Chapter I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Hundreds of different diseases exist. Each has its own

particular set of symptoms and signs, clues that enable a

physician to diagnose the problem. A symptom is something a

patient can detect, such as fever, bleeding or pain. A sign

is something a doctor can detect, such as a swollen blood

vessel or an enlarged internal body organ.

Diseases are passed among humans by some carriers and

there are many carriers of diseases around us and one of

those is houseflies.

House flies or Musca domestica are such a common insect

that it is considered part of everyday life for humans. Most

of us see it as just an irritation, buzzing around and

trying to feed on any food it can access within the home but

flies can also transmit diseases. In fact many common

infections are transmitted by house flies. Some diseases are

very serious and even potentially deadly. Although it can

never be eradicated entirely, reducing fly populations and

 2

limiting its contact with food in particular is an important

part of hygiene.1

House flies are not the neatest of insects. They visit

such places as dumps, sewers, and garbage heaps. They feed

on fecal matter, discharges from wounds and sores, sputum,

and all sorts of moist decaying matter such as spoiled fish,

eggs and meat.2

House flies have been documented to transmit several

pathogens on their body.  House flies are more a threat to

the general public due their pathogen transmission and

nuisance.  House flies cause little to no harm to livestock,

even in large numbers.  They are a nuisance and aggravating

to livestock but generally do not have ill effects.3

House flies carry diseases on their legs and the small

hairs that cover their bodies. It takes only a matter of

seconds for them to transfer these pathogens to food or

touched surfaces. Mature house flies also use saliva to

liquefy solid food before feeding on it. During this

process, they transfer the pathogens first collected by

1
Cris, (2018) “House Fly Diseases, Types, Spread and Prevention” retrieved June 21,2018 from
https://www.healthhype.com/house-fly-diseases-types-spread-and-prevention.html
2
Jacobs, S., (2013) “House Flies” retrieved June 21,2018 from
https://ento.psu.edu/extension/factsheets/house-flies
3
Swiger, S., (2018) “Livestock Veterinary Entomology” retrieved June 21,2018 from
https://livestockvetento.tamu.edu/insectspests/house-fly/
 3

landing on offal. Diseases carried by house flies include

typhoid, cholera and dysentery. Other diseases carried by

house flies include salmonella, anthrax and tuberculosis.

House flies have also been known to transmit the eggs of

parasitic worms.4

Extensive measures to control fly populations does not

seem like a concern for the average urban dweller in a

developed nation. However, it is important to do so even

though strong insecticides for mass spraying, dumping toxic

materials in potential breeding sites and widespread

distribution of fly traps are not usually necessary.5

Pest control uses various techniques to eliminate

populations of specific pests to increase productivity of

crops.

Pesticide use is very common, but few realize how

dangerous the chemicals in them actually are. The government

allows liberal use of pesticides without regard for the

consequences. The researchers believed that pesticides

should be banned because they don't work, they're bad for

the environment, and they can be harmful to humans.Research

4
Orkin, (2018) “House Flies and Disease” retrieved June 21,2018 from
https://www.orkin.com/flies/house-fly/house-fly-and-disease/
5
Cris, (2018) “House Fly Diseases, Types, Spread and Prevention” retrieved June 21,2018 from
https://www.healthhype.com/house-fly-diseases-types-spread-and-prevention.html
 4

shows that pesticides don't work very well. Even though

pesticide use has increased almost tenfold in the past 50

years, crop yields have not. Actually, crops lost due to

insects have nearly doubled. It's clear that even though

pesticides aren't doing what they're designed to do.

It is very important to understand how to deal with

pesticides mechanism and study its harmful side effects and

very necessary to pests targeted system function. It is also

helpful to understand how animal and humans systems roles or

functions to see the similarities and differences between

humans and pests to have better control. Another reason it

is important to understand the mode of actions of the

pesticides we use is to avert the development of pesticide

ability and the aim that pests try to achieve. The

pesticides with the same mode of achievement action provide

to this problem by killing the easily affected pests and

leaving only those with conflict to the entire category of

pesticides that work through identical mechanisms. Growth of

pest conflict can be avoid or deferred by turning pest

chemical rule that effort throughout dissimilar mode of

achievement Insecticides and miticides in general target

the nervous system, expansion and improvement, or energy

production of the pest. Pesticides can also cause danger to

 5

workforce for the period of production, transportation, or

at some stage in and after use. Bystander may also be

affected at time, for example walker using public and civil

rights of way on nearby land or families whose homes are

close by harvest spraying actions. One of the most important

hazards of pesticide use is to farm workers and gardeners. A

recent advanced study by the Harvard School of Public Health

discovered a 70% raise in the risk of developing Parkinson's

infection for people expose to constant small level of

pesticides.6

Biological control of pests is now widely known.

