FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

❖ Foundation Engineering:-

✓ Foundation is that part of structure through which load is finally transmitted to

the soil.

➢ Failure of foundation:-
1) Settlement of soil called as settlement failure.
2) Sliding or slipping called as shear failure.

✓ The allowable load on foundation should be minimum of the above mentioned

two criterias.

➢ Types of foundation:-

1) Shallow Foundation 2) Deep Foundation

(Only Base resistance considered). (Base & side resistance are considered).
Df
≤ 1 …..(Terzaghi theory) a) Pile foundation,
B
Df Df
≤ 2.5 …..(Skempton theory) b) Well/Casisson ( > 1)
B B
c) Footing.

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Shallow Footing

A)Footing B)Raft / Mat

a)Isolated Footing b)Strip Footing c)Strap Footing d)Spread Footing e)Combined Footing

Circular Square Rectangular

Rectangular Trapezoidal
. . . .

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➢ Types of soil & loading conditions = Suitable found

1. Load is less & soil is medium to dense = Shallow foundation
2. Load is heavy & soil is loose to medium = either raft or deep.
3. Load is very heavy & soil is to medium to loose = Raft + Pile
4. Load is very heavy & foundation is to be placed in running water = Well
foundation.
5. Swelling Pressure is high and difference swell value is >30% = Either raft or
Deep Footing
6. Footing area is area more than 40% of plinth area = Either raft or Combined.
7. Loose saturated sand which is Prone to liquefaction = Compaction pile
8. Individual houses & light building = Isolated / strip footing
9. B.C.S. (High swelling of shrinkage) = Floating / Balancing foundation OR
Under Reamed Pile.

➢ Important defination for shear criteria:-

1) Gross pressure (q):- Total Pressure at the base of footing due to wt. of
superstructure, self wt. of footing & wt. of earthfill.

2) Net Pressure (qn):- = Gross Pressure – Original over-burden Pressure.

qn = q - ℽD
qn = (Q) / Area of footing.

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3) Ultimate bearing capacity (qu):- Minimum gross pressure at which

soil fails in shear. OR Maximum gross pressure at the base of footing which be
applied without shear failure.

4) Net Ultimate bearing capacity (qnu):- Min. net pressure at which soil
fails in shear. OR Maximum net pressure applied at base of footing without
shear failure.

qnu = qu - ℽD

5) Net safe bearing capacity (qns):- Net pressure which can be applied
safely at the base of footing without risk of shear failure.

qns = qnu / F.O.S.

(F.O.S = 2.5 to 3.0)

6) Gross safe bearing capacity (qs):- It is the maximum gross pressure

which soil can carry safely without failure.

qnu = qu + ℽD
OR

qs = qu / F.O.S

7) Net safe settlement pressure :- It is net pressure which soil can carry
without exceeding allowable settlement.

Note - Foundation should be design for minimum of qnp or qns.

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➢ Factors affecting bearing capacity : -

1. Position of ground water table.
2. type of soil & its physical & engineering properties.
3. Type of foundation.
4. Size of foundation.
5. Nature of ground surface.
6. Nature of ground loading.
7. Initial stress on soil.
8. Types of shear failure.

➢ Types of shear failure :-

a) General shear failure.
b) Local shear failure.
c) Punching shear failure.

a) General shear failure :-

• It occurs in shallow foundation.
• Occurs in dense sand & stiff clay.
• Slight downward movement of footing develops fully plastic zone & soil bulge
out.
• Heaves on side always observed.

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b) Local shear failure :-

• It occurs loose sand & soft clay in case of shallow foundation.
• Before failure large settlement recorded.
• Stress zone does not extend up-to ground. level.
• Heaving occurs only after considerable vertical settlement.

c) Punching shear failure:-

• It occurs in deep found. which are placed on loose sand & soft clay .
• No having occurs.
• Failure surface does not extend up-to ground level.
• Large settlement occurs.
• When Load vs Settlement curve is plotted progressive failure takes place.

