
19 I have trouble with jobs or tasks that have more than one step Sometimes
I have trouble remembering things, even for a few minutes (such
28 Sometimes
as directions or phone numbers)
29 I make careless errors Often
32 I forget to hand in my homework, even when it’s completed Sometimes
41 I forget instructions easily Never
46 I am absentminded (forgetful) Never

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Plan/Organize The Plan/Organize scale measures perceived ability to manage
current and future-oriented task demands. The scale has two
components: Plan and Organize. The Plan component captures
the ability to anticipate future events, to set goals, and to develop
appropriate sequential steps ahead of time to carry out a task or
activity. The Organize component refers to the ability to bring
order to information and to appreciate main ideas or key
concepts when learning or communicating information. Sample’s
score on the Plan/Organize scale is mildly elevated as compared
with peers (T = 64, %ile = 92). This suggests that Sample may
have some difficulty with planning and organizing information,
which has a negative impact on his approach to problem solving.
Planning involves developing a goal or end state and then
strategically determining the most effective method or steps to
attain that goal. Evaluators can observe planning when a student
is given a problem requiring multiple steps (e.g., assembling a
puzzle or completing a maze). Sample may underestimate the
time required to complete tasks or the level of difficulty inherent
in a task. He may often wait until the last minute to begin a
long-term project or assignment for school, and he may have
trouble carrying out the actions needed to reach his goals.
Organization involves the ability to bring order to oral and
written expression and to understand the main points expressed
in presentations or written material. Organization also has a
clerical component that is demonstrated, for example, in the
ability to efficiently scan a visual array or to keep track of a
homework assignment. Sample may approach tasks in a
haphazard fashion, getting caught up in the details and missing
the big picture. He may have good ideas that he fails to express
on tests and written assignments. He may often feel
overwhelmed by large amounts of information and may have
difficulty retrieving material spontaneously or in response to
open-ended questions. He may, however, exhibit better
performance with recognition (multiple-choice) questions.

Item # Plan/Organize items Response

5 My work is sloppy Sometimes

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 Item # Plan/Organize items Response
7 I don’t plan ahead for school assignments Sometimes
I have difficulty finding my things (such as clothes, glasses,
8 Often
shoes, books, or pencils)
9 I have problems getting started on my own Often
15 I get caught up in details and miss the main idea Sometimes
21 I have problems organizing my written work Sometimes
35 I don’t plan ahead for future activities Sometimes
37 I don’t think ahead about possible problems Never
47 I have trouble prioritizing (ordering) my activities Sometimes
I have trouble carrying out the things that are needed to reach a
52 goal (such as saving money for special items or studying to get Sometimes
good grades)

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 Summary Indexes and Global Executive Composite

Behavior Regulation, The Behavior Regulation Index (BRI) captures the adolescent’s
Emotion Regulation, ability to regulate and monitor behavior effectively. It is
and Cognitive composed of the Inhibit and Self-Monitor scales. Appropriate
Regulation Indexes behavior regulation is likely to be a precursor to appropriate
cognitive regulation. It enables the cognitive regulatory processes
to successfully guide active, systematic problem solving and
more generally supports appropriate self-regulation.
The Emotion Regulation Index (ERI) represents an adolescent’s
ability to regulate emotional responses and to shift set or adjust
to changes in environment, people, plans, or demands. It is
composed of the Shift and Emotional Control scales. Appropriate
emotion regulation and flexibility are precursors to effective
cognitive regulation.
The Cognitive Regulation Index (CRI) reflects an adolescent’s
ability to control and manage cognitive processes and to problem
solve effectively. It is composed of the Task Completion,
Working Memory, and Plan/Organize scales and relates directly
to the ability to actively problem solve in a variety of contexts
and to complete tasks such as schoolwork.
Examination of the indexes reveals that the CRI is potentially
clinically elevated (T = 66, %ile = 93), but the BRI (T = 54, %ile =
73) and ERI (T = 57, %ile = 78) are within the average range. This
suggests broadly intact inhibitory control, emotional modulation,
ability to shift set, and ability to self-monitor behavior but also
indicates difficulties with one or more aspects of working
memory, planning, organizing, or completing work.

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Global Executive The Global Executive Composite (GEC) is an overarching
Composite summary score that incorporates all of the BRIEF2 Self-Report
clinical scales. Although review of the BRI, ERI, CRI, and
individual scale scores is strongly recommended for all BRIEF2
Self-Report Form profiles, the GEC can sometimes be useful as a
summary measure. In this case, at least two summary indexes are
substantially different, with T scores separated by 12 points or
greater. Differences of this magnitude occurred less than 10% of
the time in the normative sample. Thus, the GEC may not
adequately reflect the overall profile. With this in mind, Sample’s
T score of 62 (%ile = 84) on the GEC is mildly elevated compared
with the scores of his peers, suggesting some difficulty in one or
more areas of executive function.

