INTRODUCTION

to
Semantics & Pragmatics
Zikril Mulia, Chaerul Azmal Sahendra Chan, Riza Aswani,
Vasya Harradillah, Fauziah Annisa, Fitri Yana, Izzuddin
Hibatullah, Mega Agnesya Siregar, Nisya Rahmaini
Marpaung, Yuli Anggriani Desky, Citra Anistasya, Indriani
Zahara Pulungan, Dandi Rizki Anugrah Harahap, Rani
Widiyati, Nabilah Nasution, Raihani Chintia Br Marpaung,
Najla Syifa Saragih, Rani Hafni Dwi Rezeki, Mutia H.
Sembiring, Alvina Vera Masithah, Viky Pratiwi, Endang
Warda Ningsih, Siti Kholizah Br Simbolon, Widya
Wulanda,Rahma Indriyani, Siti Ferissa Fitriani, Anil Fadilah
Munthe, Nurhusna Putri, Feri Irawan, Rahma Dilla Alifia,
Nyirana Dea Popita, Azra Putri Chairunida Tanjung, Ulfa
Dayanti Nst, Laila Fikriyah, Fitri Handayani Lubis, Dini
Aisyah Fitri, Widuri Utami Sinaga, Annisa Aulia Putri,
Fajar Aldiansyah

Editor:
Emeliya Sukma Dara Damanik, M.Hum
INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS & PRAGMATICS

Copyright © Zikril Mulia, 2022.

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Editor: Emeliya Sukma Dara Damanik

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ISBN: 978-623-5419-11-4

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ii
A ll praise be to Allah, this book finally arrived in reader’s
hand. The writer wishes, this book will bring peace and
kindness so that the benefits come close to the all reader.
Through the different setting, this book might be not boring.
That is true this book has a wide content regarding
semantics and pragmatics. That is actually reader’s need
now days. It often happens at the small discussion in the
class, or someplace in somewhere, by the people who like to
know and master linguistics.
There is, in between the friends, seem has not so much
knowledge about linguistics, but wondering to know much
more than they used to be. There is so many ways to
introduce it to people, so that the writer tries to make it
simple and easy to catch them. Finally, the present of this
book is bringing the huge hope that could become learning
media for introducing semantics and pragmatics more
closely. At the same time, we hope this book become an
advantages book for all of us in utilizing it at our full or free
time as well. Wassalam.

Regards,

Writer

iii
iv
PREFACE ...................................................................................... iii
LIST OF CONTENT ....................................................................... v
CHAPTER I
Definition And Scope Of Semantics ...................................................... 1
CHAPTER II
Sense Relation I
(Synonym, Ambiguity, Homonymy, Polysemy, Metaphor) .......11
CHAPTER III
Sense Relation Ii
(Metonym, Antonym, Metonymy, Hyponymy, Taxonomy) .......17
CHAPTER IV
Forming Of Word I ....................................................................................25
CHAPTER V
Forming Of Word Ii ..................................................................................31
CHAPTER VI
Metaphor ......................................................................................................37
CHAPTER VII
Sentential Meaning ..................................................................................47
CHAPTER VIII
Deixis I............................................................................................................51
CHAPTER IX
Deixis Ii ..........................................................................................................57

v
CHAPTER X
Presupposition Entainment ..................................................................63
CHAPTER XI
Speech Event And Speech Act ...............................................................71
CHAPTER XII
Language Politeness Strategy
Impoliteness Strategy (Maxim) ...........................................................79
REFERENCE ................................................................................ 89

vi
 CHAPTER I

Definition of Semantics

E tymologically, the word “semantics” comes from the

Greek work “semantikos”, which means important. It
may be from the Greek noun “sema” which means sign or
signal, and from the verb “semaino” this means that signal.
The word semantic seems in French as sémantique, as
utilized by Michel Bréal at some stage in the19th century, in
his 1897 book posted in Paris, Essai de sémantique, taken
into consideration the primary use of the time period
semantics with inside the cutting-edge feel. Semantics is a
branch of linguistics that focuses on understanding meaning
as it emerges throughout the syntactic development of
words, phrases, and sentences. It is the examination of how
certain conditions and contexts affect the understanding of
sign of symbols used by businesses or groups. According to
this perspective, each of the following noises, facial,
expressions, body language, and proxemics all include
semantic (meaningful) information.
Semantics is the study of language's meaning. We all
understand that language is utilized to convey distinct
concepts, which may be comprehended by utilizing other
 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

people. But in our thoughts, there are meanings, and we

may express those meanings through both spoken and
written language. According to Geoffrey Leech (1974:9),
semantics, which is the study of meaning, is essential to the
study of communication since the need for communication
is only growing.
Deconstructing phrases, signals, and sentence structure
are all part of semantics. It has an impact on both our ability
to understand what we are reading and how other people
are expressing themselves in everyday conversation.
Without our being aware of it, semantics plays a significant
role in our daily understanding, communication, and
language learning. For instance, a baby may utilize
semantics to interpret a mother's instruction to "do your
tasks" as "perform your chores whenever you feel like it."
Do your tasks now, the mother may have said as she
adjusted her tone.
Here are among the methods wherein phrases may be
semantically associated:
1. Synonymy - Words are synonymous/synonyms
when they may be used to mean the same thing (at
least in some circumstances; phrases are seldom
exactly equal in all contexts). Start and begin, Big
and enormous, Young and Adolescent
2. Antonymy Once words have contracted meanings,
they become antonyms of one another (again, at
least in a few contexts). Small and large, up and
down, and come and go.
3. Polysemy - A phrase has many connected meanings
when it is polysemous. Although the term has one
form in this context, it may also be used to mean

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

several things. In the event of polysemy, the

meanings must be connected in some way and can
no longer have completely unconnected
connotations. Bright (shining) and bright
(intelligent). Mouse (animal) and mouse (computer
hardware).
4. Homophony - A homophone is a phrase that has two
meanings, even if they are completely unrelated.
Homophony is similar to polysemy in this regard.
Bat (flying mammal) and bat (sports activities
equipment). Pen (writing instrument) and pen
(small cage).
The Scope of Semantics
1. Naming: Naming provides the chance to use
language as nomenclatures. The basic semantic
feature of phrases has been recognized as that of
meaning for as long as we can trace the history of
linguistics theory. A language is typically thought of
as a verbal exchange tool with the signified on the
other side of the signifier. As they are used in
everyday discourse, names serve two distinct
purposes.
One is vocative, whereas the other is referential. To
highlight a referential trait, it is worth pointing out right
away that names are frequently employed to draw
listeners' attention to the presence of the person being
named and to remind them of the relevance of their
existence.
2. Concepts: Ferdinand De Saussure proposed that a
linguistic signal consists of a signifier and a signified.
Signified refers to sounds, images, concepts, and

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

notions. The referent is a thing, and the notion is an

idea, and the picture is the linguistic detail.
Theoretically, there may not be a direct connection
between a picture and its referent; rather, the
connection is made through thought, or an idea in our
minds.
The difficulty in finding "Concepts" is the method's
main criticism. The "Concepts" supporting a sentence
that uses subculture are just as challenging to define as
the "object" that is said utilizing subculture. Some words
do have meanings that are extremely simple to conceive,
but we actually don't have clear visual images, like
highly.
3. Sense and References: The word "reference" refers
to the relationship between language structure and
the outside world. "Sense" refers to the intricate
system of dating that exists within the language
building blocks itself. It only addresses
intralinguistic relationships.
The distinction between sensation and reference is
significant because it enables us to consider the many
times in which we gratefully employ words. Even while
they don't naturally match how things are in the outside
world, they still don't.
In everyday speech, we use words with vague global
connotations, such "hill" and "mountain," "cup" and
"glass," or "stream" and "river." When does a stream
turn into a river or a river become a mountain or hill?
For instance, words like amazing and beauty are
used frequently. The word choice has good sense.

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

4. Word and Lexeme: The sentence is not an

accurately characterized linguistic construction. It is
somewhat conventional since, according to Lyons, a
phrase is any group of letters that is divided on both
sides by the use of a space in formal typographical
practice. These divides are no longer entirely
arbitrary, of course, and we have many good reasons
for doing so.
Stress is one of the reasons why a single phrase
seems to only allow for one significant stress, therefore
treat "black bird" as a single phrase but "blackbird" as.
However, the spoken and written forms might not be
related.
By implying that the lowest shape that can occur on
its own is a "minimal loose shape," Bloomfield made a
valid argument. Only those things that we have learned
to understand as words are the things that we learn to
say on our own.
We can redefine the term "phrase" in a unique,
albeit no longer distinctive, way. We have been using
this term under the assumption that "love" and "loved"
are separate nouns. However, we could also claim that
these are different spellings of the verb to love. The
word on this second sensation is referred to technically
as a lexeme.
5. Sentence: "The expression of intricate thought" is
the traditional definition of a sentence. We can also
refer to a sentence as the main unit of meaning
because we now speak in sentences rather than
phrases. The entire sentence functions as one
grammatical unit. Sentence structure is described
and defined by syntax, the study of sentences.
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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

For instance, a topic noun phrase and a verb serving

as its predicate or complement are the bare minimum of
an English sentence.
The meaning of a sentence can be inferred from the
phrases it contains, or, more precisely, from the phrases
themselves as lexemes and the grammatical functions to
which they are connected.
Thus, each and every sentence will have a literal
meaning or, if ambiguous, more than one interpretation.
Additionally, there may be a variety of sentence
meanings that have nothing to do with lexical and
grammatical structure.
6. Prosodies: For example, volume, rhythm, stress,
and intonation. Consider the distinction between "I
am a student" and "l am a student." You talk clearly
in the first statement and loudly in the following
one. Two sentences are so identical yet have
different intonations.
7. Paralinguistic: Paralinguistic is the study of gesture
and facial expression. By employing the wink or
even a genuine smile, for instance, we can convey
that what we are saying is not actually true but is
only meant to tease.
8. Sarcasm: Saying something very opposite. For
example, if we describe someone as attractive but
our tone of voice suggests that we actually mean he
is not beautiful.
9. Speech Acts: Although we do it frequently and
covertly, we regularly provide warnings, threats,
and promises. For instance, the discipline might be
hauling a bull rather than just a piece of knowledge.

