1

National Highway, Oaig Daya, Candon City, Ilocos Sur CHAPTER 4

TEL. NO. (077) 674-0367 UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY
Email Address: [email protected] COLLECT DATA
Overview:
A lot of data from different source preoccupy your mind as you
go through the several stages of research. To understand the data; that
is to find meanings in them in relation to your study, you have to conduct
an orderly manner of gathering, identifying, and grouping them. A set by
set arrangement of facts and information is a must in research, because
in arriving at a conclusion about your study on the basis of the collected
data, you don’t only deal with lone proof or evidence but also with
LEARNING MODULE IN RESEARCH 12 several proof hinging upon a common theme, concept or theory.
First Quarter. Second .
Semester Objectives:
Academic Year 2020-2021 After this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Exchanges ideas with one another using the newly learned
word;
2. Explain the meaning of quantitative research design;
3. Compare and contrast the types of quantitative research
designs
Compiled by: 4. Explain the meaning of quantitative data;
5. Describe each quantitative data collection instrument
NARELLE T. HABER 6. Specify the appropriate data collection instruments for each
data collection method
7. Evaluate the effectiveness of interview questions;
8. Name the right quantitative measurement scale for a
research questions.

Learning Activities:
Directions: Circle the letter of the word or phrase that is similar
in meaning to the underlined word in the sentence. Be guided by some
For EXCLUSIVE USE of NICOSAT COLLEGES, INC. students only clues in the sentence.
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1. Being renowned person, he does not need to give his name to b. Comic strip
the guards. All the people in the community know his name. c. Mental picture
a. Kind c. friendly d. Scary dream
b. Famous d. wealthy 9. Lacking in Vitamin C., you are prone to colds and other
2. The stone glitters like a star but it is not comparable to a real respiratory diseases.
diamond; it is a quasi-diamond. a. Susceptible c. submitted
a. Costly c. genuine b. Near d. similar
b. Cheap d. almost 10. Studying hard will ensure you good grades.
3. Do you envisage yourself imagine wearing the most expensive a. Show c. give
diamond ring on earth? b. Assure d. record
a. Imagine c. present
b. Justify d. prove
4. Befriend all people around you but shun relating yourself
a. Help c. expect
b. Avoid d. hesitate LESSON 1: Quantitative Research Designs
5. Wear something that approximates the gown of Ms. Universe or
one red dress that looks like orange at first glance. Meaning of Quantitative Research Design
a. Looks damaging To There are a lot of things that you want to do in life. You want to
b. Popularizes be a Dean's Lister, to be in other parts of the world, to be a millionaire,
c. Appears close to to be a renowned scientist, engineer, surgeon, and so forth. To realize
d. Advertises one, two, or three of these things you want to happen in your life, first,
6. Neglecting to consult me about the list of names, you purposive envisage any of these in your mind then have a vision of what to do and
erasure of my name in the list needs immediate explanation from how to do such thing. Doing this is seeing in your mind the order or
you. arrangement of things involved in the activity you want to perform. This
a. Forceful c. accidental is an act of designing wherein a plan or an outline of your activities is
b. Intentional d. careful conceived in your mind. It is a design that takes a certain shape the
7. You must be in good mental condition to be able to conceive the moment you use symbols to lay its structure or components on a piece
things you want to do as soon possible. of paper. In any research type, much more, in a quantitative research
a. Share ideas c. explain well where you do a great deal of abstraction and scientific or logical
b. Form ideas d. write well thinking, a research design is a part and parcel of your study. By means
8. My vision of Pope Francis, whom I haven’t personally met yet, of your research design, you are able to make these aspects of your
reminds me of one story I read about St. Francis of Assisi. research clear: your methods or techniques in finding answers to your
a. Wishful attitude research questions and in collecting data.
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establishing cause-effect relationships. Trying to approximate or to be

Types of Quantitative Research Designs like the true experimental design, this research design comes in different
types such as the following:
Experimental Research designs a. Matched comparison group design
Definition Design In this quasi-experimental design o selecting participants
1. Experimental research design is a quantitative research design that for the control group, you participants that shows close similarities win
bases its research method on a scientific activity called experiment, he experimental or treatment group based on one or more important
in which a test or examination of a thing under a manipulated or variables.
controlled environment is done to determine the validity or b. Time-series quasi-experimental design
truthfulness of such thing. This design involves two groups of Your act of controlling the variables In this case is through
subjects: the experimental group on which the condition, treatment, multiple observations of the subject before and after the treatment or
or intervention is applied and the control group that is not given any condition applied to the experimental group p I8 to see the connection
treatment or condition. Following this experimental design, you between the pre the takin8 place of the treatment or control and the
conduct two kinds of tests: pre-test for both groups and post-test for post-test based on the taking place of the treatment on condition.
the experimental or treatment group to see the difference between
them based on the effects of the treatment or condition given to the c. Counterbalanced quasi-experimental design
experimental group. (Picardie 2014; Yin 2012) Here, control is applied to one group to examine he effects all
treatment and conditions to control var1ables, For instance, negative
2. Types results coming from there-time observations are counterbalanced or
There are two types of experimental research designs: the true given weight that is equated with positive results from tour- or have-time
experimental design and the quasi-experimental design. (De Mey 2013; observations.
Creswell 2013)
a. True Experimental Design - What proves this as a true d. Single-subject quasi-experimental design.
experimental design is its random selection of participants. It is a bias- This design is used when the population is so large that you find
free selection that ensures objectivity of results. This design is the best difficulty in choosing a group to study. So, you decide to apply the
way to examine causal relationships. treatment to a single subject like a class of learners then later fin out the
b. Quasi-experimental Design-The term quasi (pronounced as effects of the treatment on the entire class.
kwahz-eye) means partly, partially, pseudo, or almost. The non-
adherence of this research design to random selection of participants is Experimental Research Design Stages
the reason it go the name, quasi-experimental research, which means a
research with the capacity to yield findings that are seemingly or more or The true experimental and quasi-experimental designs follow the
less true tone to bias caused by your purposive, rather than random same stages in research designing. Their difference lies only in the
selection of participants, quasi-experimental design is incapable of
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participant-selection process, In that the first is randomized; the second,

