Energy-Aware Protocol for Routing and Path

Maintenance for Wireless Multimedia Sensor

Networks
By
Ibrahim Ahmed Al-Afeef

Supervisor

Dr. Nailah Al-Madi

Co-Supervisor
Dr. Fahed Awad

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Master of Science in Computer Science

Princess Sumaya University for Technology

King Abdullah I School of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research

January, 2018
 Authorization Form

I, Ibrahim Ahmed Al-Afeef, authorize Princess Sumaya University for Technology to

supply copies of my Thesis/ Dissertation to libraries or establishments or individuals on
request, according to the regulations of Princess Sumaya University for Technology.

Signature:
Date:

II
This Thesis (Energy-Aware Protocol for Routing and Path Maintenance
for Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks) was Successfully Defended
and Approved on X Month, 2018.

Examination Committee Signature

Dr. Nailah Al-Madi, (Supervisor)

Assistant Professor
(Princess Sumaya University for Technology) .................................

Dr. Fahed Awad, (Co-Supervisor)

Associate Professor
(Jordan University of Science and Technology) .................................

Dr. Mustafa Al-Fayoumi, (Member)

Assistant Professor
(Princess Sumaya University for Technology) .................................

Dr. Raad S. Al-Qassas, (Member)

Associate Professor
(Princess Sumaya University for Technology) .................................

Dr. Samer Samarah, (Member)

Associate Professor
(Yarmouk University) .................................

III
 Dedication

Dedication

Ibrahim Ahmed Al-Afeef

IV
 Acknowledgment

First I would like to thank my thesis advisors Dr. Fahed Awad and Dr. Nailah Al-
Madi. The doors of their offices were always open whenever I ran into trouble or had a
question about my research or writing. They consistently allowed this paper to be my
own work, but steered me in the right direction whenever they thought I needed it.

I would also like to thank the experts who were involved in the validation survey
for this research project: Dr. Samer Samarah, Dr. Mustafa Al-Fayoumi, and Dr. Raed Al-
Qassas. Without their passionate participation and input, the validation survey could not
have been successfully conducted.

Finally, I must express my very profound gratitude to my parents and my brothers

for providing me with unfailing support and continuous encouragement throughout my
years of study and through the process of researching and writing this thesis. This
accomplishment would not have been possible without them.

Thank you.

Ibrahim Ahmed Al-Afeef

V
 Table of Contents

Authorization Form.......................................................................................................... II

Dedication .......................................................................................................................IV

Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................. V

List of Figures .................................................................................................................IX

List of Tables ................................................................................................................... X

List of Equations .............................................................................................................XI

List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................... XII

Abstract ........................................................................................................................ XIII

Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................... 1

1.1 Overview ........................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Motivation ......................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Problem statement............................................................................................. 3

1.4 Research objectives........................................................................................... 3

1.5 Research contribution ....................................................................................... 3

1.6 Research limitations .......................................................................................... 3

1.7 Organization of the thesis ................................................................................. 3

Chapter 2: Background ............................................................................................... 5

2.1 WSN and WMSN ............................................................................................. 5

2.2 System architecture of a sensor node ................................................................ 5

2.3 Routing protocols .............................................................................................. 6

2.3.1 WSN routing protocols ................................................................................. 6

2.3.1.1 Location-based routing protocols ......................................................... 6

2.3.1.2 Multi-hop routing protocols .................................................................. 6

2.3.1.3 Hierarchal routing protocols ................................................................. 7

VI
 2.3.2 WMSN routing protocols.............................................................................. 7

2.3.2.1 Geographic routing protocols ............................................................... 7

2.3.2.2 Swarm intelligence routing protocols ................................................... 7

2.3.2.3 Routing protocols addressing different types of algorithms ................. 7

2.4 Design challenges for WMSN .......................................................................... 8

2.4.1 General challenges ........................................................................................ 8

2.4.1.1 Bandwidth ............................................................................................. 8

2.4.1.2 Video encoding techniques ................................................................... 8

2.4.1.3 Application-specific QoS ...................................................................... 8

2.4.2 Resource constraints management and energy saving .................................. 9

2.4.2.1 Sleep/awake mechanism ..................................................................... 12

2.4.2.2 Data reduction ..................................................................................... 13

2.4.2.3 Energy efficient routing ...................................................................... 14

2.4.2.4 Radio optimization .............................................................................. 15

2.4.2.5 Battery recharging............................................................................... 15

2.4.3 Discussion ................................................................................................... 16

2.4.4 Energy exploiting and network lifetime ..................................................... 17

2.5 Summary ......................................................................................................... 17

Chapter 3: Related Work .......................................................................................... 18

3.1 WSN................................................................................................................ 18

3.2 WMSN ............................................................................................................ 19

3.3 TPGF ............................................................................................................... 21

3.4 Summary ......................................................................................................... 23

Chapter 4: Proposed Approach ................................................................................. 25

4.1 Overview ......................................................................................................... 25

4.2 Operation of EA-TPGF-SS ............................................................................. 26

VII
 4.2.1 Path establishment ...................................................................................... 28

4.2.2 Warning and dead threshold ....................................................................... 28

4.2.3 Duty cycling ................................................................................................ 29

4.3 EA-TPGF-SS process flow ............................................................................. 29

Chapter 5: Performance Evaluation .......................................................................... 34

5.1 Overview ......................................................................................................... 34

5.2 Testing platform .............................................................................................. 34

5.3 Experimentations ............................................................................................ 34

5.3.1 Number of packets delivered ...................................................................... 35

5.3.2 Network lifetime ......................................................................................... 36

5.3.3 Packets per joule ......................................................................................... 38

5.3.4 End-to-end delay ......................................................................................... 39

5.3.5 Throughput.................................................................................................. 41

5.3.6 Packet delivery ratio ................................................................................... 43

5.3.7 Number of relay nodes ................................................................................ 43

5.3.8 Summary ..................................................................................................... 44

Chapter 6: Conclusion and Future Work .................................................................. 45

6.1 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 45

6.2 Future work ..................................................................................................... 45

References ....................................................................................................................... 46

Abstract in Arabic (‫)الملخص‬.............................................................................................. 51

VIII
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1: WMSN architecture........................................................................................ 2

Figure 2.1: Senor node componenets. ............................................................................... 6
Figure 2.2: Energy saving mechanisms. ......................................................................... 10
Figure 3.1: Flowchart of TPGF routing algorithm ......................................................... 20
Figure 4.1: Sample network topology............................................................................. 25
Figure 4.2: The pseudo code of the proposed algorithm (EA-TPGF-SS). ..................... 27
Figure 4.3: Path establishment and begin transmitting. .................................................. 30
Figure 4.4: Warning packet transmitting. ....................................................................... 30
Figure 4.5: Backup path establishment. .......................................................................... 31
Figure 4.6: Dead packet transmitting. ............................................................................. 31
Figure 4.7: Continue transmitting data packet over the backup path. ............................ 32
Figure 4.8: Flowchart of the proposed algorithm (EA-TPGF-SS). ................................ 33
Figure 5.1: Normalized number of packets delivered. .................................................... 36
Figure 5.2: Number of packets delivered........................................................................ 36
Figure 5.3: Normalized network lifetime. ...................................................................... 37
Figure 5.4: Network lifetime. ......................................................................................... 38
Figure 5.5: Normalized packets per joule. ...................................................................... 39
Figure 5.6: Packets per joule........................................................................................... 39
Figure 5.7: Normalized end-to-end delay. ...................................................................... 40
Figure 5.8: End-to-end delay. ......................................................................................... 41
Figure 5.9: Normalized achieved throughput. ................................................................ 42
Figure 5.10: Throughput. ................................................................................................ 42
Figure 5.11: Packet delivery ratio. .................................................................................. 43
Figure 5.12: Number of relay nodes. .............................................................................. 44

IX
 List of Tables

Table 3.1: Summary of research related to TPGF. ......................................................... 24

Table 5.1: Main configuration parameters. ..................................................................... 35

X
 List of Equations

Eq. 1 ................................................................................................................................ 22
Eq. 2 ................................................................................................................................ 22
Eq. 3 ................................................................................................................................ 22
Eq. 4 ................................................................................................................................ 23
Eq. 5 ................................................................................................................................ 35

XI
 List of Abbreviations

Abbreviation Meaning
AODV
CH Cluster Head
CKN Connected-K Neighborhood
CRP Comprehensive Routing Protocol
DCVS Distributed Compressive Video Sensing
EA Energy Aware
EAR Energy Aware Routing
EA-TPGF-SS Energy-Aware Two-Phase Greedy-Forwarding With
Sleep Scheduling
EC Energy Consumed
EC-CKN Energy Consumed uniformly-Connected K-
Neighborhood
GAF Geographic Adaptive Fidelity (GAF)
GEAR Geographical and Energy-Aware Routing
GPS Global Positioning System
LEACH Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy
MC-TPGF Multi-Metric Geographic Routing
PEGASIS Power Efficient Gathering in Sensor Information
Systems
PDR Packet Delivery Ratio
QoS Quality-of-Service
RX Receiving node
SS Sleep Scheduling
TPG Two-Phase Greedy
TPGF Two-Phase Greedy Forwarding
WMSN Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks
WSN Wireless Sensor Network

XII
 Energy-Aware Protocol for Routing and Path Maintenance for
Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks

By
Ibrahim Ahmed Al-Afeef

Supervisor
Dr. Nailah Al-Madi

Co-Supervisor
Dr. Fahed Awad

Abstract
Strict quality of service (QoS) requirements in Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks
(WMSN) mandate discovering and routing via shortest paths. Multimedia traffic intensity
rapidly depletes relay nodes’ energy, potentially breaking routing paths and halting
transmission until new paths are discovered. Inactive relay nodes’ constant readiness
depletes energy uselessly and decreases the chance of discovering alternative paths.