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

10. Social: Another key consideration is your social

connection to the person you are speaking to. When
we say "would you please be quiet" or "shut up," we
may be either courteous or impolite.
Types of Meaning in Semantics
The ability of a person to reason rationally and to
understand is very strongly tied to meaning. When reading,
the reader should be familiar with grammar, syntax,
morphology, and semantics in order to comprehend the
meaning of each word and to interpret it correctly.
Semantics deals with meaning independently of the
situation's context. Geoffrey Leech claims that there are at
least seven different kinds of semantic meaning. These are
what they are: Meanings associated with concepts include
connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning,
reflective meaning, collocative meaning, and thematic
meaning.
1. Conceptual Meaning
Conceptual meaning is the literal or essential
meaning of a term in semantics. This kind of meaning is
sometimes referred to as denotative, logical, or
intellectual content. It alludes to the definition found in
a dictionary, which highlights the ideas. The purpose of
conceptual meaning is to provide a statement a suitable
semantic representation. It serves as the foundation for
all other sorts of meaning.
A person must be aware of the notion behind a term
in order to connect one meaning of that word with
another. For instance, the definition of "woman" may be
defined as
• Is a person

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

• Not a man
• Is a mature
2. Connotative Meaning
Connotation refers to a meaning that goes beyond
the semantic meaning of a word. Connotative meaning,
then, is when a term has more than one meaning.
These connotations might differ from one
civilization, one culture, or one person to another. They
comprise not only psychological and social traits but
also physical traits.
This kind of meaning is ambiguous. For instance,
although some claim that women are weak-willed and
subservient, others claim that they are con artists,
cheats, etc. They use their psychological viewpoints to
characterize women.
Also, it is unstable. For instance, women were once
thought to be weak, cowardly, illogical, and
contradictory. They are now viewed as independent,
dedicated, etc. They will probably experience different
treatment in the future.
3. Social Meaning
It is a type of meaning based on the aspects of
society. It is a sort of meaning that is founded on societal
elements. Social meaning is the definition of language by
members of a certain culture. This interpretation is
dialect-based. The pronunciation, vocabulary, and
grammar of the London accent are different from those
of the USA.
Time: The sixteenth century's language was
different from the nineteenth century's.

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

Province: Language used in English literature, such

as metaphors, similes, and sarcasm, is different from
language used in science and the law.
Any piece of language would have a distinct meaning
when viewed conceptually and when seen socially. The
terms "domicile," "residence," "abode," and "house" all
relate to the same thing, but each word has a specific
context in which it should be used.
• Domicile (very formal situation)
• Residence (formal situation)
• Abode (poetic situation)
• Home (general situation)
4. Affective Meaning
The speaker's pitch level, intonation, and tone
fluctuate depending on the scenario. It alludes to the
speaker's moods, emotions, and attitude toward the
current environment.
For instance, if we speak to a youngster who is
motherless, we will be quite emotional and speak very
softly. In a similar vein, our voices also get louder when
we're upset.
5. Reflected Meaning
Reflected meaning, as used in semantics, is the
correlation of a word or phrase with more than one
sense or meaning. It's ironic in a way.
A poet could not but be gay,
in such a jocund company.
For example, by using the word gay, the poet tries to
mean something joyful. However, this word usually
refers to homosexuality.
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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

6. Collocative Meaning
A collocation is a common arrangement of words,
particularly those that frequently appear together and
convey meaning. A word has a collocational meaning
when it is used alongside another term. While the
definition of "good-looking" is the same for both pretty
and attractive, these terms change when used in the
right context.
In details:
• Pretty is appropriate for – girl, woman
• Handsome is appropriate for – boy, man
7. Thematic Meaning.
Thematic meaning is a choice among several
grammatical constructions, such as active-passive,
simple-complex, etc. That implies that while a sentence's
meaning will remain consistent, its form will vary. It
relates to the speaker's use of emphasis, word choice,
and word order to convey the message.
For example:
• He is so week that he cannot work. (This is a
complex sentence).
• He is too week to walk. (This is a simple
sentence).
• Here the structures of the sentences are
different, but the meaning is the same.

10
 CHAPTER II

A sense relation is one of the important elements related

to learning semantics, studying the meaning of
language. The meaning of a word can be understood from its
similarity to other words. On the other hand, it can also be
learned about the opposite in other words. (McIntyre) The
relationship of meaning between words, expressed in
synonyms, ambiguity, sources of lexical ambiguity:
homonymy and polysemy, sources of polysemy: metaphors.
There are several kinds of sense relation:
1. Synonym
Synonym can be defined as a word or phrase that
has meaning exactly or nearly to another word that have
same core. Synonym is a semantic relationship that
states that there is a similarity in meaning between one
word and another. These synonyms are commonly
referred to as word equivalents or word equations.
(Almuttalibi, 2018)
The example of Synonym in English Language:
 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

• Bad: awful, terrible, and horrible.

• Good: fine, excellent, great.
• Hot: burning, fiery, boiling.
• Cold: chilly, freezing, and frosty.
• Easy: Simple, effortless, straightforward.
• Hard: difficult, challenging, tough.
• Big: large, huge, giant.
• Small: tiny, little, mini.
The example of Synonym example in Indonesian
Language:
• Kredit = mencicil
• Berdusta = berbohong
• Rajin = giat
• Haus = dahaga
• Baju = pakaian
2. Ambiguity
Ambiguity is a word or sentence that has two or
more meanings. Ambiguity sometimes makes a word or
sentence has doubts, is not clear and etc.
The example of Ambiguity in English language:
• I saw someone on the hill with a camera
• Did you use a camera to see someone on the hill
or did you see someone on the hill holding a
camera?
The example of Ambiguity in Indonesian Language:
• Beruang: Beruang yang memiliki dua arti yaitu
orang yang mempunyai uang dan salah satu
hewan.
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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

• Jarak: Jarak memiliki dua arti yaitu rentang

wilayah atau nama dari tumbuhan.
• Hak: Hak memiliki dua arti yaitu sesuatu yang
menjadi kepemilikan dan bagian dari sepatu
wanita.
3. Sources of lexical: Homonymy and Polysemy
Homonymy is words that have different meanings
but have the same pronunciation or spelling. The
meaning of a homonym depends on the sentence (Cann,
2014).
The examples of homonymy in English Language:
• Kind (means a type of something/can be
translated as a good person or caring)
• Ring (the sound of phone while people call
someone/the jewelry put on a finger)
• Right (correct/the antonym or opposite of left)
• Know/no (have knowledge to
understanding/the antonym or opposite of yes)
The examples of homonymy in Indonesian
Language:
• Genting (bisa di artikan gawat atau pun atap
rumah)
• Bisa (diartikan dapat ataupun berbisa ular / zat
beracun)
• Selang (diartikan jeda waktu atau selang
menyalurkan air)
4. Polysemy
Polysemy is a form of language (words, phrases,
etc.) that have more than one meaning. This more than

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

one meaning occurs because there are several concepts

in the meaning of a word (Pardede, 2016).
The example of polysemy in English Language:
• The sun is very bright today / She is a very
bright student (Bright in the first example
means 'shining' meanwhile in second example it
means 'intelligent or clever'. the meaning is
related because the sense of bright student
brings the feel of shine in that word bright
usually shines her intelligence)
• Head (head of master / head in the body parts)
The example of polysemy in Indonesian Language:
• Mata (kata mata digunakan dalam beberapa
frasa seperti ‘mata pencaharian’ ‘mata kaki’ dan
‘mata hati’)
• Buah / sebuah (buah-buahan seperti jeruk dll /
sebuah atau satu)
• Roda (roda yang ada pada sepeda / roda yang
digunakan dalam kata roda kehidupan yang
terus berputar yang maksudnya adalah hidup
terus berjalan kadang diatas dan kadang
dibawah)
5. Sources of polysemy: metaphor
Metaphor is a figure of speech that is used to convey
a message in a more imaginative way. Metaphor uses a
comparison between two or more unrelated things. The
metaphor understands itself from one concept to
another concept, where there are some similarities
between the two. So this metaphor is a figure of speech
that is used to equate something else. This metaphor is

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

included in the comparative figure of speech. Metaphor

have several types, there are:
a. Dead Metaphor: dead metaphoris a metaphor
whose existence as a metaphor is hardly realized
by the narrative. This type of metaphor usually
uses universal words about time, ideas or
ecological elements.
Example:
• Foot of a hill (foot means not like a human
foot as usual. However, the foot here means
the base or the place where the hill stands.)
• Mulut sungai (maksud mulut sungai disini
adalah ujung sungai atau muara sungai)
• Puncak karir (makna dari puncak disini
adalah posisi tertinggi dalam dunia karir
bukan seperti puncak yang ada pada
pegunungan)
b. Cliché: s cliché is an expression, idea or element
of a work of art that is used too often so that the
meaning or effect of the word has faded, even to
the point of sounding annoying.
Example:
• Only time will tell (something will become
clear over time. It was then common to see
"only time will tell" that literally means "only
time can reveal." The point of this cliche is
the clarity of a matter is sure to be answered
someday, and all we can do is wait for it to
come).
• Kamu terlalu baik untukku

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

• Semua akan baik-baik saja.

c. Stock Metaphor: this metaphor is an effective
means and can describe concrete or abstract
concepts, and has an emotional impact to the
reader.
Example:
• Beauty is truth, truth beauty
• Muka tembok
• Secercah sinar harapan
d. Adapted Metaphor: actually metaphor does not
look like a stock metaphor but is adapted by the
author or speaker in a new context.
Example:
• Software (its formed by ‘soft’ and ‘ware’
words but in new sense that is tools of
program in computer)
• E book (book in the digital version)
• Mingguan itu banyak membuat gosip
(mingguan adalah bermakna seminggu
sekali sehingga maksud mingguan disini
dapat diartikan sebagai surat kabar)
e. Original Metaphor: this metaphor contains the
core of an important message from the writer or
his comment on life and involves his personality.
Example:
• He broke my heart
• The world is a stage
• Kamu adalah matahariku
• Hidup bagaikan rollercoaster

16
 CHAPTER III

The Concept of Sense Relation

T his part of paper is tries to discuss five familiar lexical

relations, which are metonymy, antonym, metonymy,
hyponymy, and taxonomy. The structure of the lexicon is
reflected in regular and productive patterns of assignment
of forms of meaning and the semantic relationships between
them. Furthermore, lexical relationships are culturally
recognized association patterns that exist between the
lexical units of a language. That is, any lexical word can have
multiple relations to other lexis within a language (Riemer,
2010, p. 45). Thus, this paper tries to mention some
common definitions on the nature and applications of such
kind of relations among lexis, which can help in creating and
understanding meanings.
There are a number of paradigmatic lexical
relationships that are common in English. For example, the
word ‘happy’ can become a synonym for ‘happy, ‘joyful’,
‘glad’, etc. In addition, there are word groups that have
 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

lexical relationships with 'temperature', such as cold, cool,

warm, warm, and hot. Besides, we can have opposite
(antonym) relations among words, such as student versus
teacher, patient versus doctor, and so on. Therefore, each
lexical relation has a basic structure that describes the
relation that the senses have in a series of lexical relations
with each other.
There are several ways to characterize the meaning of a
word, for example, it can be done through morphology,
phonology, or even through its categorization, that is,
whether it is animate, human, feminine, or adult. However,
there is also another way of characterizing the meaning of a
word: that is, to characterize a word by its lexical relation.
Lexical relations are those between one word and another.
For example, all English speakers know that the opposite of
"closed" is "open", and that "literature" is similar to "book".
Each of these words are closely related to each other. While,
there are other words like: “chair” and “coffee” might have
no meaningful relationships. Thus, certain lexical
relationships can tell us about the meaning of a word
(Lobner, 2002, p. 102).
In addition, lest it be reflected in the isolated lexicon,
meaning is the outcome of the interactions and correlations
of words among each other. In other words, the meaning is
created by the use of the lexicon in the text. The meaning of
a lexical item changes when it is in a different linguistic
context. A significant shift in meaning will affect the lexical
relationship between each paired word. In this paper, we
will try to investigate some lexical problems related to the
six relationships that result in serious problems if they are
not understood and researched by linguists. The
relationships that will be discussed are synonyms,

