COMPUTER NETWORKS

MID I - IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1. Sketch the seven layers of OSI Model

2. Compare the advantages of Optical fiber over twisted pair cable and coaxial cable
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 io
3. State the MAC sublayer function
MAC Sublayer In Standard Ethernet, the MAC sublayer governs the operation of the access method. It
also frames data received from the upper layer and passes them to the physical layer.
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4. Interpret the design issues of data link layer protocol

The following are the data link layer design issues
1. Services Provided to the Network Layer - The network layer wants to be able to send packets to its
neighbors without worrying about the details of getting it there in one piece.
2. Framing Group - the physical layer bit stream into units called frames. Frames are nothing more
than "packets" or "messages". By convention, we use the term "frames" when discussing DLL.
3. Error Control Sender - checksums the frame and transmits checksum together with data. Receiver
re-computes the checksum and compares it with the received value.
4. Flow Control - Prevent a fast sender from overwhelming a slower receiver.

5. Appraise the Network Layer function

 Responsible for moving packets (data) from one end of the network to the other, called end-to-
end communications
 Requires logical addresses such as IP addresses
 Device example: Router
  Routing is the ability of various network devices and their related software to move data packets
from source to destination
6. Sketch the OSI seven Layers and explain in detail
OSI
 OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection
 Created by International Standards Organization (ISO)
 Was created as a framework and reference model to explain how different
networking technologies work together and interact
 It is not a standard that networking protocols must follow
 Each layer has specific functions it is responsible for
 All layers work together in the correct order to move data around a network

Top to bottom
–All People Seem To Need Data
Processing Bottom to top
–Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away

Physical Layer
 Deals with all aspects of physically moving data from one computer to the next
 Converts data from the upper layers into 1s and 0s for transmission over media
 Defines how data is encoded onto the media to transmit the data
 Defined on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and fiber optic
standards.
Copper wiring, fiber optic cable, radio frequencies, anything that can be used to
transmit data is defined on the Physical layer of the OSI Model
 Device example: Hub
 Used to transmit data
Data Link Layer
 Is responsible for moving frames from node to node or computer to computer
 Can move frames from one adjacent computer to another, cannot move frames
across routers
 Encapsulation = frame
 Requires MAC address or physical address
 Protocols defined include Ethernet Protocol and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
 Device example: Switch
 Two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access Control (MAC)
o Logical Link Control (LLC)
 –Data Link layer addressing, flow control, address notification, error control
o Media Access Control (MAC)
 –Determines which computer has access to the network media at any given time
 –Determines where one frame ends and the next one starts, called frame
synchronization
Network Layer
 Responsible for moving packets (data) from one end of the network to the
other, called end-to-end communications
 Requires logical addresses such as IP addresses
 Device example: Router
 –Routing is the ability of various network devices and their related software to
move data packets from source to destination
Transport Layer
 Takes data from higher levels of OSI Model and breaks it into segments that can be
sent to lower-level layers for data transmission
 Conversely, reassembles data segments into data that higher-level protocols
and applications can use
 Also puts segments in correct order (called sequencing ) so they can be
reassembled in correct order at destination
 Concerned with the reliability of the transport of sent data
 May use a connection-oriented protocol such as TCP to ensure destination
received segments
 May use a connectionless protocol such as UDP to send segments without
assurance of delivery
 Uses port addressing
Session Layer
 Responsible for managing the dialog between networked devices
 Establishes, manages, and terminates connections
 Provides duplex, half-duplex, or simplex communications between devices
 Provides procedures for establishing checkpoints, adjournment, termination,
and restart or recovery procedures
Presentation Layer
 Concerned with how data is presented to the network
  Handles three primary tasks: –Translation , –Compression , –Encryption

Application Layer
 Contains all services or protocols needed by application software or operating
system to communicate on the network
 Examples
o –Firefox web browser uses HTTP (Hyper-Text Transport Protocol)
o –E-mail program may use POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) to read e-mails
and SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) to send e-mails

7. Discuss in detail about Guided Transmission Medium.

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Classes of transmission media

Guided Media: Guided media, which are those that provide a medium from one
device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Twisted-Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper),

each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is used to
carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference.
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering
that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves the
quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and
moreexpensive.

The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack)

Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
Local-area networks, such as l0Base-T and l00Base-T, also use twisted-pair
cables.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable. coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
(usuallycopper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an
outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer metallic
wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor, which
completes the circuit.This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath,
and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.

The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman

(BNe), connector.
Applications
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks,digital telephone
networks
Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs
 Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of
light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform
substance.
If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another
substance(of a different density), the ray changes direction.
Bending of light ray.

Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass

or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or
plastic.

8. Examine the Hamming Code in Error Correction method

9. Investigate in detail about the Error Detection Methods
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10. Discuss in detail about the Multiple access protocol

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11. Define Network layer design issues and Explain in detail about the shortest path routing

Design Issues in Network Layer

Network layer is majorly focused on getting packets from the source to the destination, routing error
handling and congestion control.
Before learning about design issues in the network layer, let’s learn about it’s various functions.
 Addressing:
Maintains the address at the frame header of both source and destination and performs
addressing to detect various devices in network.
 Packeting:
This is performed by Internet Protocol. The network layer converts the packets from its
upper layer.
 Routing:
It is the most important functionality. The network layer chooses the most relevant and
best path for the data transmission from source to destination.
 Inter-networking:
It works to deliver a logical connection across multiple devices.
Network layer design issues:
The network layer comes with some design issues they are described as follows:
1. Store and Forward packet switching:
The host sends the packet to the nearest router. This packet is stored there until it has fully arrived
once the link is fully processed by verifying the checksum then it is forwarded to the next router till
it reaches the destination. This mechanism is called “Store and Forward packet switching.”
2. Services provided to Transport Layer:
Through the network/transport layer interface, the network layer transfers it’s services to the
transport layer. These services are described below.
But before providing these services to the transfer layer following goals must be kept in mind :-
 Offering services must not depend on router technology.
 The transport layer needs to be protected from the type, number and topology of the
available router.
 The network addresses for the transport layer should use uniform numbering pattern also
at LAN and WAN connections.
Based on the connections there are 2 types of services provided :
 Connectionless – The routing and insertion of packets into subnet is done individually.
No added setup is required.
 Connection-Oriented – Subnet must offer reliable service and all the packets must be
transmitted over a single route.
3. Implementation of Connectionless Service:
Packet are termed as “datagrams” and corresponding subnet as “datagram subnets”. When the
message size that has to be transmitted is 4 times the size of the packet, then the network layer
divides into 4 packets and transmits each packet to router via. a few protocol.Each data packet has
destination address and is routed independently irrespective of the packets.
4. Implementation of Connection Oriented service:
To use a connection-oriented service, first we establishes a connection, use it and then release it. In
connection-oriented services, the data packets are delivered to the receiver in the same order in
which they have been sent by the sender.
It can be done in either two ways :
 Circuit Switched Connection – A dedicated physical path or a circuit is established
between the communicating nodes and then data stream is transferred.
 Virtual Circuit Switched Connection – The data stream is transferred over a packet
switched network, in such a way that it seems to the user that there is a dedicated path
from the sender to the receiver. A virtual path is established here. While, other
connections may also be using the same path.

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%20networks%2C%20the%20shortest,algorithms%20proposed%20in%20graph%20theory.

12. Sketch the TCP/IP reference model

TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. It was developed by the DoD
(Department of Defence) in the 1960s. It is named after the two main protocols that are used in the model,
namely, TCP and IP. TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol.
The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are −

 Host-to- Network Layer −It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the physical transmission
of data. TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol here but supports all the standard
protocols.
  Internet Layer −It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over the network. The
main protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and it is supported by the protocols ICMP,
IGMP, RARP, and ARP.
 Transport Layer − It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data. The protocols
defined here are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
 Application Layer − This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host programs with the
transport layer services. This layer includes all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP,
SMTP, etc.
The following diagram shows the layers and the protocols in each of the layers −

13. Compare the Guided and Unguided Transmission Medium

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14. State the LLC sublayer function

The main functionality of the LLC layer is that it multiplexes the protocols over the MAC layer while
sending and de-multiplex the protocols while receiving. This layer controls the flow control.
The error-checking of the data link layer is performed by LLC. It can also track the acknowledgments.
While transmitting data, if LLC detects any frame loss, immediately it sends back to the source to transmit
over again. The LLC layer comes above the MAC layer and acts as an interface between the upper layers
and the MAC layer.

15. Interpret the design issues of framing in data link layer.

The data link layer in the OSI (Open System Interconnections) Model, is in between the physical layer and
the network layer. This layer converts the raw transmission facility provided by the physical layer to a
reliable and error-free link.
The main functions and the design issues of this layer are

 Providing services to the network layer

  Framing
 Error Control
 Flow Control
Services to the Network Layer
In the OSI Model, each layer uses the services of the layer below it and provides services to the layer above
it. The data link layer uses the services offered by the physical layer.The primary function of this layer is to
provide a well defined service interface to network layer above it.