This study analyses Energy-Aware Two-Phase Greedy-Forwarding with Sleep

Scheduling (EA-TPGF-SS) geographical routing protocol for wireless multimedia sensor
networks with energy-awareness, with a simple synchronized sleep scheduling
mechanism, feedback capability on the residual energy of the relay nodes, and WMSN
energy management mechanism exploiting each relay node’s residual energy with sleep
scheduling and backup routing paths. Path exploitation of each routing path minimizes
path building and switching overhead. Sleep scheduling over inactive relay nodes saves
remaining energy and extends battery life for potential later alternative routing paths.
Backup path mechanism is performed by establishing a backup routing path in parallel to
the active routing path before it expires for faster switching to an alternative path.

EA-TPGF-SS has better energy management than existing routing protocols. The
performance evaluation and comparative analysis indicate that the proposed approach can
significantly improve the network lifetime, end-to-end delay, number of delivered
packets, and delivered packets per joule compared to existing similar approaches, but at
the cost of a slight decrease in the overall network throughput.

XIII
 Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Overview
In recent years, the need for multimedia transmission over Wireless Sensor
Networks (WSN) has caused the emergence of Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks
(WMSN). In WMSN, new types of components are embedded within the sensor nodes,
such as microphones and cameras, which make it applicable to send videos, audio and
images. Multimedia traffic has strict quality-of-service (QoS) requirements (e.g.
minimum bandwidth, latency, energy and reliability) due to its high intensity compared
to regular WSN traffic. These factors depend heavily on the network characteristics and
the routing protocols used (Awad et al., 2011).

Wireless sensor nodes usually transmit data towards a destination node called the
base station, through some relay nodes that forward the packets from the source node to
the base station. Due to the size of the multimedia data transmitted over the network,
many algorithms have been were proposed to save energy, enhance end-to-end delay, and
increase the transmission speed. Each algorithm was designed for a specific application,
thus each algorithm focused on specific performance metrics that are important to the
corresponding application (Awad et al., 2011).

Wireless sensor networks have acquired importance due to their ability to gather
information. WSN is used in physical environments, by sending a gathered and processed
information from the environment to a base station. WSN have been used in several
applications such as military and civil applications, especially in measuring intensity,
pressure, humidity and temperature etc. (Akyildiz et al. 2007). WMSN capabilities have
gained a significant importance and led to a new type of applications that WSN does not
have, due to its ability to transmit gathered and processed multimedia data information
from the environment using cameras and microphones. Currently WMSN are used in
monitoring applications, such as for elderly people, target tracking, homeland
monitoring, healthcare and road traffic congestion (Sharif et al., 2009). The architecture
of WMSN is shown in Figure 1.1.

1
Figure 1.1: WMSN architecture.
Source: Jung-Chun (2017).

1.2 Motivation
Implementing an energy aware routing protocol for WMSN faces challenges due
to restrictions on the application quality of required service metrics, such as low latency,
jitter, reliability, high bandwidth and energy consumption.

Due to the nature of the multimedia data and the hardware architecture of the
wireless multimedia sensors, application QoS metrics for WMSN should be considered
to have an efficient routing protocol.

Developers of WMSN routing protocols are facing some resources constraints,

due to the limited resources available compared with multimedia data streaming needs.
High network lifetime is a challenge for wireless multimedia sensors in the context of
high bandwidth and low latency. Thus, there is an inevitable tradeoff involved in
developing an efficient routing protocol. Trying to maximize the network lifetime for
WMSN while minimizing commensurate bandwidth loss and latency presents a major
challenge.

2
1.3 Problem statement
Since energy consumption is a fundamental problem facing WMSN due to the
resources limitations of wireless sensors, this causes relay nodes to die faster, increasing
overhead on path discovery, and shortening the network lifetime. This thesis aims to
implement an energy efficient routing protocol in order to have a better energy
management and a longer network lifetime.

1.4 Research objectives

The aim of the study is to propose a protocol that has the following characteristics:

1. More balanced energy consumption, by trying to efficiently exploit each path for
better energy efficiency.
2. Using a backup routing path in parallel, to save path searching overhead time.
3. Using simple sleep scheduling to save nodes’ energy as much as possible, to
extend network lifetime.

1.5 Research contribution

This research introduces an enhanced geographical routing protocol for WMSN
with energy awareness and sleep scheduling over EA-TPGF protocol (Bennis et al.,
2013). The proposed approach allows the inactive relay nodes to be in sleep scheduling
to reduce the energy consumption. It also allows the relay node to warn the source node
about their residual energy status in order to establish a backup path shortly before any
active relay nodes energy depletion. Moreover, this research improves the network
lifetime, the number of delivered packets, and the energy cost per packet.

1.6 Research limitations

This research focuses on the application of providing more network lifetime in
streaming multimedia data over TPGF protocol (Shu et al., 2008, 2010). Moreover, the
research will cover the study over a single source node and not over multiple source
nodes, given that the default is a single source node.

1.7 Organization of the thesis

This thesis is organized and divided into five chapters. Following this
introductory chapter, the remaining chapters are as described below.

3
 Chapter 2: Background – This chapter presents the unique specifications of
WSN compared to WMSN, different routing protocols techniques, and WMSN design
challenges.

Chapter 3: Related Work – This chapter explores previous research conducted

in the area of energy awareness for WSN, and WMSN over TPGF (Shu et al., 2008,
2010).

Chapter 4: Proposed Approach – This chapter presents the studied approach,

EA-TPGF-SS. It describes the method and how it is performed in detail, explaining the
steps, the pseudo code, a sample of the network topology, and a flow chart diagram.

Chapter 5: Performance Evaluation – This chapter evaluates the performance

of EA-TPGF-SS in detail, presenting the results achieved by the implemented routing
protocols.

Chapter 6: Conclusion and Future Work – This chapter concludes the thesis,
and gives ideas for future research that can be done based upon the findings presented in
this work.

4
 Chapter 2: Background

2.1 WSN and WMSN

WSN is used in different applications (according to availability, low cost and size)
to send regular data from source nodes to a destination to collect data about the target.
These data differ from one application to another. Unlike WSN, WMSN is made for
streaming multimedia data and monitoring such as videos, and multimedia data are
different from regular data due to their much greater size and different requirements.
Therefore, wireless multimedia sensor nodes have different architecture and routing
protocols from wireless sensor nodes. Routing protocols that are used to stream
multimedia data should take into consideration some requirements that affect multimedia
data. On the other hand, wireless multimedia sensor nodes’ architecture is made to meet
the requirements needed for multimedia data, such as cameras and microphones (Sharif
et al., 2009). Wireless multimedia sensor nodes usually have:

1. Higher memory capacity (external and random access).

2. Digital signal processors rather than microcontrollers.
3. More bandwidth due to the nature of multimedia data.
4. More power to compress and process multimedia data.

2.2 System architecture of a sensor node

A sensor node (Figure 2.1) is composed of the following components (Karl &
Willig, 2007):

• Power unit: an electrical device that supplies electric power to an electrical load.
• Memory: a physical device capable of storing information.
• Radio unit (transceiver): an electronic device which produces radio waves with
an antenna.
• Sensor unit: sensor and analog-to-digital (ADC) converter.
• Processor: the hardware within a sensor node that executes a program.

5
Figure 2.1: Senor node componenets.

Sensor node hardware components are selected based on the applications for
which they are intended by determining the cost, the size and the energy consumption
rate. The sensor unit is a convertor used to convert analog signals into digital.

2.3 Routing protocols

Routing protocols are how wireless sensor nodes communicate with each other,
distributing information that enables them to select routes to the base station. Routing
algorithms determine the specific choice of route (Chen & Gonzalez, 2007).

2.3.1 WSN routing protocols

2.3.1.1 Location-based routing protocols
In location-based routing protocols, sensor nodes transmit data to nearby nodes
based on their location. Sensor nodes locations are determined by using GPS or methods
such as triangulation (Xu et al., 2001). In most applications, the distance between the
current node the any neighbor node is calculated by GPS coordinates, or estimated by the
signal strength.

2.3.1.2 Multi-hop routing protocols

In multi-hop routing protocol all nodes behave in the same manner. The base
station spreads queries towards source nodes and waits to receive response data.
Algorithms used in multi-hop routing protocols are data centric, utilizing directed
diffusion and flooding. Directed diffusion (Intanagonwiwat et al., 2000) is based on
sending data packets to neighbor nodes that do not have these data. Flooding is based on

6
sending data to all neighbor nodes towards the base station (Hedetniemi et al., 1988).
Directed diffusion has the advantage of avoiding interference and congestion by sending
data only to neighbor nodes that do not have it.

2.3.1.3 Hierarchal routing protocols

This routing type is the most advanced mechanism for saving energy and network
lifetime, dividing the network into clusters with a cluster head for each one. Each cluster
head is responsible for sending the data towards the base station, focusing on when and
how to select the cluster head to transmit or process data packets (Al-Karaki & Kamal,
2004).

2.3.2 WMSN routing protocols

2.3.2.1 Geographic routing protocols
All the wireless sensor nodes communicate with each other based on the
geographic position information instead of network address. Two-Phase Geographic
Forwarding (TPGF) algorithm is an example of geographic routing proposed to find the
shortest path between the source node and base station over WMSN (Shu et al., 2008,
2010).

2.3.2.2 Swarm intelligence routing protocols

Entomological swarm behaviors were the inspiration of this type of routing
protocols. Swarm intelligence routing protocols has the potential to solve real world
problems by solving numerical problems in order to achieve optimal solutions (Gui et al.,
2016). Two properties must be included in any swarm intelligence routing protocol:

• Self-organization: without any central organization, all swarms must act at the
same time.
• Division of labor: roles distribution of swarms’ individuals, by executing different
restricted tasks for each at the same time.