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

antonyms, polysemy, homonymy, metonymy, and

hyponymy, so their contextual meaning should receive great
attention from language professionals.
To conclude, this section presented a general idea
about the ways semantics lead to investigate into meanings,
especially the meanings that can be achieved through
relations between lexical words in English language. In the
next section, practically these relations will be assumed and
discussed with examples in order to understand how a
single lexicon can suggest another lexicon and then a new
meaning.
Kind of Sense Relation
1. Metonymy
Metonymy is another well-known way of making
meanings through using a lexical word to work as a part
to stand for something as a whole. The revelation of
reality can be done by using metonymy. One of the
reasons, which make metonyms effective tools to
represent the reality, is that they work indexical. That is,
they become a representative part of the whole reality.
Nonetheless, it should be noted that metonyms do not
perform in the same way as natural indexes do, as they
are arbitrarily work. In this way, metonymies help to
show the message as a natural index, which invites the
reader to connote the message as real.
(Hurford, Heasley, & Smith, 2007) Metonymy is one
of the non-literal types in language through which a
lexeme, either alone or in a context, stands for a bigger
situation that are correlated logically. That is, by using
the metonymy technique we can apply a concept by
using other concept that are related to each other. For

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

instance, in the sentence ‘the beef sandwich in the next

booth is waiting for his bill.’ It is clear that it is
impossible to interpret this sentence literally in order to
understand it; instead, we are not implying that an
actual sandwich is waiting to get its bill. This way of
interpretation results in an anomaly. That mean we will
understand it better to mean that the person who
ordered is waiting for his bill. Thus, the meaning of the
metonymic concept here depends on the contextual
situation.
In addition, the metonymic relations between
entities are principled. That is to say, they are not
arbitrary. In order to realize this principality, let’s
consider this example, when we use a lexical noun like
‘Watergate’ instead of saying ‘the place for the ‘event' to
indicate the geographic location where the event will
occur in, can be principal and not arbitrary. Therefore, it
can be proved that metonymies are highly structured
concepts and they are well organized. It means that
metonymy is concerned with our personal and
emotional attitudes and experiences.
Finally, we have now discussed all six types of
lexical relationships with clear definitions and precise
examples. These types are the most common
relationships in semantics. However, the scope of the
study does not permit us to give more details otherwise
such concepts of semantic linguistics could acquire
more negotiations. In other words, this article highlights
only one type of lexical relationship, namely antonyms.
2. Metonymy
In semantics, a metonym is a word indicating the
parts or members of something. For example, banana is
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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

a synonym for banana (sometimes written banana <

banana tree). This part-whole relation is called
metonymy. Adjective: metonymous. Metonymy refers to
a semantic relation of "whole part' in which one word
constitutes or holds all meanings of its parts. For
example, the word plant has a synonymous relationship
with roots, stems, branches, twigs, buds, sprouts, stems,
leaves, and flowers. Like hyponymy, metonymy can be
further subdivided into details in the hierarchy
immediately below. For example, leaves have a
metonym for stem and leaf, a root with a hood and hairs,
and a flower with petals and stamens.. Other examples
of metonymy are knife with its metonymy of blade,
handle and fountain pen with its cap, barrel, nih, and
reservoir.
(Matzner, 2016) Metonymy is not just one relation
but a set of distinct part-to-whole relations. The
opposite of a meronym is a holonym the name of which
the Meronym is part of it. Banana tree is a holonym of
apple (banana tree > banana). The whole relationship is
called holonymy. Adjective: holonim. Etymology from
the Greek, "part" + "name". A metonym denotes another
word or element which together with other elements
forms a whole. So, 'bark', 'leaf', and 'branch' are
synonyms of the holony 'tree'.
3. Antonym
Antonymy can easily be said as the opposite of
synonym. It is Handles a series of vocabulary words that
have opposite meanings in terms of lexical relations. For
example, ice = hot, beautiful = ugly, and big = small. Each
of these word pairs has the opposite meaning to each

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

other. In addition, there are two forms of these

opposites: category and contiguous.
On the one hand, the difference between categories
is that the two categories are opposite to each other. For
example, fire and water. There is no continuity between
them, hence this is a category. In other words, less fire
does not necessarily imply more water, and less water
does not mean more fire.
On the other hand, constructions like enormous and
little are examples of antonyms that are on a continuum.
This is because these words are relative in nature. When
we describe a horse as being little, for instance, we can
be referring to another horse. Then, if that same horse is
put up against a lesser horse, it's possible that the horse
is suddenly deemed to be large. Therefore, with relation
to the topic at hand, there is a continuum between the
meanings of big and little. Here are a few more examples
of antonym in sentences:
• John is small John is slow
• John is big John is fast
It is understandable that all these phrases have
opposite meanings, because this exists more easily
through application to sentences. However, it is worth
noting that antonym, like synonymy, can have issues as
well, even though they exist if we change the nature of
our message. For example, ironically, the phrase
"economy is going nuts" can be said for the purpose of
"the economy is perfectly healthy." Traditionally, "going
nuts" and "totally sane" can be regarded as opposite
meanings. But ironically, if you change your way of
speaking, the relationship no longer holds. Therefore,

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

antonyms work differently, starting with a literal or

simple view of the discourse.
4. Hyponymy
The concept of connectedness is the opposite of
hyponymy. The semantics of one item is assumed by
another in this situation. In other words, even if words
are used to represent objects, they can also include
semantic information about those items, such as
whether they are animate or female. The meaning of the
word "x," for instance, may then be contained within the
word "z." For instance, the noun John suggests a man, a
human, or something "alive." This is because, unlike
what some people may think, John is both a manly
person and an animate being. As a result, hyponymy
describes the situation when another semantic property
is implied by each word.
Since these semantic properties are arranged
ordinally, there is typically a level for meaningfulness
that ranges from specialized to general. The most
generic term would be at the top of the hierarchy, which
would match the following:
• Animate
• Male
• Human
• Adult
Additionally, technical words like superordinate and
co-hyponyms are employed to define the connections
between these hierarchies. From the previous example,
it is clear that animate would be considered better to
human and that male would be actually better to human.

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

On the other hand, a term is referred to be a co-

hyponym when it is on the same level. For instance, the
co-hyponym of the nouns "dog" and "cat" is placed
under "pet" as its superordinate. Therefore, hyponyms
travel in one of two directions: from particular to
general or from general to specific, where general is
typically at the top and specific is at the bottom of the
hierarchy.
In conclusion, hyponymy is the concept of
hierarchically embedded semantic properties. As was
previously said, whenever we mention a lexical word
like John, we obviously invoke particular semantic
qualities, such as an alive being, a human being, an adult,
a man, etc.
5. Taxonomy
In terms of class inclusion, taxonomy is a
hierarchical structure of terms that includes all objects
in lower-level units in its superordinate terms. Tree
systems are commonly used to depict taxonomies. In
taxonomies, the subordinate units are quite precise
while the superordinate units are relatively schematic
or abstract. A component or subtype of hyponymy is
taxonomy. By elaborating on what is unique about its
superordinate, taxonomy must specifically connect with
the meaning of its subordinate (Winiharti, 2010). The
following example can help us learn more about
taxonomy:
• Blue: Colour
A blue is a type of colour
• Orange : Fruit
An orange is a type of fruit

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 CHAPTER IV

Definition of Word Formation

W ords have structures which can form words, which

come from the smallest structures, and then become
words that have complex shapes and meanings. The
structure that forms the word is called morpheme
(Faradisas, 2019). Each language has its own variations
because of its historical, geographical, and social value. For
example, in terms of historical value, native Indians are
ready to speak English since they were inhabited by the
British. However, the English they use isn't the one
employed by native English speakers as a result it mixes
with Indian languages, leading to variations in English. This
is often proof that language is continually evolving. In terms
of language development, language users use language
every which way within the variety of borrowing, adapting,
and forming new words in the language they use. In
linguistics, the formation of the latest words is enclosed
within the morphological process, or the method of word-
formation. This word-formation development is existed
altogether language users, as well as the formation of
aviation terms (Azis & Rosa, 2018). Words can be formed in
different ways to convey different meanings by adding
 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

affixes to prefixes and suffixes. Yule defines word formation

as the act of developing and producing new words through
the use of preexisting words. When the rules for word
formation are different from the rules for sentence
formation, according to Bauer, using word formation can be
useful (Yule, 1985; Bauer, 1983).
A word formation process is by combining, cutting,
summarizing or borrowing from other languages or other
word so that it changes the form of the word from its origin.
In general, the word formation process is a way of compiling
new words from existing words based on several linguistic
rules. It implies that specific procedures are used to
generate words in a particular way.
Types of Word Formation
There are several processes in making new words in
English, namely a) affixation, b) borrowing, c) folk
etymology, d) compounding, e) abbreviation, f) acronym, g)
blending, h) clipping, i) back formation.
1. Affixation
(Raja, 2014) Affixation is the process of giving
affixes to basic words both at the beginning and at the
end of the root word. Affixation has several types, such
as prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and circumfixes (beginning
and ending affixes). Example:
• Prefix: unlike, dislike, overheat, prepaid
• Suffix: Kingdom, Happiness, Friendly, Playful,
Clearly, Writer, brotherhood.
• Infixes: handful, cupsful
• Circumfixes : incorrectly, illegality, unacceptable

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

2. Borrowing
Borrowing is the formation of word by borrowing
word from other languages without changing the word.
Some examples that we often hear are: Sofa, Computer,
comic, Yogurt, etc.
3. Folk Etymology
Folk etymology is a word change that involves a
change in the form or pronunciation of a word or phrase
that comes from a mistake about the composition or
meaning. For examples: cockroaches, cockroach came
from when Spanish word cucaracha borrowed into
English, but English speaker heard that cockroach.
Female from a French called femelle.
4. Compounding
Compounding is a process of combining word into
new word. These words have different meanings, but
they can become new words when they are combined.
Here are some examples of compounding:
• Boy + Friend = Boyfriend
• Break + Fast = Breakfast
• Sun + Shine = Sunshine
5. Abbreviation
We often encounter abbreviations in every language.
Likewise, in English. Here are some examples of
abbreviations that we often encounter in English:
• CMIIW = Correct Me If I’m Wrong
• ASAP = As Soon As Possible
• BTW = By The Way
• COD = Cash On Delivery

