Lecture notes

OF

DC Machines

Department of Electrical engineering

MBM Engineering College, Jodhpur

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 UNIT III

DC GENERATORS

Principle of Operation of a D.C. Generator

All the generators work on a principle of dynamically induced e.m.f. This principle nothing but the
Faraday’s law of electromagnetism induction. It states that, ‘whenever the number of magnetic lines
of force i.e. flux linking with a conductor or a coil changes, an electromotive force is set up in that
conductor or coil.’ The change in flux associated with the conductor can exist only when there exists
a relative motion between a conductor and the flux. The relative motion can be achieved by rotating
conductor with respect to flux or by rotating flux with respect to a conductor. So a voltage gets
generated in a conductor, as long as there exists a relative motion between conductor and the flux.
Such an induced e.m.f. which is due to the physical movement of coil or conductor with respect to
flux or movement of flux with respect to coil or conductor is called dynamically induced e.m.f.
Key Point:
So a generating action requires following basic components
to exist, i) The conductor or a coil ii) The relative motion
between conductor and flux.

In a particular generator, the conductors are rotated to cut the magnetic flux, keeping flux stationary.
To have a large voltage as the output, the number of conductors are connected together in a specific
manner, to form a winding. This winding is called armature winding of a d.c. machine. The part on
which this winding is kept is called armature of a d.c. machine. To have the rotation of conductors,
the conductors placed on the armature are rotated with the help of some external device. Such an
external device is called a prim mover. The commonly used prim movers are diesel engines, steam
engines, steam turbines, water turbines etc. The necessary magnetic flux is produced by current
carrying winding which is called field winding. The direction of the induced e.m.f. can be obtained
by using Fleming’s right hand role.

Single Loop DC Generator

Figure: Single Loop Generator

In the figure above, a single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between two opposite
poles of magnet.
Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the magnetic field
about its own axis ab. When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal position, it
cuts the flux lines of the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e. AB and CD of the loop cut
the flux lines there will be an emf induced in these both of the sides (AB and BC) of the loop.

Figure: Single Loop Generator

As the loop is closed there will be a current circulating through the loop. The direction of the current
can be determined by Flemming's right hand Rule. This rule says that if you stretch thumb, index
finger and middle finger of your right hand perpendicular to each other, then thumbs indicates the
direction of motion of the conductor, index finger indicates the direction of magnetic field i.e. N -
pole to S - pole, and middle finger indicates the direction of flow of current through the conductor.
Now if we apply this right hand rule, we will see at this horizontal position of the loop, current will flow
from point A to B and on the other side of the loop current will flow from point C to D.

Figure: Single Loop Generator

Now if we allow the loop to move further, it will come again to its vertical position, but now upper
side of the loop will be CD and lower side will be AB (just opposite of the previous vertical position).
At this position the tangential motion of the sides of the loop is parallel to the flux lines of the field.
Hence there will be no question of flux cutting and consequently there will be no current in the loop.
If the loop rotates further, it comes to again in horizontal position. But now, said AB side of the loop
comes in front of N pole and CD comes in front of S pole, i.e. just opposite to the previous horizontal
position as shown in the figure beside.

Figure: Single Loop Generator

Here the tangential motion of the side of the loop is perpendicular to the flux lines, hence rate of flux
cutting is maximum here and according to Flemming's right hand Rule, at this position current flows
from B to A and on other side from D to C. Now if the loop is continued to rotate about its axis,
every time the side AB comes in front of S pole, the current flows from A to B and when it comes
in front of N pole, the current flows from B to A. Similarly, every time the side CD comes in front
of S pole the current flows from C to D and when it comes in front of N pole the current flows from
D to C.

If we observe this phenomena in different way, it can be concluded, that each side of the loop comes
in front of N pole, the current will flow through that side in same direction i.e. downward to the
reference plane and similarly each side of the loop comes in front of S pole, current through it flows
in same direction i.e. upwards from reference plane. From this, we will come to the topic of principle
of DC generator. Now the loop is opened and connected it with a split ring as shown in the figure
below. Split ring are made out of a conducting cylinder which cuts into two halves or segments
insulated from each other. The external load terminals are connected with two carbon brushes which
are rest on these split slip ring segments.
 Working Principle of DC Generator

Fig: Commutation action

It is seen that in the first half of the revolution current flows always along ABLMCD i.e. brush no 1
in contact with segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure the direction of the induced current
in the coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments a and b are also reversed
which results that brush no 1 comes in touch with the segment b. Hence, the current in the load
resistance again flows from L to M. The wave from of the current through the load circuit is as
shown in the figure. This current is unidirectional.