Biological control is safer than chemicals. There are three

types of biological control but the researchers want to

discuss the biological control using resources of natural

origins and pheromones (biochemicals).

For a long time, plants have been an important source

of natural product for human health. The antibacterial

properties of plants have been investigated by a number of

studies worldwide and many of them have been used as

therapeutic alternatives because of their antimicrobial

properties. Plants have many antibacterial properties as

6
Essays, UK. (2013) “What Are The Negative Effects Of Pesticides Environmental Sciences
Essay” retrieved June 21, 2018 from https://www.ukessays.com/essays/environmental-sciences/what-are-
the-negative-effects-of-pesticides-environmental-sciences-essay.php?vref=1
 6

secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, phenolic compounds,

etc. The practice of complementary and alternative medicine

is now on the increase in developing countries in response

to World Health Organization directives culminating in

several pre-clinical and clinical studies that have provided

the scientific basis for the of many plants used in folk

medicine to treat infections. Despite the existence of

potent antibiotic and antifungal agents, resistant or multi-

resistant strains are continuously appearing, imposing the

need for a permanent search and development of new drugs. It

is therefore very necessary that the search for safer and

cheaper sources be continuous process. Plants are the

cheapest and safest alternatives source of antimicrobials.

Plants have the major advantage of still being the most

effective and cheaper alternative sources of drugs. The

local use of natural plants as primary health remedies, due

to their pharmacological properties, is quite common in

Asia, Latin America and Africa.7

Many products of botanical origin have been proved to

show insecticidal activity against stored grain insects.

Plant extracts have shown ovicidal, repellent, antifeedent

7
Marzan, B. et al, (2017) “Comparative Study of the Antibacterial property of the leaf crude
extract of papait (MollugeOppositifolia) with Streptomysin” p.1 retrieved June 21,2018.
 7

and toxic effects in insects. Essential oils and their

individual constituents have been known to play an important

role as protectants of stored grains and proved to possess

repellent and insecticidal properties. The organic extracts

from root powder of Decalepis hamiltonii showed potential to

be used as grain protectant against grain insect pests.8

Pantug-pantugan (Physalis minima Linn) is the term used

for this plant here in the Philippines. It is found

throughout India, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Tropical Africa,

Singapore, Malaysia, and Australia. Here in the Philippines

we found this plant throughout Babuyan Island, other parts

of Luzon, Mindanao and in Palawan. This plant reported as

one of the important medicinal plants in India.

In India it is known by various vernacular names:

Kupanti, Budda, Budamma (Andhra Pradesh); Ban Tipariya

(Bengal); Parpoti, Popti (Gujarat); Tulatipati (Hindi);

GuddeHannu (Kamataka); NjodiNjotta (Kerala); Chirboti, Dhan

Mori (Maharshtra); Tholtakalli (Tamil Nadu); Wild gooseberry

(English); TankaariParpotikaa, Chirapotikaa (Ayurvedic);

Sodakkuthakkali (Siddha/Tamil). In Gujarat it is commonly

8
Rajashekar, R. et. al, (2012) “Leaves of Lantana camara Linn. (Verbenaceae) as a potential
insecticide for the management of three species of stored grain insect pests” retrieved June 21, 2018 from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4571242/
 8

known as Popti, found on the bunds of the fields,

wastelands, a round the houses, on roadsides, etc. where the

soil is porous and rich in organic matter. Leaves are

petiolate (4.1 cm long), ovate to cordate, pubescent,

venation and undulate margins. Dorsal surface of the leaves

are dark green and the ventral surface is light green, 9.7

cm long and 8.1 cm broad. Flowers are pedicellate having 1.2

cm long pedicel, hermaphrodite, complete, solitary, small

companulate, 1.2-1.4 cm in diam; calyx gamosepalous, green

and persistent. Corolla is gamopetalous with five petals,

yellow ground in the middle of the corolla cup. Stamens

five, epipetalous, 6 to 7 mm long, having a black, 9 min

long, having a yellowish stigma at the top and a yellowish

round ovary at the base. It bears flowers in summer. Fruits

are a berry, enclosed within the enlarged, 10-ribbed,

reticulately veined calyx, which is 4.1 cm long and 2.5 cm

broad, fully mature yellow coloured fruits are available in

autumn. The flowering and fruiting season of this plant

start from March-April and continues up toe nd November.9

P. minimais bitter tonic, appetizing, diuretic,

laxative and useful in inflammations, antigonorrhoeic,

9
Chothani, D. et al, (2012) “Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources”, Vol. 3(4), p. 477
retrieved May 9,2018.
 9