Comprehensive routing protocol (CRP) is an example of a swarm intelligence

routing protocol (Wang et al., 2014).

2.3.2.3 Routing protocols addressing different types of algorithms

Some routing protocols combine different types of algorithms in order to meet
particular QoS requirements (Abazeed et al., 2013). For instance, Lan et al. (2008)
developed a protocol that performs routing decisions based on cost function and
Dijkstra’s algorithm.

7
2.4 Design challenges for WMSN
2.4.1 General challenges
WMSN depends on some requirements due to its unique architecture, such as low
complexity video encoding, application-specific QoS, resource constraints management,
energy saving, and high bandwidth. Multimedia traffic has strict QoS requirements such
as minimum bandwidth, latency, energy and reliability, due to its high intensity (Al
Nuaimi et al. 2011). Three main requirements should be taken into consideration when
designing a routing protocol for WMSN, as described.

2.4.1.1 Bandwidth
One of the problems of WMSN is its high demand for bandwidth regarding the
size of the multimedia data in video streaming. Efficient compression should be
considered when designing a routing algorithm. It demands higher bandwidth than the
regular data in transmitting. Most available sensor nodes conform with the IEEE standard
(802.15.4), such as MICAz (MEMSEC MICAz mote specifications) and TelosB
(MEMSEC TelosB mote specifications), which have a data rate of up to 250 kbps, which
may limit the bandwidth and affect the resolution of the multimedia data streaming.

2.4.1.2 Video encoding techniques

Due to the limited resource constraints for sensor nodes, processing operations
are highly energy consuming regarding the complexity of video encoding. Encoding
multimedia data requires a video codec to encode and decode these multimedia data. The
source node encodes multimedia data before streaming it towards the base station. There
are two types of codecs:

• Codecs that have a complex encoding and simple decoding technique, which is
hard to perform for the source node due to the high complexity, the need for more
powerful machine, and the need for sensors that have more energy to do it in case
the application used for video on demand streaming; and
• Codecs that have a simple encoding and complex decoding technique (reversed
video coding paradigm). This technique can be done in regular video streaming
in WMSN, such as Distributed Compressive Video Sensing (DCVS) (Do et al.,
2009).

2.4.1.3 Application-specific QoS

Based on the application used in streaming multimedia data over wireless
multimedia sensors, QoS metrics should be considered with respect to the high demand

8
on bandwidth, multimedia data compression and processing (Akyildiz et al., 2007). For
example, some applications require a high network lifetime over the high bandwidth.
Thus, the error rate and retransmission for data packets are not considered.

2.4.2 Resource constraints management and energy saving

In WMSN, sensor nodes require more resources than WSN due to the size of the
multimedia data and the application used in it, such as video streaming. In video
streaming, the need for a high bandwidth requires dealing with end-to-end delay, jitter,
and packet delivery ratio to increase the quality of the stream, which consumes more
resources (Melodia et al., 2011). The resources can be presented as memory storage,
processing capability and energy (battery). On the other hand, the need to maximize
network lifetime due to the limitation of the batteries in wireless sensor nodes is
compelling, necessitating that battery consumption is as efficient as possible, and
efficient energy exploitation is a fundamental requirement when designing a routing
algorithm (Melodia & Akyildiz, 2011).

In WMSN the main activities of sensor nodes that cause energy depletion are
capturing (sensing), processing and data communication; the activity that consumes the
most residual energy is data communication, however none of these activities and their
roles can be neglected (Melodia & Akyildiz, 2011).

The batteries of the sensor nodes are the power source. These batteries can be
rechargeable or non-rechargeable. Rechargeable batteries produce energy by using
energy harvesting mechanisms such as solar, thermal and vibrations. While the inherent
advantages of in situ energy harvesting are obvious, such features add to the complexity
of sensor nodes design and increase the cost of production, since generating energy uses
complex circuitry (Melodia & Akyildiz, 2011).

Figure 2.2 shows the major approaches for saving energy in WSNs that could be
applied in WMSNs. Energy saving mechanisms are described in the following sections.

9
Figure 2.2: Energy saving mechanisms.

10
Figure 2.2: Energy saving mechanisms. (cont.).

11
2.4.2.1 Sleep/awake mechanism
Idle state energy consumption is a major drawback in radio components in
wireless sensors. Saving energy can be achieved by putting sensor nodes’ radio into a
sleep mode to save energy.

❖ Duty cycling
Duty cycling is the ratio of a wireless node’s active mode time to the sleep mode
time in the overall simulation time. Duty cycling is one of the most efficient mechanisms
to save energy, but it has the delay drawback, whereby an active node has to wait for the
other sleeping nodes to be awake, which can affect the network performance. In other
words, it is a trade-off between the latency and the energy saved: whenever the duty cycle
mechanism saves more energy (low duty cycle) the delay is increased.

Duty cycling mechanism can be done statically (simple) or dynamically. In the

static simple way, the parameters that decide the duty cycle times should be decided
before deployment, but this could affect the network performance. On the other hand,
choosing duty cycle in a dynamic way can be better for network performance. Duty cycle
mechanisms can be categorized into three categories (Anastasi et al., 2009):

• Asynchronous: there is no synchronization in sleep/awake time between nodes in

the network. Each node has its own sleep/awake time, but every node must be
awake at the same time with its neighbors.
• Scheduled rendezvous: sleep/awake time is scheduled, and it is the same for all
nodes in the network. This category can increase the collisions in the network.
• On-demand: sensor nodes wake up only when required by neighbors. Sensor
nodes will not be awake all the time, and will be awake only for a certain amount
of time actively and dynamically determined. This mechanism is used in the
proposed method.

❖ Topology control
Based on the application used, this mechanism controls the topology by
dynamically setting some sensor nodes in a sleep state and others in an awake state, after
ensuring that the network is connected (Bachir et al., 2013).

12
 ❖ Passive wake-up radios
This mechanism saves energy by using low-power radio to wake up sensor nodes,
while using the high-power radios for communication (Ba et al., 2013). However, it could
increase the delay in receiving data.

2.4.2.2 Data reduction

Data acquisition and transmission are highly energy consuming. This category
aims to reduce the amount of data delivered to the base station, which can be achieved in
four ways as explored below.

❖ Data compression
Data is compressed to minimize its size and thus the amount of energy consumed.
However, this is hard to perform practically, due to the limitation of sensor nodes
resources getting in the way of compression algorithms (Kimura & Latifi, 2005).

❖ Network coding
Doing operations and data communications of sensor nodes are the most energy
consumption metric, but data communication is more energy consuming and slower than
processing operations. Network coding mechanism tries to make each sensor node do
operations more than data communication. This mechanism can reduce the energy
consumed by data communication by reducing traffic. Network coding is produced by
having each sensor node transmit some data packets, combine these packets into a linear
combination and send one combination rather than several packets. Relay nodes can then
decode this combination using a linear equation (Wang et al., 2011).

❖ Aggregation
Gathering the data received using a function to reduce the traffic, this way may
decrease the delay, which is a good thing, but it will increase the error rate (depending on
the function used to aggregate the data), making it hard for the base station to recover the
data successfully (Fasolo et al., 2007).

❖ Adaptive sampling
Controlling the coverage area of wireless sensors to adapt the application needs
addresses the fact that the sensing area is one of the energy consuming metrics of wireless
sensors. Receiving unneeded information causes depletion of residual energy and
wireless nodes’ resources (Anastasi et al., 2009).

13
2.4.2.3 Energy efficient routing
Energy saving for wireless sensors can be achieved by using various routing
mechanisms. This section discusses different routing mechanisms that can reduce energy
consumption.

❖ Multipath routing
Multipath routing can save energy for sensor nodes and decrease energy
consumption by transmitting data transmission into several paths. On the other hand,
single path routing focuses on just one single path, and can consume the current path
nodes’ energy faster than multipath routing. However, multipath routing is more complex
than the single path (Radi et al., 2012).

❖ Energy metric in routing

Instead of focusing only on the shortest path, the residual energy of the sensor
nodes is considered in this mechanism to choose the next hop, which is better to save
energy and prolong the network connection (Liu et al., 2012).

❖ Hierarchal routing
This routing method divides the network into several clusters, each with a cluster
head (CH) responsible for transmitting the data towards the base station, communication
between the nodes in the same cluster (members), and communicating with other cluster
heads in the network. The CH can reduce energy consumption and the sensor nodes’
residual energy loss by putting some of the cluster members for each cluster in a sleep
state, reducing data communication, thus reducing energy consumption and traffic, or
reducing the transmission range for members of the same cluster (Kumar et al., 2009; Li
et al., 2013).

❖ Sink mobility
The neighbor nodes of the base station and the source node consume the most
energy because they receive the most packets in the network due to the transmission flow
from the source node to the base station. When using a static base station, the neighbor
nodes of the base station affect connectivity due to the high traffic in the base station
sensing area, which makes each base station neighbor node consume energy more than
the other nodes in the network, which could affect the delay. On the other hand, using a
mobile base station reduces energy consumption by the neighbor nodes of the static base
station, balancing the load on the network in general, increasing the availability of the
base station and reducing the delay (Sugihara & Gupta, 2009; Liang et al., 2010).

14
 ❖ Relay node replacement
Mechanisms have been developed to send data from the source node to the
destination by choosing each relay node with residual energy less than a specific
threshold, in order to prolong network lifetime by solving the problem of network holes
(Ergen & Varaiya, 2006; Younis & Akkaya, 2008).

