Wettability

Petroleum Seminar

CONTENTS

 Introduction.

 Porosity in brief and it is classification laboratory measurements.

 Permeability in brief and it is classification laboratory

measurements.

 Importance of wettability.

 Types of wettability.

 Factors influence wettability.

 Methods measuring wettability.

 Advantages and disadvantages of each method .

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Wettability
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Introduction
knowledge of reservoir rock properties is an important to the
petroleum engineer . In this seminar we studied the reservoir wettability
as it is a major parameter because it is controlling capillary pressures,
relative permeability, irreducible water and residual oil saturation,
secondary and tertiary recovery displacement tests. As the reservoir
porosity and permeability are major key to understanding the rock
wettability so In this report we starting by giving some information
about the porosity and permeability.

Reservoir Rocks need two properties to be successful

 Pore space able to retain hydrocarbon.
 Permeability which allows the fluid to move.

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Porosity
Porosity is the ratio of the pore volume to the bulk volume of the
reservoir rock on percentage basis. That is

Porosity (%) = (pore volume)/ (bulk volume) ×100

VP
∅= X 100
VB

Pore volume (VP) =bulk volume - grain volume (Vg) .

Bulk volume (VB) =pore volume + grain volume (Vg) .

Where:
Bulk volume = the total volume of the rock.
Pore volume = the volume of the pores between the grains.

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The measurement of porosity is important to the petroleum engineer
since the porosity determines the storage capacity of the reservoir for oil
and gas.

It is necessary to distinguish between the

A. absolute porosity of a porous medium .

B. effective porosity.

Absolute porosity includes these pores as well as those open

to the flow of fluids whereas the effective porosity measures only that
part of the pore space that is available to fluid Flow.

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Absolute Porosity
It is ratio of all pore space (connected or not connected) to total
volume of rock (VB).

Absolute porosity= (total pore volume)\ (bulk volume)×100

∅ V P(Total)
|¿|= X 100¿
V B(Bulk )

Effective Porosity
It is ratio of the interconnected pores to the total volume of the rock.

Effective porosity= (inter connected pore volume)/ (bulk volume) ×100

V P (Inter Connected )
∅ Eff = X 100
V B(Bulk )

Classification of Porosity
Pores are classified based on their morphological viewpoint as:

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Catenary or inter connected pore

This type of pore has more than one throat Connected with other pores
and extraction of hydrocarbon is relatively easy from such pore.

Interconnected Pore

Closed or isolated pore

This type of pore is closed. It does not have throat and cannot connect
with other pore. It is unable to yield hydrocarbons in normal process.

Isolated Pore

Effective porosity

The ratio of the volume of interconnected pore to the total volume of

reservoir rock is called effective porosity.

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Ineffective porosity

The ratio of the total volume of closed pore to the bulk volume is
termed as ineffective Porosity.

Absolute or Total Porosity = Effective Porosity + Ineffective Porosity

Classification of Porosity based on their time of deposition:

Reservoir Pores are found as two distinct general types in sedimentary
rocks based on their time of formation as following:

Primary Porosity

Primary porosity is divisible into two types: Intergranular or Interparticle

porosity, which occurs between the grains of a sediment

Primary Porosity

This actually occurs within the sediment

grains them selves

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Secondary Porosity

Secondary porosity is porosity formed within a reservoir after

deposition. The major types of secondary porosity are:

 Fenestral.
 Intercrystalline.
 Solution (moldic and vuggy).
 Fracture.

Laboratory Measurement of Porosity

Bulk volume is first determined by displacement of liquid, or by
accurately measuring a shaped sample and computing its volume.

Then any of the following methods are used to measure either the pore
volume or grain volume:

1. Summation of Pore Fluids – involves independent determination of

gas, oil and pore water volumes from a fresh core sample.

2. Washburn-Bunting Method – measures pore volume by vacuum

extraction and collection of the gas (usually air) contained in the pores.

3. Liquid Resaturation – pores of a prepared sample are filled with a

liquid of known density and the weight increase of the sample is divided
by the liquid density.

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4. Boyle’s Law Method – involves the compression of a gas into the
pores or the expansion of gas from the pores of a prepared sample.

5. Grain Density – measures total porosity. After the dry weight and
bulk volume of the sample are determined, the sample is reduced to
grain size and the grain volume is determined and subtracted from the
bulk volume.

below shows some devices used to determining porosity

Porosity ranges
Showing in Table porosity ranges in rocks.