purposive. (Lapan 2012; Walliman 2014). The following are the types of non-experimental research
designs (Schreiber 2012; Letherby 2013; Creswell 2014):
1. Clear knowledge of the research objectives. That enable you
to decide not only on the kind of research you have to do, but also On 1. Descriptive - depicts an image or a picture of an individual or a group
the manner you have to follow in conducting the research. 2. Comparative -states the differences or similarities between or among
2. Formulation of hypotheses to state your guesses of what may people, things, objects, etc.
not be true (null hypotheses) or may be true (alternative hypotheses) 3. Correlative - shows the extent and direction of variable relationships,
about the results. that is, whether a negative or positive relationship exists between or
3. Method of testing your hypotheses or of examining their among them
validity like deciding whether you have to follow the experimental design
or the quasi experimental design, 4. Survey describes the attitudes, preferences, views, feelings, views
4. Choice of which instrument to use in collecting data; that is, and other behavioral patterns of a big number of people for arriving at a
whether to use interview, observation, or questionnaire certain conclusion about societal concerns and issues
5. Process of selecting the subjects to compose the control
group and the experimental group. 5. Ex Post Facto-translates itself into these English words, "that
6. Performance of experimentation that allows control of the which is done afterwards" and has the purpose of deriving data from
cropping up of extraneous variables and of the experimenter's bias. thing= that are by nature taking place, so as to obtain explanations
7. Collection and analysis of data. about pas events (Litchman 2013, p. 42)

LESSON 2: Quantitative Data Collection Techniques

Non-Experimental Research Design 1. Definition of Quantitative Data
Data are pieces of information or facts known by people on this
1. Definition world. Appearing measurable, numerical, and related to metric
Non-experimental design is a quantitative research design that is system, they are called quantitative data. These data result from
capable of giving qualitative and quantitative data, but more on sensory experience whose descriptive qualities such as, age,
qualitative data; hence, this is often used in the field of social shape speed, among weight ,height , number, positions, and the
sciences. Unlike the experimental design that allows manipulation like are measurable. Denoting quantity, these words, appear in
or control of some aspects of the research, non-experimental records in numerical forms that are either discrete
research design shuns controlling variables. Instead, it involves ( 1,2,3,4,5,6…) or continuum (amount of flour) However, these
variables the way they naturally exist on earth. quantitative data become useful only in so far they give answers
to your research questions. (Russell 2013;Creswell 2013).
2. Types
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Collecting data is one major component of any type of research.

Undermining its importance would result in the production of b. Survey
inaccurate data sufficient to render your research study invalid. Survey is a data-8athering technique that makes you obtain facts
Hence, in collecting quantitative data, stress is given to accuracy of information about the subject or object of your research through the
or appropriateness of your data-gathering technique as well as of data gathering instruments of interview and questionnaire. This is the
the right instrument to collect the data. The following are the most popular data-gathering technique in quantitative and qualitative
most used quantitative data-gathering techniques instruments for research studies tor the researchers are tree to use not just one survey
each technique (Matthews 2010, Badke 2012, Thomas 2013, instrument But also these two following data-gathering instruments.
Woodwell 2014) 1. Questionnaire
Questionnaire is a paper containing series of questions
2. Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data formulated for an individual and independent answering by
a. Observation several respondents to obtaining statistical information. Each
Using your sense organs, you gather facts or information about question offers a number of probable answers from which the
people things places, events, and so on, by watching and listening to respondents, on the basis their own judgment, will choose the
them, then, record the results of the functioning of your eyes and ears. best answer. Making up a questionnaire are factual and
Expressing these Sensory experiences to quantitative data, you record opinionated questions. Questions to elicit factual answers are
them with the use of numbers. For instance, watching patients lining up formulated in a multiple-choice type and those to ask about the
at a medical clinic instead of centerin8 your eyes on the looks of the respondents’ views, attitudes, preferences and other opinionated
people, you locus your attention on the number, weight, and height of answers are provided with sufficient space where the
every patient standing up at the door of the medical clinic. respondents could write their sentential answers to opinionated
As a researcher preoccupied with collecting quantitative data questions.
through observation, you begin to count the number of patients and get Responses yielded by this instrument are given their
the measurement of their height and weight. These numbers numerical forms (numbers, actions, percentages) and categories
representing the results of your counting and measurement are then and are subjected to statistical analysis. Questionnaire is good
jotted down in your record notebook. Seeing, touching, and hearing the for collecting data from a big number of respondents situated in
sources of data personally, you engage yourself in direct observation. It different places because all you have to do is ether to n and the
is an indirect observation, if you see and hear them, not through your paper to the respondents or to send it to them through postal or
own eyes and ears, but by means of technological and electronic electronic mail. However, ironically your act of sending the
gadgets like audiotapes, video records, and other recording devices questionnaires to respondents, especially to those in remote
used to capture earlier events, images, or sounds. areas, is susceptible to waste of money, time, and effort tor you
do not have any assurance or the return or all or a large number
of fully accomplished questionnaires.
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From the varied books on research are these tips on