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

• FYI = For Your Information

• IDC = I Don’t Care
• ISTG = I Swear to God
• OOTD = Outfit Of The Day
6. Acronym
Acronyms are words that can be read without
pronouncing letter by letter. An acronym is a
pronounceable word formed using the first letters of
several words. These letters are combined to make a
shortened word to pronounce. Acronyms are commonly
used in everyday language and tend to be understood
quickly. Examples:
• BBF = Best Friend Forever
• CMIWW = Correct Me If I’m Wrong
• YOLO = You Only Live Once
7. Blending
Blending in English is to combine two words into
one word that is easy to understand. Here are some
examples:
• Stay + Vacation = Staycation
• Motor + Hotel = Motel
8. Clipping
Clipping is a by condensing the previous word, a
new word is generated through the process. For
Examples:
• Exam from Examination
• Pro from Professional
• Flu from Influenza

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

9. Back formation
Back formation involves deleting affixes from
existing words to create new words. For Example:
• Edit from Editor
• Revision from revise
• Creation from create

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Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

30
 CHAPTER V

F orming of word is a very common occurrence in

everyday life. According to Trask (in Ratih & Gusdian,
2018) process of the word formation define as one of
technique or process of building recent ot modern words
taken from previously published works. Definition based on
Hacken and Thomas (in Ratih & Gusdian, 2018) the process
by which new words are recreated based on existing rules.
In addition, Plag (in Ratih & Gusdian, 2018) states that the
formation of word as a way to form new words from other
words. The process of creating new, contemporary words—
which can result in both productive and unproductive
words—can be inferred from the foregoing description.
Depending on Bauer (in Enesi, 2017) two major groups of
morphemes can be further sub classified based on other
criteria. Morphemes can occur independently or only in
conjunction with others. This morpheme is between free
and bound. It is very important to know whether a
morpheme appears only once as a blocked morpheme or
repeatedly. There are four main ways of forming words in
modern English: affixation, composition, conversion,
abbreviation. This is also a secondary way of exchanging
 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

voices. Stress exchange, voice imitation, mix, backformation,

acronyms.
According to Harley (in Ratih & Gusdian, 2018) by
modifying existing words, one can produce new words. He
further remarked that newer words involve several
processes procedures that are more productive include
affixation, mixing, and compounding to create modern or
new words. In addition, Pliatsikas (in Ratih & Gusdian,
2018) stated that the basic new words are derived from
morphology. However, they found a process of
disambiguation between nouns and verbs.
In addition, Xhina (in Ratih & Gusdian, 2018) states that
in Albanian English, there are two methods of word
formation: derivation and compounding. According to
Mustafa (2015) stated that the word formation process that
is very commonly used by user of Facebook from is
abbreviations, combining, and employing emotions while
users having interaction on social media such as Facebook
every day.
Word-formation thus explains the creation of complex
lexical items from simple items and may be regarded as a
means by which to simplify the dictionary entries in the
lexicon of a language.
It is quite difficult to talk about the relationship
between word formation and syntax in a way that is
concept. The issue is that different theoretical models
handle the link of phrase structure and word formation in
significantly different ways.

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

Kinds of Forming of Word

1. Affixation
There are several kinds of affixation, which are
suffixes, infixes, circumfixes and prefixes, suffixes, and
circumfixes were the types of affixation discovered in
his research.
2. Borrowing
Borrowing is a way of borrowing words from
another language without any changes. Kinara, emoji,
naqada, mabuhay, and angpow are among the processes
discovered in the study.
3. Folk Etymology
Folk etymology is somewhat similar to the process
of borrowing. Folk etymology emerged because of
historical stories. This is because speakers have
different interpretations structure As a result; the
speaker modifies the pronunciation or form.
4. Compounding
In addition, new words created by Battleground,
Audio Dub, Australia, Batchmate, Hackboat, etc. are
examples of the compounding process. See appendix 1
for more thorough data. The words "battleground,"
"audio dub," "Aussieland," "batchmate," and "hackboat"
are all derived from the words "battleground" and
"audio dub." As can be seen from the explanation above,
new words are created by joining two existing words
together.
5. Abbreviation
Additionally, the shortening procedure resulted in
the following new words:

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

• LDR : Long Distance Relationship

• DIY : Do it Yourself
• ASAP : As Soon As Possible
• OOTD : Outfit of the Day
• FYP : For Your Page
• TBL : Takut Banget Loh
It is clear from the description above as an
abbreviation—which must be uttered letter by letter—
is required.
6. Acronyms
• In addition, new words created with several
acronym processes include Captcha, Osha, ISA,
YOLO, and so on.
• The full word captcha is Automated Public
Turing test to differentiate Computer and
Human.
• Osha comes from the word Occupatioal Safety
and Health Administration.
• ISA comes from the word Industry Standard
Architecture.
• YOLO comes from the word You Only Lie Once.
These are called acronyms because words can be
read without having to pronounce them
individually.
7. Blending
The blending process is called cybercast, digipak,
irone, chugger, backronym, brunello, etc. The word
'cybercast' comes from the first cyber+broadcast, the
word broadcast is cut into cast.

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

8. Clipping
The new words formed from the clipping process
are dom, disco, demo, syst, sacndi, and so on. In detail,
there are some words as follows:
• The word 'dom' is domino
• The word 'disco' is discotheque
• The word 'syst' is system
• The word 'sacndi' is Scandinavian
These words are made by cutting the back parts
which are called final clippings. Therefore, it can be
concluded that final clipping is the dominant type of
ending clipping in making new words.
9. Back-Formation
The rear formation is slightly the identical as
clipping. However, within the rear formation, it can
change the a part of speech. Meanwhile, clipping doesn't
change the a part of speech. The new word generated
from the back-formation process is gank. It comes from
'gangster'. this is often the sole rear formation process
discovered in 2012. From the word 'gank', it's seen that
the rear is erased and turns into something else.
10. Double Word-Formation Process
The process of double word formation is the way to
combine two derivation processes into a word. The
double word formation processes found are:
a. Folk Etymology+Compounding New words will
be created by folk etymology+compounding
process. this suggests that there are two
processes, namely etymology and compounding.
for instance, historiosophy. It comes from

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

historio (from Greek) +sophy (from Greek). It

will be seen that the word comes from Greek
and is combined into one word.
b. Compound+Affixation New words will be
created by compounding+affixation. That is, the
new words are created through two processes.
as an example, live-blogging, surveillance,
beatboxer, dayworker, hardrocker, etc.
c. Blending+Affixation Furthermore, new words
also can be created by blending+affixation. for
instance, syntagmatic. It comes from the +
pragmatic + s syntax. The word
'syntax+pragmatic' is made by blending. Then
added a suffix as affixation.
d. Clipping+BlendingThen, the clipping+blending
process can even create a replacement word. for
instance, the word 'd-line'. It came from the line
of defense.Compounding+AffixationThe new
words may be created by
compounding+affixation. It implies that the new
words are created by twoprocesses. for instance,
live-blogging, oversighting, beatboxer,
dayworker, hardrocker, etc.

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 CHAPTER VI

Definition of Metaphor

S aeed (1997:302) said “Metaphor has traditionally been

viewed as the most important from figurative language
use and usually seen as reaching its most sophisticated
forms in literary or poetic language”. In other words,
metaphor is described as the most important part of using
stylistics and achieving the best form in writing or
literature. Then Kennedy (1983: 680) stated that “Metaphor
is a statement that one thing is something else, which in
literal sense it is not”. According to Murray Knowles
(2006:3) "metaphor is the use of a language to refer to"
something other than what it was originally applied to or
what it is, literally means, in order to suggest some
resemblance or make a connection between two things”.
According to Murray, metaphor is the use of language
to refer to something other than what applied initially or
literally to show some resemblance or the relationship
between two things. Meanwhile, according to Lakoff and
Johnson (2003: 36) "Metaphor" is one thing in terms of
another, and its primary function understands”. Metaphor is
something that has meaning from other things and its main
function understands. Metaphor is a linguistic phenomenon
 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

that applies at the semantic level. Metaphors are related to

the relationship between one word and another in forming
a word mean. Metaphor means to penetrate, meaning to
penetrate the linguistic meaning. Metaphor classified as
figurative language (figurative language), such as
comparison, but does not use the word comparison.
Metaphors express something that is equal or worth
something else, which not really the same.
(Wellek, Rena, & Warren, 1970) Metaphor is seen as a
distinctive form of language, and can it is also strange
because word relations in metaphors go beyond the limits
of literal language relations which mutually agreed upon in
daily communication.
The classical understanding of metaphor differs
considerably from contemporary thought on the subject.
Aristotle cited in Eubanks (1999) says that metaphor is a
two part expression. Something is something else. Aristotle
maintains that a metaphor has two main discursive
locations namely the place where it has originated from and
the place to which it has been transferred. He claims that it
is made of two parts which can be easily extracted or
concealed because all metaphors can be stated as similes
and all similes as metaphors.
According to Aristotle the two parts of a metaphor
work on each other by sharing some obvious feature. Black
(1962) offers a different view of metaphor. He calls
Aristotle’s theory a comparison theory in which there are
pre-existing similarities between compared terms. Black
offers an alternative view in which he claims that when we
say „man is a wolf‟ we do not simply project the pre-existing
characteristics of a wolf onto man but rather newly involve
man in a system of commonplaces or an “implicative

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

complex” about wolf. According to Black (1962) the

metaphor “man is wolf” influences both our idea of man and
wolf. Metaphor theory has since undergone a revolutionary
change.
(Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) claim that our conceptual
system, in terms of which human beings both think and act,
is basically metaphoric in nature. Further, Lakoff and
Johnson (1980) claim that the way we as humans think,
what we experience, and what we do every day, is very
much a matter of metaphor. Metaphor then seems to
function at the conceptual level. That is, at least, according
to Lakoff and Johnson, metaphor is a cognitive instrument
whereby we conceive of our world. On the other hand, we
communicate these metaphorical conceptual construals in
expressions that reflect the metaphoric nature of the
concept, viz. metaphorical linguistic expressions.
According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980:05), in
metaphor interpretation, we understand one kind of thing
or experience in terms of something else of a different kind.
For example, in the conceptual metaphor, argument is war;
we understand argument in terms of war. What we are
saying is that, the structure of war is mapped onto the
structure of argument to the extent that we see similarities
between war and argument.
The Types of Metaphor
Many metaphor analyzers perform different types of
metaphors depending on the point of view. Basically,
metaphors can be classified into: There are two groups of
metaphors, namely conventional metaphors and original
metaphors or also called metaphors with unconventional
metaphors. Mildred L. Larsson calls conventional metaphors
as "Dead Metaphor". Larsson (1998: 274-275) argues that
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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

metaphor Conventional is a metaphorical expression whose

meaning can be directly understood without have to think
about the comparison of the constituent words, due to
existence These metaphors tend to be no longer realized by
speakers and sometimes take the form similar to idioms.
Meanwhile, according to Knowles and Moon (2006: 6)
states that metaphor Conventional is a metaphor that is no
longer new and this type of metaphor has been loses its
character as a metaphor, because this metaphor is often
used and then put into everyday vocabulary.
According to Ullman (in Wahab, 1995), there are four
types of metaphors as follows:
1. Anthropormic Metaphor
Ullman stated that most of the speeches or
expressions that refer to inanimate objects are carried
out by diverting or removing from the human body or
its parts, from the meanings or values and desires of
humans. So, basically the creation of anthropomorphic
metaphors starts from the body or parts of the human
body or the values/meanings and pleasures that
humans have. Then, transferred/transferred to other
things that are not living or inanimate are
perceived/understood as living or animate. Such
metaphorical expressions are known as personification
style. For example, "The palm tree waving" and "The
love grumbles".
2. Animal Metaphor
This type of metaphor uses animals or animal body
parts or something related to animals to image
something else. In general, it is based on the similarity of
form which is quite clear so that it does not produce a