G.S.F L.S.F
O O
a) Friction Angle (∅) > 36 < 28
b) SPT Value (N) > 30 <5
c) Void Ratio (e) < 0.55 > 0.75
d) Density Index (ID) > 70 % < 30 %
e) Unconfined Comp. > 100 KN/m2 < 80 KN/m2
Strength (U.C.S)

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➢ Rankine's Analysis :-
1−𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜙 2
qu = ℽD ( )
1+𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜙

Note -
1. Cohesion property is not consider.
2. If D = 0 then qu = 0, that is not correct.
1+𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜙 2
3. Df = (qu/ℽ)) ( )
1−𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜙

➢ Terzaghi's Theory :-
1. It is improvement over Prandtl Theory.
2. Terzaghi's consider Base of footing is rough.
Assumptions –
• Foundation is shallow.
• Base of footing is rough.
• General shear failure is considered.
• Footing is continuous OR strip Footing L>>>>B.
• 2D - Analysis Depth & Width.
• At the time of failure soil reaches in to Plastic equilibrium.
• The stress zone extended up to foundation level only.
• shear resistance above base of footing is ignore.
• It means only base resistance considered.
• This is the main reason due to which this theory is not applicable for deep
foundation.
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• Water table beyond zone of influence of stress. It means effect of water is not
considered.

Note - Stress zone extended to a max. depth of ‘B’ below fond. level where B is
width of footing.

➢ Terzaghi's equation of ultimate bearing capacity for strip footing

OR Continuous footing :-
qu = CNC + qNq + 0.5 ℽBNℽ

qu = CNC + qDfNq + 0.5 ℽBNℽ

Note -
1. γ in second term is for the soil above the foundation level.
2. γ in third form term is for the soil below the foundation level.
3. Nc , Nq & Nγ due respectively are bearing capacity factors cohesion,
surcharge and soil weight (dimensionless).
4. Nc , Nq & Nγ are based on angle of friction (∅) only.

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➢ Gross safe bearing capacity :-

1
qu = F.O.S [CNc + ℽDf (Nq − 1) + 0.5ℽBNℽ ] + ℽDf

a) Strip Footing:- qu = CNc + qNq + 0.5ℽBNℽ

b) Square Footing:- qu = 1.3CNc + ℽDf Nq + 0.4ℽBNℽ

c) Circular Footing:- qu = 1.3CNc + ℽDf Nq + 0.3ℽBNℽ

0.3B 0.2B
d) Raft/Mat:- qu = (1 + L
) CNc + ℽDf Nq + (1 − L
) 0.5ℽBNℽ

➢ For Pure Cohesive Soil ∅ = 0

(Nc = 5.7, Nq = 1, Nℽ = 0.)

qu = 5.7C + ℽDf + 0
qnu = (5.7C + ℽDf ) − ℽDf
qnu = 5.7C.
Note -
a) In sandy soil the bearing capacity is increases when increases width and depth
of footing.
b) In sandy soil if Wt. rises up-to ground level then bearing capacity reduces
50%.
c) Ultimate bearing capacity of soil in case of clay depends on depth of
foundation only.
d) Net ultimate bearing capacity of soil in case of clay is independent on width &
depth of footing.
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e) W.T. effect on clayey soil is negligible.

➢ Plate load test :-

1. Square or circular plate is used
2. Min. thickness is 25mm
3. Size (30x 30) cm min. size
4. Max size (75 x 75) cm standard size.
5. For clay , silt , sand (60x80) cm. Plate is used.
✓ It is a field test to determine qu & settlement

✓ If progressive settlement curve is obtained then,

Settlement = 1/5 width of test plate.

B D
= =5
BP DP

Limitations :-
i. Test results reflect only the character of soil located within depth less than
2Bp.
ii. A short duration test, does not give ultimate settlement in case of clay.
iii. Effect of size of foundation consider only case of sand.
a) For Clay:- quf1 = qup
Bf
b) For Sand:- quf = qup x
BP

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Settlement:-
Sf Bf
a) = ……..For Clay.
SP BP

2
Sf 𝐵𝑓 (𝐵𝑃 +0.3)
b) = [ ] ….For Sand.
SP 𝐵𝑝 (𝐵𝑓 +0.3)

Allowable settlements :-
✓ Differential settlement is equal to 75% of maximum settlement.
✓ 25 mm for sand &
✓ 40 mm for clay.