2. Interview interview question formulation that you have to keep on mind to
Survey as a data-gathering technique likewise uses interview construct effective questions to elicit the desired data for your
as its instrument. Similar to a questionnaire, interview makes you research study:
ask a set of questions, only that, this time, you do it orally. Some, a. Use clear and simple language.
however say that with the advent of modern technology, oral b. Avoid using acronyms, abbreviations, jargons, and high
interview is already a traditional way of interviewing and the fatulin terms c.
modern ways happen through the use of modern electronic c. Let one question elicit only one answer, no double-barrel
devices such as mobile phones, telephones, smart phones, and question.
other wireless devices. d. d. Express your point in exact, specific bias-free, and
Order of Interview questions n asking interview questions, gender-free language.
you see to it that you do this sequentially; meaning questions e. Give way to how your respondents want themselves to
follow a certain order such as the following: (Sarantakos 2013; be identified.
Fraenbel 2012) f. Establish continuity or free flow of the respondents
First set of questions-opening questions to establish thoughts by using appropriate follow-up questions (e.g
friendly relationships, like questions about the place, the time the would you give an example of it? Would you mind
physical appearance of the participant, or other non-verbal things narrating what happened next?). g.
not for audio recording. g. Ask questions in a sequential manner; determine which
Second set of questions- generative to encourage open- should be your opening, middle, or closing questions.
ended questions like those that ask about the respondents’
inferences, views, or opinions about the interview topic.
Third set questions- directive questions or close-ended c. Experiment
questions to elicit specific answers like those that are An experiment is a scientific method of collecting data
answerable with yes or no, with one type of an object, or with whereby you give the subject a sort of treatment or condition
definite period of time and the like. then evaluate the results to find out the manner by which the
Fourth set of questions- ending questions that give the treatment affected the subjects and to discover the reasons
respondents the chance to air their satisfaction, wants likes, behind the effects of such treatment on the subjects. This
dislikes, reactions or comments about the interview. Included quantitative data-gathering technique aims at manipulating or
here are also statements to give the respondents come ideas or controlling conditions to show which condition or treatment
clues on your next move or activity about the results of the has effects on the subject and to determine how much
interview. condition or treatment operates or functions to yield a certain
Guidelines in Formulating Interview Questions outcome.
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The process of collecting data through experimentation Content analysis is another quantitative data-collection
involves selection of subjects or participants, pre-testing he technique that makes you search through several written
subjects prior to the application of any treatment or condition, forms of communication to find answers to your research
and giving the subjects post-test to determine the effects of questions. Used in quantitative and qualitative research
the treatment on them. These components of experiment studies, this data-collection method is not only for examining
operate in various Ways. Consider the following combination printed materials but also for analyzing information coming
mixture of the components that some research studies adopt: from nun book materials like photographs, films, video tapes,
paintings, drawings, and the like. Here, you focus your study
a. Treatments –evaluation on a single subject or on two entities to determine their
b. Pre-test-Treatment- Post –Test comparative features. Any content analysis you want to do is
c. Pre-test- Multiple Treatments- Post test preceded by your thorough understanding of your research
d. Pre-test- Treatment- Immediate Post-test – 6 mos.-Post- questions because these are the questions to guide you in
test-1 yr. Post-test determining which aspect of the content of the
communication should you focus on to find the answer to the
These three words: treatment, intervention, and main problem of your research.
condition, mean the same thing in relation to 3. Measurement Scales for Quantitative Data
experimentation, mean the things given or applied to the In quantitative research, measurements of data expressed in
subjects to yield certain effects or changes on the said numerical forms form in scale or one that consists series of graduated
subjects. For instance, in finding out the extent of the quantities, values, degrees, numbers, and so on. Thinking about the
communicative competence of the subjects, put these type and scale of measurement that you have to use in your quantitative
participants in a learning condition where they will research is important because your measurement choices tell you the
perform varied communicative activities such as type of statistical analysis to use may result in your erroneous
dramatizing a story, round-table discussions, interviewing examination of the data.
people table- topic conversation, and the like. There are two categories of scales of measurements: qualitative
Dealing with or testing their communicative scales of measurements and quantitative scale of measurements. Under
abilities in two or more modes of communication is giving quantitative scales of measurements are these two: the nominal scale
them multiple treatments. The basic elements of to show the classification of thing based on a certain criterion such as
experiment which are subjects, pre-test, treatment, and gender, origin , brand etc., and the ordinal scale to indicate the rank or
post-test do not operate only for examining casual hierarchical order of things. The quantitative scales of measurements
relationships but also for discovering, verifying and are the interval scale for showing equal differences or interval between
illustrating theories, hypotheses, or facts. (Edmonds points on the scale in an arbitrary manner (showing differences in
2013, Morgan 2014, Picardie 2014) attitudes, inclinations, feelings, ideas, fears, opinions, etc.) and the ratio
d. Content Analysis scale. However, these two quantitative scales of measurements are not
 8

exactly the same, in that, the latter gives value to zero, while the former d. Ratio Scale- rating something from zero to a certain point.
does not give any value to zero for the value depends solely on the Example:
respondent.(Schreiber 2001, Letherby 2013). Performance in Math subject- a grade 89 (from 0-100%)
Examples:

a. Nominal Scale- categorizing people based on gender,

religion, position, etc.

Example: religion-catholic, Buddhist, Protestant, Muslim

Gender- female, male Evaluation Activities:
Position- CEO, vice-president, director, manger, Directions: Answer each question intelligently and concisely.
assistant manger Minimum of five sentences.
Summing up the points per variable, you will arrive at a 1. What should you be thinking of before and designing your
certain total that you can express in terms of percentage, research?
fractions, or decimals like 30%of males, 25% of females,
10% of Catholics, 40% Buddhists, and so forth. 2. How do you know that one is applying a quantitative research
design?
b. Ordinal Scale- ranking or arranging the classified variables
to determine who should be the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, in the 3. What do you mean by experimental and control group?
group.

c. Interval Scale- Showing equal intervals or differences of References:

people attitudes like this one example of a scale called Book:
Likert Attitude Scale. Baraceros, Esther L. (2016). Practical Research 2. 1st ed.
Manila: Rex Book Store.
Example:

Reading is important

_____ _____ ______ _____ ______

Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
Agree Disagree
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10. Familiarize themselves with bivariate statistical methods;