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 Executive Function Interventions
Ratings of Sample’s everyday functioning revealed some areas of concern.
Recommendations for interventions and accommodations are offered according to the
identified concerns. While the efficacy of each intervention has not been empirically
demonstrated, the majority are common interventions that are likely familiar to the
intervention team. These recommendations are general and are intended here as
suggestions or ideas that may be tailored to suit Sample’s needs. As with any
intervention, clinical judgment is paramount.

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Task Completion While the ability to complete tasks is not an executive function
per se, it is one of the most common complaints among
adolescents with executive function difficulties. Problems with
planning, organizing, initiating, or sustaining working memory
often interfere with getting schoolwork done, and task
completion can be seen as an outcome of executive function
difficulties.
External Structuring, Accommodations, and Modifications
Rule in or out basic skills deficits as cause for poor task
completion: If a student is unable to complete tasks in school or
to complete school-related tasks at home, it is important to
ensure that the necessary cognitive and learning processes are
intact. If the adolescent presents with difficulty completing tasks
in the context of aversion to or difficulty with basic academic
skills such as reading, writing, or calculating, it may be important
to ensure that these basic skills are intact and that no learning or
cognitive difficulties are present. Otherwise, these issues likely
need to be addressed first or at least alongside the executive
processes.
For many students who routinely do not complete tasks, the
underlying self-regulatory functions may be responsible for, or at
least contribute to, the difficulty. Problems with planning their
assignments in general or specific tasks can make the tasks seem
overwhelming. Organizational difficulties can interfere with
efficient use of time and effective approaches to assignments. It is
important to examine other areas of executive difficulty and to
provide supports and accommodations if problems with
organization or planning interfere with Sample’s ability to keep
pace with task demands.
Assess executive function strengths and weaknesses that could
contribute to poor task completion: Students with intact cognitive
and learning abilities who have difficulty completing tasks such
as schoolwork may be experiencing problems in one or more of
the underlying executive functions necessary to plan, organize,
and sustain output. It is important to identify the relative
weaknesses in executive functions for Sample and to implement
supports, interventions, or accommodations to address these
weaknesses.

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 Provide supervised, structured study period: A study period that
is supervised by a designated teacher, special education teacher,
or academic coach can provide a structured setting in which clear
goals are set. Many adolescents who struggle to complete their
schoolwork at home can benefit from such a supervised study
period. The level of supervision and support required varies with
each student, from assistance in defining and prioritizing
assignments to cues to initiate or begin work to assistance
remaining focused, organizing an approach to a task, or
organizing thoughts for writing.
Student-Focused Interventions
Establish consistent daily study routine with executive function
supports: Some adolescents can benefit from a set study or
homework period at home. This can be established as a daily
routine within the home for the student. Keeping the
environment consistent, reasonably quiet, and free of distractions
is important. Parental supervision can also be helpful to review
tasks, help prioritize, set goals, and monitor completion of each
task.
Apply success-oriented approach to task completion: Returning
to success levels for each task can be a helpful starting point for
students with difficulties completing work. This often means
simplifying or shortening the task such that the student does not
feel overwhelmed and can experience success. Once a starting
level is determined, the length and complexity of tasks can be
increased in stepwise fashion, with external supports provided as
needed until the student feels competent and demonstrates
success at each level of difficulty.
Establish supportive home–school communication: Home–school
communication is often an important aide to help students stay
on track with assignments. Some students fall behind in their
work and then feel overwhelmed with what is required of them
to catch up with expectations. Establishing regular
communication about the nature of assignments and their due
dates between the home and school environments can help avoid
this situation and keep the student on track.
Provide explicit rewards for task completion: Some adolescents

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 benefit from clear rewards associated with completing tasks such
as homework or other household activities. Particularly for
students who do not find schoolwork or chores inherently
rewarding, implementing a simple behavior plan can help
develop better work habits, which leads to completed
assignments. Rewards are best when they occur naturally, such
as providing time for the adolescent to engage in a favorite
activity. Consultation with a behavioral specialist can be helpful
in designing such a plan.
Provide extra time for task completion: Some students need extra
time to complete their work, including in-class assignments, tests,
and homework. Some students perform best when they can work
on tests or independent projects in a supervised but more
isolated setting, such as a resource room.

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Working Memory Working memory is the capacity to hold information in mind,
typically enabling one to think about problems, to focus on a
goal, to carry out multistep activities, to complete multistep
problems, or to follow complex instructions. Students with
working memory difficulties may have problems remembering
things even for a few seconds. They may lose track of what they
are doing, forget what they went to get, or struggle with mental
problem solving. Many students with problems sustaining
working memory are viewed as inattentive and as having poor
concentration.
External Structuring, Accommodations, and Modifications
Preteach the big picture to provide meaningful context:
Preteaching the general framework of new information and
guiding attention to listen for important points can be an
essential tool for circumventing working memory difficulties
when they interfere with the ability to capture new material.
Sample might meet with a resource teacher or aide at the outset
of each day and preview the gist of what will be learned that day.
Information may need to be preorganized for Sample to reduce
demands for working memory and to make encoding more
efficient at the outset.
Establish direct eye contact with student: Establishing eye contact
with Sample prior to giving essential instructions or new material
will help ensure that he is ready to listen carefully. Adolescents
with working memory difficulties often need to be alerted when
essential material or instructions are being presented.
Manage rate of information flow: The rate of presentation for
new material may need to be altered for Sample. He may need
additional processing time or time to rehearse the information.
Manage quantity of information flow: An adolescent with
working memory difficulties often needs tasks or information
broken down into smaller steps or chunks. New information or
instructions may need to be kept brief and to the point or
repeated in concise fashion for Sample. Lengthy tasks,
particularly those that Sample experiences as tedious or
monotonous, should be avoided or interspersed with more
frequent breaks or other, more engaging tasks. Sample might be

