Ministry of Secondary Education Republic of Cameroon

Progressive Comprehensive High School Peace – Work – Fatherland

 §* *
PCHS Mankon – Bamenda SCHOOL YEAR 2014/2015
Department of Computer Studies

COMPUTER NETWORK & DATA COMMUNUCATION

Class: Upper Sixth By: DZEUGANG PLACIDE

Today computer is available in many offices and homes and therefore there is a need to share
data and programs among various computers. With the advancement of data communication
facilities the communication between computers has increased and thus it has extended the
power of computer beyond the computer room. Now a user sitting at one place can communicate
with computers of any remote site through communication channel. The aim of this lesson is to
introduce you the various aspects of computer network and data communication.

Learning objectives

It is expected that after going through this lesson, you would be able to
- Understand basics of the various types network technologies in the area of computers,
Local Area Network (LAN) and different components of computer network
- explain the features and the use of computer network and data communication
- describe the OSI model and its 7 layers
- Give some network security problems and eventual solutions

Contents
I. BASIC NETWORKING CONCEPTS ................................................................................................. 2
II. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER NETWORK ............................................................................ 4
III. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES ............................................................................................................. 6
IV. COMMUNICATION OVER NETWORK ..................................................................................... 11
V. TRANSMISSION MEDIA ................................................................................................................. 13
VI. COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS ............................................................................................. 17
VII. LAN TECHNOLOGIES ................................................................................................................. 19
VIII. NETWORK ADRESSING ............................................................................................................. 22
IX. NETWORK SECURITY ................................................................................................................ 23

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I. BASIC NETWORKING CONCEPTS

I.1- Definition and Network Basics

Networking is the concept of sharing resources and services. A network is a set of interconnected
objects (roads, computers, …) with something to share. A computer network is therefore a group of
interconnected computer systems sharing resources and interacting using a shared communications
link. All networks must have the following:

- A resource to share (resource)

- A pathway to transfer data (transmission medium)
- A set of rules governing how to communicate (protocols)

I.2- BENEFITS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

Specifically, networks are about sharing three things: information, resources, and applications.

 Sharing information: networks allow users to communicate with each other in various ways:
email, chat, forums, etc.
 Sharing resources: Certain computer resources, such as printers or hard drives, can be set up
so that network users can share them. Sharing hard drives involves also sharing of files and
folders. A network can be used to share an Internet connection.
 Sharing applications: several users can work together on a single business application.

Apart from sharing, other benefits of a computer network are:

 Flexible Access: Networks allow their users to access files from computers throughout the
network.
 Reducing of cost: Instead of buying a printer for each computer of a big network, a single
printer can be shared, and then cost is considerably reduced

I.3- DOWNSIDES (SHORTCOMMINGS) OF NETWORKING

Although networks are one of the best things that ever happened to computers, not everything about
networks is rosy. The following sections describe some disadvantages of using a network:

 Viruses: If a virus is introduced to the network, either intentionally or unintentionally, it will

rapidly spread around all of the workstations and could start to cause havoc to peoples' files
or to the efficient working of the network.
 Network failure: If the file server fails then no-one on the network can access any files or
folders. This means that nobody can do any work. For an organization, this would be
extremely costly and disruptive.

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 Slow service: As more users log onto the network and request files, send things to be printed
and open more software applications, the network can start to slow down.
 Cost: Building a network isn't cheap.

I.4- Networking hardware

Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment
needed to perform data-processing and communications within the network. Some examples of
networking hardware are: File Servers, Workstations, Network Interface Cards, Hubs, Switches,
Repeaters, Bridges, and Routers:

 Workstations: Each user computers connected to a network is called workstations. A typical

workstation is a computer that is configured with a network interface card, networking
software, and the appropriate cables.
 Network Interface Cards(NIC): It is an internal device that provides the physical connection
between the network and the computer workstation.
 Hub: In general, a hub refers to a hardware device that enables multiple devices or connections
to be connected to a computer. It is the most basic networking device that connects multiple
computers or other network devices together.
 Switch: It is a hardware device that filters and forwards packets through the network, but often
not capable of much more. Switches (or concentrators) work the same way as hubs, but they
can identify the intended destination of the information that they receive, so they send that
information to only the computers that are supposed to receive it.
 Repeaters: Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary to boost
the signal with a device called a repeater. The repeater electrically amplifies the signal it
receives and rebroadcasts it.
 Bridges: A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two smaller,
more efficient networks. The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on
both sides of the network. Bridges must be used between networks with the same protocol.
 Routers: A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks, creating
an overlay internetwork. A router has a lot more capabilities than other network devices such
as a hub or a switch that are only able to perform basic network functions.
 Gateway: A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. When a
computer server serves as a Gateway node, the gateway node also operates as a firewall and a
proxy server.
 Firewall: A software utility or hardware device that limits outside network access to a
computer or local network by blocking or restricting ports. Firewalls are a great step for
helping prevent un-authorized access to a company or home network.
 Modem: The Modem is a hardware device that enables a computer to send and receive
information over telephone lines by converting the digital data used by your computer into an