2.4.2.4 Radio optimization

One of the sensor node components that consumes energy is the radio. This
section discusses several ways to reduce energy consumption by the radio.

❖ Transmission power control

Controlling the transmission power for each sensor node based on another metric.
For example, dynamically changing the transmission power based on residual energy for
each sensor node reduces energy consumption in the network, and increases network
lifetime. On the other hand, this mechanism could increase the delay because of the need
for more wireless nodes to participate in the transmission process each time, which can
affect the network performance (Chu & Sethu, 2012).

❖ Energy-efficient cognitive radio

Energy efficiency can be improved by dynamically selecting the wireless
communication channel suitable for the network reception and communication
parameters. This mechanism is considered as an intelligent and challenging way to
control the communication channel of wireless nodes (Masonta et al., 2012).

❖ Cooperative transmission
Using a multiple virtual antenna that can retransmit the data packets over the
network can easily solve the problem of the interference that can happen due to
broadcasting. This mechanism can save energy by reducing costs such as wasted time
and energy and the error rate due to interference (Nosratinia et al., 2004).

2.4.2.5 Battery recharging

Battery recharging can reduce sensor nodes saving energy problems. Wireless
charging and energy harvesting mechanisms in battery recharging are discussed in this
section.

❖ Wireless charging
Wireless charging can be achieved in two ways:

15
 • Magnetic phase synchronous coupling: this is one of the best mechanisms of
transferring power towards the receiver for energy recharging, due to its efficient
way for transmitting power over several meters (Xie et al.,2013).
• Electromagnetic radiation: this is done by using power sources such as light and
heat. Electromagnetic radiation is less efficient than magnetic phase synchronous
coupling due to the dropping of the power transferred over distance (Xie et al.,
2013).

❖ Energy harvesting
Sensor nodes can be enabled to harvest external sources of energy and convert
them into electrical energy, which they can then store or use directly. Energy harvesting
requires the ability of sensor nodes to remain operational (i.e. with sufficient power) for
as long as possible until the next recharging interval time. Operation can be managed
using available energy and network parameters optimization to reduce or increase energy
consumption, such as duty cycling or transmission power (Sudevalayam et al., 2011).

2.4.3 Discussion
• In general, saving energy for wireless multimedia sensors is hampered by
controlling the parameters of sensor nodes’ components relating to energy
consumption. The main energy saving mechanisms are dynamic voltage scaling
(DVS), dynamic frequency scaling (DFS) and dynamic power management
(DPM) (Lin et al. 2006).
•
•

In DVS, by changing the input voltage to sensor components into various levels,
energy is saved when the sensor node becomes idle. In DFS power saving achieved by
decreasing the frequency of the processor, thus reducing its power consumption, with
slower data processing at a lower frequency. In DPM power is saved by switching off the
sensor node components as much as possible, but such intermittent turning on and off is
inefficient in energy terms. It is essential to select the most suitable mechanism for the
particular application context when designing a WMSN routing protocol in order to save
sensor nodes’ energy and exploit it as efficiently as possible.

16
2.4.4 Energy exploiting and network lifetime
There are many definitions of wireless sensors network lifetime (Dietrich &
Dressler, 2009), depending on whether the coverage of the region of interest was
considered, the application’s QoS, nodes’ connectivity in the network, and the number of
live nodes. Ultimately, network lifetime is a measurement of time. Lifetime is a very
important parameter to evaluate in wireless multimedia sensors networks, due to the
infeasibility of recharging or replacing wireless sensors, especially for nodes placed in
large numbers and in remote environments.

Energy exploitation is the ratio between the energy consumed and the total
number of packets received at the base station (Jones, Sivalingam, Agrawal, & Chen,
2001). In other words, if the total number of packets delivered at the base station increases
at the same amount of energy, then energy exploiting will increase. Energy exploitation
is measured in the amount of energy consumed to transmit packets.

2.5 Summary
Due to their increasing availability and their convenient size and low cost, WSNs
are now proliferating in many applications such as monitoring motion, humidity,
mechanical stress levels, temperature and pressure etc. There are different environmental
areas for WSN, such as (Chen & Gonzalez, 2007):

• Disaster relief operations: one of the most important applications used nowadays.
Spreading wireless sensors over areas that cannot be entered by humans enables
detection and monitoring of natural disasters such as forest fires and earthquakes
etc.
• Health monitoring: monitoring human health status requires frequent updates,
which can be provided more reliably and accurately using WSNs, providing data
for human professionals.
• Environmental monitoring: the environment can be monitored easily using
wireless sensors to study wildlife, water availability, climate and weather changes
etc.

WMSNs are used in the same areas as WSNs but in different ways, such as
capturing images, recording voices and video streaming.

17
 Chapter 3: Related Work

This chapter reviews previous studies of energy aware WMSN and TPGF (Shu et
al., 2008, 2010). The related work is categorized based on the objectives of the research
undertaken.

3.1 WSN
Geographical and Energy-Aware Routing (GEAR) is a query-based protocol that
spreads the query in the network based on geographical information (Yu et al., 2001).
Each node estimates the transmission cost to its next relay node based on the distance
between them and the residual energy of the next hop relay node. Transmitting packets
in this routing protocol from the source node to destination is achieved in two phases:
transmitting packets to the destination node within the region and transmitting packets to
the destination region.

Geographic Adaptive Fidelity (GAF) is a grid-based protocol that splits the

network into multiple grids and tries to reduce energy consumption by putting sensor
nodes in the same grid in sleep state; this operation could be made on different grids (Xu
et al., 2001).

In directed diffusion an interest message is generated by the base station and

distributed towards the source node. Each node receiving the interest message saves it in
its cache for a certain time. A path is created from the base station to the targeted source
node. The source node then sends data to the base station over the current path. In this
algorithm, each node is aware of its network topology, and each node is addressed
(Intanagonwiwat et al., 2000).

In flooding the sensor node floods the network by broadcasting the data to all the
neighbor nodes. The same operation is executed for each node until the data arrives at the
base station. The network is flooded with data packets and congestion occurs due to the
volume of data packets broadcast over the network (Hedetniemi et al., 1988)

Power-Efficient Gathering in Sensor Information Systems (PEGASIS) uses

multi-hop transmission and data aggregation by creating chains in the network, each of
which contains sensor nodes responsible for sending the aggregated data to the base
station. Each other node in each chain aggregates the data and sends it to the next hop in
the same chain. This mechanism is better in avoiding overhead otherwise accrued by

18
selecting cluster heads in a dynamic way, but PEGASIS routing protocol has a long path,
which increases delay (Lindsey & Raghavendra, 2002).

Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) has many similarities with
PEGASIS. Cluster heads are chosen by generating a random number between 0 and 1 for
each node in the network, whereby the sensor node marks itself as a cluster head (Al-
Karaki & Kamal, 2004). The advantage of this mechanism over PEGASIS is the delay.
Although LEACH routing protocol has a delay for scheduling the received data for each
cluster member, the delay in this mechanism is lower due to the operation of choosing
each cluster head, and this operation is faster than PEGASIS mechanism in creating
chains (Heinzelman, Chandrakasan, & Balakrishnan, 2000).

3.2 WMSN
Lan et al. (2008) proposed a routing protocol to meet different QoS requirements
that performs routing decisions based on cost function and Dijkstra’s algorithm. Cost
function is calculated based on energy consumption and delay, while Dijkstra’s algorithm
uses several factors to reduce the number of neighbor nodes such as remaining energy,
delay and bandwidth.

In Comprehensive Routing Protocol (CRP) (Wang et al., 2014), a swarm

intelligence routing protocol was proposed as an enhancement over energy aware routing
(EAR) (Wang, Mei, Wei, & Wang, 2014). CRP routing protocol consists of three phases:
routing table setup, route maintenance and data communication. This protocol achieved
better performance than previous protocols in terms of network lifetime and packet
delivery ratio. However, CRP routing protocol does not take into consideration link
failures as well as QoS requirements.

In Two-Phase Geographic Forwarding (TPGF), a routing was proposed to find

the shortest path between the source node and base station over WMSN (Shu et al., 2008,
2010). In TPGF, each node knows its current geographic location, its neighbor nodes’
geographic locations, and the base station’s geographic location. The source node
establishes a path by choosing the neighbor relay node that is closest to the base station.
Each relay node repeats the same process until the path to the base station is built. The
flowchart of TPGF algorithm can be seen in Figure 3.1.

19
Figure 3.1: Flowchart of TPGF routing algorithm
Source: Shu et al. (2010).

20
 TPGF routing protocol is divided into two steps:

Step 1: current node gets the base station location, 1-hop neighbor location, and
its current location. Current node checks weather the base station is in 1-hop neighbor or
not. If the base station is in 1-hop, the base station returns an acknowledgment, the routing
path is optimized, and each unused relay node is released. Path optimization is achieved
by releasing each unused relay node in the acknowledgement message sent from the base
station to the source node during path establishment. If the base station is not in 1-hop,
TPGF routing algorithm process continues to run into Step (2).

Step 2: current node checks the availability of neighbor nodes and chooses the
next-hop node, which is the closest to the base station among all 1-hop nodes, and the
routing algorithm process returns to Step (1) until a path is established. If the current node
has no available 1-hop neighbor nodes, it reverts to its previous-hop node and marks itself
as a block node.

The performance evaluation results indicate that TPGF can achieve the best
performance over previously existing protocols, by passing network holes using path
optimization. However, TPGF does not take into consideration the energy consumption
of the nodes and it assumes that all nodes are awake all the time (Bennis et al., 2013).

3.3 TPGF
In EA-TPGF the residual energy of the relay node is considered along with the
distance towards the base station in choosing the best next hop neighbor node. Every
relay node calculates a score (weight) for each neighbor node, and the node that has the
lowest score is chosen to participate in the transmission as part of the path (Bennis et al.,
2013).