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

strong expressive power. For example, to curse or scold

someone because of their actions, the metaphorical
utterance "your dog, pig, buffalo" is used. In this context
a person is matched as a "pig or dog" because of his
character or actions.
3. Metaphor from concert to abstract
This type of metaphor can be expressed as the
opposite of an abstract or vague thing treated as
something animate so that it can act concretely or
animate. For example "student star". A student who is
smart in school (as something concrete / real) is
declared as a star student (as something vague or
abstract).
4. Synesthetic Metaphor
This type of metaphor is basically a transfer or
transfer from one experience to another, or from one
response to another. For example, "I see a sound". In
general, sound is something that can be heard. However,
in this speech "sound" is treated as something that can
be seen. And other examples are like, "his presence was
greeted with a sweet smile" and "his eyes looked cold at
me".
The Purpose of Metaphor
According to Leech (1997) the function of using spoken
form of metaphor is grouped into in several types of
functions viz.
1. Information Function
The information function is the metaphorical use of
language utterances whose function is as a means to
convey information about the thoughts and feelings of
the speaker to the interlocutor.

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

2. Expressive function
Metaphor has an expressive function, which is the
conveying of the use of language speech in a
metaphorical way that contains an expectation in
accordance with the expectations and desires of the
speaker to the interlocutor.
3. Directive function
Metaphor as a directive functions if the language
speech metaphorically contains elements that can affect
attitudes, independence.
4. Fatigue function
Fatigue function is the language utterance
metaphorically contains elements that can inform the
message with the aim of maintaining a somewhat
harmonious relationship.
Characteristic of Metaphor
For all its characteristics, I just want to single out
among them three to dwell on. They are namely
universality, systematic character and power of enriching
semantic meaning.
1. Universality
Metaphor is not simply confined to linguistics, but
also has entered into and become spotlight of fields of
philosophy cognitive science, artificial intelligence,
psychology, sociology and education. Metaphor has
attracted tremendous attention from philosophers,
which is evidenced by Kant‟s elaboration on conceptual
metaphor from the angle of cognition and pointing out
that our language is full of conceptualized expressions
indirectly deriving from metaphorization. In 1960,

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

German philosopher Blumenberg also pointed out with

emphasis that most of the reasoning of human beings is
metaphorical because of abstract and scientific account
can be possible.
Metaphor proliferates too in natural science. For
instance, in physics, we come to know what electricity is
in terms of understanding the intangible water we are
familiar with, hence expressions of flow of electricity,
pressure of electricity, obstacle of electricity, to name
just a few.
Metaphor, used in our daily thinking and acting is an
omnipresent principle of human languages and makes
abstraction possible; therefore it is a must to think in
metaphor. Lackoff and Johson’s investigation showed
even higher frequencies of use of metaphor--70% of
expressions in language derive from metaphorical
concepts. Ortony (1929) held: all languages are of
metaphorical quality.
2. Systematic character of metaphor
Different conceptual metaphors do not work
independently, as Lackoff and Johnson (1980) put it,
metaphorical entailments can characterize a coherent
system of metaphorical concepts and a corresponding
coherent system of metaphorical expressions for those
concepts. For instance, in English there are three
metaphors related to time, namely,
Time is money
How do you spend your time these days? That flat tire
cost me an hour.
Time is a limited resource

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

You don’t use your time profitably. You are running

out of time.
Time is a valuable commodity.
I don’t have the time to give you. Thank you for your
time. (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)
Knowledge of what money, limited resources and
valuable commodity are in mind, these metaphors can
facilitate our understanding of the abstract concept
time. The three metaphors well agree with each other
and mingle into a harmonious whole, for money is in
modern society a limited resource while a limited
resource is a commodity. In other words time is money
entails time is a limited resource, while the latter entails
time is a valuable commodity.
3. Power of enriching semantic meaning
Metaphor, in linguistic system, is to endow with a
word new meaning and extension of meaning, and a
bridge of the known and the unknown. Metaphor makes
one semantic domain map onto another. (Lakoff &
Turner, 1989) Cognitive semantics holds acquisition of
new lexical meaning is by no means groundless and is
grounded on the cognitive structuring which makes
different meanings of one word relate to each other in a
reasonable way. We can use a polysemy loud to
illustrate Sweetser’s stand. The word loud has following
meanings (a) having great intensity of sound (b)
producing great intensity of sound; resounding (c)
vehement or insistent: loud denunciations. (d)
Tastelessly bright; garish, flashy: a loud red automobile
(e) obsessive in appearance or manner: Joe is a loud,
vulgar person.(Macmillan contemporary dictionary)

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

(Zhang & Hu, 2009) The first two items are of minor
difference and of its literal meaning, while the third item
is somewhat different from its literal meaning yet still
bears close relationship to sound Item four and five bear
no direct relationship to sound, but sill stem from high-
pitchingness and ear-catchingness of sound. In a word,
metaphorization is the effective mechanism to make
such connotation possible.

45
Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

46
 CHAPTER VII

Definition of Sentential Meaning

A semantic sentence is a sentence that is related to a

syntactic unit meaning that is larger in meaning than a
word, phrase, clause, and a semantic relationship between
them all. Sentential meaning has the meaning of one type of
semantic, syntax and a sentence interpretation (sentential
semantic) where the meaning is not only formed by the
meaning of each sentence component arrangement. From
here we will see how to place words and phrases in a
syntactic structure which, with all the meanings of the
sentence, follows the following principles:
1. The principle of compositionality
The principle of compositionality of the meaning of a
sentence is determined by the meaning of the parts in its
components and how they are arranged into a syntactic
structure. In the same structural way but the
component parts are different;
• Rose eats three oranges.
• Jane sells three oranges.
As expressed by Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams
(2018) where the last semantic relation is a relation of
 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

sentential meaning; a meaning of a noun phrase and a

verb phrase in a sentence can be constructed. Other
parts contained in a speech such as adverbs and can also
add to or can also affect the meaning of a sentence.
Finally, which is related to this type, Murphy (2003) has
the opinion that semantics has three main sentential
relationships. That is: contradiction, paraphrase, and
entailment.
Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2018) provide a
definition of contradiction as a sentence relationship
where the truth of one sentence means the falsehood of
another sentence. Kriedler (1998) adds that a
contradiction is a relationship between two opposing
propositions. This means that if one is true, the other is
false.
There are several examples of contradictions. The
sentence Elizabeth II is a queen of England as opposed
to Elizabeth II is a man, because basically a queen is
always a woman never a man. So, if the first sentence
has the correct meaning, then the second sentence has
the wrong meaning. Another little example is if Jane is a
baby is true, it is wrong that Jane is an adult, because a
human being is very unlikely to be a baby and an adult
at the same time. So the conclusion is if a sentence is
said to be the negation of another, then they can be said
to be in a contradictory relationship.
Two other relationships of sentential meaning are
paraphrase and entailment, and they both have one
thing in common. It explained by Huford and Heasley
that a relationship between these two relationships
parallels the relationship between hyponymy and
synonyms. They also add that if a synonym is a

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

symmetrical hyponymy, the paraphrase is a symmetric

entailment. According to Crystal (1997) paraphrasing
also provides several alternative versions of sentences
to express the same meaning. He gives an example of a
paraphrase; the chicken eats corn, the chicken eats corn,
the chicken eats corn. The three sentences have a single
semantic representation, namely paraphrase.
2. Example of Sentential Meaning
Sentential Semantic some properties of analytical
sentence understanding: so-called analytic sentences
are sentences which of course are true, because of the
meaning of the words contained in them. Therefore, an
analytical sentence can be judged to be true without a
source of real-world knowledge that is separate from
the words. the words contained therein.
Example:
• Giraffes are animals.
• Crocodile not shark.
• My sister.
Contradictory: A contradictory sentence
(contradiction) is a sentence that is certainly wrong,
because of the meaning of the words in a sentence.
Example:
• Crocodile are fish.
• Undead.
• Fish are not animals.
Synthetic: a synthetic sentence is a sentence that is
neither analytic nor contradictory, but can also be true
or false depending on the circumstances in the world.

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

Example:
• My oldest cousin is a boy.
• My sister is tall.
• Some cats eat wool.
Other things in sentence interpretation
Presumption: an existing proposition or belief
assumed by an utterance. Those people quitting
smoking presuppose that:
a. The people in question exist
b. That there is an activity called smoking
c. That an activity is known by those who listen to
it
d. That the people in question used to smoke in the
past
Affirmation: a preposition or belief that has been
conveyed, but not also assumed, by an existing
utterance. The above-mentioned utterances can be
emphasized in that the person indicated ends a habitual
activity (smoking).