Fig: Output waveform of generator

This is basic working principle of DC generator, explained by single loop generator model. The
position of the brushes of DC generator is so arranged that the change over of the segments a and
b from one brush to other takes place when the plane of rotating coil is at right angle to the plane of
the lines of force.
It is so become in that position, the induced emf in the coil is zero.

Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine – Generator and Motor

Let,

• P – Number of poles of the machine

• ϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.

• Z – Total number of armature conductors.

• N – Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).

• A – Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.

In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by one conductor is given as

Time taken to complete one revolution is given as

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be

Putting the value of (t) from Equation (2) in the equation (3) we will get

The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A.

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f across each parallel path or the armature terminals is given by the
equation shown below.

Where n is the speed in revolution per second (r.p.s) and given as

For a given machine, the number of poles and the number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A) are constant.
Hence, the equation (5) can be written as

Where, K is a constant and given as

Therefore, the average induced emf equation can also be written as

Where K1 is another constant and hence induced emf equation can be written as

Where ω is the angular velocity in radians/second is represented as

Thus, it is clear that the induced emf is directly proportional to the speed and flux per pole. The
polarity of induced emf depends upon the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of rotation.
If either of the two is reverse the polarity changes, but if two are reversed the polarity remains
unchanged.

This induced emf is a fundamental phenomenon for all the DC Machines whether they are working as a
generator or motor.
If the machine DC Machine is working as a Generator, the induced emf is given by the equation shown
below.

Where Eg is the Generated Emf

If the machine DC Machine is working as a Motor, the induced emf is given by the equation shown below.

In a motor, the induced emf is called Back Emf (Eb) because it acts opposite to the supply voltage.

Types of DC Generators – Separately Excited and Self Excited

The DC generator converts the electrical power into electrical power. The magnetic flux in a DC
machine is produced by the field coils carrying current. The circulating current in the field windings
produces a magnetic flux, and the phenomenon is known as Excitation. DC Generator is classified
according to the methods of their field excitation.

By excitation, the DC Generators are classified as Separately excited DC Generators and Self-excited
DC Generators. There is also Permanent magnet type DC generators. The self-excited DC Generators
are further classified as Shunt wound DC generators; Series wound DC generators and Compound
wound DC generators. The Compound Wound DC generators are further divided as long shunt
wound DC generators, and short shunt wound DC generators.

The field pole of the DC generator is stationary, and the armature conductor rotates. The voltage
generated in the armature conductor is of alternating nature, and this voltage is converted into the
direct voltage at the brushes with the help of the commutator.

The detailed description of the various types of generators is explained below.

Permanent Magnet type DC Generator

In this type of DC generator, there is no field winding is placed around the poles. The field produced
by the poles of these machines remains constant. Although these machines are very compact but are
used only in small sizes like dynamos in motorcycles, etc. The main disadvantage of these machines
is that the flux produced by the magnets deteriorates with the passage of time which changes the
characteristics of the machine.

Separately Excited DC Generator

A DC generator whose field winding or coil is energized by a separate or external DC source is called
a separately excited DC Generator. The flux produced by the poles depends upon the field current
with the unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles. i.e. flux is directly proportional to the
field current. But in the saturated region, the flux remains constant.

The figure of self-excited DC Generator is shown below.

Separately Excited DC Generator

Here,

Ia = IL where Ia is the armature current and IL is the line current.

Terminal voltage is given as

If the contact brush drop is known, then the equation (1) is written as

The power developed is given by the equation shown below.

Power output is given by the equation (4) shown above.

Self Excited DC Generator

 Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the current to the field winding is supplied by the
generator itself. In self-excited DC generator, the field coils mat be connected in parallel with the
armature in the series, or it may be connected partly in series and partly in parallel with the armature
windings.