➢ As per IS 1904-1975 Allowable sett. as follows

Type of Soil Isolated Footing Raft Foundation
a) Sand & Hard Clay 50mm 75mm
b) Plastic Clay 75mm 100mm

➢ Pile foundation :- When sub-soil is very weak and loads are heavy, to
reduce settlements, to transfer the loads through deep water or soft soil to firm
strata, to resist horizontal loads and uplift leads in expansive soil.

➢ Classification of pile based on load transfer :-

1) Friction Pile :-

• Load transfer by skin friction between pile & soil.

• Used when hard strata does not exists at reasonable depth.
• It is also called Floating pile / Hanging pile
• Such pile driven soft clay & loose sand extending to great depth
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• Length of such pile may be 10m to 20m.

2) End Bearing Pile / Point resistance Pile :-

• It is rest over stiff or hard strata.

• Load carrying capacity is due to end bearing or point resistance .

3) Combine end bearing and friction pile :- .

➢ Classification based on function :-

1. Tension pile :- To anchor down the structure subjected to uplift forces. pile are
under tension.
2. Compaction pile :- For compaction of loose granular soil [sand].
3. Anchor pile :- To provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet pile
wall.
4. Fender pile & dolphines :- Used to protect water front structure from impact of
ships.
5. Batter pile :- Piles provided at inclination . To resist lateral forces inclined
forces.

➢ Classification based on method of installation :-

1. Driven pile / Displacement pile - more efficient
2. Board pile - less efficient
3. Driven & cast in situ pile
4. Board & cast in situ pile

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➢ Methods to determine load carrying capacity of pile :-

1) Static / Analytical method

2) Dynamic method – Suitable for medium to dense sand.

3) Field method –

a) Pile load test,

b) Cyclic pile load test:- this method gives end bearing bearing and skin
friction resistance separately.

c) Standard Penetration test,

d) Cone Penetration test

1) Static formulae:-
Qup = (Qb + Qs)

Qb = CNC x Ab…..End bearing resistance,(Nc = 9)

Qs = αc̅ x As….Skin friction resistance.

Circular Square
Ab π 2 B2
D
4
As πDL 4BL

➢ Group Piles:- Minimum 3 piles required.

✓ It depends upon spacing of piles & typeof soil.

a) ηg may be >100% in loose and med. Sand.

b) ηg may be < 100 % in dense sand and clay.

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➢ Spacing of piles:-
a)3 x dia. of pile = For friction pile

b)2.5 x dia. of pile = for end bearing pile

✓ Settlement of pile group is always greater than single pile.

2) Dynamic formulae:-
W.H
Qup =
S+C

➢ Engineering news record formula:-

Qup
Qsafe = (F.O.S = 6)
F.O.S

W = Wt. of hammer in kN .

H = ht. of free fall of hammer in cm

S = Penetration of pile per hammer blow set value for last 5 blows

C = const. = 2.5 cm for deep hammer & 0.25 for single & double
acting hammer

Note:- Dynamic formulas are not suitable for clays & silts under water . It is
suitable for coarse grained soil.

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➢ Pile load test :-

✓ Most reliable method

Load is taken as following -

a) 1/2 of load at which total settlement is equal to 10% of dia. of pile.

b) 2/3 of load at which total sett. is 12mm
c) 2/3 of load which causes net sett. is 6mm.

➢ Negative skin friction / Downward drag :-

✓ When soil surrounding portion of pile settles more than the pile, a downward
drag occurs on the pile.
✓ The net load carrying capacity decreases due to -ve skin friction.

Qnf = πDLC

D = Dia. of pile,

L = Depth of loose soil,

C = Cohesion.

➢ Under reamed piles :-

• Used in expansive soil
• It cannot be driven, it is essentially cast in situ board pile.
• Generally bulb dia. Du = 2.5 X dia. of pile stem.
• Minimum length of pile in deep expansive soil = 3.5
• C/C spacing >= 2 Du
• Minimum desirable depth of centre of upper bulb = 1.5 or 2Du (more)
• In multi under reamed piles, c/c vertical spacing of bulb is 1.5 Du.