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 rewarded with a more stimulating activity such as computer
instruction time for completing the more tedious task.
Write it Down: One way to reduce the burden on working
memory is to provide the student with a hard copy of essential
information such as facts, main ideas, or a list of steps for
problem solving or an assignment. Providing an outline or set of
notes at the start of class can alleviate working memory demands
and allow the student to listen actively rather than trying to
listen, hold information, and write it down in real time.
Reduce Distractions: Given the negative impact of competing
information on working memory, it is important to reduce
distractions in the environment that can tax or disrupt sustained
working memory.
Provide refresh period: Changing tasks more frequently can
alleviate some of the drain on sustained working memory for an
adolescent such as Sample, whose focus is likely to fade more
quickly than his peers. Changing from one task to the next sooner
can help restore his focus for a brief period of time. Tasks can be
rotated, such that he might work for 10 minutes on math
problems and 10 minutes on reading and then return to another
10 minutes of math.
Provide attention breaks: An adolescent with difficulties
sustaining working memory often needs frequent short breaks.
Breaks typically need only be 1 or 2 minutes in duration.
Observing when Sample’s ability to focus begins to wane will
help determine the optimal time for a break. Attentional breaks
are best taken with a motor activity or a relaxing activity. Sample
might walk to the pencil sharpener, run a short errand, get a
drink, or simply bring his work to show his teacher or his parent.
Teacher check-ins can be an efficacious method of providing a
break with motor activity and can also serve as an opportunity
for reinforcement. Sample might be asked to complete only a few
problems of a set or a few lines of a paragraph before bringing
his work to his teacher or his parent for review. This provides a
built-in break that Sample can anticipate, forces a stepwise
approach to the task, includes motor activity, and provides an
opportunity for reinforcement for work completed.
Provide preferential seating: Sample may need increased

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 supervision. Preferential seating can be an important
accommodation for adolescents with limited ability to sustain
working memory. Placing his seat near the teacher provides
greater opportunity to observe when he is adequately focused
and when he is fatiguing, and redirection or breaks can be more
easily implemented.
Use cueing strategies for retrieval: Often adolescents with
working memory deficits also exhibit word and information
retrieval difficulties. They frequently experience the
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, or may produce the wrong
details within the correct concept. Sample may need additional
time to retrieve details when answering a question. Cues may be
necessary to help him focus on the correct bit of information or
word. It is often helpful to avoid open-ended questions and to
rely more on recognition testing which does not require retrieval.
If Sample answers an open-ended question such as a
fill-in-the-blank or short-answer question incorrectly, it will be
important to follow-up with increasing levels of questions to
determine whether he knows the information. Offering cues for
the missed response and then following up with recognition
format questions will clarify if Sample missed the answer due to
retrieval difficulty or whether he needs to relearn the material.
Optimize daytime schedule: It may be important to observe
Sample to determine whether he has greater difficulty at certain
times of the day. Some adolescents with difficulties sustaining
working memory do better in the morning than in the afternoon
as they begin to fatigue. It may be helpful to schedule more
demanding tasks in the morning.
Present information in multiple modalities: Adolescents with
working memory difficulties often benefit from multimodal
presentation of information. Verbal instruction can be
accompanied by visual cues, demonstration, and guidance to
increase the likelihood that new material will be learned.
Hands-on instruction also can be a helpful learning method for
adolescents with difficulties sustaining working memory as it
places less demand on working memory.
Student-Focused Interventions

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 Use verbal mediation: Adolescents with difficulties sustaining
working memory often show problems remaining focused on a
task or activity, particularly for schoolwork or homework
assignments. Many demonstrate a natural tendency to use
self-talk or verbal mediation to guide their own problem solving
and to direct their attention. Such verbal mediation strategies
might be encouraged or taught directly. Initially, Sample might
verbalize aloud with supervision as he works through a task.
Eventually, talking aloud can be minimized such that Sample
relies on subvocalization or only a whisper to direct his focus.
Provide external memory supports: Adolescents with working
memory deficits often demonstrate difficulties keeping track of
more than one or two steps at a time. Providing a written
checklist of steps required to complete a task can serve as an
external memory support and can alleviate some of the burden
on working memory.
Repeat new information: It is often necessary to repeat
instructions or new information for adolescents with working
memory deficits so that they may increase the amount of
information captured.
Teach strategies for new learning and memory processing:
Sample can learn how to actively listen, such as stopping what he
is doing at the time, focus his attention, ask questions, restate the
information or question, or take notes.
Mnemonic devices (i.e., memory strategies) are important tools to
help adolescents such as this learn, and later recall, basic skills
and facts. Teaching Sample to chunk information may be useful
in helping him increase the amount that he can learn or capture
at one time. It may be necessary for Sample’s teachers or his
parents to help him learn how to approach new information as
sets or groups of details rather than as a single series to facilitate
chunking.
Rehearsal is often a helpful method of increasing the amount of
information encoded into memory. Sample might need to
practice a series of steps for solving a problem, memorizing a list
of key facts, or completing an everyday activity to accommodate
his more limited working memory at the outset. Spaced practice