The self-excited DC Generator is further classified as

1. Shunt Wound Generator

2. Series Wound Generator
3. Compound Wound Generator
1. Shunt Wound Generator

In a shunt wound generator, the field winding is connected across the armature winding forming a
parallel or shunt circuit. Therefore, full terminal voltage is applied across it. A very small field
current Ish, flows through it because this winding has many turns of fine wire having very high
resistance Rshof the order of 100 ohms.

The connection diagram of shunt wound generator is shown below.

Shunt Wound DC Generator

Shunt field current is given as

Where Rsh is the shunt field winding resistance.

The current field Ish is practically constant at all loads. Therefore, the DC shunt machine is considered
to be a constant flux machine.

Armature current is given as

Terminal voltage is given by the equation shown below.

If the brush contact drop is included, the equation of the terminal voltage becomes

2. Series Wound Generator

A series-wound generator the field coils are connected in series with the armature winding. The
series field winding carries the armature current. The series field winding consists of a few turns of
wire of thick wire of larger cross-sectional area and having low resistance usually of the order of less
than 1 ohm because the armature current has a very large value.

Its convectional diagram is shown below.

Series Wound DC Generator

Series field current is given as

Rse is known as the series field winding resistance.

Terminal voltage is given as

If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as

The flux developed by the series field winding is directly proportional to the current flowing through
it. But it is only true before magnetic saturation after the saturation flux becomes constant even if
the current flowing through it is increased.

3. Compound Wound Generator

In a Compound Wound Generator, there are two sets of the field winding on each pole. One of them
is connected in series having few turns of thick wire, and the other is connected in parallel having
many turns of fine wire with the armature windings. In other words, the generator which has both
shunt and series fields is called the compound wound generators.

If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the flux produced by the shunt winding,
then the machine is said to be cumulative compounded. If the series field flux opposes the shunt
field flux, then the machine is called the differentially compounded.

It is connected in two ways. One is a long shunt compound generator, and another is a short shunt
compound generator. If the shunt field is connected in parallel with the armature alone then the
machine is called the short compound generator. In long shunt compound generator, the shunt field
is connected in series with the armature. The two types of generators are discussed below in details.

Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator

In a long shunt wound generator, the shunt field winding is parallel with both armature and series field
winding. The connection diagram of long shunt wound generator is shown below.

Long Shunt Compound Wound

Generator Shunt field current is given as

Series field current is given as

Terminal voltage is given as

If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as

Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator

In a Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator, the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature winding only. The connection diagram of short shunt wound generator is shown below.
 Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator

Series field current is given as

Shunt field current is given as

Terminal voltage is given as

If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as

In this type of DC generator, the field is produced by the shunt as well as series winding. The shunt
field is stronger than the series field. If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the
flux produced by the shunt field winding, the generator is said to be Cumulatively Compound Wound
generator.

If the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, the generator is said to be Differentially Compounded.
Voltage buildup in self excited Generator or Dc Shunt Generato

A self excited DC generator supplies its own field excitation . A self excited generator shown in
figure is known as a shunt generator because its field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature. Thus the armature voltage supplies the field current.

This generator will build up a desired terminal voltage. Assume that the generator in figure has no
load connected to it and armature is driven at a certain speed by a prime mover. we shall study the
condition under which the voltage buildup takes place. Due to this residual flux, a small voltage Ear
will be generated. It is given by

This voltage is of the order of 1V or 2V . It causes a current If to flow in the field winding in the
generator. The field current is given by

This field current produces a magneto motive force in the field winding, which increases the flux.
This increase in flux increases the generated voltage Ea. The increased armature voltage Ea increases
the terminal voltage V. with the increase in V, the field current If increases further. This in turn
increases Φ and consequently Ea increases further. The process of the voltage buildup continues.
Figure shows the voltage buildup of a dc shunt generator.
 OCC Characteristics of DC generator
The effect of magnetic saturation in the pole faces limits the terminal voltage of the generator to a steady
state value.
We have assumed that the generator is no load during the buildup process. The following equations describe
the steady state operation.

Since the field current If in a shunt generator is very small, the voltage drop If Ra can be neglected, and
V= Ea
The Ea versus If curve is the magnetization curve shown in figure

For the field circuit V = If Rf

The straight line given by V = If Rf is called the field-resistance line.

The field resistance line is a plot of the voltage If Rf across the field circuit versus the field If. The slop
this line is equal to the resistance of the field circuit.