POROSITY RANGES
Sand & Gravel 20-50%
Till 10-20%
Silt 35-50%
Clay 33-60%

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Clastic Sediments Typically-3-30%
Limestone <1 to 30%
Basalt 1-12%
Tuff 14040%
Pumice 87%
Fractured Crystalline Rock 1-5%
Unfractured Crystalline Rock 0.1%

Permeability
Permeability is a measure of a rock's ability to
conduct fluids ,The unit of permeability is the Darcy. A
rock having a permeability of one Darcy allows a fluid of
one centipoises (CP) viscosity to flow at a velocity of

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one centimeter per second for a pressure drop of one atmosphere per
centimeter.

Darcy's Law

qμ L
k=
A (P 1−P 2)

where

µ = viscosity (centipoises)
P = pressure gradient (atm/cm, psi/ft)
Q = flow rate (cm3/sec , ft3/sec)
K = permeability (Darcy)
A = area (cm2)
L = length(cm)

The flow of fluid of viscosity m through a porous medium was first

investigated in 1856 by Henri Darcy. He related the flow of water
through a unit volume of sand to the pressure gradient across it while
working in a French sewer system.

The flow rate increases with increasing pressure drop; it decreases

with increasing length; it increases with increasing surface area; it

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decreases with increasing viscosity. Putting this altogether gives an
equation with the unknown as the permeability, K.

The key term in this equation is k/m called the mobility. This
determines how a given reservoir will behave depending on the fluid in
there.

Darcy's law(Radial Flow)

Normally we do not have linear flow of oil and gas to the wellbore.
When Darcy’s law in differential form is applied to a dry cylinder of the
system, the resultant integrated equation of flow is:

2 π kh( P−Pw )
q=
μ lnr /rw

Where

q =Flow rate(bbl/day)
k =Pearmability(darcy)
h =Height of cylinder(feet)
p =Pressure at any radius (psi)
pw = Pressure at well pore (psi)
µ =Viscosity(centipoises)

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r = Radius(feet)
rw =Well pore radius(feet)

Sources of permeability measurement

Well test

The most accurate method of measuring the permeability of a

formation is through well testing.

Wireline logs

There is no direct measurement of k but there are certain empirical

relationships.

MDT tests

The MDT tool is a wire line tool which has a probe which pushes
against the borehole wall.

Laboratory measurements on rocks

Conventional cores, sidewall cores, or field samples may be analyzed

in the laboratory

NMR

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.

Note

A. The permeability is a property of a rock not of the fluid.

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B. Reservoir permeability is usually quoted in millidarcies (md).

Classification of permeability
Absolute Permeability (k)

Permeability of a rock to a fluid when the rock is 100% saturated with

that fluid.

Effective Permeability (ke)

It has been found that in sand containing more one fluid the presence
of one materially impedes the flow of the other. This has given rise to
the use of the term effective permeability impedes, which may be
defined as the apparent permeability to a particular phase (oil, gas or
water) or saturation with more than one phase.

Relative Permeability (kr)

It is the ratio of the effective permeability to a particular phase to the
normal (absolute) permeability of the sand. And it has no unit.

K eo
K ro = Oil
K

K ew
K rw = Water
K

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K eg
K rg = Gas
K

where

ke = Effective permeability, md

kr = Relative permeability, dimensionless

Laboratory Measurement of Permeability

Laboratory measurement of permeability usually uses air as the flow
fluid and thus the value obtained is permeability to air (Kair). Common
device that may used to determining (k) Is shown below (Permeameter).

Also a fluid of known viscosity is pumped through a rock sample of

known cross-sectional area and length. The pressure drop across the
sample is measured through pressure gauges.

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New methods of quantification of permeability using well logs are also

being developed:

A. Resistivity Gradient.
B. Porosity and Water Saturation.

Relation between Porosity and permeability

Many investigators have attempted to correlate permeability to
porosity, grain size and shape, and packing. The most frequently used
relation was developed by Kozeny as follows:

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K = Φ3/ (5×Sv× (1-Φ) 2)

where

K = permeability cm2 (= 1.013 x 108 Darcies)

Φ = effective porosity

Sv = total grain surface/unit volume of reservoir, cm2/cm3

Wettability
Definitions

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Wettability is the tendency of one fluid to spread on or adhere to a
solid surface in the presence of other immiscible fluids , Wettability
refers to interaction between fluid and solid phases.

Notes
 Reservoir
rocks (sandstone, limestone, dolomite, etc.) are the Solid
Surface.
Oil, water, and/or gas are the fluids .