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analog signal used on phone lines (modulation) and then converting it back once received on
the other end (demodulation).
 Proxy: A proxy is a computer server or software program that is part of the gateway server or
another computer that separates a local network from outside networks. A proxy server will
cache all pages accessed through the network allowing users who may wish to visit that same
page to load it faster and reduce the networks bandwidth.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer networks can be classify in different ways: according to the geographical area covered, the
strategy used or type of connection

II.1 ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF CONNECTION

According to the type of connection, there exist two types of connections. Wired connection and
wireless connection

II.1.1 Wired connection

A wired network is when you physically connect your computer or other compatible device to your
Super Hub with an Ethernet cable. The best thing about a wired connection is the reliability and speed
it gives you (wired is faster than wireless). This makes it ideal for things that use a lot of bandwidth,
like playing online games on your Xbox.

II.1.2 Wireless connection

A wireless network, as its name would suggest, is a network of computers and computer peripherals
that are connected to each other without wires.

Advantages
 It is easier to add or move workstations.
 It is easier to provide connectivity in areas where it is difficult to lay cable.
 Installation is fast and easy, and it can eliminate the need to pull cable through walls and
ceilings.
 Access to the network can be from anywhere within range of an access point.
Disadvantages
 As the number of computers using the network increases, the data transfer rate to each
computer will decrease accordingly.
 As standards change, it may be necessary to replace wireless cards and/or access points.
 Security is more difficult to guarantee and requires configuration.
 Devices will only operate at a limited distance from an access point.

II.2 ACCORDING TO THE GEOGRAPHICAL AREA COVERED

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According to the geographical area covered, there exist three main types of network: LAN, MAN and
WAN

II.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a computer network that spans only a small geographical area such as an office, home
building or closed buildings. A LAN is useful to share resources like files, printers, games and other
application. The infrastructure in a LAN is private. The distance between computers in a LAN cannot
be more than 15 Km. Ex: A school network

II.2.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is a network of computers spread over a city or closed cities. It may be a single network such
as a cable television network, or it may be many LANS connected together. A MAN may be operated
by one organization (with several offices in one city) or be shared and used by several organizations in
the same city. It can be either a private network or a public network. Ex: A network of all the agencies
of CAMCCUL in Bamenda

II.2.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN is a system of interconnecting many computer over a large geographical area such as states,
countries or even the whole world. These kind of networks use telephone lines, satellite link and other
long-range communication technologies to connect. Such networks are design to serve an area of
hundreds kilometres such as national telephone network. For instance a company like Express Union
with agencies at Fundong, Bamenda, Douala, Bafoussam, Yaoundé use a WAN to connect all its
agencies. Although a WAN may be owned or rented by private business, it is usually a public network,
designed to connect LANs or MANs together. The most known and the largest WAN is Internet.

II.3 ACCORDING TO THE STRATEGY USED

According to the strategy used there exist two main types of network: Client/Server network and Peer
to Peer (P2P) network:

II.3.1 Client/server networks

Computers that perform a service on behalf of other network devices are called servers. There are
several types of servers. For example, a computer that provides other network nodes with access to
network storage devices is called a file server. Print servers provide other network nodes with access
to network printers. Computers that use the services of a server are called clients. Networks in which
servers control access to network storage and other network resources are called client/server
networks. In a Client/server network, the role of the server is to provide services demanded by client
computers

II.3.2 Peer-to-peer networks

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Computers that perform similar functions on a network are called peers. Networks in which no single,
centralized computer controls network functions are called peer-to-peer networks. The idea of peer-to-
peer networking is that each computer on the network can be both a server and a client. Since any
computer on the network can share a resource for other to use. Users can configure their computers so
that they can share directories or printers with other users on the network. All computers are considered
to have equal, or peer, status.

II.3.3 Comparison between Peer to Peer network and Client/Server network

Strategy Advantages Disadvantages

· Heavy processing power can be localized when needed. · Administrative tasks not
Client/Server

· Overall installation costs are less than a hierarchical entirely centralized.

network. · Expensive to add nodes.
· Servers provide clients with access to shared printers,
network storage (including sharedapplications), network
security features, and other network resources.
· Relatively inexpensive to implement, can often be · Decentralized
implemented on existing equipment. administration.
P2P

· Potentially, all resources can be made available over a · Security can be difficult to
network. control
· Processing power can be localized to the point of need.

III. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.)
of a computer network. Network topologies may be physical or logical. Physical topology means the
physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical topology
refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as opposed to its physical design. Topology can
be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network, for it not correspond to the actual physical
design of the devices on the computer network. The computers on a home network can be arranged in a
circle but it does not necessarily mean that it represents a ring topology.

III.1 Physical Topology

It is the physical configuration of a network that determines how the network's computers are
connected. Common configurations include the bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star
topology, tree topology and hybrid topology.

III.1.1- Bus Topology

Bus Topology is the simplest of network topologies.
In this type of topology, all the nodes (computers as
well as servers) are connected to the single cable, by

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the help of interface connectors. This central cable is the backbone of the network and is known as Bus.
Every workstation communicates with the other device through this Bus. A signal from the source is
broadcasted and it travels to all workstations connected to bus cable. Although the message is
broadcasted but only the intended recipient, whose MAC address or IP address matches, accepts it. A
terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to prevent bouncing of signals. A barrel connector can
be used to extend it.

Advantages (benefits) of Linear Bus Topology

1) It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.

2) Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other networks.
3) Bus topology costs very less.
4) Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.

Disadvantages (Drawbacks) of Linear Bus Topology

1) There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be connected.
2) Dependency on central cable in this topology has its disadvantages. If the main cable (i.e. bus)
encounters some problem, whole network breaks down.
3) It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.
4) Maintenance costs can get higher with time.
5) Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices connected to it increases.
6) It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.
7) Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal from the source.

III.2- Ring Topology

In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to each-other in such a
way that they make a closed loop. Each workstation is connected to
two other components on either side, and it communicates with these
two adjacent neighbors. Data travels around the network, in one
direction. Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of
TOKEN. Token contains a piece of information which along with
data is sent by the source computer.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1) This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data when it
receives an empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision.
2) Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of Bus
topology.
3) There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations.
4) Additional components do not affect the performance of network.

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5) Each computer has equal access to resources.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1) Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination. This
makes it slower than Star topology.
2) If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
3) Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.

III.3- Star Topology

In Star topology, all the components of network are
connected to a central device which may be a hub, a
router or a switch. All the data on the star topology passes
through the central device before reaching the intended
destination. This later acts as a junction to connect
different nodes present in Star Network, and at the same
time it manages and controls whole of the network.

Advantages of Star Topology

1) As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance, signals don’t necessarily get
transmitted to all the workstations.
2) Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology nodes can be added or removed easily
without affecting rest of the network.
3) Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
4) Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network. At the same time it’s easy to detect
the failure and troubleshoot it.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1) If the central device fails whole network goes down.

2) The use of an extra central device increases the overall cost of the network.
3) Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in
such topology is depended on capacity of central device.

III.4- Tree Topology

Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus Topology.
In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks are connected using
Bus. This main cable seems like a main stem of a tree, and other star
networks as the branches. It is also called Expanded Star Topology.
Ethernet protocol is commonly used in this type of topology.

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Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Expansion of Network is possible and easy.

2. Here, we divide the whole network into segments (star networks), which can be easily managed and
maintained.
3. Error detection and correction is easy.
4. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it breaks whole
network is crippled.
2. As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult.
3. Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.

III.5- Mesh topology

In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices, are interconnected
with one another. Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other nodes. In
fact a true mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1) Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This

topology can withstand high traffic.
2) Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative
present. So data transfer doesn’t get affected.
3) Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting
other nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1) There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.

2) Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies.
3) Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the network is
tough.

III.6 Hybrid topology

Similarly in this type of topology we integrate two or
more different topologies to form a resultant topology
which has good points (as well as weaknesses) of all the
constituent basic topologies rather than having
characteristics of one specific topology.

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Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology

1) Reliable : Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this type of
topology.
2) Scalable: It’s easy to increase the size of network by adding new components, without disturbing
existing architecture.
3) Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of the organization and by
optimizing the available resources.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1) Complexity of Design: It’s not easy to design this type of architecture and it’s a tough job for
designers. Configuration and installation process needs to be very efficient.
2) Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very expensive. These hubs are
different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to work with different
architectures and should be function even if a part of network is down.
3) Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they require a lot of
cables; cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.

III.2 Logical topology

The logical topology defines how the systems communicate across the physical topologies. Logical
topologies are bound to network protocols and describe how data is moved across the network.
Different network access existing are: CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA and Token Passing

a) CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)

Ethernet uses CSMA/CD to manage media access, as defined in the IEEE 802.3 specification. Devices
that have data to transmit listen for an opening on the line before transmitting (Carrier Sense) and
when a device detects an opening, it transmits its data. However, several devices may simultaneously
sense that the line is clear and they may all transmit at the same time. If this happens, the data packets
collide and the data is lost. This is called a collision.