The no-load terminal voltage V0 of thr generator. thus, the intersection point P of the magnetization
curve and the field resistance line gives the no-load terminal voltage V0(bP) and the corresponding
field current (Ob). Normally , in the shunt generator the voltage buildup to the value given by the
point P. at this point Ea = If Rf = V0.

If the field current corresponding to point P is increase further , there is no further increase in the terminal
voltage.

The no-load voltage is adjusted by adding resistance in series with shunt field. This increase slope of
this line causing the operating point to shift at lower voltage
The operating point are graphical solution of two simultaneous equation namely , the magnetization
curve and field resistance line . A graphical solution is preferred due to non-linear nature of
magnetization curve.
Self excited generator are designed to obtain no-load voltage from 50% to 125% of the rated value while
varying the added resistance in field circuit from maximum to zero value.

Critical Field Resistance:

Figure below shows the voltage buildup in the dc shunt generator for various resistances of the field circuit.

Fig: Determination of critical resistance

A decrease in the resistance of the field circuit reduces the slope of the field resistance line result in
higher voltage. If the speed remains constant, an increase in the resistance of field circuit increases
the slop of field resistance line, resulting in a lower voltage. If the field circuit resistance is increased
to Rc which is terminal as the critical resistance of the field, the field resistance line becomes a
tangent to the initial part of the magnetization curve. When the field resistance is higher than this
value, the generator fails to excite.
Critical Speed:
Figure shows the variation of no-load voltage with fixed Rf and variable speed of the armature.

Fig: Determination of critical speed

The magnetization curve varies with the speed and its ordinate for any field current is proportional
to the speed of the generator. all the points on the magnetization curve are lowered, and the point of
intersection of the magnetization curve and the field resistance line moves downwards. at a particular
 speed, called the critical speed, the field resistance line becomes tangential to the magnetization
curve. below the critical speed the voltage will not build up.
In Brief, the following condition must be satisfied for voltage buildup in a self-excited generator. There
must be sufficient residual flux in the field poles.
1. the field terminal should be connected such a way that the field current increases flux in the direction of
residual flux.
2. The field circuit resistance should be less than the critical field circuit resistance.
If there is a no residual flux in the field poles, Disconnected the field from the armature circuit and
apply a dc voltage to the field winding. this process is called Flashing the field. It will induce some
residual flux in the field poles.
Causes for Failure to Self Excite and Remedial Measures

There may be one or more of the following reasons due which a self excited generator may fail to build
up voltage.

1. No residual magnetism

The start of the buildup process needs some residual magnetism in the magnetic circuit of the
generator. If there is little or no residual magnetism. because of inactivity or jarring in shipment, no
voltage will be induced that can produce field current.

2. Reversal of Field Connections

The voltage induced owing to residual magnetism acts across the field and results in flow or current in
the field coils in such a direction as to produce magnetic flux in the same direction as the residual flux.
Reversal of connections of the field winding destroys the residual magnetism which causes the generator
failure to build up voltage.

3. In case of dc series wound generators

The resistance in the load circuit may be more than its critical resistance, which may be due to

(i) open-circuit
(ii) high resistance of load circuit
(iii) faulty contact between brushes and commutator and (iv) commutator surface dirty or greasy.
4. In case of shunt wound generator
(a) the resistance of the shunt field circuit may be greater than the critical resistance; (b)
the resistance in the load circuit may be lower than the critical resistance; (c) the
speed of rotation may not be equal to rated one.
Remedy
In case the generator is started up for the first time, it may be that no voltage will be built up either
because the poles have no residual magnetism or the poles have retained some residual magnetism
but the field winding connections are reversed so that the magnetism developed by the field winding
on start has destroyed the residual magnetism and the machine can not "build up". In both the cases,
the field coils must be connected to a dc source (a storage battery) for a short while to magnetise the
poles. The application of external source of direct current to the field is called flashing of the field.

Characteristics of DC Generators

Generally, following three characteristics of DC generators are taken into considerations: (i) Open
Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.), (ii) Internal or Total Characteristic and (iii) External Characteristic.
These characteristics of DC generators are explained below.