The types of services provided can be of three types −

 Unacknowledged connectionless service

 Acknowledged connectionless service
 Acknowledged connection - oriented service
Framing
The data link layer encapsulates each data packet from the network layer into frames that are then
transmitted.
A frame has three parts, namely −

 Frame Header
 Payload field that contains the data packet from network layer
 Trailer
Error Control
The data link layer ensures error free link for data transmission. The issues it caters to with respect to error
control are −

 Dealing with transmission errors

 Sending acknowledgement frames in reliable connections
 Retransmitting lost frames
 Identifying duplicate frames and deleting them
 Controlling access to shared channels in case of broadcasting
Flow Control
The data link layer regulates flow control so that a fast sender does not drown a slow receiver. When the
sender sends frames at very high speeds, a slow receiver may not be able to handle it. There will be frame
losses even if the transmission is error-free. The two common approaches for flow control are −

 Feedback based flow control

 Rate based flow control

16. List out the Network Layer routing algorithm.

A routing algorithm is a procedure that lays down the route or path to transfer data packets from source to
the destination. They help in directing Internet traffic efficiently. After a data packet leaves its source, it can
choose among the many different paths to reach its destination. Routing algorithm mathematically
computes the best path, i.e. “least – cost path” that the packet can be routed through.

Types of Routing Algorithms

Routing algorithms can be broadly categorized into two types, adaptive and nonadaptive routing algorithms.
They can be further categorized as shown in the following diagram −
Adaptive Routing Algorithms
Adaptive routing algorithms, also known as dynamic routing algorithms, makes routing decisions
dynamically depending on the network conditions. It constructs the routing table depending upon the
network traffic and topology. They try to compute the optimized route depending upon the hop count,
transit time and distance.
The three popular types of adaptive routing algorithms are −
 Centralized algorithm − It finds the least-cost path between source and destination nodes by
using global knowledge about the network. So, it is also known as global routing algorithm.
 Isolated algorithm − This algorithm procures the routing information by using local
information instead of gathering information from other nodes.
 Distributed algorithm − This is a decentralized algorithm that computes the least-cost path
between source and destination iteratively in a distributed manner.
Non – Adaptive Routing Algorithms
Non-adaptive Routing algorithms, also known as static routing algorithms, construct a static routing table to
determine the path through which packets are to be sent. The static routing table is constructed based upon
the routing information stored in the routers when the network is booted up.
The two types of non – adaptive routing algorithms are −
 Flooding − In flooding, when a data packet arrives at a router, it is sent to all the outgoing
links except the one it has arrived on. Flooding may be uncontrolled, controlled or selective
flooding.
 Random walks − This is a probabilistic algorithm where a data packet is sent by the router to
any one of its neighbours randomly.

17. Compare the OSI seven Layers and TCP/IP reference model in detail
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It stands for Open System Interconnection. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol.

OSI model has been developed by ISO It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced
(International Standard Organization). Research Project Agency Network).

It is an independent standard and generic It consists of standard protocols that lead to the
protocol used as a communication gateway development of an internet. It is a communication
between the network and the end user. protocol that provides the connection among the
hosts.

In the OSI model, the transport layer provides The transport layer does not provide the surety
a guarantee for the delivery of the packets. for the delivery of packets. But still, we can say
that it is a reliable model.

This model is based on a vertical approach. This model is based on a horizontal approach.

In this model, the session and presentation In this model, the session and presentation layer
layers are separated, i.e., both the layers are are not different layers. Both layers are included
different. in the application layer.

It is also known as a reference model through It is an implemented model of an OSI model.

which various networks are built. For example,
the TCP/IP model is built from the OSI model.
It is also referred to as a guidance tool.

In this model, the network layer provides both The network layer provides only connectionless
connection-oriented and connectionless service.
service.

Protocols in the OSI model are hidden and can In this model, the protocol cannot be easily
be easily replaced when the technology replaced.
changes.

It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

 OSI model defines the services, protocols, and In the TCP/IP model, services, protocols, and
interfaces as well as provides a proper interfaces are not properly separated. It is
distinction between them. It is protocol protocol dependent.
independent.

The usage of this model is very low. This model is highly used.

It provides standardization to the devices like It does not provide the standardization to the
router, motherboard, switches, and other devices. It provides a connection between various
hardware devices. computers.

18. Discuss in detail about Transmission Medium and its types

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19. Define Sliding window protocol and examine Go-Back-N ARQ protocol in detail
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%20data,an%20acknowledgment%20from%20the%20receiver.

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20. Investigate in detail about the Simple parity check and two dimensional parity check
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21. Discuss in detail about the ALOHA protocol

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%20multiple%20access,systems%20interconnection%20(OSI)%20model.

22. Define Routing and Explain any one of the routing protocol
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