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➢ Raft foundation/Mat Foundation :-

1. Used when loads are heavy and soil is very weak or highly compressible and to
avoid differential settlements in erratic soils.
2. A raft is more economical than individual footing when total base area
required for the individual footing exceeds about 50% area covered by
structure.

➢ Well foundations:-
✓ Suitable for heavy bridges across rivers.
✓ Double D-shape is more economical shape
✓ Grip length = The depth of bottom of well below max. scour level.
1⁄
q2 3
✓ Normal scour depth RL = 1.35 ( ) …lacey’s.
f
✓ Maximum scour depth R = 2RL.
✓ Maximum scour level = HFL – 2RL.
✓ Grip length for railway bridge = 1/2 of max. scour depth
✓ Grip length for road bridge = 1/3 of max. scour depth

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➢ Soil Exploration :-
Significant Depth - The depth up to which the stress increment due to applied loads
can produce significant settlement and shear stess.

✓ Significant depth is generally taken as the depth at which vertical stress is

(1/5) of load intensity.

No. of Bore holes :-

✓ For small & less important buildings 1 no. at center.

✓ For large and important structure at least 5 no. one at centre and four at each
corner.

➢ Depth of exploration :- It is generally taken as 1.5 to 2 times width of

foundation , unless hard rock is met within.
➢ Undisturbed samples :- Used for determining engineering properties.
➢ Disturbed samples :- Used for determining index properties.

Factors affecting sample disturbance:-

a) Area ratio = [Max. c/s area of cutting edge /
Area of soil sample].
D22 −D21
A.R. = × 100
D21

A.R < 10%.

D3 −D1
b) Inside Clearance = × 100
D1

D2 −D4
c) Outside Clearance = × 100
D4

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➢ Split spoon sampler :- Commonly used for obtaining a distributed

sample also used in conducting SPT test .
➢ Shelby tube & piston sampler :- To obtain undistributed samples of
clay.

➢ Stdandard Penetration Test :-

✓ I.S. 2131-1981
✓ This test is suitable for medium to dense sand.
✓ S.P.T. value (N) means no of blows required for 30 cm penetration.
✓ C & ∅ values of soil depends upon N values Hammer weight 65 kg & Height
of fall 75 cm.

N values corrected for :-

1. Overburden pressure correction

2. Dilatancy / Water table / Fine correction.

Overburden pressure correction :-

1. Due to lesser over burden at shallow depth, the SPT no. value at shallow depth
under estimate.
2. At greater depth get overestimated.

Hence correction required for overburden.

350
N1 = NO x ̅̅̅̅+70
𝜎0

N1 = Corrected SPT nos. for overburden

NO = observed SPT nos.

𝜎0 = Iitial effective overburden pressure at test level

̅̅̅

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𝜎0 > 280KN/m2, then this correction is not required.

Note :- If ̅̅̅

Dilatancy / Water table / Fine correction :-

✓ If W.T. is present at above test level then W.T. correction is required because
sudden impact load excess pore pressure developed which increases
penetration resistance.

N2 = 15 + 1/2 (N1 – 15)

Note :- If N1 ≤ 15 this correction should not required.

➢ Sheet Piles :-
✓ Used for retaining soil, for water front structures for coffer dams etc.
✓ Made of timber, steel, RCC.

➢ Types of sheet pile :-

(1) Cantilever sheet pile:- Stability is due to lateral passive resistance of the soil
only Suitable for small depths (say 5m) .

(2) Anchored sheet pile:- Anchor rods are provided to increase stability .

✓ Total stability is due to lateral passive resistance & due to the anchor rod.
✓ An anchored sheet pile is usually called Bulk Hea Suitable for large depth (10
to 12m)

Anchored sheet piles are of 2 types :-

a) Free earth support pile :-

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• Small depth and Pile rotates at its bottom tip.

• No Point Of Contraflexure in the pile.
b) Fixed earth support pile :-

• Depth of embankment is large.

• Bottom tip of the pile behaves as fixed.
• There is point of contraflexure.

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