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 is more effective than massed practice. That is, Sample would
benefit more from practicing new skills or information in short
sessions over the course of the day rather than in one long
session. He might rehearse, for example, a set of key facts for a
few minutes two or three times during the school day and then
again at home both at night and in the morning.
Have Sample repeat or paraphrase what he has heard or
understood to check for accuracy and to provide an opportunity
for rehearsal. Ultimately, teaching self-initiated
comprehension-checking strategies (e.g., the adolescent asking
for repetition of instructions) helps to promote independent
management of working memory weaknesses.

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Planning Planning encompasses the ability to anticipate future events, set
goals, and develop appropriate steps ahead of time to carry out a
task or activity. It requires imagining a goal or end state,
strategically determining the most effective approach, and
sequencing a series of steps to attain the goal. Students with
planning difficulties may not start assignments in a timely
fashion or may start projects without thinking through the
materials or steps needed.
External Structuring, Accommodations, and Modifications
Provide examples of planning: It is often helpful to provide
examples of how students might plan differently to complete the
same task. In this way, Sample can see options for alternative
methods. Adolescents with difficulties planning may benefit
from having a binder or cookbook of steps for common routines
or assignments. They might have a section for approaches to
specific types of math problems, writing assignments, or reading
materials and can reference the plans as needed.
Model planning: Parent modeling is an important means of
teaching good planning skills. Sample’s parents can discuss plans
for the day at the breakfast table or verbalize their thinking about
how to approach a series of errands. The use of the adolescent’s
planning guide for the parent’s multistep activities may serve as
a good model. Developing an overall plan for the day, week,
month, and year with a calendar can also serve as a useful
exercise.
Student-Focused Interventions
Practice goal setting: Involve Sample maximally in setting a goal
for the activity or task. Encourage him to generate a prediction
regarding how well he expects to do in completing the task or
activity. Structure planning and organization efforts around the
stated goal.
Involve student actively in development of plans: Active,
maximal involvement of the adolescent in the development of
plans is important. The use of a planning guide may be necessary
to reduce the organizational and working memory demands of
this multistep process.
Verbalize planning strategies: Have Sample verbalize a plan of

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 approach at the outset for any given task, whether it is an
everyday chore or routine or an academic activity. The plan can
be broken down into a series of steps, arranged in sequential
order, and written down as a bullet list. The plan can be guided
interactively with his parent or his teacher to achieve sufficient
detail and to increase the likelihood of success. Sample might be
asked to develop more than one plan for a task or activity to
increase his awareness of alternative approaches. For example, he
might plan to approach a writing assignment by starting with the
introductory paragraph, but might also plan to start with a
detailed outline and to write paragraphs for the body of the text
first and then write an introduction. It may be helpful to begin
learning strategic planning by practicing with only a few steps at
the outset and then gradually increasing the number of steps and
the amount of detail.
Practice planning with familiar, everyday tasks: Strategic
planning can be practiced with familiar, everyday tasks. Sample
might develop a plan for completing familiar routines such as
getting ready for school in a more efficient manner. Developing
plans for meaningful, complex activities (e.g., his own birthday
party, baking his favorite treat) provides inherent motivation for
the adolescent.
Teach use of timelines: Teach Sample to develop timelines for
completing assignments, particularly for long-term projects or
term papers. Sample may need assistance in budgeting his time
to complete each step or phase in larger projects or tasks. Break
long-term assignments into sequential steps, with timelines for
completion of each step and check-ins with the teacher to ensure
that he is keeping pace with expectations.