enlargement of the spleen, and abdominal troubles. Fruits

and flowers are used in stomach pain and in constipation,

Herb paste is applied in ear disorders. Ripen fruit are use

in preparation of sarbat and given in gastric trouble. The

decoction of the whole plant is consumed by the Malay

community in Malaysia as remedy for cancer. The plant is

also used in skin disorder (leprosy) and diseases causing

bleeding. The mashed whole plant is added to palm wine and

taken to cure fever. The plant copper piece is used to

lessen the constipation. Leaves are used externally to treat

yaws and measles. The leaves are also applied to guinea worm

sore, killing the worm and easing extraction. Leaf sap is

taken orally to treat tonsillitis, sore throat, bad breath

jaundice and angina pectoris, tachycardia and stomachache

and as an anthelmintic. The ground leaves are used in

abdominal and vaginal pain and taken as old infusion shortly

before child birth to help expel the placenta. The juice of

the crushed herb is given in flatulence and stomachache. The

root of the plant is used as stomachic.

Benincasahispida(Thunb.) Cogn. seed juice and leaf of P.

minima mixed together and used for locally eye disease. Its

leaf is used in cattle stomach complaint and crushed leaves

applied over snake bite. It is used in treatment of asthma,

 10

bronchitis, inflammation, enlargement of spleen, urinary

disorder, abdominal troublesand headache. The roots are used

as vermifuge and febrifuge and treatment of diabetes. In

Guatemala it is used in treatment of gonorrohoea.10

The fruit of P. minima was reported to contain 61.4%

juice and 76.7% moisture.It also contains sugars, tannins,

mineral, protein, pectin and a good amount of vitamin (24.45

mg/100 ml of juice).The seed has been reported to contain

oil and protein. The oils contain fatty acids, viz.

palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and contain small amounts

of hexadecenoic and hydroxy fatty acids.It has been reported

to contain withanone, withaferin A, withanolide A,

stigmasterol, sitosterol have been reported from leaves,

root and stem while withanolide A, withanone, withaferin

(fruits and flowers), dihydroxyphysalin B2-4 and physalins

A. B and X (aerial part). It also contain physalindicanols,

withaphysalin E, withaphysalin C, withaphysalin D,

withaphysalin A, physalinicanol A withametelins, physalin,

withanolide, withangulatins, vitasteroids, phygrine,

withaphysalin A, B, C, D, E and physalin A, C, B, D, I, L,

10
Chothani, D. et al,(2012) “Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources”, Vol. 3(4), p. 477
retrieved May 9,2018.
 11

withanone, withaferin A and withanolide A. The plant

contains seven withanolides like physalindicanols A and B,

withamin and withphysalin E and other includes physalin B,

D, C and 3-O- glucosides of kaemferol and quercetin.

Physalin A, B, C and flavanoids, physalinH, isophysalinB,

and 5β, 6β-epoxyphysalin B, two new physalins have been

isolated from the whole plant of P. minima. It is

also reported to contain withaminimin, phygrine(alkaloid),

physalinL, a 13,14-seco-16,24 cyclosteroid, other

copmpondphysalin B, epoxyphysalin B and physalinD,

flavonoid, viz. 5-methoxy-6, 7-methylenedioxyflavone and 5,

6, 7-trimethoxyflavone and bitter principles.11

The result of the present study will be useful in

promoting research aiming at the development of new

biofumigant for pest control using Pantug-pantugan (Physalis

minima Linn.) leaf extract.

Statement of the Problem

This study was conducted to determine the efficacy of

Pantug-pantugan (Physalis minima Linn) leaf extract in

eradicating houseflies. Specifically, this aim to answer

the following questions:

11
Chothani, D. et al, (2012) “Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources”, Vol. 3(4, p. 478
retrieved May 9,2018.
 12

1. What is the effect of Pantug-pantugan (Physalis minima

Linn) leaf extract to houseflies?

2. Which of the varying concentrations could be the most

effective in eradicating houseflies?