When a node wants to transmit a packet to the base station through any neighbor
node, the source node checks the distance and the energy between all next hop neighbor
nodes towards the base station. For every new transfer of a batch of n packets (called a
“period”) the source node executes the protocol again, until the energy is totally
consumed in one of the nodes, and following Equation (1) the node chooses one of the
next hop neighbor nodes that has the minimum score:

21
 −𝛽
𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑗 (𝑖) = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝛼 × 𝐸𝑖 Eq. 1

Where J is the source node, S is the sink, D is the distance between next hop
neighbor node and the base station, E is the residual energy, I is the adjacent sensor, and
β and α are constants.

The energy cost of the transmission is calculated based on the model of energy
consumption and data transmission cost proposed by Heinzelman, Chandrakasan, &
Balakrishnan (2000), and assuming that all the packets have the same size Equations (2)
and (3) are applied:

𝐸𝑇𝑋 (𝐾, 𝐷) = 𝐾 × (𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐸𝐶 + 𝜖𝑎𝑚𝑝 × 𝐷2 ) Eq. 2

𝐸𝑅𝑋 (𝐾, 𝐷) = 𝐾 × 𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐸𝐶 Eq. 3

Where 𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐸𝐶 is the energy consumed by the transmitter, 𝜖𝑎𝑚𝑝 is the energy
consumed by the radio amplifier, D the distance of transmission in meters, and K is the
packet size in bits.

EA-TPGF protocol presents better energy management than TPGF protocol, but
with a higher end-to-end delay. The drawbacks of EA-TPGF are the following:

• There is no path recovery; the transmission process ends when any node has
consumed its energy. Thus, if there are more packets to be transmitted to the base
station over a single path, the transmission will end anyway. Thus, the
transmission is not guaranteed, and the network lifetime will be decreased.
• EA-TPGF has a high end-to-end delay due to the repetition of the establishment
of the current protocol over and over for each period. In other words, the
probability of choosing the same nodes for several periods is very high.
• EA-TPGF has a low energy exploitation. The protocol wastes time by choosing a
different path each period, although the first path, which has the shortest distance
towards the base station regarding the TPGF, can continue transferring more
packets, while all the other nodes in the network still have almost the full initial
energy.
• There is no mechanism to save wireless sensors’ energy.

Shu et al. (2010) investigated energy awareness over TPGF protocol with
Connected-K Neighborhood (CKN), whose defining characteristics is the average

22
number of paths and the length of path for TPGF algorithm. The network is duty-cycled,
whereby every node should repetitively have a number of random k neighbor nodes that
are awake, while the rest of the nodes are asleep during each epoch (i.e. a certain time
period). The results of CKN protocol compare the average number of paths and the
average path length of the TPGF protocol using random duty cycle approach to indicate
that it is not necessary to be able to discover more paths if all nodes are awake.

In EC-CKN the main consideration is the network lifetime via duty-cycling (Yuan
et al., 2011). The nodes that have the maximum residual energy are chosen to be active.
Each node knows all information about the 2-hop neighbors, which reduces the path
building overhead compared to CKN. The results of EC-CKN performance evaluation
include a comparison, in terms of network lifetime, between EC-CKN and CKN, whereby
Yuan et al. (2011) proved that EC-CKN has better network lifetime than CKN.

In Multi-Metric Geographic Routing (MC-TPGF) protocol Wang et al. (2010)

mainly considered end-to-end delay using two factors to control the choice of the best
neighbor node: the distance towards the base station and the sleep state of the node, which
is related to the remaining sleeping time of the node. MC-TPGF achieved better end-to-
end delay than TPGF with random duty-cycle. The multi-metric equation can be seen in
Equation (4):

𝑊 = 𝑎 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑖 + 𝑏 × 𝑠𝑖 Eq. 4

Where W is the weight, a and b are constants, 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑖 is the geographic distance
between the neighbor and the destination, and 𝑠𝑖 is the sleeping-delay of the neighbor at
the moment.

Evaluations of TPGF and EA-TPGF protocols using NS-2 simulation compared

with AODV protocol indicate that EA-TPGF has the highest average remaining energy
(Bennis et al., 2014; Guru, 2017).

3.4 Summary
This chapter has presented many interesting discussions related to the background
of this research, namely WSN, WMSN, routing protocols for WSN, WMSN and design
challenges for WMSN. Also, all the related works were presented related to the objectives
of the research. Research related to TPGF is summarized in Table 3.1.

23
Table 3.1: Summary of research related to TPGF.
Protocol Main Idea Pros Cons

TPGF Pure geographic Finds the shortest path Does not consider
greedy forwarding between source node and energy awareness.
routing algorithm. base station.

EA-TPGF Energy awareness Better energy Higher end-to-end delay

over TPGF. management than TPGF. than TPGF.

CKN Enhance the average Average number of paths Low energy efficiency
number of paths over over TPGF enhanced. and no energy
TPGF. management.

EC-CKN Enhance network Better network lifetime Low energy efficiency.

lifetime over CKN. than CKN.

MC-TPGF Enhance end-to-end Better end-to-end delay Low energy efficiency.

delay over TPGF. than TPGF.

24
 Chapter 4: Proposed Approach

This chapter presents the proposed method Energy-Aware Two-Phase Greedy-

Forwarding with Sleep Scheduling (EA-TPGF-SS), showing how it is performed in
detail, the steps of the proposed method, the pseudo code, and the process flow.

4.1 Overview
EA-TPGF-SS aims to overcome the drawbacks of EA-TPGF by enhancing the
energy consumption of the inactive relay nodes and hence extending the network lifetime
and delivering more data packets per joule. The main objectives of EA-TPGF-SS are to:

1. Establish a backup routing path in parallel to the active path before it expires for
faster switching to a new path.
2. Use sleep scheduling for inactive relay nodes in order to save remaining energy
and hence extend battery life to be potentially part of a later routing path.
3. Exploit each routing path to minimize the overhead of path building and
switching.

A sample of the network topology with relay nodes distributed randomly and
uniformly within the area 40 times can be seen in Figure 4.1, illustrating current path and
backup path. Note that the backup path is created after a warning threshold is triggered
from any node in the current path.

Figure 4.1: Sample network topology.

25
4.2 Operation of EA-TPGF-SS
The operation of the protocol is simplified in the following steps:

1. A routing path is established between the source node and the base station using
TPGF.
2. Each inactive relay node (i.e. not selected to be on the path) should apply a sleep-
scheduling process to conserve its remaining energy. Thus, it should periodically
go through predetermined periods of sleep and awake modes.
3. Each relay node on the path should periodically check its residual energy against
two thresholds: “warning threshold” and “dead threshold” (predetermined
thresholds to measure the residual energy percentage), and send corresponding
messages to the source node via the uplink relay node.
4. If the residual energy of the relay node becomes lower than the “warning
threshold”, but above the “dead threshold”, it sends a warning message to the
source node indicating that its energy has started to deplete. This triggers the
source node to start searching for an alternative path as a backup to the currently
active path without interrupting the current data transmission.
5. If the residual energy of the relay node falls below the “dead threshold”, it informs
the source node that its energy has nearly depleted and it is no longer able to relay
any more data packets. The source node then releases all the nodes on the current
path and begins transmitting on the backup path. The process is repeated on the
new routing path. Figure 4.2 shows a pseudo code of the proposed protocol.

Each process of EA-TPGF-SS is described in detail in the following sections.

26
Figure 4.2: The pseudo code of the proposed algorithm (EA-TPGF-SS).

27
4.2.1 Path establishment
When a source node wants to establish a path, it chooses the next hop relay node
based on a combined score of the distance towards the base station and the residual energy
of the relay node. The equation of the score can be found in Equation 1. Every next hop
relay node reiterates the same process until the path form the source node to the base
station is established. This way of choosing each next hop relay node can increase
network lifetime by choosing the next hop relay node that has the best residual energy
with the closest distance towards the base station, in order to have a path with the least
number of hops and with the best residual energy as an average.

It should be noted that the path establishment process is the same as the EA-TPGF
routing protocol path establishment process. With this mechanism of selecting each next-
hop relay node, the proposed method EA-TPGF-SS has an enhancement over CKN (Shu
et al., 2010), EC-CKN (Yuan et al., 2011) and MC-TPGF (Wang et al., 2010) routing
protocols regarding the residual energy consideration in choosing each next-hop relay
node.

4.2.2 Warning and dead threshold

Every node participating in the transmission process checks its residual energy at
periodic intervals. Whenever any relay node participating in the transmission process
exceeds the warning threshold, it creates a warning packet and sends it towards the source
node. The source node establishes a backup path in parallel with transmitting data packets
over the current path. The relay nodes of current path continue to check their residual
energy for dead threshold, and once any relay node of the current path exceeds the dead
threshold (which means that it will not be able to transmit data packets any more), it
creates a dead packet and sends it towards the source node in order to replace the current
path with the backup path to continue transmission process without losing any data
packets in streaming process.

It should be noted that the warning/dead thresholds levels are established in

advance. With warning and dead threshold mechanism, the proposed method EA-TPGF-
SS will have an enhancement over EA-TPGF routing protocol (Bennis et al., 2013)
regarding the routing path exploitation and the ability to establish a backup path in order
to enhance packet delivery ratio and end-to-end delay.

28
4.2.3 Duty cycling
Duty cycling is an energy-saving mechanism, as discussed previously, whereby
every node that is not participating in transmission process performs duty cycling in order
to reduce energy depletion due to unnecessarily sensing data transmission packets or due
to RX (receiving) state having more power than sleep state, which causes more energy
consumption over time.