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Organization Students who have difficulty organizing their thinking, behavior,
or work may have difficulty grasping key points or the main idea
of new information. They may show problems forming written or
spoken communication and may struggle to keep their tasks and
schoolwork in order. They may have good ideas but be
unsuccessful in expressing them and may feel overwhelmed by
large tasks or amounts of information.
External Structuring, Accommodations, and Modifications
Preorganize new information: Present information in a
well-organized manner at the outset. Students with difficulties
grasping new concepts or the gist or framework of new material
often do best when material is given in a structured fashion.
Teachers that offer a higher degree of structure in their courses
may be a better fit for Sample.
Provide school-to-home communication: A resource or special
education teacher may need to serve as the communication
facilitator between home and school to help Sample stay on track
with his assignments. Often communication can be accomplished
via an assignment or planning notebook, but more direct
communication via e-mail or phone can be helpful on a regular
basis.
Provide extra books at home: Keeping an extra set of books at
home can be a powerful tool for helping an adolescent with
organizational difficulties, as it alleviates a need to remember
what books to bring back and forth and provides ready access to
materials both at school and at home. Rather than relying entirely
on having books at home, however, coaching the student in
remembering materials, including books, to bring home can help
develop better organizational habits.
Breakdown complex tasks into smaller steps: Worksheets or
deskwork may seem overwhelming for Sample and he may need
additional structure to get started. Worksheets can be separated
into smaller problem sets, or divided on the page with a marker
and prioritized for approach.
Work on complex tasks one step at a time: Given the particular
difficulty managing complex, long-term assignments, students
with organizational difficulties often benefit from working on

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 only one task, or one step of a larger task, at a time. Tasks may
need to be broken down into smaller steps to facilitate
organization and planning. Long-term assignments, such as term
papers or projects, are often insurmountable for adolescents with
organization and planning difficulties. Because such tasks can
feel overwhelming, Sample may not begin work until the night
before the assignment is due. It may be necessary to break down
longer assignments into smaller, sequential steps, and to develop
a timeline for completion of each step. At each step, it is
important to review what has been accomplished and to plan for
the next step.
Provide individualized strategy instruction with study skills
classes: Study skills classes are often available in middle and high
schools. Adolescents with organizational difficulties should avail
themselves of the opportunity to approach planning and
organization as an academic subject. It is important that key
concepts and methods be communicated with parents and
teachers, so that they can be practiced across all environments for
consistency. Although study skills classes can provide important
information to students about academically relevant
organizational strategies, the student may need ongoing
assistance with the executive application of these strategies. Thus,
individual application of strategies with review, cuing, and
generalization should be strongly considered.
Provide organization time at beginning and end of day: Sample
may need extra organization time at the outset or the end of the
day. He might review his assignment notebook or planner with
his parents each morning and perhaps with a designated teacher
at the end of the school day.
Provide supervision study supports: A supervised study hall can
be an important tool for helping Sample keep pace with his work,
particularly as he enters the middle and high school years.
Organizational difficulties often do not become apparent or
problematic until middle school, when the organizational
demands increase and supports decrease. Many schools offer
study halls with direct supervision for organization and content.
Alternatively, having a study period at the end of the day in a
resource room where access to a special education teacher is

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 readily available can help Sample stay on track more
successfully.
Work in small groups with peer models: Adolescents with
organizational difficulties can benefit from working in small
groups with more organized peers who serve as models.
Provide cross-age tutoring of organizational skills: Cross-age
tutoring can be helpful as a means of modeling better
organizational strategies for Sample. It is important to choose an
older peer tutor carefully, considering the tutor’s own
organizational skills and the likelihood of he or she being a good
fit with Sample.
Student-Focused Interventions
Teach pretask organizational strategies: Call to Sample’s
attention the structure of new information at the outset of a
lesson or lecture. It may be helpful to provide an outline or list of
major points prior to the lesson. Preview the organizational
framework of new material to be learned in a bulleted or outline
format to increase appreciation of the structure and enhance
Sample’s ability to learn associated details.
Teach posttask summarizing organizational strategies: Have
Sample restate the overall concept and structure of the
information or task following a lecture. This will provide an
opportunity to ensure accurate understanding and to correct any
misunderstanding.
Teach strategies for detecting organizational structure: As Sample
becomes more aware of his difficulties grasping organization of
new information, he may be able to learn to search for the
organizational frameworks inherent in novel material. He might
be taught to listen or look for the structure in a strategic manner.
Teach one generalizable organizational system to start: Many
teachers prefer different organizational and planning systems.
This can be confusing for adolescents with organizational
difficulties. It is best for Sample to learn one system that is
sufficiently flexible to be used for all or most subjects and can be
maintained or expanded as needed over the years. It is essential
that the system or the book fit well with the student’s style and
needs. Sample might enjoy choosing a planner book with which