Using the CSMA/CD protocol, the devices will each detect that a collision has occurred (collision
detection) and each of them will wait a random amount of time before retransmitting. The likelihood of
two or more devices randomly selecting the same delay is almost zero, so retransmission is likely to be
successful.

b) CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance)

With CSMA/CA, a device listens for an opportunity to transmit its data in a similar fashion to
CSMA/CD. However, when a device senses an opening, it first transmits a signal notifying other
devices that it is transmitting before actually sending the data. This means data packets will never
collide, although warning packets might. Unfortunately, CSMA/CA creates a significant overhead as it
adds unnecessary traffic to the network, slowing everything down. CSMA/CA was commonly used by

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older AppleTalk networks, but nowadays most Apple systems can use Ethernet hardware and use of
CSMA/CA has declined. One area where CSMA/CA continues to be used is in wireless networks.

c) Token Passing

In CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA the chances of collisions are there. As the number of hosts in the
network increases, the chances of collisions also will become more. In token passing, when a host want
to transmit data, it should hold the token, which is an empty packet. The token is circling the network
in a very high speed. If any workstation wants to send data, it should wait for the token. When the
token has reached the workstation, the workstation can take the token from the network, fill it with
data, mark the token as being used and place the token back to the network.

IV. COMMUNICATION OVER NETWORK

IV.1 What is data communication?
A communication system can be defined as the collection of hardware and software that facilitates
intersystem exchange of information between different devices.

Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices using some form of wired or
wireless transmission medium. It includes the transfer of data, the method of transfer and the
preservation of data during the transfer process.

IV.2 Characteristics of data communication

For data communication to be effective, the following three fundamental characteristics should be
considered:

 Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct or the intended destination.
 Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately (error-free).
 Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner without enough time lags.

IV.2- Data Communication Components

There are five basic components in a data communication system

 Message: The message is the information that is to be communicated.

 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the message.
 Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message.
 Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path that communicates the message from
the sender to the receiver.
 Protocol: Protocol refers to a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information. Both
the sender and the receiver should follow the same protocol to communicate data.

IV.3- Data Transmission Mode

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Data transmission mode refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There are
three types of transmission modes—simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex

1) Simplex: The information flows in one direction across the circuit, with no capability to
support response in the other direction.
2) Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode, each communicating device can receive and transmit
information, but not at the same time.
3) Full-duplex: allows both communicating devices to transmit and receive data
simultaneously. A full-duplex mode can be compared to a two-way road with traffic flowing
in both directions.

IV.4- Data Communication Measurement

The measurement of the quantity of data that can be passed over a communication link in a given time
is done in terms of bandwidth. On digital circuits, bandwidth is measured in bits per second (bps). In
the digital context, the level of bandwidth falls into three categories.

 Narrowband: In narrowband, there is a single transmission channel of 64 Kbps or less. There

can be a number of 64 Kbps channels (N × 64 Kbps), but total capacity is not more than 1.544
Mbps.
 Wideband: In wideband, the bandwidth lies between 1.544 Mbps (also called T1 line) and 45
Mbps (T3 line).
 Broadband: The bandwidth capacity is equal to 45 Mbps. Broadcast television, cable television,
microwave and satellite are examples of broadband technologies.

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IV.5 Analog and Digital Data Transmission

The major role of the physical medium is to move the data from one communicating device to another.
Depending on the form of signal used, data transmission can be analog data transmission or digital data
transmission.

 Analog Signals: Values on analog devices are

(normally) infinitely variable. A speedometer
that shows a car's speed by means of a dial is an
analog device. The hand on that dial moves
smoothly around the dial and can take any
value that the car's engine can create.
 Digital Signals: Digital signals and objects
deal in the realm of the discrete or finite, meaning
there is a limited set of values they can be. That could
mean just two total possible values, 255,
4,294,967,296, or anything as long as it’s not ∞
(infinity).

IV.6 Serial and Parallel Communication

The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial mode. In
parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock
tick.

IV.7 Data Transmission Method

While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are two subclasses of serial transmission:
asynchronous, synchronous.
 With asynchronous transmission signal timing is not required; signals are sent in an agreed
pattern of bits and if both ends are agreed on the pattern then communication can take place.
 With synchronous transmission is data transfer method in which a continuous stream of data
signals is accompanied by timing signals (generated by an electronic clock) to ensure that the
transmitter and the receiver are in step (synchronized) with one another. The data is sent in
blocks (called frames or packets) spaced by fixed time intervals.

V. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
A transmission medium (plural transmission media) refers to the physical media through which
communication signals (data and information) can be transmitted from one point to another media.
There are two categories of transmission media used in computer communications:

- Guided Media (or Bounded Media, or Wired Media)

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- Unguided Media (or unbounded Media, or Wireless Media)

V.1- Guided Media

Guided media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. These are also
called Bounded media. Bounded media are great for LABS because they offer high speed, good
security and low cost. However, some time they cannot be used due distance communication. Three
common types of bounded media are used of the data transmission. These are: coaxial cable, twisted
pair cable and Fiber optic cables

a) Twisted-Pair Wiring

Twisted-pair wiring refers to a type of cable composed of four (or more) copper wires twisted around
each other within a plastic sheath. The wires are twisted to reduce outside electrical interference. The
RJ-45 connectors on twisted-pair cables resemble large telephone connectors. Twisted-pair cables
come in two varieties: Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) and unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP).

→ Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) UTP cable is the most common type of telecommunication
medium in use today and is generally the best option for school networks. It is most suited for
both data and voice transmission and hence is commonly used in telephone systems. The cable
has four pairs of wire inside the jacket. An UTP cost less than STP easily available. There are
five levels of data cabling
- Cat 1: These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.
- Cat 2: These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.
- Cat 3: These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in 10 mps.
- Cat 4: These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps.
- Cat 5: This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.
→ A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency
interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical
interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted
pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.

b) Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables have a single central conductor, which is made up of solid wire (usually copper). This
conductor is surrounded by an insulator over which a sleeve of metal mesh is woven to block any
outside interference. This metal mesh is again shielded by an outer covering of a thick material (usually
PVC) known as jacket. Coaxial cable is very robust and is commonly used in Cable TV network. As
compared to twisted pairs, it also offers higher bandwidth. A coaxial cable is capable of transmitting
data at a rate of 10 Mbps.

c) Fiber-Optic Cable

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Fiber optic (or optical fiber) refers to the technology associated with the transmission of information
as light impulses along a glass wire or fiber. Optical fiber cable can transmit data over long distances
with little loss in data integrity. In addition, because data are transferred as a pulse of light, optical fiber
is not subject to interference. Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer
distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater
speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video
conferencing and interactive services. however, it is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF
refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Fig 4: bounded media

V.2- Unbounded Transmission Media

Unguided media facilitate data transmission through the Earth's atmosphere (air, water or vacuum) at a
much faster rate and provide wide area coverage. The data signals are not guided or bound to a fixed
channel to follow. Some commonly used unguided media of transmission include radio frequency
(RF) propagation, microwave transmission, satellite transmission, infrared wave transmission,
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.

a) Radio Frequency Propagation

In radio frequency propagation, the signal is carried over carrier waves

(waves, which carry signals over them), which have frequencies in the
range of radio frequency spectrum. There are three types of radio
frequency propagation—ground wave, ionospheric and line of sight.

b) Microwave Transmission

Microwave transmission use microwave signals that travel at

a higher frequency and are popularly used for transmitting

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data over long distances. Microwave communication uses parabolic antennas (satellite TV dish
antennas) that are mounted on the tower, which could be tens of kilometers away, but in line of sight.
Due to long distances, repeaters are used at regular intervals in between the transmitter and the receiver
to boost the signals

c) Infrared Wave Transmission

Infrared frequencies are just below the visible light spectrum. These are the high-
frequency waves used for short-range communication. The waves are cheap,
directional and can be easily built; however, the waves do not pass through solid
objects. Infrared waves are used in TV remotes, garage doors and wireless
speakers. Computer machines in an office can easily be connected to a wireless
LAN using infrared waves

d) Satellite Transmission

Satellite transmission is similar to microwave

transmission except instead of transmission involving
another nearby microwave dish antenna, it involves a
satellite many miles up in space. The communication is
carried through uplinks and downlinks. The uplink
transmits the data to the satellite and downlink receives
the data from the satellite. Uplinks and downlinks are also
called earth stations because they are located on the Earth.

e) Bluetooth transmission

The Bluetooth technology is used to create a personal area network

(PAN) or piconet that lets electronic devices such as computers,
cell phones, PDAs and wireless keyboards to communicate with
each other within the range of 10 m. It uses radio signals that are
omnidirectional, that is, signals travel in all directions from the
source. Hence, the communicating devices need not be aligned
with each other.

f) Wi-Fi transmission

The term Wi-Fi, which stands for Wireless Fidelity is widely used for creating wireless LANs and also
for providing wireless Internet access. To create wireless LAN, the devices in the network such as
computer, laptop and PDA should be equipped with wireless network interface card (NIC) to send and
receive Wi-Fi signals. A WI-Fi-enabled device should be within a specific range (i.e. up to 50 m) from
the network to connect.