3. Is there a significant effect of the varying

concentrations of Pantug-pantugan (Physalis minima Linn)

fruit extract against houseflies?

Hypotheses of the Study

1. There is a significant effect of Pantug-pantugan

(Physalis minima Linn) leaf extract to houseflies.

2. There is a significant difference among the varying

concentration of Pantug-pantugan (Physalis minima Linn) leaf

extract to houseflies.

3.

Significance of the Study

This study will provide scientific validity on the

effectiveness of Pantug-pantugan (Physalis minima Linn.) as

insecticidal plant.

 The community will also benefit if this plant

become a potential biofumigant pest control.

 13

 The cheaper and environment friendly pesticide

product the better that our environment will be

safe and other people will also afford it.

 This product will benefit the people who have a

restaurant business were houseflies love to stay

on this kind of place.

Scope and Delimination of Study

The focus of this study was to determine the

insecticidal effect of Pantug-pantugan (Physalis minima

Linn) leaf extract in eradicating houseflies. This study was

performed under the laboratory conditions at Our Lady of the

Pillar- Cauayan City Campus.

The 500 grams of Pantug-pantugan fruits was gathered at

Dabburab, Cauayan City, Isabela

The data used in the research is gathered through

observation.

Time and Place of the Study

This study was conducted at Pb 103 second floor

building in the Science laboratory of Our Lady of the Pillar

College – Cauayan on January 13, 2019.

 14

Definition of Terms

The following terms were defined operationally for the

better understanding.

Alkaloids. It refers to a poisonous substance present in

Pantug-pantugan (Physalis minima Linn) that eradicate

houseflies.

Biofumigation. It is defined as a process that occurs when

volatile compounds with pesticidal properties are released

during decomposition of.

Concentrations. It refers to the quantity of Pantug-pantugan

leaf extract that can eradicate the population of

houseflies.

Essential Oil. It refers to the organic oil of Pantug-

pantugan that used to eradicate houseflies.

Extract. It refers to the sap taken from Pantug-pantugan

leaf.

Flavonoids. It refers to water soluble polyphenolic

molecules containing 15 carbon atoms.

Pest. It refers to the houseflies.

Pesticides. It refers to a substance in Pantug-pantugan

leavesused for eradicating houseflies.

 15

Treatment. Itrefers to the different concentrations of the

Pantug-pantugan fruit extract used to eradicate the

population of houseflies.
 Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

The following literature and studies are presented to

relate the findings and analyses on the study undertaken.

The researchers reviewed several books, journals,

unpublished materials and internet websites significant to

the study and gained ideas needed in the success of the

study.

Foreign Related Literature

Physalis minima is a species of perennial herbs

elonging to the Solanaceae family. Native gooseberry, wild

cape gooseberry and pygmy groundcherry are some of the

popular common names in English. It is a pantropical annual

herb 20–50 cm high at its maturity. Leaves are soft and

smooth (not furry), with entire or jagged margins, 2.5–12 cm

long. Cream to yellowish flowers are followed by edible

yellowish fruit encapsulated in papery cover which turns

straw brown and drops to the ground when the fruit is fully

ripe.
 17

The plant tends to have a weedy character, often found

growing in disturbed sites.12

Wild Cape gooseberry is commonly found on the bunds of

the fields, wastelands, around the houses, on roadsides,

etc., where the soil is porous and rich in organic matter.

It is an annual herbaceous plant having a very delicate stem

and leaves. It is found growing in the sub-Himalayas up to

altitudes of 1,650 metres. It is also reported to grow in

Afghanistan, Baluchistan, tropical Africa, Australia.

Ceylon, etc. A small, delicate, erect, annual, pubescent herb,

1.5 metres tall; internodal length, 8.2 cm; more or less the

whole plant is pubescent. Leaves, petiolate (4.1 cm long), ovate

to cordate, pubescent, delicate, exstipulate, acuminate, having

reticulate palmate venation and undulate margins; dorsal surface

of the leaves, dark green and the ventral surface, light green;

9.7 cm long and 8.1 cm broad.

Flowers, pedicellate having 1.2 cm long pedicel,

hermaphrodite, complete, solitary, small companulate, 1.2 to

1.4 cm in diameter; calyx; gamosepalous, 5-toothed,

actinomorphic, green, persistent, downy; corolla,

gamopetalous with five petals, the petal cup, 1.1 to 1.3 cm

12
Khan, M. A., (2009) “Journal of Enzyme Inhibition and Medicinal Chemistry”, Retrieved May
8, 2018 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physalis_minima.
 18

long, yellow, having five black spots on yellow ground in

the middle of the corolla cup; stamens, five, epipetalous, 6

to 7 mm long, having a black filament and greenish-yellow

anther lobes; style, black, 9 min long, having a yellowish

stigma at the top and a yellowish round ovary at the base.