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 he feels comfortable. Size and appearance are important first
considerations. Layout of the daily pages (e.g., columns, one page
per day, one week at a time) also needs to fit with Sample’s
preferences and organizational needs.
Teach the use of organizational systems and materials: Students
with difficulties keeping track of their assignments may benefit
from learning to use an organizational system, schedule book, or
daily planner. Use of such a system can help facilitate many
aspects of organization and planning, but requires effort on the
part of the student, parents, and teachers.
Teach flexible use of organizational strategies: Flexibility is the
key to a successful organizational notebook or planner.
Ring-bound books that allow addition of pages or features (e.g.,
sticky note pads) and removal of unnecessary pages are often
best. Essential information can be written or typed and placed in
a plastic sheet protector at the front of the book for quick access.
This might include important phone numbers, locker
combination, and overall schedule. There are many options for
ways to organize material including by date, by subject, or by
priority. Deciding on one method and devising a system, such as
separate color-coded tabs for each subject, is important.
Access peers for assistance: Often students with organizational
difficulties are inconsistent in completing homework and/or
turning in completed work. This may be a problem of
remembering assignments or writing them down accurately. It
may be helpful to maintain a list of students in each subject with
phone numbers that Sample can call if he forgets an assignment.
Tracking work with organizational notebook: An assignment
sheet or organizational notebook can serve as an essential tool in
helping Sample keep on track with his work. Before leaving each
class, Sample might show his teacher what he has written down
as an assignment. The teacher can initial the assignment to
indicate that it is correct and complete. Sample’s parents can then
review the assignment with Sample, help him plan an approach,
and initial that each assignment has been completed. Should
Sample not turn in his work, this communication device can
uncover the problem more quickly.
Teach organizational strategies for reading: Specific strategic

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 approaches for reading can be taught to facilitate Sample’s
efficiency in learning new material. For example, Sample might
learn to first examine the chapter outline or list of headings and
then read the chapter summary and focus questions before
approaching the body of the text.
Teach organizational strategies for writing: Strategic approaches
to structured writing can be helpful for students like Sample who
have difficulties organizing their written output. A cookbook of
methods for responding to basic types of writing tasks (e.g., short
answer, short essay, expository paper) can be developed with
Sample. He might need to learn what goes in the first sentence or
paragraph, what goes in the second, and so on.
Teach Organizational Strategies for Note Taking: Outlining and
note-taking skills can be taught directly in a study skills course or
in a resource room. These are essential skills that Sample will
need to practice for future academic success.

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 General Intervention Framework
Introduction
Given the unique nature of the executive functions in playing a supervisory or
conductor role in terms of guiding and regulating behavior, emotion, and thought, an
approach to intervention can be considered globally. The general principles of many
intervention models for enhancing executive functions are based largely on the
pioneering work of Mark Ylvisaker and colleagues (Ylvisaker, 1998; Ylvisaker & Feeney,
1998; Ylvisaker, Szekeres, & Feeney, 1998), who advocate for positive everyday routines
(i.e., make behaviors routines so that they are less demanding of executive functions) in
a contextualized (i.e., in the adolescent’s real world so that it is meaningful),
collaborative (i.e., together with, not for, the student), assessment and treatment
approach. These authors relied on a coaching model of intervention now widely
regarded as an effective approach.
Goal of Intervention
The ultimate goal of executive function intervention is to establish regular behavioral
and cognitive routines to maximize independent, goal-oriented problem solving. Good
outcomes might include demonstrating behavioral or emotional control, initiating
activity, engaging in planful and well-organized problem solving, or monitoring one’s
own social success or problem-solving outcomes.
In structuring an executive function intervention, we advocate the use of everyday
executive routines in a meaningful, real-world everyday context as opposed to teaching
specific skills out of context. Given the difficulties with working memory seen in many
individuals with executive dysfunction, using a written copy of the multistep executive
routine is often helpful. The student should become increasingly more active in
formulating and carrying out the plans and reviewing his performance, thus promoting
internal executive control. The goal of executive function intervention is maximal
independence, which necessitates the active involvement of the student in each phase
via a coaching model.
Develop Problem-Solving Routines
A critical feature of any intervention is to establish external environmental conditions
that will enable the student to develop and make automatic or habitual, behavioral, and
cognitive routines. Making an approach to problem solving a routine reduces the
demand on executive functions. For individuals just starting to learn executive control
behaviors, for young children, or for individuals with extreme executive dysfunction,
the focus of intervention may need to be more externalized or environmental (i.e., to
organize and structure the external environment and to organize and provide cuing for

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behavioral strategies and routines). Many such individuals do not have the internal
resources available to initiate behaviors without significant individualized structuring,
cuing, and reinforcement. They often need help to know when and how to apply the
appropriate problem-solving behavioral routine. Direct rewards and positive incentives
are often necessary to motivate the student to attend to and practice new behavioral
routines. Once these behavioral routines are established, positive cuing becomes the
crucial factor; cuing can then be faded as autonomy increases. Several basic tenets are
advocated, including the following:
 Teach explicit, goal-directed, problem-solving processes.
 Implement processes within positive, meaningful everyday routines.
 Provide real-world relevance and meaning.
 Involve everyday people (parents, teachers, and peers) as models and coaches.
 Include the student in the design of the intervention as much as possible.
For example, a student who does not show independent organization of writing might
be taught a structured approach to developing a piece of writing that is within his
grasp. Each day, he could be coached by teachers, aides, or parents to use this method
to complete a homework assignment more successfully and efficiently, providing
relevance and value that becomes self-reinforcing.
Provide Structure and Support
Many students with executive function difficulties do not yet possess the internalized
routines needed for well-regulated problem solving. Therefore, intervention often
begins from an external support position with active modeling, coaching, and guidance
by important everyday people, which gradually transitions into an internal process as
the direct coaching and cuing is faded. The general intervention process includes the
following:
 Externally model multistep problem-solving (i.e., executive) routines.
 Externally guide with the development of everyday executive routines.
 Practice using executive routines in everyday situations.
 Fade external support and cue internal generation and use of executive routines.
 Coach for generalization to new situations or new coaches.
 Provide feedback throughout the process.