11. Compare and contrast the kinds of test to measure
correlation or co-variation.

Learning Activities:
Directions: Arrange the following juggled words.
CHAPTER 5
FINDING ANSWERS DATA COLECTION 1. BAAATNULIO
You want to satisfy your curiosity about a certain subject matter. 2. DNIAEM
The only way to do this is to link yourself with people, things, and other 3. TSNARDDA EVIANIDOT
elements in your surroundings because, by nature, research involves 4. LACTRNE DCYENTEN
interdependence or interactions among people and things on earth. The 5. AENM
answers to your investigative acts about the topic you are interested in 6. SLEMAP ZESI
come from people you get communicate with and from things you 7. AUQAT APMSGNIL
subject to observations. Research is act of gathering opinions, facts, 8. AATTICLSST EMDHOT
and information to prove your point or to discover truths about research 9. ORPABIBILYT
problem or topic. 10. PMLAES
Objectives:
After this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Trace the stages of quantitative data-analysis x
2. Differentiate the quantitative data-analysis techniques; LESSON 1: Quantitative data analysis
3. Organize data in a tabular manner. 1. Basic concept
4. Use a graph to show frequency and percentages distribution Quantitative data analysis is time consuming because it involves
5. Calculate the measure of central tendency; and series of examinations, classifications, mathematical
6. calculations, and graphical recording, among other. Hence, a
7. Justify the relevance of statistics to research; through and advance planning is needed for this major aspect of
8. Differentiate descriptive statistics from inferential statistics; your study. However , all these varied analytical studies that you
9. Explain the methods of bivariate-data analysis. pour into your research become significant only if prior to
 10

finalizing your mind about these activities, you have already variable, give the value of 2 for elementary; 4 for high
identified the measurement level of scale of your quantitative school, 6 for college, 9 tor MA, and 12 for PhD level. By
data; that is, whether your study measures the data through a coding each item with a certain number in a data set, you
ratio or interval scale, not by means of nominal or ordinal scale are able to add the points or values of the respondent’s
because these last two levels or measurement are for qualitative answer to a particular interview question or questionnaire
data analysis. It is important for you to know what scale of item.
measurement to use, for kind of quantitative analysis you will do
depends on your measurement scale.(De Mey 2013; Russel 2. Data Tabulation
2013) For easy classification and distribution of numbers
2. Steps in quantitative data analysis based on a certain criterion, you have to collate
I. Preparing the data them with the help of a graph called Table. Used
Having identified the measurement scale or level of your data for frequency and percentage distribution, this
means are now ready to analyze the data in this manner kind of graph is an excellent data organizer that
(Badke 2012; Letherby 2013, Mc Bride 2013): researchers find indispensable. Here’s an
example of tabulated data:
Step 1: Preparing the Data Keep in mind that no data Total sample: 24
organization means no sound data analysis. Hence, prepare
the data for analysis by first doing these two preparatory sub Gender Male:11 (46%)
steps: Female: 13 (54%)
Course Fine Art: 9 (37%)
1. Coding System Architecture: 6 (25%)
To analyze data means to quantity or change the Journalism: 4 (17%)
verbally expressed data into numerical information. Com. Arts: 5 (20%)
Converting the words, images, or pictures into numbers, School FEU: 3 (12%)
MLQU: 4 (17%)
they become fit for any analytical procedures requiring
PLM: 3 (12%)
knowledge of arithmetic and mathematical computations.
PUP: 5 (20%)
But it is not possible for you to do the mathematical TIP: 4 (17%)
operations of division, multiplication, or subtraction in the UE: 5 (20%)
word level, unless you code the verbal responses and Attended in 2016 Summer Yes: 18 (75%)
observation categories. Arts Seminar-Workshop No: 6 (25%)
For instance, as regards gender variable, give Role in the 2016 Seminar- Speaker: 4 (17%)
number 1 as the code or value for Male and number 2 for Workshop on Arts Organizer: 3 (12%)
Female. As to educational attainment as another Demonstrator: 5 (20%)
 11

Participant: 12 (50%) the following aspects of an item in a set of data

Satisfaction with the Strong agree: 11(46%) (Morgan 2014; Punch 2014, Walsh 2010):
demonstration and practice Agree: 5 (20%)  Frequency Distribution- give you the
exercises Neutral: 2 (8%) frequency of distribution and percentage of the
Disagree: 4 (14%) occurrence of an item asset of data. In other
Strongly disagree: 2 (8%) words, it gives you the number of responses
given repeatedly for one question.

II. Analyzing the data

Data coding and tabulation are the two important things
you have to do in preparing the data tor analysis. Before Example:
immersing yourself into studying every component of the data, Question: By and large, do you find the Senator’s
decide on the kind of quantitative analysis you nave use attendance in 2015 legislative awful?
whether to use simple descriptive statistical techniques or Measuremen Code Frequency Percent
advanced analytical methods. The first one that college t Scale Distribution Distribution
students often use tells some aspects of categories of data Strongly 1 14 58%
such as: frequency of distribution, measure of central Agree
tendency (mean, median and mode), and standard deviation. Agree 2 3 12%
However, this does not give information about population from Neutral 3 2 8%
where the sample came. The second one, on the other hand, Disagree 4 1 4%
fits graduate level research studies because this involve Strongly 5 4 17%
complex statistical analysis requiring a good foundation and Disagree
thorough knowledge about statistics. The following
paragraphs give further explanation about the two quantitative  Measure of Central Tendency- indicates the
data-analysis techniques. (De Mey 2013; Litchtman 2013: different positions or values of the items, such
Picardie 2014) that in a category of data, you find an item or
items serving as the:
A. Descriptive statistical technique a. Mean- average of all the items or scores
This quantitative data-analysis technique provides a Example: 3+8+9+2+3+10+3= 38
summary of the orderly or sequential data obtained 38/7=5.43 (mean)
from the sample through the data-gathering
instrument used. The results of the analysis reveal
 12

b. Median- the score in the middle of the set Step 5. Divide the sum of square by the number of data item to
of items that cuts or divides the set into get the variance.
two groups.
Example: Step 6. Compute the square root of variance figure to get
The numbers in the example for the Mean standard deviation.
has 2 as the Median