Every node performs duty cycling by setting its radio to a sleep state for a certain
amount of time, and then awakes for a certain amount of time to be able to have a chance
to be chosen for a backup path. This mechanism saves energy and increases network
lifetime in WMSN.

Duty cycling operation is very useful for every relay node that is not participating
in the transmission process, especially the base station and the source node neighbor
nodes, because these relay nodes consume the most energy due to their sensing of the
sent data packets from the source node and the data packets received at the base station.
This mechanism can save nodes’ energy, which leads to having more discovered paths.

With duty cycling mechanism, the proposed method EA-TPGF-SS has an

enhancement over TPGF routing protocol (Shu et al., 2008, 2010) regarding the residual
energy consideration in order to enhance network lifetime.

4.3 EA-TPGF-SS process flow

The process flow of EA-TPGF-SS algorithm is described below.

EA-TPGF-SS process flow starts with the establishment of a routing path from
the source node to the destination. The source node begins transmitting data packets on
the established routing path. A path is established, as illustrated in Figure 4.3.

29
Figure 4.3: Path establishment and begin transmitting.

Simultaneously, each relay node participating in the transmission process will

periodically check its residual energy for the warning threshold, and if the energy exceeds
the warning threshold, it creates a warning packet and sends it towards the source node,
as displayed in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: Warning packet transmitting.

Once the source node receives a warning message, it begins searching for a
backup path in parallel. The establishment of a backup path is shown in Figure 4.5.

30
Figure 4.5: Backup path establishment.

The source node creates a backup path in parallel while it is transmitting data
packets over the current path. Once any node of the current path residual energy exceeds
the dead threshold, it creates a dead message and sends it towards the source node. This
scenario is shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6: Dead packet transmitting.

Once the source node receives a dead message, it releases all the nodes of the
current path and starts transmitting data packets over the backup path, as shown in Figure
4.7.

31
Figure 4.7: Continue transmitting data packet over the backup path.

The flowchart diagram shown in Figure 4.8 explains the flow of the proposed
method (EA-TPGF-SS algorithm).

32
Figure 4.8: Flowchart of the proposed algorithm (EA-TPGF-SS).

33
 Chapter 5: Performance Evaluation

5.1 Overview
This chapter evaluates the performance of the proposed protocol (EA-TPGF-SS)
in detail, presenting all of the results reached for the implemented routing protocols. The
performance metrics used are the number packets delivered, the achieved throughput, the
network lifetime, end-to-end delay, and the number of packets delivered per joule.

5.2 Testing platform

The performance of the proposed algorithm was evaluated and compared against
EA-TPGF via network simulation using Castalia wireless sensor and body area network
simulator (Rastegarnia & Solouk, 2012), which works under OMNET++ platform (Varga
& Hornig, 2008). Castalia network simulator is an open source network simulator
specialized in wireless sensor networks, which makes it preferable to other simulators.

5.3 Experimentations
Both EA-TPGF and the proposed method EA-TPGF-SS were implemented using
Castalia network simulator. The simulation parameters are listed in Table 5.1. In each
simulation experiment the relay nodes were distributed randomly and uniformly within
the area 40 times, each with a different random seed. Hence, the reported results are the
averages of the 40 trials. All performance metrics were evaluated and compared with EA-
TPGF for different relay node densities. According to Bennis et al. (2013), the “period”
is considered as a performance metric and is defined as “a successful transfer of a batch
of n packets”. At the end of each period, the relay nodes are released, and a new routing
path is discovered and built. In addition, the “network lifetime” is defined as the time
duration until the death (i.e. energy depletion) of the first node, which is not practically
appropriate. In this thesis, the routing path is utilized all the way until one of the relay
nodes dies. Therefore, there is no sense of the “period” in EA-TPGF-SS and the “network
lifetime” used here is the time duration until no more paths are found between the source
node and the base station.

In this thesis, EA-TPGF was evaluated using similar values of periods, number of
sensor nodes, transmission range, and packet size, as reported by Bennis et al. (2013),

34
and to have a fair comparison, the thesis definition of the “lifetime” was implemented in
both protocols.

Table 5.1: Main configuration parameters.

Parameter Value

Network size 400m×400m

Number of sensor nodes 300, 400, 500
Transmission range 60 m
Packet size 8000 bit
Data transmission rate 800 bps
Initial node energy 100 Joule
Sleep scheduling duty cycle 50%, 25% (EA-TPGF-SS)
Packets per period 20, 40 (EA-TPGF)
Warning threshold 50% of the initial energy
Dead threshold 5% of the initial energy

Performance metrics were evaluated and compared with EA-TPGF per network
lifetime. The reported results are normalized (Normalization (statistics)) based on
Equation (5):

𝑥𝑖 − min(𝑥)
𝑧𝑖 = Eq. 5
max(𝑥) − min(𝑥)

Where 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) and 𝑧𝑖 are the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ normalized data.

5.3.1 Number of packets delivered

The number of packets delivered is the average of the number of data packets sent
from the source node and delivered successfully to the base station. Figure 5.1 compares
the two protocols in terms of the number of packets delivered. It is obvious that the
number of packets delivered by EA-TPGF-SS is two- to three-fold that delivered by EA-
TPGF (Figure 5.2). There are three main reason for this. First, EA-TPGF-SS exploits the
routing path until a relay node dies, whereas EA-TPGF switches to a new path after a
certain number of sent packets, regardless of the energy status of the relay nodes. Second,
the EA-TPGF assumes that all nodes are awake all the time, which reduces the lifetime
of the node, limiting the number of routing paths that can be utilized, whereas in EA-
TPGF-SS the inactive nodes go to sleep periodically to save on energy consumption.
Third, the frequent switching to a new routing path increases the overhead on the nodes
in EA-TPGF, which makes them die faster than in EA-TPGF-SS.

35
Figure 5.1: Normalized number of packets delivered.

Figure 5.2: Number of packets delivered.

5.3.2 Network lifetime

Network lifetime is how long the network can be available and capable to connect
the source node to the base station. The number of packet delivered observations are

36
shown in Figure 5.3, which compares the network lifetimes achieved by each protocol. It
should be noted that the relative network lifetime is almost identical to that of the relative
number of delivered packets (Figure 5.4), which clearly indicates that putting the inactive
nodes into a simple sleep mode schedule allows the network to live much longer and to
have more delivered data packets.

Figure 5.3: Normalized network lifetime.

37
Figure 5.4: Network lifetime.

5.3.3 Packets per joule

Packets per joule is the number of data packets sent per joule as an average for all
relay nodes in the network. The number of packets delivered is shown in Figure 5.5,
which compares the delivered packet per joule achieved by each protocol. Note that the
relative delivered packet per joule is almost identical to that of the relative number of
delivered packets (Figure 5.6), which clearly indicates that the “dead threshold” strategy
makes the source node exploit each path as much as possible, which leads to having more
packets per joule.

38
Figure 5.5: Normalized packets per joule.

Figure 5.6: Packets per joule.

5.3.4 End-to-end delay

End-to-end delay is the average of data packets latency from the source node to
the base station. The results of end-to-end delay metric are shown in Figure 5.7,

39
presenting that EA-TPGF-SS can achieve 15-30% lower end-to-end delay than EA-
TPGF. There are three reasons for this. First, EA-TPGF-SS exploits the routing path until
a relay node on the path dies, whereas EA-TPGF switches to another path after a certain
number of transmitted packets, which increases the packet overhead caused by
discovering and switching to new paths more frequently. Second, EA-TPGF-SS
discovers an alternative backup path shortly before the current path dies, which reduces
the overhead of waiting for a new path to be discovered (which is incurred with EA-
TPGF). Third, as TPGF guarantees the discovery of the shortest available path, each new
path is usually longer than the one before, which automatically adds more delay in the
packet delivery (Figure 5.8).

Figure 5.7: Normalized end-to-end delay.

40
Figure 5.8: End-to-end delay.

5.3.5 Throughput
Throughput represents the effective number of data bits per second sent from the
source node to the base station. The benefits that came from the number of total packets
delivered, network lifetime, and the end-to-end delay shows that the throughput achieved
by EA-TPGF is 12-18% higher than that by EA-TPGF-SS (Figure 5.9). Note that the
throughput is normalized by the input data rate used by the source node. It is evident that
the drop in the throughput is caused by the packet loss, especially as the packet delay is
improved, as discussed earlier. In fact, this was a bit surprising, given the significant
improvement in the amount of delivered data and packet delivery time. After some
investigation, it was found that most of the packet loss occurs at the end of the network
lifetime, especially as the remaining energy of most inactive relay nodes drops below the
warning threshold. When the source node is forced to select at least one such node on a
backup path, nodes tend to reach the dead threshold and die suddenly, causing the
transmitted packets that are yet to be delivered to be lost. Note that at this stage of the
protocol, the routing paths are the longest, and hence the number of in-transit packets are
larger than earlier and shorter paths.

Due to the longer network lifetime in EA-TPGF-SS, as the source node builds
more routing paths, each new path is longer than the previous paths since TPGF

41
guarantees the discovery of the shortest available routing path. These longer paths cause
number of hops for each path to increase, which in turn causes the overall throughput to
drop (Figure 5.10), which is not really a drawback.

Figure 5.9: Normalized achieved throughput.

Figure 5.10: Throughput.

42
5.3.6 Packet delivery ratio
Packet delivery ratio is the ratio of successfully delivered data packets to the total
data packets sent. Figure 5.11 shows that EA-TPGF has a higher packet delivery ratio
than EA-TPGF-SS, by about 12-18%. The reason EA-TPGF-SS loses more data packets
is that when a relay node is chosen after it exceeds the warning threshold, it sends a death
message to the source node without a warning message. As the source node did not
establish any backup path yet, it begins to establish a new path, and during this time
packets will be lost. Note that packet delivery ratio evaluation was performed per network
lifetime, which describes why EA-TPGF-SS losses more data packets. Due to the longer
network lifetime, EA-TPGF-SS loses data packets in the late levels of the network
lifetime, which is not really a drawback.