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Media Type Bandwidth Performance: Typical Error Rate Transfer rate

Twisted-pair (LAN) 1MHz Poor to fair (10–5) 10 Mbps – 100 Mbps
Coaxial cable (LAN) 1GHz Good (10–7 to 10–9) 10 Mbps – 1 Gbps
Microwave (WAN) 100GHz Good (10–9) 6 Mbps – 54 Mbps
Satellite (WAN) 100GHz Good (10–9) 50 Kbps – 100 Mbps
Fiber (WAN) 75THz Great (10–11 to 10–13) 50 Kbps – 100 Mbps
Table 2: Traditional Transmission Media Characteristics

VI. COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

A communication protocol is a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information. If one
computer is sending information to another and they both follow the same protocol, the message gets
through; regardless of what types of machines they are and on what operating systems they are running.
As long as the machines have software that can manage the protocol, communication is possible.

VI.1 Network protocol

A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The
key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

 Syntax: Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented.
 Semantics: Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular pattern
to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation.
 Timing: Timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can
be sent.

Some important protocols are:

Protocol Full meaning Its job

FTP File Transfer Protocol Allows file transfer between two computers
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol used in the web service
Protocol
TCP Transmission Control A reliable connection oriented protocol used to control the
Protocol management of application level services between computers.
IP Internet Protocol identifier of each computer or communication devices on the
network and internet.
ARP Address resolution enables the packaging of IP data into ethernet package
protocol
ICMP Internet control provides management and error reporting to help manage the
message protocol process of sending data between computers.
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer An Internet protocol for transferring e-mail.
Protocol
POP post office protocol Transfert of e-mail, used to synchronize messages

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Telnet Telephone Network A method of opening a user session on a remote host.

PPP Point-to-Point Data transfer using modem
Protocol
UDP User Datagram An unreliable connection less protocol used to control the
Protocol management of application level services between computers.
DHCP Dynamic host is a method of assigning and controlling the IP addresses of
configuration protocol computers on a given network

VI.2 The OSI Model

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) is a
standard reference model for
communication between two end users in a
network. In 1983, the International
Organisation for Standardisation (ISO)
published a document called 'The Basic
Reference Model for Open Systems
Interconnection', which visualizes network
protocols as a seven separate but related
layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, session, presentation and
application layers.

The seven layers of the OSI reference model can be divided into two categories:

 Upper Layers: The upper layers of the OSI model consist of the application, presentation and
session layers. Primarily, these layers deal with application issues and are implemented only in
the software.
 Lower Layers: The lower layers of the OSI model comprise the transport, network, data link,
and physical layers. These layers handle the data transport issues. The physical layer and data
link layer are implemented in both hardware and software. The network and transport are
generally implemented only in software.

This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the
network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of
Physical sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical
(Layer 1) aspects
Protocols: Fast Ethernet, ATM Data Unit: Bit
Device: Hubs, Repeaters, Cables and Connectors

Data Link Physical addressing, Provides low-level error detection and correction. For example if a
(Layer 2) packet is corrupted this layer is responsible for retransmitting the packet.

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Protocols: PPP, FDDI, Token ring, Ethernet, SLIP

Device: NIC, Token Ring switches, Bridges
Data Unit: Frame

This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as
virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are
Network functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling,
(Layer 3) congestion control and packet sequencing.
Protocols: IPv4, IPV6, IPX, OSPF, NWlink, NetBEUI, ICMP, ARP, RARP
Data Unit: Packet, Datagram

This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is
responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data
Transport
transfer.
(Layer 4)
Protocols: TCP, SPX and UDP
Device: Router, gateway Data Unit: Segments

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The
session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and
Session
dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection
(Layer 5)
coordination.
Protocols: NetBIOS Device: gateway Data Unit: data

This layer works to transform data into the form that the application layer can accept.
Presentation This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom
(Layer 6) from compatibility problems. It is also called the syntax layer.
Protocol: SSL, WEP, WPA, Kerberos Device: Gateway

This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are
identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are
considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is
Application application-specific. This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail,
(Layer 7) and other network software services.
Protocol: DHCP, DNS, FTP, HTTP, IMAP4, NNTP, POP3, SMTP, SNMP, SSH,
TELNET and NTP
Device: PC Data Unit: Data

VII. LAN TECHNOLOGIES

Each computer in a LAN can effectively send and receive any information addressed to it. This
information is in the form of data 'packets'. The standards followed to regularize the transmission of

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packets, are called LAN standards. There are many LAN standards as Ethernet, Token Ring , FDDI etc.
Usually LAN standards differ due to their media access technology and the physical transmission
medium.