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 CHAPTER VIII

The Definition of Deixis

D eixis comes from an ancient Greek word which means

"to show or point". In other words, lexical and
grammatical contextual information that refers to certain
things, whether objects, places, or times, is called deixis, for
example he, here, now. The three expressions give orders to
designate a certain context so that the meaning of the
utterance can be understood clearly. Tenses or kala is also a
type of deixis. For example then can only be referenced from
the situation.
Deixis is defined as an expression that is bound to its
context. For example, in the sentence "I love him", the
information from the pronouns "I" and "he" can only be
traced from the context of the speech. The expressions that
are only known from the context of the speech are called
deixis.
According to Levinson (in Astria, Mujiayanto, &
Rukmini, 2019) pragmatics is the study of the relationship
between the language and the context, which is a basis in
understanding the meaning of language. In line with this,
pragmatics is the study of the aspect of the relationship
between language and context that are relevant to the
 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

writing grammar. One of the issues within pragmatics study

is deixis. According to Levinson (in Astria, Mujiayanto, &
Rukmini, 2019) If it is not directly related to the
relationship between the structure of language and the
context in which it is used, then it is not called deixis. So
deixis belongs to the domain of pragmatics because it is
directly concerned with the relationship between the
structure of language and the contexts in which they used.
Thus, deixis concerns of the ways in which language encode
or grammaticalize features of the context of utterance. By
this understanding, the EFL learners faced the difficulties to
identify deictic terms to understand a word of a sentence
because of the meaning of the word. Sometimes, they always
used the same deictic word in their writing. Further, many
of them also have difficulties in understanding to use and to
interpret the meaning of deixis. Since their program do not
provide pragmatics as a compulsory subject except
linguistics, semantics, and grammar.
So, Deixis is a form of word that takes meaning from the
situation of the speech charm of the time and place when
the words are used. In general, deixis serves to assist
readers in understanding and understanding the contents of
a reading or discourse that is used. In particular, deixis also
has different functions according to the type and context in
deixis and according to its use. So to better understand what
deixis is, it is necessary to better understand the context of
the language itself.
The definition of deixis is distinguished from the notion
of anaphora. Deixis can be interpreted as outside speech,
where the center of deixis orientation is always the speaker,
which is not an element in the language itself, while

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

anaphora refers to speech both referring to the word behind

and referring to the word in front, Lyons (in Dylgjeri, 2013).
An understanding is needed in understanding deixis
before it is used. Based on several opinions, it can be stated
that deixis is a semantic symptom contained in words or
constructions whose references can be interpreted
according to the conversation situation and point to
something outside of language such as adjectives, pronouns,
and so on. according to their use. Reference or designation
can be addressed to the former form or constituent which is
called anaphora. Reference can also be made to forms which
will be mentioned later. This form of reference is called a
cataphor.
This deixis is one of the clearest ways that can describe
the relationship between language and its context according
to the structure of the language. As a reference to my words,
here, now the meaning can only be known if it is also known
who, at what place, and at what time the words were said.
So, the center of deixis orientation is the speaker. Deixis is a
reference by an expression whose interpretation is relative
to (usually) extra the linguistic context of the speech, such
as: who's talking, time or place to talk, speaker movement,
or current location in discourse.
Kinds of Deixis
There are five kinds of deixis, namely people deixis,
place deixis, time deixis, discourse deixis and social deixis
(Nababan, 1987: 40). In addition, Kaswanti Purwo
(Sumarsono: 2008: 60) mentions several types of deixis,
namely person, place, time, and pointer deixis. So if
combined into six kinds of deixis, a more complete
presentation is as follows,

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

1. Persona Deixis
The term persona comes from Latin, as a translation
of the Greek word prosopon, which means a mask (a
mask worn by an author), it also means the role or
character performed by the author of the script. The
term persona was chosen by linguists at that time due to
the similarity between language events and language
games (Lyons, 1977: 638 via Djajasudarma, 1993: 44).
Individual deixis (person deixis); it refers to the role of
the participants in the conversational event, such as the
speaker, the person being spoken of, and so on.
There is three forms of personal pronouns, there is:
a. The first person, there is I, me, my, myself.
b. The second person, there is you, your, yours,
yourself.
c. The third person, there is he, she, it, we, they,etc.
E.g.:
• Teach me some lesson
• I’ll teach you this lesson
• We need a bookcourse
• Bring me your book
2. Place Deixis
Place deixis is used to give shape to the participant's
location in terms of language. All languages -including
Indonesian - distinguish between "close to the speaker"
(here) and "not close to the speaker" (including those
close to the listener -there) (Nababan, 1987: 41).

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

E.g.:
• This
• That
• There
• Here
E.g.:
• Please come here
• Follow this line
3. Time Deixis
Time deixis is giving form to the time span as
intended by speakers in language events. In many
languages, this time deixis (reference) is expressed in
the form of "kala" (English: tense) (Nababan, 1987: 41).
E.g.:
• Yesterday
• Tomorrow
• Now
• Next
E.g.:
• I’ll go school tomorrow
• Please meet me now
4. Discourse Deixis
Discourse deixis is a reference to certain parts of the
discourse that have been given or are being developed
(Nababan, 1987: 42). Verbal directives include
caregiving and sympathy. Anaphora is a return to
something previously mentioned in the utterance by
repetition or substitution. Cataphor is a reference to

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

something that will be named later. The form used to

express the indication of the utterance is this
word/phrase, called the former, the following, and the
first.
E.g.:
• I make a cake, and the taste are uniqoe
5. Social Deixis
Its references expressed in terms of social
differences that affect the roles of speakers and
listeners. The difference can be shown in the choice of
words. In some languages, differences in social level
between speakers and listeners are manifested in word
selection and/or morphological systems of certain
words (Nababan, 1987: 42).
6. Pointer Deixis
This is to designate something close to the speaker,
and it is to designate something far from the speaker.
"Something" is not only objects or things but also
circumstances, events, and even time.
7. Deixis and Reference
From the perspective of conditional semantic
functions, pronouns and demonstratives are very
similar to names. That is taking a reference, and the
sentence contains truth if the predicate indicates the
truth of the individual. But there is actually an essential
difference. Pronouns and demonstratives have a
variable reference (veriable reference): pronouns and
demonstratives take different references from different
occasions of use.

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 CHAPTER IX

The Function of Deixis

T he grammatical element is not only a function of deixis

but also has an obligation to show the meaning of
different words so that the meaning of the word can be
understood and understood even when used in different
situations in the same way. In such cases the traditional
grammar does not have the capacity or resources to show
the difference. Time, place, delivery of messages has an
important meaning in the communication process. Modern
linguistics, on the other hand, has a different perspective.
Pragmatic analysis of words and words in the context of
situations related to cultural, temporal, spatial, social, and
participant contexts of communication (dictionary
reference), It fulfills the needs and equipment needed in a
better understanding of thoughts about messages conveyed
and so on from a person to others can be accepted with
pleasure and easy to understand by what is conveyed to
people who listen to the delivery. Language is not a
sentence that is easy to digest or understand if it is too
much. Each one of the words can and cannot be deixis at the
same time (Levinson, 1995). If language does not have a
pragmatic approach to itself, it cannot develop, transform
 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

itself, into an adjustment of the environment, work, and

school into a modern or future form.
Theory based on lexical meaning and pragmatic
meaning deixis function.
Example of deixis:
“I wish you were here yesterday.”
In this sentence ''you'' is deixis because the words 'I',
'you', 'here', and 'yesterday' all work as deixis - because they
refer to the speaker and recipient, location and time. Since
we are out of context, we cannot know who 'you' is, where
'here' is, nor can we be completely sure when 'yesterday'
was; or the day before today this information is known by
the speaker as a change of language that is easy to
understand briefly and therefore it is called.
Kinds of Function Deixis
1. Function Deixis Time
a. The first function refers to the time of speech.
Function Refers to when the speech is marked
by the use of the word present and present. In
addition, the addition of this word in the time
lexeme also shows the function at the time the
speech is carried out.
b. The second function refers to the time at the end
or before the speech.
The function refers to the ending time or before
the speech is indicated by the use of a time lexeme
which states the ending time.
c. The third function refers to time after speech.
The function refers to the time after the speech
is indicated by the use of a time lexeme that states

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

the time to come, such as the following year, next

year, tomorrow and so on.
d. The fourth function describes factual or punctual
events.
The function of time deixis to describe factual or
punctual events is indicated by the use of words that
reveal facts.
2. Function Deixis Discourse
a. The first function refers to the thing already
mentioned (anaphora). Words that are classified
as anaphoric markers include this, that, his, the
first, the second, the other, the related, the said
and so on.
b. The second function refers to what will be
mentioned (cataphora). Words that can be used
as cataphoric markings include this, this, that is,
that is, that, is and so on.
c. The last or third function concludes something.
The function of storing something is indicated by
the use of such words.
3. Function Deixis Place
Place deixis is deictic reference to a location relative
to the location of a participant in the speech event,
typically the speaker.
There are two functions of place/space deixis found:
a. The first function which is indicated by the
words here and this.
b. The second function refers to a place some
distance away from the speaker. Marked by
words such and such. This, stated by Sumarlam

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

(in Sunarwan et al., 2014: 8) distinguishes place

deixis between those who are (here, this) who
are somewhat close to the speaker (situ, that),
who are far from the speaker (there), and those
who refer directly to the speaker. Explicit. In this
study only found two functions.
The function refers to a place that is close to the
speaker and the function refers to a place that is
somewhat close to the speaker.
A function of social deixis in general is social
deixis functions as a form of politeness in language.
In particular, the function of social deixis is
determined by the context contained in an
utterance.
c. The first function is to distinguish the social
level of the speaker and the speech partner.
d. The second function is to maintain language
manners.
e. The third function is to refer to the social form of
the community.
The function of the form of social attitude is
indicated by the use of certain words related to
conditions in society.
Type of deixis
1. Temporal - relating to time: the 'when'.
2. Spatial, or Local - relating to place: the 'where'.
3. Personal - relating to the speaker, or the person
spoken to: the 'who'.

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

Role deixis in communication

Language is directed towards the other. There are two
basic speech act roles, the current speaker and
hearer/addressee. They are opposed to the others, which
are opposed to a negatively defined non-person category.
The deictic system grammaticalizes the roles of participants
by different means and primarily by pronouns: typically a
first person singular pronoun is used for the speaker,
second person pronouns for addressee(s) and a third
person pronoun for a category 'neither-speaker-nor-
addressee(s)'. Speakers use pronouns in order to direct the
attention of the addressee to something or someone. Usually
this act of reference is an integral part of a speech act, or
more generally of a communicative exchange.

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Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

62
 CHAPTER X

The Definition of Presupposition

S emantic presuppositions are properties of natural

language expressions, while pragmatic presuppositions
are properties of information, so to speak. These two
notions are related in the sense that semantic
presuppositions typically give rise to pragmatic
presuppositions. For example the utterance John regrets
that he stopped doing linguistics before he left Cambridge
has the following presuppositions:
• There is someone uniquely identifiable to
speaker and addressee as John.
• John stopped doing linguistics before he left
Cambridge.
• John was doing linguistics before he left
Cambridge.
• John left Cambridge.
• John had been at Cambridge
Levinson (1997:186) states that one of the properties
of the presupposition is that they are liable to evaporate in
 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

certain context, either immediate linguistic context or the

less immediate discourse context, or in circumstances
where contrary assumptions are made. Hudson (2000:322)
mentions that it is helpful to distinguish presupposition
from synonymy. Presupposition, unlike synonymy, concerns
knowledge which a speaker/writer does not assert but
presumes as part of the background of a sentence,
knowledge presumed to be already known to the
hearer/reader.
This explains why negating a presupposing sentence
(or making a negative presupposing sentence affirmative)
does not affect the truth of a presupposing, which remains
as mere background, and why the falsity of a presupposing
sentence unreasonable, or false. Synonymy is also the
relationship between paraphrases.
For example:
• Mary answered the question.
• Mary gave an answer to the question.
If one of the two sentences is true, so is the other and
vice versa
There are several types of presuppositions.
1. Existential Presupposition
The speaker presupposes the existence of the
entities.
E.g.:
• Marie’s house is new.
• Marie exists.
• Marie has a house.

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

2. Factive Presupposition
Certain verbs or constructions indicate that
something is a fact.
E.g.:
I regret believing him.
• I believe in him.
I’m happy it’s the end.
• It’s the end.
Lexical Presupposition:
The speaker can convey another meaning using one
word
He called me again.
• He called me before.
She gave up smoking.
• She was smoking when was young.
Structural Presupposition:
Use of certain words and phrases makes some
presuppositions.
When did you call her?
• You called her.
Why did you buy this dress?
• You bought a dress.
Non-factive Presupposition:
Certain words indicate that some things are not true.
I pretended to agree with her.
• I did not agree with her.
She dreamt she was rich.