1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0/If)

Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation

characteristic. This characteristic shows the relation between generated emf at no load (E 0) and the
field current (If) at a given fixed speed. The O.C.C. curve is just the magnetization curve and it is
practically similar for all type of generators. The data for O.C.C. curve is obtained by operating the
generator at no load and keeping a constant speed. Field current is gradually increased and the
corresponding terminal voltage is recorded. The connection arrangement to obtain O.C.C. curve is
as shown in the figure below. For shunt or series excited generators, the field winding is disconnected
from the machine and connected across an external supply.

Fig: Circuit for OCC

Now, from the emf equation of dc generator, we know that Eg = kɸ. Hence, the generated emf should
be directly proportional to field flux (and hence, also directly proportional to the field current).
However, even when the field current is zero, some amount of emf is generated (represented by OA
in the figure below). This initially induced emf is due to the fact that there exists some residual
magnetism in the field poles. Due to the residual magnetism, a small initial emf is induced in the
armature. This initially induced emf aids the existing residual flux, and hence, increasing the overall
field flux. This consequently increases the induced emf. Thus, O.C.C. follows a straight line.
However, as the flux density increases, the poles get saturated and the ɸ becomes practically
constant. Thus, even we increase the If further, ɸ remains constant and hence, Eg also remains
constant. Hence, the O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H characteristic.
 The above figure shows a typical no-load saturation curve or open circuit characteristics for all types of
DC generators.

2. Internal or Total Characteristic (E/Ia)

An internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-load generated emf (Eg) and the
armature current (Ia). The on-load generated emf Eg is always less than E0 due to the armature
reaction. Eg can be determined by subtracting the drop due to demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction from noload voltage E0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies below the O.C.C. curve.

3. External Characteristic (V/IL)

An external characteristic curve shows the relation between terminal voltage (V) and the load current
(IL). Terminal voltage V is less than the generated emf Eg due to voltage drop in the armature circuit.
Therefore, external characteristic curve lies below the internal characteristic curve. External
characteristics are very important to determine the suitability of a generator for a given purpose.
Therefore, this type of characteristic is sometimes also called as performance characteristic or load
characteristic.

Internal and external characteristic curves are shown below for each type of generator. Characteristics of
Separately Excited DC Generator:
If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, the voltage will remain constant for any
load current. Thus, the straight line AB in above figure represents the no-load voltage vs. load current
IL. Due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the on-load generated emf is less than the
no-load voltage. The curve AC represents the on-load generated emf Eg vs. load current ILi.e.
Internal characteristic (as Ia = IL for a separately excited dc generator). Also, the terminal voltage is
lesser due to ohmic drop occurring in the armature and brushes. The curve AD represents the terminal
voltage vs. load current i.e. external characteristic.

Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator

To determine the internal and external load characteristics of a DC shunt generator the machine is
allowed to build up its voltage before applying any external load. To build up voltage of a shunt
generator, the generator is driven at the rated speed by a prime mover. Initial voltage is induced due
to residual magnetism in the field poles. The generator builds up its voltage as explained by the
O.C.C. curve. When the generator has built up the voltage, it is gradually loaded with resistive load
and readings are taken at suitable intervals. Connection arrangement is as shown in the figure below.

Fig: Circuit for External characteristics of shunt generator

Unlike, separately excited DC generator, here, IL≠Ia. For a shunt generator, Ia=IL+If. Hence, the internal
characteristic can be easily transmitted to Eg vs. IL by subtracting the correct value of Iffrom Ia.
During a normal running condition, when load resistance is decreased, the load current increases.
But, as we go on decreasing the load resistance, terminal voltage also falls. So, load resistance can
be decreased up to a certain limit, after which the terminal voltage drastically decreases due to
excessive armature reaction at very high armature current and increased I2R losses. Hence, beyond
this limit any further decrease in load resistance results in decreasing load current. Consequently, the
external characteristic curve turns back as shown by dotted line in the above figure.
Characteristics of DC Series Generator

The curve AB in above figure identical to open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) curve. This is because
in DC series generators field winding is connected in series with armature and load. Hence, here load
current is similar to field current (i.e. IL=If). The curve OC and OD represent internal and external
characteristic respectively. In a DC series generator, terminal voltage increases with the load current.
This is because, as the load current increases, field current also increases. However, beyond a certain
limit, terminal voltage starts decreasing with increase in load. This is due to excessive demagnetizing
effects of the armature reaction.

