The University of Sydney

MOOC Introduction to Calculus

Notes for ‘Functions as rules, with domain, range and graph’

Important Ideas and Useful Facts:

(i) Functions: A function f is a process or rule that takes an input, typically a real number
x, and produces an output, also typically a real number f (x). It is common to refer to
the equation
y = f (x)
as representing f , and call x the independent variable and y the dependent variable.
(ii) Domain and range: The domain of a function f is the set of inputs x such that the rule f (x)
is sensibly defined. The domain may also be subject to certain restrictions, particularly
in the context of forming inverse functions (to be explained later) or in certain physical
examples or applications.
The range of f is the set of outputs f (x) that are produced as x varies over the domain.
For example, the interval
√ [0, ∞) is both the domain and range of the function f given
by the rule f (x) = x, as the rule cannot be applied to negative numbers, and the rule
produces all nonnegative real numbers.
√
By contrast, consider the function g with rule g(x) = 2 − x + 3. The domain of g is
[−3, ∞), as the rule only applies to real numbers greater than or equal to −3. The range
of g is (−∞, 2], as the square root produces all nonnegative real numbers, which, when
taken away from 2, produces all real numbers less than or equal to 2.
(iii) Graph of a Function: When x and y are real numbers, the graph of f is the collection of
ordered pairs (x, y) in the xy-plane such that y = f (x). Most graphs of functions that
you meet will be simple curves in the plane.
(iv) Linear functions: A linear function has the form y = mx + k where m and k are constants.
Its graph is a line in the plane, where m is the slope and k is the y-intercept. The domain
is the whole real line R.
The range is again the whole real line R, provided the slope m is nonzero.
If the slope m is zero, then the rule becomes y = k, representing a constant function
taking only the value k, so that the range becomes {k}.
(v) The identity function: The function y = x, that outputs the input without any change at
all, is called the identity function. It is a special case of a linear function where the slope
is 1 and the y-intercept is 0. Its graph is a line often referred to as the diagonal of the
xy-plane, and has an important geometric role in forming inverse functions by reflection
(see later).
(vi) Quadratic functions: A quadratic function has the form y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b and
c are constants such that a is nonzero, and its graph is a parabola. The domain is the
whole real line R.
The range is an infinite interval, depending on whether the parabola faces upwards (a > 0)
or downwards (a < 0), and on the position of the apex. The exact position of the apex
and the range can be determined by rearranging the rule after completing the square.

1
For example, the rule y = x2 − 4x + 3 corresponds to a parabola facing upwards, and can
be rewritten, after completing the square, as

y = x2 − 4x + 3 = x2 − 4x + 4 − 4 + 3 = (x − 2)2 − 1 ,

so that its apex is the point (2, −1), and its range is the interval [−1, ∞), since (x−2)2 ≥ 0
for all x. y

8
7
6 y = x2 − 4x + 3
5
4
3
2
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1

By contrast, the rule y = 1 − 6x − x2 corresponds to a parabola facing downwards, and

can be rewritten, again after completing the square, as

y = 1 − 6x − x2 = 1 + 9 − 9 − 6x − x2 = 10 − (x2 + 6x + 9) = 10 − (x + 3)2 .

The point (−3, 10) is the apex, and the range is (−∞, 10], since −(x + 3)2 ≤ 0 for all x.

10
9
8
7
y = 1 − 6x − x2 6
5
4
3
2
1

−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1

2
(vii) Hyperbolas: The simplest hyperbola is the graph of the function f with rule
1
y = f (x) = .
x
For example,
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
f (1) = 1 , f (2) = , f = 2 , f (−1) = −1 , f (−2) = − , f − = −2 .
2 2 2 2
The domain and range of f are both equal to R\{0}, the real line with the number 0
removed. The graph has two disconnected pieces, called branches, one in the first quadrant
involving only positive numbers and their reciprocals, and the other in the third quadrant
involving only negative numbers and their reciprocals.
y

7
1
6 y=
x
5
4
3
2
1

−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7

The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f , approached by the curve both
to the right and left as one moves further away from the origin. The y-axis is a vertical
asymptote, approached by the curve as the inputs x get closer and closer to, but do not
reach, zero.
Consider, as a variation, the function g with rule
1 x−1
g(x) = 1 + = .
x−2 x−2
For example,
( ) ( )
1 2 3 1 1 1 3
g(0) = , g(1) = 0 , g(3) = 2 , g(−1) = , g(−2) = , g = , g − = .
2 3 4 2 3 2 5

3
However, g(2) is undefined, and the domain of g is R\{2}, the real line with 2 removed.
1
The fraction x−2 produces all nonzero real numbers, so, when this fraction is added to 1,
the rule for g produces all real numbers other than 1, so the range is R\{1}.

7
1
6 y =1+
x−2
5
4
3
2
1

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5

The graph of g is another hyperbola, and obtained by shifting the graph of f horizontally
by 2 units (the effect of having x − 2 in place of x in the denominator) and vertically by
1 unit (the effect of adding 1 to the fraction). These shifting effects move the horizontal
asymptote to the line y = 1 and the vertical asymptote to the line x = 2.