c. Mode- refers to the item or score in the

data set that has the most repeated
appearance in the set.
Example:
Again, in the given example above for the
Mean, 3 is the Mode. Example:
Standard Deviation of the category of data collected
 Standard Deviation – shows the extent of the difference from selected faculty members of one university.
of the data from the mean. An examination of this gap (Step 1) Mean: 7
between the mean and the data gives you an idea about (Step 2) (Step3)
the extent of the similarities and difference between the Data Item Deviation Square of
respondents. There are mathematical operations that you 1 -8 Deviation
have to do to determine the standard deviation. Here they 2 -5 68
6 -1 25
are:
1
Step 1: Compute the mean.
6 -1 1
8 +8 1
Step 2: Compute the deviation (difference) between each 6 -1 1
respondent’s answer (data item) and the mean. The plus sign (+) 6 -1 1
appears before the number if the difference is higher; negative 14 +7 49
sign (-), if the difference is lower. 16 +9 81
Total 321
Step 3. Compute the square of each deviation. (Step 4) Sum of Squares: 321
(Step 5) Variance: = 36 (321/9)
Step 4. Compute the sum squares by adding the squared (Step 6) Standard -6 (square root of
figures. Deviation 6)
 13

relationship between two variables, it

B. Advanced Quantitative Analytical Method determines whether a variable is capable
 An analysis of quantitative data that involves of predicting the strength of the relation
the use of more complex statistical methods between the treatment (independent
needing computer software like the SPSS, variable) and the outcome (dependent
STATA, or MINITAB, among others, occurs variable). Just like correlation, regression
among graduate-level students their MA or is incapable of establishing cause-effect
PHD degrees. Some of the advanced relationships.
methods of quantitative data analysis are the
following (Argyrous 2011; Levin & Fox 2014; Example:
Godwin2014); If reviewing with music (treatment
a. Correlation-uses statistical analysis to variable) is a statistically significant
yield results that describe the relationship predictor of the extent of the concept
of two variables. The results, however, are learning (outcome variable) of a person.
incapable of establishing causal
relationships.
b. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)- the LESSON 2: STATISTICAL METHODS
results of this statistical analysis are sued 1. Basic Concept
to determine if the difference in the means What is statistics? Statistics is a term that pertains to your acts of
or averages of two categories data area collecting and analyzing numerical data. Doing statistics then means
statistically significant. performing some arithmetic procedures like addition, division,
subtraction, multiplication, and other mathematic calculations. Statistics
Example: demands much of your time and effort, tor it is not merely matter of
If mean of the grades of a students collecting and examining data, but involves analysis, planning,
attending tutorial lessons is significant interpreting and organizing data in relation to the design of the
different from the mean of the grades of a experimental method you chose Statistical methods then are ways of
student not attending tutorial lessons. gathering, analyzing, and interpreting variable or fluctuating numerical
data.
c. Regression- has some similarities with 2. Methodologies
correlation, in that, it also show the nature a. Descriptive Strategies
of relationship of variables, but gives more This describes a certain aspect of a data set by making you
extensive result than that of correlation. calculate the Mean, Medium, Mode and Standard Deviation. It tells
Aside from indicating the presence of about the placement position of one data item in relation to the data, the
 14

extent of the distribution or spreading out of data, and whether they are Bivariate analysis happens by means of the following methods
correlations of on to the other data, the extent of the regressions (Argyrous 2011; Dabbie 2013; Punch 2014):
between or among variables. This kind of statistics does not tell anything 1. Correlation or Covariation (correlated variation)- describes
about the population. the relationship between two variables and also tests the
b. Inferential Statistics strength or significance of their linear relation. 1his is a
This statistical method is not as simple as the descriptive statistics I his relationship that makes both variables getting the same high
does not focus itself only on the features of the category of set, but on score or one getting a higher score and the other one, a lower
the characteristics of the sample that are also true for the population score.
from were you have drawn the sample. Your analysis begins with the Covariance is the statistical term to measure the extent of the
sample then, based on your findings about the sample, you make change in the relationship of two random variables. Random
inferences or assumptions about the population. Since the sample variables a values like those ones in the interval level or scale
serves as the basis of your conclusions or generalizations about the (strong neutral, agree, strongly agree) whose values depend on
population, it is a must you use random sampling to guarantee the subjectivity of the respondent.
representativeness of the sample: meaning, to make sure that the 2. Cross Tabulation- is also called" crosstab or students-
sample truly represents the population in general. contingency table that to one type of graph follows the format
Inferential statistics is a branch of statistics that focuses on of a matrix (plural: matrices) that is made up of lines of
conclusions, generalizations, predictions, interpretations, hypotheses, numbers, symbols, other expressions. Similar to one type of
and the like. There are a lot of hypotheses testing in this method of graph called table, matrix arranges data in rows and columns.
statistics that require you to perform complex and advanced By displaying frequency and percentage distribution of data, a
mathematical operations. This is one reason inferential statistics is not crosstab explains the reason behind the relationship of two
as popular as the descriptive statistics in the college level where very variables and the effect of one variable on the other variable.
few have solid foundation of statistics. (Argyrous 2011; Russell 2013; If the Table compares data on only two variables, such table
Levin &t Fox 2014)
is called Bivariate Table.
Example of Bivariate Table:
3. Types of Statistical Data Analysis
HEI Participants in the 2016 NUSP Conference
Types of statistical analysis of variables in a quantitative research are as
HEI MALE FEMALE Row Total
follows:
CEU 83 101 184
a. Univariate Analysis - analysis of one variable
(10.2%) (12.2%)
b. Bivariate Analysis- analysis of two variables (independent
FEU 69 93 162
and dependent variables) (8.5%) (11.3%)
c. Multivariate Analysis -analysis of multiple relations between JRO 102 120 22
multiple variables (12.6%) (14.5%)
4. Statistical Methods of Bivariate Analysis
 15