Figure 5.11: Packet delivery ratio.

5.3.7 Number of relay nodes

The number of relay nodes that participated in the transmission process is shown
in Figure 5.12. It can be seen that EA-TPGF-SS has more participating relay nodes in the
transmission process than EA-TPGF, which indicates that backup path mechanism,
warning/dead threshold mechanism, and sleep scheduling mechanism can use more relay
nodes to participate in the transmission process. This increases the number of available

43
paths for the source node and the number of delivered packets, and accounts for the slight
decrease in the packet delivery ratio and throughput.

Figure 5.12: Number of relay nodes.

5.3.8 Summary
Comparative analysis reveals that the proposed algorithm significantly improves
the network lifetime, the number of delivered packets, the packet end-to-end delay, and
the energy cost per packet. However, these improvements come at a slight cost of reduced
packet delivery ratio, which causes a slight drop in the network throughput.

44
 Chapter 6: Conclusion and Future Work

This chapter states what has been accomplished in this thesis, summarizes the
observed results, and outlines future work that can be performed in the research areas
addressed in this work.

6.1 Conclusion
This research introduced EA-TPGF-SS, an enhanced geographical routing
protocol for wireless multimedia sensor network with energy awareness and sleep
scheduling. The proposed protocol allows inactive relay nodes to periodically go to sleep
mode in order to reduce energy consumption and to wake up occasionally to listen for
requests to join a new routing path. It also allows the relay node to warn the source node
about residual energy status in order to maintain a backup path shortly before any active
relay nodes’ energy depletes. The performance of the proposed approach was evaluated
via network simulation and was compared against an existing similar protocol, using six
different metrics (number of delivered packets, network lifetime, packets per joule, end-
to-end delay, throughput and PDR). The comparative analysis revealed that the proposed
algorithm can significantly improve the network lifetime, the number of delivered
packets, the packet end-to-end delay, and the energy cost per packet. However, these
improvements come at a slight cost of reduced packet delivery ratio that causes a slight
drop in the network throughput.

6.2 Future work

Future work should investigate the cause of degradation in packet delivery ratio
in depth with a view to developing solutions. Moreover, the warning and the dead
threshold can be tested to make them adaptive with the network lifetime.

45
 References

Abazeed, M., Faisal, N., Zubair, S., & Ali, A. (2013). Routing protocols for
wireless multimedia sensor network: a survey. Journal of Sensors, 1-11.
doi:10.1155/2013/469824.

Akyildiz, I. F., Melodia, T., & Chowdhury, K. R. (2007). A survey on wireless

multimedia sensor networks. Computer networks, 51(4), 921-960 .

Al-Karaki, J. N., & Kamal, A. E. (2004). Routing techniques in wireless sensor

networks: a survey. IEEE Wireless Communications, 11(6), 6-28 .

Al Nuaimi, M., Sallabi, F., & Shuaib, K. (2011). A survey of wireless

multimedia sensor networks challenges and solutions. International
Conference on Innovations in Information Technology.
doi:10.1109/innovations.2011.5893815.

Anastasi, G., Conti, M., Di Francesco, M., & Passarella, A. (2009). Energy
conservation in wireless sensor networks: A survey. Ad hoc networks,
7(3), 537-568 .

Awad, F., Banimelhem, O., & Al-Rousan, N. (2011). The potential of using
network coding with geographical forwarding routing for wireless
multimedia sensor networks. IEEE 11th International Conference on
Computer and Information Technology. doi:10.1109/cit.2011.71.

Ba, H., Demirkol, I., & Heinzelman, W. (2013). Passive wake-up radios: From
devices to applications. Ad hoc networks, 11(8), 2605-2621 .

Bachir, A., Bechkit, W., Challal, Y., & Bouabdallah, A. (2013). Temperature-
aware density optimization for low power wireless sensor networks.
IEEE Communications Letters, 17(2), 325-328 .

Bennis, I., Fouchal, H., Zytoune, O., & Aboutajdine, D. (2014). An evaluation
of the tpgf protocol implementation over ns-2. IEEE International
Conference on Communications (ICC). doi:10.1109/icc.2014.6883356.

Bennis, I., Zytoune, O., Aboutajdine, D., & Fouchal, H. (2013). Low energy
geographical routing protocol for wireless multimedia sensor networks.
9th International Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing
Conference (IWCMC). doi:10.1109/iwcmc.2013.6583623.

Bhandary, V., Malik, A., & Kumar, S. (2016). Routing in wireless multimedia
sensor networks: a survey of existing protocols and open research
issues. Journal of Engineering , 1-27. doi:10.1155/2016/9608757.

Chen, M., & Gonzalez, S. (2007). Applications and design issues for mobile
agents in wireless sensor networks. IEEE Wireless Communications,
14(6), 20-26. doi:10.1109/mwc.2007.4407223 .

46
Chu, X., & Sethu, H. (2012). Cooperative topology control with adaptation for
improved lifetime in wireless ad hoc networks.

Dietrich, I., & Dressler, F. (2009). On the lifetime of wireless sensor networks.
ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks (TOSN), 5(1), 5.

Do, T. T., Chen, Y., Nguyen, D. T., Nguyen, N., Gan, L., & Tran, T. D. (2009,
November). Distributed compressed video sensing. 43rd Annual
Conference on Information Sciences and Systems.
doi:10.1109/ciss.2009.5054678.

Ergen, S. C., & Varaiya, P. (2006). Optimal placement of relay nodes for
energy efficiency in sensor networks. IEEE International Conference on
Communications. doi:10.1109/icc.2006.255610.

Fasolo, E., Rossi, M., Widmer, J., & Zorzi, M. (2007). In-network aggregation
techniques for wireless sensor networks: a survey. IEEE Wireless
Communications, 14(2), 70-87. doi:10.1109/mwc.2007.358967.

Gui, T., Ma, C., Wang, F., & Wilkins, D. E. (2016, March). Survey on swarm
intelligence based routing protocols for wireless sensor networks: An
extensive study. In Industrial Technology (ICIT), IEEE International
Conference on Industrial Technology (ICIT).
doi:10.1109/icit.2016.7475064.

Guru, R. (2017). Energy Aware TPGF Protocol in Wireless Multimedia Sensor

Networks. Energy, 7(3).

Hedetniemi, S. M., Hedetniemi, S. T., & Liestman, A. L. (1988). A survey of

gossiping and broadcasting in communication networks. Networks,
18(4), 319-349. doi:10.1002/net.3230180406.

Heinzelman, W. R., Chandrakasan, A., & Balakrishnan, H. (2000). Energy-

efficient communication protocol for wireless microsensor networks.
Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Hawaii International Conference on
System Sciences. doi:10.1109/hicss.2000.926982.

Intanagonwiwat, C., Govindan, R., & Estrin, D. (2000). Directed diffusion: A

scalable and robust communication paradigm for sensor networks.
Proceedings of the 6th annual international conference on Mobile
computing and networking - MobiCom 00. doi:10.1145/345910.345920.

Jones, C. E., Sivalingam, K. M., Agrawal, P., & Chen, J. C. (2001). A survey of
energy efficient network protocols for wireless networks. Energy
Efficient Network Protocols for Wireless and Mobile Networks.
doi:10.21236/ada400626.

Jung-Chun Kao (Mike) Research interests. Retrieved from

http://www.cs.nthu.edu.tw/~jungchuk/research.html. On the date of
Dec-20-2017.

47
Karl, H., & Willig, A. (2007). Protocols and Architectures for Wireless Sensor
Networks, 289-329. doi:10.1002/0470095121.ch11.

Kimura, N., & Latifi, S. (2005). A survey on data compression in wireless

sensor networks. International Conference on Information Technology:
Coding and Computing (ITCC05) - Volume II.
doi:10.1109/itcc.2005.43.

Kumar, D., Aseri, T. C., & Patel, R. (2009). EEHC: Energy efficient
heterogeneous clustered scheme for wireless sensor networks. Computer
Communications, 32(4), 662-667. doi:10.1016/j.comcom.2008.11.025.

Lan, Y., Wenjing, W., & Fuxiang, G. (2008, June). A real-time and energy
aware QoS routing protocol for multimedia wireless sensor networks.
2008 7th World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation.
doi:10.1109/wcica.2008.4594494.

Li, H., Liu, Y., Chen, W., Jia, W., Li, B., & Xiong, J. (2013). COCA:
Constructing optimal clustering architecture to maximize sensor
network lifetime. Computer Communications, 36(3), 256-268.
doi:10.1016/j.comcom.2012.10.006 .

Liang, W., Luo, J., & Xu, X. (2010). Prolonging network lifetime via a
controlled mobile sink in wireless sensor networks. IEEE Global
Telecommunications Conference GLOBECOM 2010.
doi:10.1109/glocom.2010.5683095.

Lin, C., He, Y.-X., & Xiong, N .)2006( .An energy-efficient dynamic power
management in wireless sensor networks. Fifth International
Symposium on Parallel and Distributed Computing.
doi:10.1109/ispdc.2006.8.

Lindsey, S., & Raghavendra, C. S. (2002). PEGASIS: Power-efficient gathering

in sensor information systems. Proceedings, IEEE Aerospace
Conference. doi:10.1109/aero.2002.1035242.

Liu, A., Ren, J., Li, X., Chen, Z., & Shen, X. S. (2012). Design principles and
improvement of cost function based energy aware routing algorithms for
wireless sensor networks. Computer Networks, 56(7), 1951-1967.
doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2012.01.023.