Characteristics Of DC Compound Generator

 The above figure shows the external characteristics of DC compound generators. If series winding
ampturns are adjusted so that, increase in load current causes increase in terminal voltage then the
generator is called to be over compounded. The external characteristic for over compounded
generator is shown by the curve AB in above figure.

If series winding amp-turns are adjusted so that, the terminal voltage remains constant even the load
current is increased, then the generator is called to be flat compounded. The external characteristic
for a flat compounded generator is shown by the curve AC.

If the series winding has lesser number of turns than that would be required to be flat compounded,
then the generator is called to be under compounded. The external characteristics for an under
compounded generator are shown by the curve AD.
Parallel Operation of D.C. Generators:

Here this explains you the parallel operation of dc generators and load sharing among them for the
continuous power supply. In a DC power plant, power is usually supplied from several generators of
small ratings connected in parallel instead of from one large generator. This is due to the following
reasons:

(i) Continuity of service:

If a single large generator is used in the power plant, then in case of its breakdown, the whole plant
will be shut down. However, if power is supplied from a number of small units operating in parallel,
then in case of failure of one unit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by other healthy units.

(ii) Efficiency:

Generators run most efficiently when loaded to their rated capacity. Electric power costs less per
kWh when the generator producing it is efficiently loaded. Therefore, when load demand on power
plant decreases, one or more generators can be shut down and the remaining units can be efficiently
loaded.
(iii) Maintenance and repair:

Generators generally require routine-maintenance and repair. Therefore, if generators are operated
in parallel, the routine or emergency operations can be performed by isolating the affected generator
while the load is being supplied by other units. This leads to both safety and economy.

(iv) Increasing plant capacity:

In the modern world of increasing population, the use of electricity is continuously increasing. When
added capacity is required, the new unit can be simply paralleled with the old units. In many
situations, a single unit of desired large capacity may not be available. In that case, a number of
smaller units can be operated in parallel to meet the load requirement. Generally, a single large unit
is more expensive.

(v) Non-availability of single large unit:

In many situations, a single unit of desired large capacity may not be available. In that case, a number
of smaller units can be operated in parallel to meet the load requirement. Generally, a single large
unit is more expensive.

Connecting Shunt Generators in Parallel:

The generators in a power plant are connected in parallel through bus-bars. The bus-bars are heavy
thick copper bars and they act as +ve and -ve terminals. The positive terminals of the generators are
connected to the +ve side of bus-bars and negative terminals to the negative side of bus-bars.

Fig. (3.15) shows shunt generator 1 connected to the bus-bars and supplying load. When
the load on the power plant increases beyond the capacity of this generator, the second shunt
generator 2 is connected in parallel with the first to meet the increased load demand. The procedure
for paralleling generator 2 with generator 1 is as under:
 Parallel operation of shunt generators

(i) The prime mover of generator 2 is brought up to the rated speed. Now switch S4 in the field
circuit of the generator 2 is closed.

(ii) Next circuit breaker CB-2 is closed and the excitation of generator 2 is adjusted till it generates
a voltage equal to the bus-bars voltage.This is indicated by voltmeter V2.

(iii) Now the generator 2 is ready to be paralleled with generator 1. The main switch S3 is closed,
thus putting generator 2 in parallel with generator 1. Note that generator 2 is not supplying any load
because it's generated e.m.f. is equal to bus-bars voltage.The generator is said to be “floating” (i.e.,
not supplying any load) on the bus-bars.

(iv) If generator 2 is to deliver any current, then it's generated voltage E should be greater than the
busbars voltage V. In that case, the current supplied by it is I = (E - V)/Ra where Ra is the resistance
of the armature circuit. By increasing the field current (and hence induced e.m.f. E), the generator 2
can be made to supply the proper amount of load.

(v) The load may be shifted from one shunt generator to another merely by adjusting the field
excitation. Thus if generator 1 is to be shut down, the whole load can be shifted onto generator 2
provided it has the capacity to supply that load. In that case, reduce the current supplied by generator
1 to zero (This will be indicated by ammeter A1) open C.B.-1 and then open the main switch S1.

Load Sharing of two generators:

The load sharing between shunt generators in parallel can be easily regulated because of their
drooping characteristics.The load may be shifted from one generator to another merely by adjusting
the field excitation.Let us discuss the load sharing of two generators which have unequal no-load
voltages.