La Salle 79 99 178  Chi-square - is the statistical test for bivariate analysis

(9.7%) (12%) variables, specifically, to test the null hypothesis. It test whether or
MLQ 81 79 159 not relationship exist between or among variables and tells the
(10%) (9.5%) probability that the relationship is caused by chance. This cannot
NU 61 58 119 in any way show extent of the association between two variables.
(7.5%) (7%)  T-test – evaluates the probability that the mean of the
OUP 59 48 107 sample reflects the mean of the population from where the sample
(7.2%) (5.8%) was drawn. It also tests the difference between two means: the
UP 120 98 218 sample mean and the population mean. ANOVA or analysis of
(14.8%) (11.9%)
variance also uses t-test to determine the variance or the
UST 152 127 279
difference between the predicted number of the sample and the
(18.7%) (15.4%)
Column 806 823 1,629 actual measurement. The ANOVA IS of various types such as the
Total (100%) (100%) following:
a. One-way analysis of variance - study of the effects
5. Measure of Correlation of the independent variable.
The following are the statistical test to measure correlation or
covariation: b. ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariation) -study of two of
1. Correlation Coefficient dependent variables that are correlated with one
This is a measure of the strength and direction of the linear another.
relationship between variables and likewise gives the extent of
dependence between two variables; meaning, the effect of one c. MANCOVA (Multiple Analysis of Covariation)-
variable on the other variable A the following statistical tests for multiple analysis or one or more independent
Correlation Coefficient 8yrous 2017 Creswell 2014; Levin &e Fox variables and one dependent variables to see if the
2019) independent variables affect one another
 Spearman’s rho (Spearman’ r,or r)- the test to measure
the dependence of the dependent variable on the independent
variable. 2. Regression
 Pearson product-moment correlation (Pearson’s Similar to correlation, regression determines the
r,r,or R) – measures the strength and direction of the linear existence of vat relationship, but does more than this by the
relationship of two variables and two variables and of the following: (1) which between the independent and dependent
association between interval and ordinal variables. variable can signal the presence of another variable; (2) how
strong the relationship between variables are; and (3) when an
 16

independent variable is statistically significant as a soothsayer sample selection procedure has scientific value. (Emmel 201; Lapan
or predictor. 2013).
Each of these statistical tests has its own formula that,
with your background knowledge about statistics, you may be 2. Factors Affecting Sample Selection
able to follow However, without solid foundation about statistics, In choosing your respondents, you do not just listen to the dictates of
to be able to apply them to your research, you need to read your own mind but also to other factors such as the following (Babbie,
further about statistics or hire the services of a statistician. 2013; Edward 2013;Tuckman & Engel 2012).
Think of forking out hundreds of dollars or thousands of a. Sample Size
pesos for a search study in the graduate or MA/PhD level, not for  How big should the sample be? Some research base
one in the collegiate level. It is in your bachelor degree level their decision on their own experience and on research
where the world expects show your prowess in conducting a studies they have already read. But the best way to guide
research that uses simple d statistical techniques. you in determining the right sample size is the
To attain mastery in the use of descriptive statistics is to representative of the sample with respect to the
prepare for another kind of research work that uses inferential population. See to it that the sample truly represents the
statistics, a statistical method requiring through knowledge and entire population from where the sample came.
full mastery of the formulate underlying advanced statistical The representative or accuracy of a sample size to
methods to guarantee the validity, credibility, and prestige of determine. However, using the right sampling technique
your research findings. such as a randomized one, your chances of getting a
LESSON 3: SAMPLING PROCEDURE sample reflecting 95% distribution of the population or
1. Basic Concept sample representing the whole population is highly
Sampling means choosing from a large population the probable. This acceptable level probability of the
respondents or subjects to answer your research questions. The entire representativeness of the sample is called confidence
population is involved but for you research study, you choose only a part level or .05 level. This theory of probability is true only for
of the whole. randomly selected respondents, not for any non-
The word population is a technical term in research which means probability type o sampling.
a big group of people from where you choose the sample or the chosen b. Sampling Technique
set of people to represent the population. Sampling frame. On the other  Sampling techniques fall under two categories: probability
hand, is the list of the members of the population to which you want to sampling and non- probability sampling. The first one
generalize or apply your findings about the sample, and sampling unit is uses a random selection; the second, a purposive or
the term referring to every individual in the population. The sampling, as controlled selection. Probability sampling that gives all
well as the research results, is expected to speak about the entire population members equal opportunity to be chosen as
population. Unless this does not refer to the population, in general, the people to constitute the sample is a precise way of
sampling. Based on pure chance, it is unbiased or an
 17

accurate manner of selecting the right people to The sampling methods are of two groups which are as follows
represent the population (Tuckman 2014 Emmel 2013; De Vaus 2013; Picardie 2014)
Bias is the leading factor in choosing your respondents. a. Probability Sampling
This is one of the causes of sampling errors. The other This is a sampling method that makes you base your selection of
errors in sampling are attributed to your procedure in respondents on pure chance. In this case, everybody in the population
sampling. participates. All are given equal opportunity that is capable of reflecting
c. Heterogeneity of Population the characteristics of the whole population from where such sample was
 Heterogeneous population is compose of individuals with drawn. The following are the different probability sampling techniques:
varied abilities. There is a wide variation among the a. Simple-random-sampling-choosing of respondents based on
people composing the population. If it is a homogenous pure chance.
population where lots of uniformity abilities exist among b. Systematic sampling-picking out from the list every 5th or
population members, a sample of one will do a every 8th member listed in the sampling frame until the completion of
heterogeneous group, a sampling technique that will the desired total number of respondents
widely spread the choosing of a large sample among all c. Stratified sampling-choosing a sample that will later on be
members of the population is necessary. subdivided into strata, sub-groups, or sub-samples during the stage of
d. Statistical Techniques the data analysis
 The accuracy of the sample depends also on how precise d. Cluster sampling-selecting respondents in clusters, rather
or accurate your methods are in calculating the numbers than in separate individuals such as choosin8 classes of 40 students
used in measuring the chosen samples or in giving a each from a Whole population of 5,000 students.
certain value to each of them. Any error in your use of Ensuring a bias-tree selection of subjects, these probability
any statistical method or computing numbers sampling techniques are considered by many as more capable than the
representing the selected subject will turn in unfounded non-probability sampling techniques in coming out with the accurate or
results. exact samples to give pieces of information about the population as a
e. Time and Cost whole.
 Choosing samples makes you deal with one big whole
population, with each member of this large group needing a. Non-probability Sampling
your attention, time effort, let alone the amount of money The sampling techniques included in this category are not chosen
you will fork out for the materials you will need in making randomly, but purposefully. Not randomized, they are susceptible to
the sampling frame. Hence, considering all these things bias. Unlike the probability sampling techniques that exclude the
your sample selection makes you spend some of your researcher's judgment, the non-probability sampling techniques
time deliberating or mulling over several factors affecting succumb to the control, likes, or wishes of the researcher and to
or influencing your sample selection. restrictions imposed by the researcher on the sampling procedure. The
3. Sampling Methods following are the non-probability sampling
 18