Intervene Across Activities

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It is possible to have an executive system focus in any and all activities, including
classroom, therapy activities, social and recreational, and daily home-living activities.
Furthermore, this may take little time or effort once parents and school personnel
develop coaching habits. For example, any activity can include:
 Goal setting: What do I need to accomplish?
 Self-awareness of strengths and weaknesses: How easy or difficult is this task or
goal?
 Organization and planning: What materials do we need? Who will do what? In
what order do we need to do these things? How long will it take?
 Flexibility and strategy use: When or if a problem arises, what other ways should
I think about reaching the goal? Should I ask for assistance?
 Monitoring: How did I do?
 Summarizing: What worked and what didn't work? What was easy and what
was difficult, and what will I do next time?
Example of an Executive Function Intervention System
The use of a general executive problem-solving routine that promotes (1) systematic
goal definition, (2) planning, (3) action, (4) self-monitoring and evaluating, and (5)
flexible, strategic adjustment of plans and actions may serve as a general framework or
vehicle within which specific executive function intervention methods and strategies
can be incorporated. The goal-plan-do-review (GPDR) method is one such system
(Ylvisaker, Szkeres, et al., 1998). Several goal-oriented problem-solving methods may
also serve as models (e.g., Braga et al., 2012; Chan & Font, 2011; Kenworthy et al.,
Levine et al., 2000; Marlowe, 2001; Wade, Wolfe, Brown, & Pestian, 2005; Wade, Wolfe,
& Pestian, 2004). The complexity of the problem-solving routine should be adapted to
the competency of the student. The GPDR system is presented in Figure 1.

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 GOAL
What do I want to accomplish?

PLAN
How am I going to accomplish my goal?

MATERIALS/EQUIPMENT STEPS/ASSIGNMENTS
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
PREDICTION
How well will I do? How much will I get done?

Self-Rating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Other Rating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

DO

REVIEW
How did I do?
Self-Rating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Other Rating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
What worked? What didn’t work?
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
What will I try differently next time?
Note: From “Cognitive Rehabilitation: Executive Functions,” by M. Ylvisaker, S. Szekeres, and T. Feeney, in Traumatic Brain Injury
Rehabilitation: Children and Adolescents (2nd ed., p. 244), by M. Ylvisaker (Ed.), 1998, Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann. Copyright
©1998 by Butterworth-Heinemann. Adapted with permission.

Figure 1. Goal-plan-do-review problem-solving system.

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Application of Executive Function Interventions to the
IEP/504 Process
For educational purposes, the goals for promoting executive system functioning are
interrelated with all of the academic subjects and social/communication situations if
they meet the following conditions (as most will): (a) novel learning or processing tasks,
(b) necessitating goal-oriented performance, (c) requiring a delayed response, and (d)
involving multiple steps over a period of time. Therefore, for the student with
executive/organizational deficits, the executive/organizational strategies are important
to link directly with each academic content area (reading, writing, math, science, etc.).
One's executive/organizational skills are increasingly in demand as the curriculum in
the higher grades becomes more complex. The relationship between these two factors is
direct (i.e., greater complexity of learning necessitates greater use of efficient executive
skills). The curriculum in the later elementary grades and into middle/high school
requires the student to derive information from increasingly complex text, reproduce
this information in appropriately organized written form, and do so in an increasingly
independent manner. Thus, tasks for which students may have difficulty are those that
(a) are long-term (requiring planning), (b) require organization of a great many pieces
of detailed information (e.g., a specific multistep task), and (c) are to be completed in a
certain time frame (requiring time management).
It is important to incorporate active educational interventions into the translation of
executive function interventions within the context of the Individualized Education
Plan or the 504 Plan. A set of sample IEP/504 Plan goals and objectives are provided
below. Importantly, rather than specific academic curriculum “content,” these goals
focus on the development of a learning and/or problem-solving “process” designed to
enhance the efficient learning and memory of academic information. Implementation of
the methods to achieve these unique, nontraditional “learning process” goals will likely
require additional training and guidance of school personnel. The emphasis of support
should be on teaching, modeling, and cuing an approach to self-management of
learning through active planning, organization, and monitoring of work.
Thus, the overarching, long-term goal for the student could be stated as follows: “The
student will independently employ a systematic learning/problem-solving method (e.g.,
Goal-Plan-Do-Review [GPDR] system) for tasks that involve multiple steps and/or
require long-term planning.” Domain-specific goals and objectives can then be
articulated. For students who are younger or who have more severe executive
dysfunction, the objectives might be prefaced with: “With directed assistance, Sample
will . . ..”