The wettability important

Wettability play an important role in the production of oil and gas as
it not only determines initial fluid distributions, but also is a main
factor in the flow processes in the reservoir rock. The degree of
wetting of solid by liquids is usually measured by the contact angle that
a liquid- liquid interface makes with a solid.
Wettability determination is important in reservoir characterization
because it controls the distribution of the fluids in the reservoir and
therefore the oil recovered.

Why study wettability?

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Understand physical and chemical interactions between:
 Individual fluids and reservoir rocks.
 Different fluids with in a reservoir.
 Individual fluids and reservoir rocks when multiple fluids are
present.

Adhesion tension
Definitions

Which is a function of the interfacial tension, determines which

fluid preferentially wets the solid. In the case of water-oil-solid.
Is expressed as the difference between two solid-fluid interfacial
tensions.
A negative adhesion tension indicates that the denser phase (water)
preferentially wets the solid surface (and vice versa).
An adhesion tension of (0) indicates that both phases have equal
affinity for the solid surface.

The adhesion tension AT is defined as:

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A T =σ os − σ ws = −|σ ow| cos θ

A positive adhesion tension AT indicates that water preferentially

wets the solid surface (water wet). An AT of zero indicates that both
phases have an equal affinity for the surface (neutral system). A negative
AT indicates the oil wets the solid surface (oil wet). The magnitude of
the adhesion tension determines the ability of the wetting phase to
adhere to the solid and to spread over the surface of the solid.

Types of wettability
Water-wet reservoir rock

Definitions

Reservoir rock is water wet if water preferentially wets the rock

surfaces.
The rock is water- wet under the following conditions:

σ so − σ sw
cosθ =
σ wo

 sws > sos.

 0° <  < 90°.
 0° < q < 30° (strongly water-wet).
 AT < 0 (the adhesion tension is negative).

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Adhesion tension in water-wet reservoir

Adhesive tension between water and the rock surface exceeds that
between oil and the rock surface.

Oil –wet reservoir rock

Definitions

Reservoir rock is oil-wet if oil preferentially wets the rock surfaces.

The rock is oil-wet under the following conditions:

σ so − σ sw
cosθ =
σ wo
 sos > sws
 90° < q < 180°
 150° < q < 180° (strongly oil-wet)
 AT > 0 (The adhesion tension is positive)

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Adhesion tension in oil-wet reservoir

The adhesion tension between water and the rock surface is less than
that between oil and the rock surface.

Comparison between (water-wet & oil-wet reservoir)

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Intermediate wet

In this wettability state, the rock surface has preference for both the
oil and water phases. The precise nature of intermediate wetting is not
defined; therefore, it includes the subclasses of both fractional and
mixed wettability.
Fractional wettability

This type of wettability is also termed as Dalmatian wettability

because some of the pores are water-wet ,while others are oil-wet.
Fractional wettability occurs when the surfaces of the rocks are
composed of many minerals having different chemical properties
leading to variations in wettability throughout the internal surfaces of the
pores.
Mixed wettability

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This type of wettability was proposed by salathiel. In this wettability
state, the smaller pores are occupied by water and are water-wet,
whereas the oil preferentially wets the interconnected larger pores.

Factors Influence wettability

 Reservoir rock material and pore geometry.

 Geological mechanisms (accumulation and migration).
 Composition and amount of oil and brine.
 Physical conditions; pressure and temperature.
 Mechanisms occurring during production. Change in saturation
pressure and composition..

Note
That it is difficult to make a general model of wettability including all
these factors. Although a lot of work has been done on wettability, it is
not fully understood how the wettability of a porous rock surface is
composed.

Methods Measurement of wettability

No satisfactory method exists for in situ measurement of wettability,
and therefore it is necessary to estimate the wettability from laboratory
measurements.

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To obtain representative information on wetting preferences in the
reservoir from laboratory experiments, the following conditions should
be fulfilled:

The method should not damage the surface properties of the rock.

The method should enable differentiation of entire range of

wettability from very water-wet to very oil-wet.

The results should include the effects of micro heterogeneities of

the rock (except where ideal systems are used).

The results should not depend on parameters such as rock

permeability and fluid viscosity unless these parameters can be

isolated.

The results should be reproducible both with respect to a given core

sample and also between different cores having the same rock
properties. One way in which this can be done directly is by using the
method of contact angle measurement by photographing a drop. Other
indirectly methods are based on measurement on core samples. Three
methods have been found worth discussing in more detail.
These methods are:
 The Amott method

 The centrifuge method

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 The contact angle method.