VII.1- Ethernet Media Standards

The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineer) 802 Standards comprises a family of
networking standards that cover the physical layer specifications of technologies. Ethernet, Fast
Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet are the LAN technologies most commonly used today. They are
identified by three-part names, which is also known as Media Standard. An example of Media
Standard is 10BASE-T.
 The first part of the Media Standard specifies the transmission speed (10, in this case
specifies 10 Mbps)
 The second part of the name "BASE" specifies that the Ethernet signal is a Baseband
signal.
 The final part of the Ethernet Media Standard specifies the kind of cable used. Here T
specifies twisted-pair cable. The following table shows the common Ethernet Media
Standards.
Name Cable Type Connector Maximum Length Speed
10Base-T Category 3 or better RJ-45 100 meters(328 ft) 10 mbps
UTP cable
10Base-FL Fiber optic cable ST, SC, LC, MT-RJ 2000 meters 10 mbps
100Base-TX Cat 5 twisted pair RJ-45 100 meters(328 ft) 100 mbps
100Base-FX Fiber Optic ST, SC, LC, MT-RJ 2000 meters 100 mbps
1000Base-T CAT5e or higher RJ-45 100 meters(328 ft) 1 gbps
Note: X represents a higher grade of connection, and 100BaseTX is twisted-pair cabling that can use
either UTP or STP at 100 Mbps. With fibre-optic cable such as 100BaseFX, the speed is quicker than
standard 10BaseF. The “L” stands for “Long” in long wave length lasers and "S" stands for Short Wave
Length.

VII.3- LAN protocols

a) Ethernet / fast Ethernet

The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses called CSMA/CD method.
The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted over
wireless access points, twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 10 Mbps up to 1000
Mbps. To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet protocol has developed a new
standard that supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly called Fast Ethernet.
Advantages of Ethernet are: Low cost components, Easy to install, Easy to troubleshoot

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b) Local Talk

Local Talk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for Macintosh
computers. The method used by Local Talk is CSMA/CA. The Local Talk protocol allows for linear
bus, star, or tree topologies using twisted pair cable. A primary disadvantage of Local Talk is speed.
Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps.

c) Token Ring

The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The access method used involves
token-passing. The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair or fiber optic
cable. It can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. Due to the increasing popularity of
Ethernet, the use of Token Ring in school environments has decreased.

d) FDDI

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) uses a dual ring physical

topology. The access method used by FDDI involves token-passing.
Transmission normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a break
occurs, the system keeps information moving by automatically using
portions of the second ring to create a new complete ring. A major
advantage of FDDI is speed. It operates over fiber optic cable at 100 Mbps.

e) ATM

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol that transmits data at a speed of 155 Mbps
and higher. ATM works by transmitting all data in small packets of a fixed size; whereas, other
protocols transfer variable length packets. ATM supports a variety of media such as video, CD-quality
audio, and imaging. ATM employs a star topology, which can work with fiber optic as well as twisted
pair cable.

Protocol Cable Speed Topology Method

Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Linear Bus, Star,
Ethernet 10 Mbps CSMA/CD
Fiber Tree
Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps Star CSMA/CD
LocalTalk Twisted Pair .23 Mbps Linear Bus or Star CSMA/CA
Token Ring Twisted Pair 4 Mbps - 16 Mbps Star-Wired Ring Token passing
FDDI Fiber 100 Mbps Dual ring Token passing
ATM Twisted Pair, Fiber 155-2488 Mbps Bus, Star, Tree
Table Compare the Network Protocols

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VIII. NETWORK ADRESSING

XI.1- What is an IP address?

An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier for a node or host connection on an IP

network. An IP address version 4 (IPv4) is a 32 bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal
values, each representing 8 bits, in the range 0 to 255 (known as octets) separated by decimal points.
This is known as "dotted decimal" notation. Example: 140.179.220.200

It is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form. 140.179.220.200 becomes
10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000

Every IP address consists of two parts, one identifying the network and one identifying the node. The
Class of the address and the subnet mask determine which part belongs to the network address and
which part belongs to the node address.

XI.2- Address Classes

The Internet community originally defined five address classes to accommodate networks of varying
sizes. Microsoft TCP/IP supports class A, B, and C addresses assigned to hosts. The class of address
defines which bits are used for the network ID and which bits are used for the host ID. It also defines
the possible number of networks and the number of hosts per network.