Fruit, a berry, enclosed within the enlarged, 10-

ribbed, reticulately veined calyx, which is 4.1 cm long and

2.5 cm broad; berries, stalked (stalk, 2.2 cm long), almost

round having a pinhead-sized depression at the end;

diameter, 1.4 to 1.6 cm; weight, 2.15 g; volume, 1.32 ml;

fully mature fruits primrose yellow 601/2 at full maturity.

Seeds, globose, Dresden yellow 64/3; weight and volume of

l00 seeds, 113 mg and 197 microlitres respectively.13

Physalis minima Linn (Solanaceae). P. minima is an

annual herb found throughout India, Baluchistan,

Afghanistan, Tropical Africa and Australia and is reported

as one of the important medicinal plants in Indian

Traditional System of Medicines.14

13
Parmar, C. et al, (2010)“Physalis minima”. p. 62–65. In: Wild Fruits. Kalyani Publishers, New
Delhi, India., retrieved May 13, 2018 from https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/parmar/16.html.
14
Patetet. Al, (Jan- Feb 2011) Antibacterial Activity of P. minima Retrieved May 7, 2018from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3224402/.
 19

Physalis minima L. is a member of Solanaceae family.

This plant is commonly found in disturbed area and known as

weed in Malaysia. P. minima contains high amount of

phenolic, alkaloids and physalin compounds, indicating its

potential as medicinal plant. Studies were conducted to

analyze diversity and relationship within and among

populations based on morphological characteristics. Nineteen

populations were collected from 11 states of Peninsular

Malaysia. The genetic diversity of germplasm collected was

estimated using 16 qualitative and quantitative

morphological characteristics. Results showed that the 19

populations of P. minima possessed identical qualitative

characteristics. However, significant variations were

detected for all quantitative traits measured among the

19 P. minima populations using ANOVA. Based on the variation

among quantitative traits, the 19 populations were grouped

into five clusters using UPGMA clustering method. This

indicates the existence of different heterotic group among

these populations. Crosses among populations from different

heterotic group can cause high heterosis for important

traits in P. minima. This information can be utilized in

 20

future breeding program to improve local P. minima varieties

in Malaysia.15

Proper identification of drugs and their use in proper

doses are important for successful treatment. Physalis

minima Linn commonly known as country gooseberry has anti-

cancerous, anti-diabetic, analgesic, antipyretic and anti-

inflammatory potentials. The present paper is aimed to

ascertain the proper identity of Ṭaṅkārī (Physalis

minima Linn.) in Ayurvedic classics by a meticulous search

and hence a review of the drug Ṭaṅkārī (Physalis

minima Linn) was carried out in the texts of Ayurveda,

modern literature, journals and online publications. The

result of the search showed that the name “Ṭaṅkārī” is not

found in Vedic lore. In Saṃhitās, it is mentioned in

Bhāvaprakāśa. Reference of the drug “Śārṅgeṣṭhā” is found in

Bṛhattrayī, Bhela, Kāśyapa, Cakradatta and Vaṅgasena. It is

variously named as Cirapoṭikā, Kākatikta, and Vāyasī by

ḍalhaṇa and he describes it as gaura (pale), vartula

(round), and as having avaguṇṭhita/veṣṭhita(covered) fruit

which matches the description of Ṭaṅkārī (P. minima Linn). A

15
 Usaizan N, et al., (2018) ” Genetic diversity of Physalis minima L. accessions based on
morphological traits, retrieved November 17, 2018 from https://medcraveonline.com/APAR/APAR-08-
00306
 21

search for terms Kākatiktaand Vāyasī showed Kākatikta to be

synonymous to Śārṅgeṣṭhā and Vāyasī to be synonymous to

both Kākatikta and Kākamācī (Solanum nigrum). Madanapāla and

ŚāligrāmaNighaṇṭus have mentioned the name Cirapoṭikā to be

synonymous with Ṭaṅkārī. Śodhala has used the term Parpoṭī

as a synonym of Ṭaṅkārī, which is the Gujarati name of P.