2. Divide the sample into sub-sets or sub-samples, with the

a. Quota sampling- choosing specific samples that you know sub-samples having the same aggregate number as that of
correspond to the population in terms of one, two, or more the sample they came from.
characteristics 3. Select the appropriate sub-sample randomly from each sub-
b. Voluntary sampling-selecting people who are very much willing group or stratum.
to participate as respondents in the research project. 4. Put together the subsample results to get the total number of
c. Purposive sampling- choosing respondents whom you have the overall sample.
judged as people with good background knowledge or with great
enthusiasm about the research.
d. Availability sampling- picking out people who are easy to find
or locate and willing to establish contact with you.
e. Snowball sampling- selecting samples from several alternative
sample like drug dependents, human traffickers, street children,
and other wayward and homeless people whose dwelling places
are not easily located for they are like nomads moving from
place to place.

Random Sampling vis-à-vis Statistical Methods

The most preferred sampling techniques in qualitative or Advantages and Disadvantages of Five Basic Sampling
quantitative research is random sampling. However, this kind of Techniques
probability sampling requires the use of statistical method in Sampling Advantages Disadvantages
measuring the sample. Three probability sampling techniques: Techniques
simple random, stratified and systematic depend greatly on Random The most Unavailable list
statistical for sample accuracy. The use of statistic does not only Sampling accurate of the entire
prevent you from favoring any side of a thing or situation theoretically; population
involved in the research but also proves the accuracy of influenced only sometimes or
sampling through the use of statistical methods in stratified by chance prevention of
random sampling
sampling is your adherence to the following steps of this
by practical
unbiased sampling technique (Suter 2012; Emmel 2013; Corti
considerations
2014); Stratified Assures a large Can be biased if
1. Decide on the size of the sample.
 19

Sampling sample to strata are given

subdivide on false weight,
important unless the
variables; needed weighting
when population procedure is
is too large to list; used from over all
can be combined analysis
with other Interview vs.
techniques Questionnaire
Systematic Similar to random Sometimes
Sampling sampling; often permits bias
easier than
random sampling
Cluster Easy to collect Prone to bias
data on the when the number
subject is small
Quota Sampling Available when Presence of bias
random sampling not controlled by
is impossible; the quota system Direct observation
quick to do vs. Mediated
observation

Evaluation Activities:
Directions: Using the table below, compare and
contrast each pair of expressions.
Pair of Comparison Contrast
Pre-test vs. Post-
Expressions
test
Quantitative data
vs. Qualitative
data
 20

sources of knowledge responsible for making the entire research study

reputable, genuine, and credible basis for effecting positive changes in
Interval scale vs. this world.
Ration Objectives:
After this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Compare and contrast research writing and report writing;
2. Apply the guidelines on research –report writing;
3. Become familiar with the language of academic writing;
4. Point out the similarities and differences between APA and MLA
style;
5. Familiarize with standard research-writing format;
6. Acquire awareness of the mechanics of research-report writing;
and
7. Critique the structural organization of a sample research-report
References: component.

Book:
Baraceros, Esther L. (2016). Practical Research 2. 1st ed. Learning Activities:
Manila: Rex Book Store. Directions: Essay. Minimum of five sentences.
1. What is the importance of Research in your
studies?

CHAPTER 6
REPORT AND SHARING FINDINGS LESSON 1: Research- report writing
A. Basic concept
Overview:
 The first things you do in research are: mulling over a research
Research adheres to a certain manner of making public its
problem that will lead you to the final topic of your research,
findings. It is incapable of convincing any readers of the genuineness of
obtaining background knowledge about your topic by reviewing
the research report, unless it follows the academically and
related literature, formulating research questions, collecting and
professionally, accepted standards of writing the report in terms of its
analyzing data, drawing conclusions, and making
language, structure or format, and acknowledgment or recognition of the
recommendations. Going through all these research stages
 21