The Amott Method

In principle, a core sample is chosen and saturated with oil. The oil-
saturated sample is then placed in an imbibitions cell surrounded by
water. The water is allowed to imbibe into the core sample displacing oil
out of the sample until equilibrium is reached The volume of water
imbibed is measured.
The core sample is then removed and the remaining oil in the sample
is forced down to residual saturation by displacement with water. This
may be done either in a centrifuge or displaced with a pump in a sealed
core holder.
The volume of oil displaced may be measured directly or determined
by weight measurements.

The Centrifuge Method

The centrifuge method for determining wettability is based on a

correlation between the degree of wetting and the areas under the
capillary pressure curves. The method employs the two areas under the
oil-water capillary pressure curves obtained from the centrifuge method.
The procedure to obtain a set of curves is as follows:
A. A core sample is saturated with brine.
B. The core is then placed in a centrifuge core holder.
C. The core holder is filled with oil and rotated at a certain speeds
to obtain curve (primary drainage).

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D. The core is placed in an inverted core holder filled with brine
E. The brine is allowed to spontaneously imbibe into the core.
Then the core is centrifuged at incremental steps.
F. The core is placed in a core holder filled with oil and secondary
drainage curve is obtained in the centrifuge.

The method is often called the USBM-method (USBM is abbreviation

for United States Bureau of Mines).
The centrifuge method is rapid, employs native fluids, and the test
was found to be independent of oil viscosity. The method is better
physically and mathematically grounded than the Amott-test. As for the
Amott method, the method is difficult to perform at elevated pressures
(reservoir conditions).

The contact angle/Imaging method

The measurement of contact angles is based on Young’s equation.

When placing a drop of liquid on a solid surface, a finite angle of contact
will in most cases is observed. However, complete spreading may also
occur and then Young’s equation ceases to hold.
The measurement of contact angle is simple in concept, but in practice
it is a very complex topic and the interpretation of results is not
straightforward.
The measurement puts up severe demands to the cleaning procedures
and the preparation of fluids and solid surface.

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The contact angle between oil, water and a solid surface will depend
on the following:

 Crude oil composition.

 Surface electric properties (PH and salt content of water).

 The solid surface itself.

 Roughness and heterogeneity of the solid surface.

 Dynamic effects.

 Pressure and temperature.

In practice, in a porous material it is even more complex because of

different pore shapes and complex mineralogy.

The solid surface must be carefully polished, and measurements on

mineral surfaces are often performed on the natural plane of cleavage. A
drop of liquid is placed on the solid surface and an enlarged image of the
drop is obtained by photographing. The dimensions of the drop image
are measured and used to determine the contact angle.
Contaminations will affect the contact angle, so the cleaning
procedures are critical. Most contact angle measurements are performed
at room conditions, and this is often due to the time consuming cleaning
procedures necessary for measurement at high pressure and temperature
and complex and costly apparatus needed.

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Contact angle measurements can also be performed at reservoir
conditions, which are one of the main advantages in crude oil-brine-rock
system, as it has been shown that especially temperature may change the
wettability significantly.

Advantage and disadvantages of these methods

The three wettability Measurements are in use today: contact angle,

the Amott method and the USBM. The contact angle measures the
wettability of crude and brine on a polished mineral surface, it is the best
method to use when pure fluids and artificial cores are used. It is also
used to examine the effect on wettability of experimental conditions,
such as pressure and temperature.
The USBM and Amott methods measure the average wettability of
core. They are superior to the contact-angle method when the wettability
of restored core is measured. Disadvantage of USBM and Amott
methods can only be used on plug-size samples. The major problem of
Amott method is that it is insensitive around neutral wettability while
USBM is sensitive for that.
There is no method to determine whether a core has mixed wettability.

Nomenclature

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AT = Adhesion Tension, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm).

q = Contact Angle between the oil/water/solid interface measured

through the water (more dense phase), degrees.

sos = Interfacial Tension between the oil and solid, milli-Newtons/m or

dynes/cm.

sws = Interfacial Tension between the water and solid, milli-Newtons/m

or dynes/cm.

sow = Interfacial Tension between the oil and water, milli-Newtons/m or

dynes/cm.

REFERENCES

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M. Abtahi .(2003) , Experimental reservoir engineering laboratory

workbook.

Alkhatha’ami, Mohammad.(2005), Permeability, Porosity & Skin

factor.

Alkhazmi .B ,Saturation Height Modeling in Absence of Strong

wetting phase.

Abhijit Y. Dandekar, petroleum Reservoir Rock and Fluid

Properties.

Rock properties and in-situ saturation(Schlumberger).

SPE 13933, William G. Anderson, SPE, Conoco Inc. “Wettability

Literature Survey – Part 2: wettability Measurement”

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