Masonta, M., Haddad, Y., De Nardis, L., Kliks, A., & Holland, O. (2012).
Energy efficiency in future wireless networks: Cognitive radio
standardization requirements. IEEE 17th International Workshop on
Computer Aided Modeling and Design of Communication Links and
Networks (CAMAD). doi:10.1109/camad.2012.6335359.

Melodia, T., & Akyildiz, I. F. (2011). Research challenges for wireless

multimedia sensor networks. Distributed Video Sensor Networks, 233-
246. doi:10.1007/978-0-85729-127-1_16.

48
MEMSEC MICAz mote specifications. Retrieved from
http://www.memsic.com/userfiles/files/Datasheets/WSN/micaz_datashe
et-t.pdf On the date of Dec-20-2017.

MEMSEC TelosB mote specifications. Retrieved from

http://www.memsic.com/userfiles/files/Datasheets/WSN/telosb_datashe
et.pdf On the date of Dec-20-2017.

Normalization (statistics). Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normalization_(statistics) On the date of
Dec-20-2017.

Nosratinia, A., Hunter, T. E., & Hedayat, A. (2004). Cooperative

communication in wireless networks. IEEE Communications Magazine,
42(10), 74-80. doi:10.1109/mcom.2004.1341264.

Radi, M., Dezfouli, B., Bakar, K. A., & Lee, M. (2012). Multipath routing in
wireless sensor networks: survey and research challenges. Sensors,
12(12), 650-685. doi:10.3390/s120100650.

Rastegarnia, A., & Solouk, V. (2012). Castalia Network Animator (CNA): A

Visualization Tool for Castalia Wireless Sensor Network Simulator.
Ninth International Conference on Information Technology - New
Generations. doi:10.1109/itng.2012.15.

Sharif, A., Potdar, V., & Chang, E. (2009, June). Wireless multimedia sensor
network technology: A survey. 7th IEEE International Conference on
Industrial Informatics. doi:10.1109/indin.2009.5195872.

Shu, L., Yuan, Z., Hara, T., Wang, L., & Zhang, Y. (2010). Impacts of duty-
cycle on TPGF geographical multipath routing in wireless sensor
networks. IEEE 18th International Workshop on Quality of Service
(IWQoS). doi:10.1109/iwqos.2010.5542706.

Shu, L., Zhang, Y., Yang, L. T., Wang, Y., & Hauswirth, M. (2008).
Geographic routing in wireless multimedia sensor networks. Paper
presented at the Future Generation Communication and Networkin.
doi:10.18297/etd/1645.

Shu, L., Zhang, Y., Yang, L. T., Wang, Y., Hauswirth, M., & Xiong, N. (2010).
TPGF: geographic routing in wireless multimedia sensor networks.
Telecommunication Systems, 44(1-2), 79-95. doi:10.1007/s11235-009-
9227-0.

Sudevalayam, S & ,.Kulkarni, P. (2011). Energy harvesting sensor nodes:

Survey and implications. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials,
13(3), 443-461. doi:10.1109/surv.2011.060710.00094.

Sugihara, R., & Gupta, R. K. (2009). Optimizing energy-latency trade-off in

sensor networks with controlled mobilit, IEEE INFOCOM 2009 - The

49
 28th Conference on Computer Communications.
doi:10.1109/infcom.2009.5062188.

Varga, A., & Hornig, R. (2008). An overview of the OMNeT++ simulation

environment. Proceedings of the First International ICST Conference on
Simulation Tools and Techniques for Communications Networks and
Systems. doi:10.4108/icst.simutools2008.3027.

Wang ,K., Wang, L., Ma, C., Shu, L., & Rodrigues, J. (2010). Geographic
routing in random duty-cycled wireless multimedia sensor networks.
IEEE Globecom Workshops. doi:10.1109/glocomw.2010.5700316.

Wang, Y. L., Mei, S. O. N. G., Wei, Y. F., Wang, Y. H., & Wang, X. J. (2014).
Improved ant colony-based multi-constrained QoS energy-saving
routing and throughput optimization in wireless Ad-hoc networks. The
Journal of China Universities of Posts and Telecommunications, 21(1),
43-59. doi:10.1016/s1005-8885(14)60267-3.

Wang, S., Vasilakos, A., Jiang, H., Ma, X., Liu, W., Peng, K., . . . Dong, Y.
(2011). Energy efficient broadcasting using network coding aware
protocol in wireless ad hoc network. IEEE International Conference on
Communications (ICC). doi:10.1109/icc.2011.5962913.

Xie, L., Shi, Y., Hou, Y. T., & Lou, A .)2013( .Wireless power transfer and
applications to sensor networks. IEEE Wireless Communications, 20(4),
140-145. doi:10.1109/mwc.2013.6590061 .

Xu, Y., Heidemann, J., & Estrin, D. (2001). Geography-informed energy

conservation for ad hoc routing. Proceedings of the 7th annual
international conference on Mobile computing and networking -
MobiCom 01. doi:10.1145/381677.381685.

Younis, M., & Akkaya, K. (2008). Strategies and techniques for node
placement in wireless sensor networks: A survey. Ad Hoc Networks,
6(4), 621-655. doi:10.1016/j.adhoc.2007.05.003 .

Yu, Y., Govindan, R., & Estrin, D .)2001( .Geographical and energy aware
routing: A recursive data dissemination protocol for wireless sensor
networks. UCLA Computer Science Department Technical Report,
UCLA-CSD TR-01-0023 .

Yuan, Z., Wang, L., Shu, L., Hara, T., & Qin, Z. (2011). A balanced energy
consumption sleep scheduling algorithm in wireless sensor networks.
7th International Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing
Conference. doi:10.1109/iwcmc.2011.5982654.

50
 ‫)الملخص( ‪Abstract in Arabic‬‬

‫بروتوكول مدرك للطاقة لتوجيه وصيانة المسارات في شبكات االستشعار الالسلكية متعددة‬
‫الوسائط‪.‬‬

‫الطالب‪:‬‬

‫ابراهيم أحمد العفيف‪.‬‬

‫المشرف‪:‬‬

‫د‪ .‬نائلة الماضي‪.‬‬

‫المشرف المشارك‪:‬‬

‫د‪ .‬فهد عوض‪.‬‬

‫الملخص‬

‫حصلت شبكات االستشعار الالسلكية متعددة الوسائط على أهمية كبيرة نظراً الستخدامها في تطبيقات عدة في بث‬
‫الوسائط المتعددة عبرها‪ ،‬كالمراقبة والبث المباشر للغابات والمناطق العسكرية‪ .‬لكن تكمن مشكلة شبكات االستشعار‬
‫الالسلكية متعددة الوسائط في طاقتها المحدودة‪ ،‬وحاجتها الى متطلبات خاصة بالتطبيقات المستخدمة لها‪ ،‬وسرعة في‬
‫االرسال‪ .‬تلك المشاكل تجعلها غير قادرة على االستمرار في بث الوسائط المتعددة من المصدر الى محطة المركز‪،‬‬
‫لذلك ظهرت مجموعة من البروتوكوالت لتحسين أداء تلك المشاكل عن طريق تنظيم ارسال وبث الوسائط المتعددة‬
‫من المصدر الى محطة المركز‪.‬‬

‫تختلف بروتوكوالت شبكات االستشعار الالسلكية متعددة الوسائط حسب التطبيق المستخدم لها وما يواجهه التطبيق‬
‫من مشاكل‪ ،‬فكل بروتوكول يحاول حل مشكلة معينة لتطبيق معين‪ .‬حيث أن من اهم المشاكل التي تعاني منها شبكات‬
‫االستشعار الالسلكية متعددة الوسائط هي الطاقة‪ ،‬حيث تستسهلك الكثير من الطاقة نظراً للحجم الكبير للوسائط‬
‫المتعددة‪.‬‬

‫‪51‬‬
‫هذه الرسالة تطرح بروتوكول يهتم بإدارة الطاقة وحفظها لشبكات االستشعار متعددة الوسائط لزيادة عمر تلك الشبكة‪.‬‬
‫يحدث ذلك من خالل دخول أجهزة االستشعار الالسلكية الغير مشاركة بعملية االرسال لحاالت متقطعة من تغيير‬
‫الطور ما بين طور النوم وطور الحياة‪ ،‬وتنبيه المصدر إلنشاء خط إرسال احتياطي للتحويل اليه بشكل سريع الحقاً‪،‬‬
‫واستغالل كل خط إرسال قدر اإلمكان‪.‬‬

‫أثبتت النتائج أن البروتوكول المطروح في هذه الرسالة انه يستطيع ادارة موارد الطاقة لدى شبكات االستشعار‬
‫الالسلكية متعددة الوسائط‪ ،‬وزيادة عمر الشبكة‪ ،‬وزيادة عدد الحزم المرسلة‪ ،‬وزيادة نسبة كمية الحزم المرسلة بالنسبة‬
‫الى الطاقة المستهلكة مقارنة ببعض البروتوكوالت المطروحة مسبقاً‪.‬‬

‫‪52‬‬
 ProQuest Number: 28022187

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

The quality and completeness of this reproduction is dependent on the quality
and completeness of the copy made available to ProQuest.

Distributed by ProQuest LLC ( 2021 ).

Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author unless otherwise noted.

This work may be used in accordance with the terms of the Creative Commons license
or other rights statement, as indicated in the copyright statement or in the metadata
associated with this work. Unless otherwise specified in the copyright statement
or the metadata, all rights are reserved by the copyright holder.

This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17,

United States Code and other applicable copyright laws.

Microform Edition where available © ProQuest LLC. No reproduction or digitization

of the Microform Edition is authorized without permission of ProQuest LLC.

ProQuest LLC
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346 USA