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

• She is not rich.

Counterfactual Presupposition:
It implies that what is presupposed is not true, and
the contrary is true.
If he hadn’t been my friend, I wouldn’t have helped him.
• He is my friend.
3. Entailment
Entailment is the relationship between two
sentences/propositions, where the truth of one
proposition implies the truth of the other since both of
them are involved with the meaning of words. It’s the
sentences, not speakers that have entailments.
Entailments also depend on the meaning of the
sentence, not the meaning of the context.
For example,
• The terrorists assassinated the king.
• The king died.
• The terrorists assassinated someone.
Entailment is a term derived from formal logic and
now often used as part of the study of semantics. All the
other essential semantic relations like equivalence and
contradiction can be defined in terms of entailment.
Crystal (1998: 136) defines it as ‘term refers to a
relation between a pair of sentences such that the truth
of the second sentence necessarily follows from the
truth of the first,
E.g.:
• I can see a dog

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

According to Yule (2000:33),there are two types of

entailment:
a. Background entailment
b. Foreground entailment
Characteristics of Entailments
• Logical consequences following from what is
asserted in the utterance.
• Entailments depend on sentence meaning, not
the context in which the sentence is used.
• Entailment also happens when one set of objects
is included in another. It may be seen as a kind
of hyponymy relation.
• Entailments can also involve the use of
determiners. This is simply the relation of
inclusion. E.g. every student loves learning
English. => Most students love learning English.
1. Ordered Entailments
Entailment is not a pragmatic concept (i.e. having to
do with the speaker meaning), but it is considered a
purely logical concept, symbolized by II-.
Bob ate three sandwiches.
• Someone ate three sandwiches. (Who ate the
sandwiches)
• Bob did something to three sandwiches.
(What Bob did)
• Bob ate three of something. (What Bob ate)
• Something happened. (What happened)
Presupposition and Entailment are semantic
relations that are not easy to distinguish. Therefore,

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

this section discusses the two semantic relations and

the negation test used to distinguish between them.
The first semantic relation is entailment. It is a
relationship that applies between two sentences, where
the truth of one implies the truth of the other because
of the meanings of the words involved (Goddard,
1998:17).
Presuppositions and entailments are particularly
useful inferences for studying of the text having
sentences containing embedded sentences, and they
allowed or studied for limited extent independent of
the pragmatic information. Entailment and
presupposition are important to the one’s life because
it requires a linguistic competence that is owned by
someone. If the states a statement, then other people
can have different thoughts based on their
understanding of a given statement when they interact
with other people.
As long as we have discussed a few kinds of
inference: logical/deductive, adductive, and inductive.
We are also going to discuss conversational inferences
this week. Inferences are important because it would
be describe the kinds of reasoning that enable language
users to transition from one information state (the
premises) to another (the conclusion), which is one
communicative purpose of language and if not its main
communicative purpose.
Presupposition and entailment are a subclass of
inferences that appears to be tied to the structure of
language, for they arise from the semantics of
particular words and from syntactic constructs of the
language. There is another kind of inference, called a

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

presupposition that is not an entailment but also

cannot be classified as abductive or inductive.
Intuitively, a presupposition constitutes a necessary
assumption required to understand the meaning of a
sentence.
Presuppositions have distinct properties from those
of entailments. Sometime need to explore these
differences so we can sharpen our intuitions regarding
presuppositions and our understanding of entailments.
One thing that is clear is that, like entailments,
presuppositions are tied to the conventional meaning
of words and phrases.
2. A subclass of inferences have studied are
presupposition and entailment
This subclass of inferences exhibits several
computational and linguistic aspects not exhibited by
the general class of inferences. One aspect is that
presupposition and entailment seem to be tied to the
definitional (semantic) structure and syntactic structure
of language. As a consequence, the demonstrate means
how they can be computed by structural means (e.g. tree
transformations) using an' augmented transition
network.
A second aspect is that presupposition and
entailment exhibit complex interaction of semantics and
syntax. They exhibit necessary, but not sufficient,
semantics of individual words and of syntactic
constructs. Another aspect relates to the problem of
knowing when to stop drawing ir1ferences. There is a
natural solution to this problem for the case of
presupposition and entailment.

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

3. Example of presupposition and entailment

A presupposition constitutes an also need
assumption required to understand the meaning of a
sentence. Examples:
Entailment: Entailment is the relation between
sentences or propositions.
Presupposition: Presupposition is an assumption a
speaker makes prior to making an utterance.
Speakers vs. Sentences:
Entailment: Sentences have entailments.
Presupposition: Speakers have presuppositions.
Truth:
Entailment: The negation of the first sentence will
affect the truth of the second sentence.
a. The king passed away.
• The king died.
b. Negation: The king was not assassinated.
• The king died. → not true.
Presupposition: The negation of the first utterance
may not affect the second sentence.
a. She buy a car.
• She has a car.
b. Negation: Her car is new.
• She has a car.→ presupposition is not
changed.

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 CHAPTER XI

The Definition of Speech Event

I n sociolinguistics, speech events are generally defined as

any events that lead to communication based on the basic
rules of social interaction. Speech acts, namely when
speakers say something, words or phrases occur which are
called pragmatics which have certain goals, while speech
acts are actions that lead to actions taken by the resulting
utterances. Then it is concluded that people can perform an
action by saying something.
A speech event can be defined as a communication
event that has more than one utterance, this is included in
the part of linguistic interaction and a speech event occurs if
it has its constituent factors. For example, the type of
exchange that occurs between a person when buying an
item and a seller who responds to this will lead to a
communication, it is called a speech event.
What is meant by a speech event is if there is a
linguistic interaction in the form of an utterance that
involves two parties, namely the speaker and the
interlocutor at a certain time, place and situation where this
 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

is currently taking place (Chaer and August 2010: 47). ),

based on the explanation, what is meant by speech events is
an ongoing interaction that involves two parties, namely the
speaker (speaker) and the opposing party (the speaker).
The Component of Speech Event
A scientist named Dell Hymes in (1974) said that
communication through the use of language must pay
attention to several elements that will be adjusted into
SPEAKING including:
1. The first is Setting and Scene, which is one element
that is adjusted to the time and place
2. The second Participant, ie people who take part in a
conversation
3. The third Ends, giving the purpose and outcome of
the conversation
4. The fourth Act Sequence, is the thing that supports
the content and results of the conversation
5. The fifth Instrumentalities, is the flow of
conversation that is used for example writing, oral
or social media
6. The sixth is the norm, the behavior of the
participants in the conversation
7. The last is Genre, the variety of language used, such
as the type of form and delivery for example poetry,
proverbs, prayers, and rhymes
Types Of Speeches
Speech consists of 4 types as the basis of speech
including:

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

1. The first is informative – This informative speech

will provide information that is unique to those who
listen to your speech.
Examples of informative speeches:
• A president talks about covid-19
2. The second is demonstrative speeches – a video that
almost has similarities with informative speech
because.
There are several examples of demonstrative
speeches:
• How to bake a bronze cake
• How to write a speech about Pancasila
3. The third is persuasive – Persuasive speech is a
speech in the language of persuading, convincing.
This speech is delivered to people to influence or
invite the community.
Some examples of persuasive speeches:
• Become blood donor
• Maintain a healthy health diet for a healthier
life
4. The last is entertaining — speaker presents a form
of speech that will make others laugh or identify
with anecdotal information.
Examples of entertaining speeches:
• Excuses for any occasion
• The rooster crows a sign that the morning
has arrived

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The Definition of Speech Act

Speech acts are human communication that is formed
in a functional form, such as words (rejection) are the
smallest free form contained in language and morphemes
are the smallest language units that carry information about
meaning (-al in rejection-al makes it). Nouns), the basic unit
of communication is the speech of refusal.
Speech act theory is a theory in which the effect of an
utterance is analyzed in relation to speaker and listener
behavior.
The Classification of Speech Acts
Searle concentrated on Illocutionary Acts and his main
aim was to classify them as simply as possible. He found
three main criteria for classifying illocutionary acts:
1. The first criterion is the Illocutionary Point, which is
the main purpose of a Speech Act. While
descriptions are useful for representing something,
promises have the role of obliging the speaker to
perform an action in the future
2. The Direction of Fit makes a crossroads between
words and the world. Are words that embodied
some of the world's items, these are called 'words
towards the world'. Instead, the world is supposed
to follow words, for example in promises or orders
According to Searle, the Direction of Fit is always a
consequence of the Illocutionary Point.
1. The state of a particular speech is also a significant
benchmark

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2. Here, the psychological state of the speaker is

significant. Was he sure that his words were true?
This is what Searle calls the Condition of Sincerity
The types of Speech Acts
Searle states that he has obtained a taxonomy that
reflects what happens when a speech act is performed
sufficiently. He has determined the following five categories
of illocutionary speech acts. To find out what category a
single utterance belongs to, we can form indirect sentences
and look at the verbs (Speech Act Verb) used.
1. Assertive
In using the verb, the speaker focuses the
proposition to be true such as affirm, believe, conclude,
deny, report.
Example: ―The sun was shining‖ Amy affirms that
the sun was shining.
2. Directives
The speaker tries to get the listener to do something,
asking, pleading, challenging, commanding, daring,
inviting, urging, and asking.
Example: ―can you give me some salt, please?‖ Amy
asks Peter to give her some salt.
3. Commisived
The speaker promises for future actions, promises,
promises, oaths, oaths, guarantees.
Example: ―I will come to your home‖
4. Declaratives
Speech acts makes a change in information.

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Example: ― the meeting is closed‖ Amy declares the

meeting was closed.
In an effort to express themselves, people do not only
embody utterances that contain grammatical structures of
words, they perform an action through those utterances.
Furthermore, actions performed through speech are
generally called speech acts. In English a certain level is
usually given such as apologies, complaints, compliments,
invitations, promises and requests (Yule, 1996:47). It can be
said that a speech act is an action made by a speaker when
saying an utterance, for example thanking someone, making
a promise, or asking for something. At any given time, the
action performed by obtaining an utterance will consist of
three interrelated actions.
In Speech Act Theories, language is seen as a form of
acting (Renkema, 1993:21). There are three types of action
in every utterance: first, locutionary, physical action that
produces speech; second, illocutionary, actions performed
by producing speech; third, perlocutionary, the production
of an effect through locutions and illocutions (Renkema,
1993:22). However, within the scope of Speech Act Theory,
illocutionary acts occupy the highest position among the
three acts. Furthermore, illocutionary acts are also the main
object for researchers who want to find out more about
Speech Act Theory. Schiiffrin (1995: 90) states that Speech
Act Theory is basically concerned with what people 'do'
with language – with the function of language. Since people
usually manifest something when they pronounce an
utterance, Speech Act Theory has defined a special term for
it, which is called illocutionary power. This can easily be
referred to as communicative intent.