make you perform all levels of thinking especially the HOTS or your own the researcher, about these known facts. Report
higher-order thinking strategies of interpretative, critical, writing, too, presents facts and opinions or others, however, it
interactive, and creative thinking. does not claim that these opinions originally come from the writer
 Moving on after all these cognitive-driven research activities, for the reason that some reading materials like books, Journals,
you reach the final stage of your research study which is the magazines and others reading materials have already published
presentation of your research output. This is the time when you these facts and opinions. This is where the main difference
have to think of how to give a formal account of what and how between the two lies.
you discovered something about your research topic. Central to  The research paper gives you what other people think of a
this last stage of your research study is sharing information or certain topic addition to what you, the researcher, think about
making known to people the results of your several-month this topic, while report just presents facts and information about a
inquiry of a certain topic. However, it is not telling the readers of subject matter without adding something new to the existing
how you found out truths in any way you want. Your study is an body of facts and opinions. Further, a genuine research paper a
academic work that has to abide by some rules or standards in not only at shed a new light on a subject by finding new facts and
research-report writing. opinions, but also aims saying something original by re-
 You learned that there are different kinds of writing; technical evaluating or using these known facts and opinions (Litchman
writing, expository, writing, fictional writing, and academic 2013; Babbie 2013; Punch 2014)
writing, among others. Research-report writing is an academic C. Guidelines in research-report writing
writing , in that , its focus is on reporting or telling about the your  Now, you know that research-report writing is not plain writing of
opinions, but doing this in a controlled way; that is, you have to a report where you just present facts and opinions of other
follow socially determined and discipline-specific rules in terms people that you got from varied reading materials. It is a special
of language, structure, and forma or style. Governed by several kind of writing that communicates not only declarative knowledge
writing rules and standards, research-report writing is the most or discovered ideas, but also procedural knowledge or the
challenging and demanding kind of writing among learners in processes you did in discovering ideas. Hence, to make your
higher education institutions m terms of language, structure, and research report communicate all these forms of knowledge to
format or among learners in higher education. (Russell 2013; readers, you need to apply the following 8uidelines in research-
Corti 2014; Punch 2014) report writing.
1. Organize the parts of your research report based on the
B. Research writing vs. Report writing standard research- report structure that consists of the following
 How would you compare and contrast research writing and sequential components:
report writing? Both depend on various sources of data or
a. Title. This part of your research paper gives information and
information, but they differ from each other as to what kind of
descriptions of the things focused on by your research study.
data they present. Research writing presents facts and opinions
of other people about a particular subject matter. It also includes
 22

b. Abstract. Using only 100 to 150 words, the abstract of a research 2. Familiarize yourself with the language of academic writing.
paper- presents a summary of the research that makes clear the
Research-report writing is an academic writing and central to this kind
background objectives, significance, methodologies, results, and
of writing is the expression of ideas, viewpoints, or positions on issues
conclusion is of the research study.
obtained through learned or trained methods of producing sound
c. Introduction. Given a stress in this section or the paper are the evidence to support your claims conclusions about something. Geared
research problem and its background, objectives, research question and toward bringing out what are generally true valid, and acceptable, the
hypotheses. lan8uage of research-report writing uses rich-information vocabulary
and adopts an objective, formal, or impersonal tone or register.
d. Methodology. This part of the research paper explains the
procedure in collecting and analyzing data and also describes the Here are some ways to maintain an objective and an impersonal
source of data. tone in academe texts such as your report about your research study:
e. Results or Findings: There’s no more mentioning of analysis of data a. Dominantly use passive voice than active voice sentences.
or not yet analyzed data n this section. What it does is to research b. Use the third-person point of view by using words like his or
findings that are expressed through graphics, statistics, or iee words. her they or the user, instead of the personalized first-person
point of view We, Me, Our, etc.
f. Conclusions. This section explains things that will lead you to
c. De-emphasize the subject or personal nature of the
significant points, insights, or understanding, or conclusions that derive
academic text by avoiding the use words like dissatisfied,
their validity, credibility or acceptability from the factual, evidence
uninteresting, or undignified.
gathered during the data-collection stage. Stated here, too, is the
d. Use modality (words indicating the degree of the
significance of the results; that is, whether or not these are the right
appropriateness, effectiveness, or applicability of something)
answer to the research questions or the means of hypotheses
to express opinionated statements that are prone to various
acceptance or rejection. Your assessment of the data in relation to the
degrees or levels of certainty. For instance, use low modality
findings or previous research studies is also given a space in this
when you think your opponents have strong chances to
section of the research paper.
present their valid reasons against your argument, or high
h. References. It is in this part where you display the identities or modality, when you are sure you have sufficient basis to
names o all writers or owners or ideas that you incorporated in your prove your point.
research paper.
High modality expressions like could, should, must, definitely,
i. Appendices. Included in this section are copies of materials like absolutely, surely necessarily and essentially are usually used for
questionnaires, graphs, and letters, among others that you used in all recommending solutions to problems or for specifying reasons for some
stages off your academic work, and are, then, part and parcel of your actions.
research study.
 23

1. Physical Appearance. Use white bond paper having the size of the fields of Science, Psychology, Business, Economics,
8 ½ x 11 in. left-right margin, plus 1 in. top-bottom margin. Political Science, Anthropology, Engineering, and Law go tor
Unless your teacher instructs you to use a particular font style APA; to subjectivity, Humanities (Religion, Literature, and
and size, use the standard Times Roman, 12 pts. Language) go tor MLA.

2. Quotations. A one-line, double-spaced quotation is in quotation Evaluation Activities:

marks; Single-spaced quotations are indented further from the DIRECTIONS: Without going back to the text,
margin to appear as block quotation. compare and contrast each given pair of expressions.
Research vs.
Reporting
3. Footnotes. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page and are
numbered consecutively stating with number one (1) in each
chapter. Statistics and Graphs. Use tables, charts, bar graphs,
line charts pictograms, flowcharts, schematic diagrams, etc. in
connection with the objectives of the study.

4. Final Draft. Subject the final form of the research report to

editing revising, rewriting, and proofreading
Author-date system
5. Index. Alphabetize these two types of index: subject index and vs. Humanities
author index. system

D. Research-report writing styles or format

Depending on the requirements of your teacher or the

area of your discipline, adopt any of the following research-
report writing styles or format:
1. APA (American Psychological Association)
2. MLA (Modern Language Association)
3. CMS (Chicago Manual of Style)
One-line quotation
The first two styles-APA and MLA-are the most vs. Five-line
commonly used styles or format. Prone to objectivity, those in
 24

quotation

References:

Conclusion vs. Book:

Recommendation Baraceros, Esther L. (2016). Practical Research 2. 1st ed.
Manila: Rex Book Store.

Abstract vs.
Introduction

Academic language
vs. Literary
language