Class 1st Octet 1st Octet Network/Host Default Subnet Number of Hosts per Network
Decimal High ID Mask Networks (Usable Addresses)
Range Order (N=Network,
Bits H=Host)
A 1 – 126* 0 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 126 (27 – 2) 16,777,214 (224 – 2)
B 128 – 191 10 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 16,382 (214 – 2) 65,534 (216 – 2)
C 192 – 223 110 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 2,097,150 (221 – 2) 254 (28 – 2)
D 224 – 239 1110 Reserved for Multicasting
E 240 – 254 1111 Experimental; used for research

Note:
→ Class A addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 cannot be used and is reserved for loopback
and diagnostic functions.
→ Class D addresses are reserved for IP multicast addresses. The four high-order bits in a class D
address are always set to binary 1110. The remaining bits are for the address that interested hosts
recognize.
→ Class E is an experimental address that is reserved for future use. The high-order bits in a class E
address are set to 1111.
→ All bits within the network ID cannot be set to 1. All 1's in the network ID are reserved for use
as an IP broadcast address.

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→ All bits within the network ID cannot be set to 0. All 0's in the network ID are used to denote a
specific host on the local network and are not routed.

Private IP Addresses: There are addresses used in the private networks

Class Private Networks Subnet Mask Address Range

A 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
B 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.0.0 255.240.0.0 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
C 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255

IX. NETWORK SECURITY

Network security consists of the provisions and policies adopted by a network administrator to
prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of a
computer network and network-accessible resources.

IX.1 Network Security Problems

Network security problems can be divided roughly into four intertwined areas: secrecy, authentication,
nonrepudiation and integrity control.

1. Secrecy: This is also called confidentiality, and has to do with keeping information out of the
hands of unauthorized users.
2. Authentication: this deal with determining whom you are talking to before revealing sensitive
information or entering into a business deal.
3. Nonrepudiation: This deals with signatures: How does amazon.ca prove that Kartik indeed
placed an order for a book, which Kartik claims he never placed?
4. Integrity of service: How does one ensure that the message received was really the one sent, and
not something that a malicious adversary modified in transit or concocted?

IX.2 Types of attacks over a network

We classify the attacks that compromise network security as passive attacks and active attacks.

a) Passive Attacks: These attacks are in the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of,
transmissions. The goal of the opponent is to obtain information that is being transmitted. Passive
attacks are very difficult to detect since they do not involve the alteration of the data. Two types
of passive attacks are:
 release of message contents where an eavesdropper tries to learn the contents of what is being
transmitted. This can be prevented by encryption

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 traffic analysis: where the opponent tries to observe the pattern, frequency and length of
messages being exchanged which could be used in guessing the nature of the communication
that is taking place.
b) Active Attacks: Active attacks involve some modification of the data stream or the creation of a
false stream. It is difficult to prevent active attacks absolutely because to do so would require
physical protection of all communications facilities and paths at all times. Instead, the goal is to
detect them and to recover from any disruption or delays caused by them.

IX.3 Data compression and data encryption

In other to send data easily through a network, it is required to compress it in other to reduce space for
storage and bandwidth for transmission. Data compression is the process of converting data from a
large format into a smaller format, usually by the means of an algorithm. Some popular examples of
data compression techniques include:

a) Graphic Interchange Format (GIF): This is a widely used compression format that is used for
storing and transferring graphic images in relatively small files over computer network such as
Internet
b) Joint Picture Expert Group (JPEG): This is a popular file compression format for storing and
transferring colour photograph and high quality images in relatively small files over computer
network such as Internet
c) Motion Picture Expert Group (MPEG): This is a standard file compression format for storing
and transferring digital audio and video (moving images) in relatively small files over computer
network
d) Huffman coding: This is a lossless compression technique in which the characters in a data file
are converted to a binary code, where the most common characters in the file have the shortest
binary code, and the least common have the longest.
e) Run-length encoding: This a compression technique that is designed for compressing, long,
repetitive character strings in a piece of text, as well as compressing byte of a monochrome
image file.

An important characteristic feature in any coding scheme is the compression ratio. It is the ratio of a
compressed file to the original uncompressed file. There are two basic form of data compression:
lossless compression and lossy compression.
- Lossless compression is the form of compression in which the original data can be restores
exactly.(ex: zip)
- Lossy compression is the form of compression in which the original data cannot be restored
exactly due to loss of some of its elements (ex: mp3)
Data encryption refers to mathematical calculations and algorithmic schemes that transform plaintext
into cyphertext, a form that is non-readable to unauthorized parties. The recipient of an encrypted
message uses a key which triggers the algorithm mechanism to decrypt the data, transforming it to the
original plaintext version.

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