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1. Locutionary act which is the basic act of utterance or

producing a meaningful linguistic expression
2. Illocutionary act is performed via the
communicative force of an utterance
In short, locutionary acts are acts of saying something,
illocutionary acts are acts of doing something and
perlocutionary acts are acts of influencing someone. In
other words, locutionary acts have meaning, getting
utterances that can be understood. Illocutionary acts have
power, are told with a certain tone, attitude, motive, feeling
or intention. The act of perlocution has consequences, it has
an effect on the recipient.

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Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

78
 CHAPTER XII

Definition of Politeness in English Conversation

P oliteness is English Conversation people that are strong

because other people to be comfortable. According to
linguistic theory, becoming polite means to properly
communicate with another person (the polite person) using
pen and paper. Holmes (in Pasaribu, 2001) argues that
making decisions about what is considered polite or not in
any community involves judging social relations on the
basis of dimensions of social distance or solidarity, and
relative strength or status. To be able to interact with
others, people must understand the social norms of the
general population. The key factor in determining whether a
given polite action is whether it is appropriate or not,
depending on whether it is related to the normative
situation that is being addressed, the practice of the
population, or the normative standard that is being
addressed by the population as a whole. According to Walsh,
a dencent of data in a study that focuses on compliance with
requirements that deviate from the norm for dominant
 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

groups, but this is nevertheless a tool that should be used

with caution when examining how individuals distinguish
between their own and other people's speech in light of the
group's established norms. It must be stated that each
individual may have strong opinions about what is
unacceptable in the current group.
Holmes (in Pasaribu, 2001) also provides these two
dimensions as a means of comparison between two
different types of politeness. Positive politeness is centered
on solidarity. That is, the two things are interrelated. When
the other party requests the use of the dean's name (FN) by
the other party, this is a positive expression of solidarity
and reduction of status differences. The same functions as a
positive expression when used in a more relaxed setting
using slang words and phrases. As a result, people become
depressed and Annoying avoid them Indirect directives say
negative politeness, such as "Could you stay a little later
tonight, or do you think, and get this job done?," "The job
took longer than we anticipated," "I don't have Negative
self-talk encourage self-expression clearly in social
situations and emphasize different statuses. Using title +
last name (TLN) to your (the speaker’s) superiors, and to
older people that you (the speaker) do not know well, are
further examples of the expression of negative politeness.
Types of Language Politeness Strategies
In the article of (Brownies & Levinson, 1987) discuss
the influence of politeness strategies on cross-language
taxonomy. Changes in politeness are caused by two types of
"face" and two related types of politeness, namely:
1. Negative politeness it is used by taxi drivers to
manipulate their negative eye movements. Its

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function is to reduce or eliminate the imposition of

face-threatening actions on listeners. The speaker's
self-assertion, formality and restraint, and
conventionally practiced indirectness all contribute
to negative outcomes. "Sorry I'm late; I missed the
bus this morning," said the speaker. (Sorry please)
2. Positive politeness Used by the speaker to satisfy the
listener's positive face. The speaker shows solidarity
with the listener's positive self-image. Its function is
more subtle than negative politeness, to satisfy the
listener's need for approval and belonging. Example:
'I will bring the book tomorrow' (promise). Brown
and Levinson (1987) in Cutting (2002: 45-48) also
propose both types of politeness interaction in a
complex way, according to the nature of the actions
and status of the speaker and listener. Here are
some of Brown and Levinson's politeness strategies
that manifest in some of the languages they
researched:
a. Politeness Strategies
• Notice; attend to hearer’s interest, wants,
etc.
• Use in- group markers
• Be optimistic
• Seek agreement
• Indicate common ground
• Offer, promise
• Give and ask reason
• Common statements

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• Include the speaker and the hearer in a

conversation

b. Negative Politeness Strategies

• Be conventionally indirect
• Question, hedge
• Be pessimistic
• Minimize the imposition
• Give deference
• Apologize
• Hesitation
• Avoid pronoun, I, you and we
• Give impression as a cost
The aforementioned strategies are implemented in
daily operations by non-native speakers. In this study, the
authors describe how non-speaking assailants employ the
Negative Politeness and Positive Politeness strategies
(Brownies & Levinson, 1987).
The Necessity of Politeness Principles in the
Conversation
People talk with the intention to communicate
something to somebody; this is the foundation of all
linguistic behaviors.This is known as the "Communicative
Communication Principle": when communicating, the other
person must make an effort to understand them clearly and
provide them the best advice possible. Reminded that I
"want" to communicate, what I "do" communicate depends
on what I "can" communicate, (given my circumstances),
and on what I "should" communicate (given my partner's

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expectations). Communication is not a matter of logic and

agreement, but rather of teamwork. The Communication
Principle does not operate in an abstract linguistically
specialized room, but rather in a concrete context similar to
that of spoken language (Leech, 2011).
In addition, communication requires people working
together; in actuality, communication that develops into
daily life only occurs in contexts that are shared by all
parties and are understood pragmatically. The Principle of
Cooperation illustrates how people interact with one
another using general social science knowledge and focused
linguistics. Mey (2001: 72) has explained that the
Cooperative Principle (CP), also known as "maxim," is
comprised of the following eight sub principles of
pragmatism. Cooperation (CP) consists of four pragmatic
sub principles, or "maxims," namely:
1. The maxim of quantity: Information
a. Make sure your input is as informative as is
necessary for the discussion's present goals.
b. Don't add more information than is necessary to
your contribution. The quality dictum is: Truth
c. Keep your misleading statements to yourself
d. Saying something without supporting evidence
is not wise.
2. The maxim of relation: Relevance
a. Your contribution should be pertinent.
3. The maxim of manner: Clarity
a. Avoid using cryptic language. (“Avoid
obscurity”).
b. Avoid ambiguity.

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c. Be brief (“avoid unnecessary prolixity”).

d. Be orderly
Cutting (2002: 34-36) writes the observation of the
four maxims that has listed been above.
a. The maxim of quantity, It is stated that the
speaker must provide the necessary information
because they are unable to provide information
that is both excessively large and excessively
little. Some people enjoy bringing up the fact
that they are aware of how much information is
required of them or that they have the ability to
persuade people to give them money, saying
things like, "Good, for censoring stories, he
doesn't come home until two o’clock." People
who provide limited information should be
taken seriously.
b. If they are not specific enough, the hearer may
not understand what they are saying; if they
provide more information than is necessary, the
hearer may become bored.
c. The maxim of quality, says that speakers are
expected to be sincere, stating that whatever it is
that they believe is in line with their beliefs.
They were told not to say anything about what
they believed to be true or what they believed to
be lacking in a bag. Some people enjoy drawing
attention to the fact that they only speak about
what they believe to be true and that they lack
sufficient guts.
d. The maxim of relation, that which indicates that
a person is assumed to have spoken something

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relevant to what has previously been spoken. So

if we understand 'Baby it's crying. The mother
who picked it up, we assumed that the mother
was the baby's crying mother and she picked up
the baby for crying.
e. The maxim of manner, It is stated that speech
must be clear-cut and formal, eliminating,
obscurity and ambiguity. In the course of this
committee's discussion, the speaker brought up
the fact that she had uttered the words "Thank
you, Chairman." Just state one thing. There is a
police committee meeting on the availability of
the thing they need to sell their camera. Grice
(1975) the assumption is that everyone
understands the principle of joint employment,
and this is what constitutes “knowledge”.
Recalling that there are four maxims, which enables the
Listener to Draw Knowledge of the Speaker's Implied Intent
and Meaning. Meanings that are described by the speaker
and then repeated as a result of the listener are referred to
as "conversational implicates." According to Grice's theory,
the four conversational maxims arise from pragmatic
Arabic. Rather than focusing on the reasons why one should
speak, it may be easier to understand the maxims referred
to as illustrations of assumptions that are usually made
when asking someone to speak. However, Grice didn't
believe that everyone needed to participate in this maxim
anymore.
But Grice didn't believe that everyone needed to follow
this maxim again. As an alternative, he feels forewarned
when this is "violated" or "violated" (whether firmly or not
firmly violating the proverb) by a speaker, who will then
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threaten the other meaning in question. The important thing

is what is not being said. For instance, "rain" degrades the
quality of the language; nevertheless, in the context (for
example, when someone is playing tennis), the word
"fragment" in the wording below becomes clear.
Unfortunately Leech mentions that there are a few
disagreements with Maxim Grice, namely:
1. Because most declarative phrases lack an
information-bearing role, conversional constraints
like those of the CP are ineffective
2. The CP maxims are not applicable to linguistics
culture because those to whom they do not all apply
According to Leech that has been summarized by
cutting (in Brown & Levinson, 1987), there is a politeness
principle with conversational maxims comparable to those
developed by Grice. Tactics, generosity, approval, modesty,
agreement, and sympathy are among his set of six maxims.
The first and second, as well as the third and fourth, make
up a pair. Since these adages differ from culture to culture,
what one culture may deem to be courteous may be unusual
or outright rude in another.
1. The Tact maxim rule minimize the expression of
opinions that suggest cost to others; enhance the
expression of beliefs that imply benefit to others,
according to the Tact maxim. The first portion of this
adage aligns with Brown and Levinson's concept of
negative politeness, which involves paying attention
to the needs, wants, and interests of the listener:
• Could I briefly interrupt you?
• Then, If I could simply explain.

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2. The Rule of Generosity "Minimize the expression of

profit to self; maximize the expression of loss to
self," is the principle of Leech's generosity. The
maxim of generosity, in contrast to the tact maxim,
places more emphasis on the speaker and advocates
putting others before one. For example,
• You unwind, and I'll handle the dishes.
• You need to join us for dinner.
3. The approval principle Reduce the expression of
views that express disapproval of others, and
increase the expression of beliefs that express
approval of others, according to the Approbation
maxim.
4. The rule of modesty Maximum the statement of
praise for oneself; maximize the expression of
criticism for oneself, according to the modesty
maxim. Since the maxim of quality can occasionally
be broken in the pursuit of modesty, it may be that
modesty is a more complicated maxim than the
others. For example,
• Oh, how foolish I am
• I failed to take notes throughout our lesson! Do
you?
5. The Agreement maxim minimizing expressions of
disagreement between self and others; maximizing
the expression of agreement between oneself and
others,' says Covenant Maxim. Example:
A : My daughter should do the opposite of what I
don't want her to do.

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 Introduction To Semantics & Pragmatics

B : Yes, but ma'am, I thought we had already

settled this during your previous visit
6. The Sympathy principle Minimize hostility between
oneself and others; increase sympathy between
oneself and others, according to the Sympathy
maxim. This contains a select group of speech
gestures like congratulations, sympathy, and
condolences. 1) Each of which is consistent with
(Brown and Levinson, 1987)’s positive politeness
technique of considering the interests, needs, and
wants of the hearer: 2) When I learned about your
father, I was sorry.

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