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Goal Setting (1) Sample will participate with teachers in setting instructional
goals. For example, "I want to be able to… read this book; write
this paragraph.”
(2) Sample will accurately predict how effectively he will
accomplish a task. For example, he will accurately predict
whether or not he will be able to complete a task; predict his
grade on tests; predict how many problems he will be able to
complete in a specific time period.

Planning (1) Given a routine (e.g., complete a sheet of math problems,

clean his room), Sample will indicate what steps or items are
needed and the order in which events will proceed.
(2) Given a selection of three actions necessary for an
instructional session, Sample will indicate their order, create a
plan on paper, and follow the plan.
(3) Given a task that he correctly identifies as difficult for him,
Sample will create a plan for accomplishing the task.
(4) Having failed to achieve a predicted grade on a test, Sample
will create a plan for improving performance for the next test.

Organizing (1) Sample will follow or create a system for organizing personal
items in his locker.
(2) Sample will select and use a system to organize his
assignments and other schoolwork.
(3) Given a complex task, Sample will organize the task on paper,
including the materials needed, the steps to accomplish the task,
and a time frame for completion.
(4) Sample will prepare an organized outline before proceeding
with writing projects.

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Self-Monitoring, (1) Sample will keep a journal in which he records his plans and
Self-Evaluating predictions for success and also records his actual level of
performance and its relation to his predictions.
(2) Sample will identify errors in his work without teacher
assistance.
(3) Sample’s rating of his performance on a 10-point scale will be
within 1 point of the teacher's rating.

Self-Awareness (1) Sample will accurately identify tasks that are easy and
difficult for him.
(2) Sample will accurately identify his strengths and weaknesses.
(3) Sample will explain why some tasks are easy or difficult for
him.

Self-Initiating (1) When Sample does not know what to do, he will ask the
teacher.
(2) With regular or minimal prompting from the teacher,
assistant, or parent, Sample will begin his assigned tasks, initiate
work on his plan, and so forth.

References
Braga, L. W., Rossi, L., Moretto, A. L. L., da Silva, J. M., & Cole, M. (2012). Empowering
preadolescents with ABI through metacognition: Preliminary results of a randomized
clinical trial. NeuroRehabilitation, 30, 205-212.
Chan, D. Y. K., & Fong, K. N. K. (2011). The effects of problem-solving skills training
based on metacognitive principles for children with acquired brain injury attending
mainstream schools: A controlled clinical trial. Disability & Rehabilitation, 33, 2023-2032.
Kenworthy, L., Anthony, L. G., Alexander, K. C., Werner, M. A., Cannon, L., &
Greenman, L. (2014). Solving executive functioning challenges: Simple ways to get kids with
autism unstuck and on target. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.
Levine, B., Robertson, I. H., Clare, L., Carter, G., Hong, J., Wilson, B. A., … & Struss, D.
T. (2000). Rehabilitation of executive functioning: An experimental-clinical validation
of goal management training. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6,
299-312.

Sample Client (111) 43

12/28/2015
Marlowe, W. B. (2001). An intervention for children with disorders of executive
functions. Developmental Neuropsychology, 18, 445-454.
Wade, S. L., Wolfe, C. R., Brown, T. M., & Pestian, J. P. (2005). Can a web-based family
problem-solving intervention work for children with traumatic brain injury?.
Rehabilitation Psychology, 50, 337-345.
Wade, S. L., Wolfe, C. R., & Pestian, J. P. (2004). A web-based family problem-solving
intervention for families of children with traumatic brain injury. Behavior Research
Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 261-269.
Ylvisaker, M. (Ed.). (1998). Traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: Children and adolescents
(2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Ylvisaker, M., & Feeney, T. (1998). Collaborative brain injury intervention: Positive everyday
routines. San Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Group.
Ylvisaker, M., Szekeres, S., & Feeney, T. (1998). Cognitive rehabilitation: Executive
functions. In M. Ylvisaker (Ed.), Traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: Children and
adolescents (2nd ed., pp. 221-269). Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Sample Client (111) 44

12/28/2015
 BRIEF®2 Self-Report Item Response Table
Item Response Item Response Item Response Item Response
1 Sometimes 15 Sometimes 29 Often 43 Sometimes
2 Sometimes 16 Sometimes 30 Sometimes 44 Sometimes
3 Often 17 Never 31 Sometimes 45 Never
4 Never 18 Never 32 Sometimes 46 Never
5 Sometimes 19 Sometimes 33 Sometimes 47 Sometimes
6 Never 20 Sometimes 34 Sometimes 48 Never
7 Sometimes 21 Sometimes 35 Sometimes 49 Never
8 Often 22 Sometimes 36 Never 50 Sometimes
9 Often 23 Sometimes 37 Never 51 Sometimes
10 Never 24 Sometimes 38 Sometimes 52 Sometimes
11 Sometimes 25 Sometimes 39 Sometimes 53 Never
12 Sometimes 26 Never 40 Never 54 Never
13 Never 27 Sometimes 41 Never 55 Sometimes
14 Never 28 Sometimes 42 Sometimes

*** End of Report ***

Sample Client (111) 45

12/28/2015