Let E1, E2 = no-load voltages of the two generators

R1, R2 = their armature resistances

V = common terminal voltage (Bus-bars

voltage) then I1 = (E1 - V)/R1 and I2= (E2-

V)/R2

Thus the current output of the generators depends upon the values of E1 and E3.These values may be
changed by field rheostats.The common terminal voltage (or bus-bars voltage) will depend upon

(i) the e.m.f.s of individual generators and

(ii) the total load current supplied.

It is generally desired to keep the bus bars voltage constant. This can be achieved by adjusting the field
excitations of the generators operating in parallel.
Compound Generators in Parallel:

Under-compounded generators also operate satisfactorily in parallel but over compounded

generators will not operate satisfactorily unless their series fields are paralleled. This is achieved by
connecting two negative brushes together as shown in Fig. (3.16) (i). The conductor used to connect
these brushes is generally called equaliser bar. Suppose that an attempt is made to operate the two
generators in Fig. (3.16) (ii) in parallel without an equalizer bar. If, for any reason, the current
supplied by generator 1 increases slightly, the current in its series field will increase and raise the
generated voltage.

This will cause generator 1 to take more load. Since total load supplied to the system is
constant, the current in generator 2 must decrease and as a result, its series field is weakened. Since
this effect is cumulative, the generator 1 will take the entire load and drive generator 2 as a motor.
Under such conditions, the current in the two machines will be in the direction shown in Fig. (3.16)
(ii). After machine 2 changes from a generator to a motor, the current in the shunt field will remain
in the same direction, but the current in the armature and series field will reverse.

Thus the magnetising action, of the series field opposes that of the shunt field. As the current
taken by the machine 2 increases, the demagnetizing action of series field becomes greater and the
resultant field becomes weaker. The resultant field will finally become zero and at that time machine
2 will short circuit machine 1, opening the breaker of either or both machines.

Fig: Parallel operation of compound generators

When the equalizer bar is used, a stabilizing action exists? And neither machine tends to take
the entire load. To consider this, suppose that current delivered by generator 1 increase. The
increased current will not only pass through the series field of generator 1 but also through the
equalizer bar and series field of generator 2.Therefore, the voltage of both the machines increases
and the generator 2 will take a part of the load.
 PARALLEL OPERATION OF DC SERIES GENERATOR

The interesting thing about the parallel operation of DC series generator is that DC series generators
are not usually employed for supply of power. Instead DC series motors are arranged in parallel to
operate as DC series generators during Electric Braking.

• Series generators are rarely used in industry for supplying loads. Some applications like electric braking
may employ them and operate two or more series generates in parallel.

• The excitation of the machine I increase, increasing the load current delivered. As the total current is I
the current supplied by machine II reduces, so also its excitation and induced emf.

Fig: Parallel operation of Series generators

• Thus machine I takes greater and greater fraction of the load current with machine II shedding its load.
Ultimately the current of machine II becomes negative and it also loads the first machine.

• Virtually there is a short circuit of the two sources, the whole process is thus highly unstable. One remedy
is for a problem as this is to make the two fields immune to the circulating current between the machines.

• With the equalizer present, a momentary disturbance does not put the two machines out of action.

• A tendency to supply a larger current by a machine strengthens the field of the next machine and increases
its induced emf . This brings in stable conditions for operation rapidly.

Use of Equalizer Bars:

Here comes the use of equalizer bars in the parallel operation of DC series generators. The possibility
of reversal of either machine can be prevented by preventing the flow of circulating current produced
due to inequalities of induced emfs of the machines through the series field winding.

• This Aim can be achieved by connecting a heavy copper bar of negligible resistance across the two
machines as shown in the figure.
• Now the circulating current does not affect the field winding, but it get confined to the armature and the
equalizing bars.

• Now if the armature current increases, the terminal voltage drop occurs and the original condition is
restored.
Cross connection of Field windings:

If the field coils are cross-connected when the series motors are connected in parallel, then any
increase in the current of the armature of generator 1, the increased current flows occurs through the
field coil of generator 2. This increases the electromotive force of generator, which opposes the
change in load sharing trying to stabilize the operation of the two generators at the original operating
condition itself. Thus it will give more positive and better operation than equalizer connection.