minima Linn. Recent authors have considered Śārṅgeṣṭhā as

either P. minima or Cardiospermumhelicabum. The regional

names of P. minima are Cirpoṭi (Hindi), Cirboli (Marathi),

also the folklore uses and pharmacological activities of P.

minima are in accordance with the indications

of Śārṅgeṣṭhā in classics. Thus with a complete review of

both Ayurveda and modern literatures, it can be concluded

that the drug mentioned as Ṭaṅkārī in Bhāvaprakāśa is the

same as Śārṅgeṣṭhā mentioned in the

classics. Cirapoṭikā and Kākatikta are its

synonyms. Cardiospermumhelicabum is Karṇaspoṭha, and

hence Śārṅgeṣṭhā of classics is P. minima which is supported

by the regional names, pharmacological activity and folklore

claims.It is imperative to have accurate knowledge of a drug

right from its identification to its use as medicine. Caraka

states that when drug is wrongly identified or administered

it may act as poison.In earlier times, drugs were identified

 22

with the help of cowherds, and people dwelling in the forest

who were close to nature.In the Nighaṇṭus (lexicons), the

use of synonyms and a description of morphology of the drug

was in vogue. Presently the drug is described based on

modern taxonomy. There are many drugs whose nomenclature

remains controversial. A reason for this maybe the lack of

proper understanding and inability to identify the drug with

the information present in the classics. Other reasons are

regional variations in understanding of herb and

unavailability of drugs in certain geographies. Considering

the importance of proper identification and appropriate use

of the drug, it necessary to disambiguate and authenticate

drugs with the help of review works and standardisation

techniques. Physalis minima Linn. commonly known as Ground

cherry has anti-cancerous, anti-diabetic, analgesic, anti-

inflammatory, anti-pyretic potentials and also has wide

ethno-medicinal uses. The drug “Ṭaṅkārī”is identified as P.

minima by K.C. Chunekar in Bhāvaprakāśa. The term Ṭaṅkārī is

not present in any other classics and hence it is placed

under the list of controversial drugs by recent authors.

Some other authors while discussing Śārṅgeṣṭhā have

considered it to be Cardiospermumhelicabum.The aim of

present work was to ascertain the proper identity

 23

of Ṭaṅkārī in Ayurvedic classics by a meticulous review. The

review of modern literature for its ethno medicinal uses,

regional language names, reports of pharmacological activity

were done to support the indications in the classics and

bring about clarity about the identity of the drug.16

Physalis minima Linn (PML) belongs to the family

Solanaceae and commonly known as “Leletup” in Malaysia. This

herb is found throughout India, Afghanistan, Africa,

Indonesia, Malaysia and Australia. The flowers are

hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and

pollinated by insects. The fruit is edible, yellowish and

encapsulated in papery cover. The infusion of PML is said to

relieve pain, lower fever, relieve indigestion, relieve

cough with phlegm, be diuretic and relieve oral thrush.

Herbal medicine practitioners in Malaysia have used the

plant in combination with other local plants to treat

hypertension, diabetes and also as an appetizer. Although

the beneficial effects of Malaysian PML have been heavily

exploited, little scientific research has been conducted on

its hypoglycaemic and reproductive toxicity activities.

16
KallianpurS. et al., (2016) “Identity of Ṭaṅkārī (Physalis Minima Linn.) in Ayurvedic Classics:
A Literature Review” retrieved November 11, 2018 from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5255973/
 24

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is characterised by chronic

hyperglycaemia caused by defects in insulin secretion,

insulin action, or both resulting in impaired function in

carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism. World Health

Organization (WHO) estimates that currently more than 180

million people worldwide have diabetes and it is likely to

double by 2030. The complications associated with DM are

severe. The illness is one of the main causes of blindness,

kidney disease, atherosclerosis, liver disease and a variety

of debilitating neuropathies that diminish the quality of

life and life expectancy of the patients. In the past

decade, rigorous research had been conducted to find out the

best way to treat DM and to overcome the implications as

observed in DM, either by modern or alternative medicine.

Male reproductive toxicology has recently become a rapidly

extending area of research and testing.Since herbal

medicines have recently become a widespread form of therapy,

male reproductive toxicity studies should be considered as

part of the safety evaluation process of medicinal plants.

The male reproductive system is very sensitive to the action

of harmful factors, and the exposure to the certain agent

can interfere with sexual maturation, the production and

transportation of sperm, the spermatogenic cycle, the sexual

 25

behaviour and male fertility. As far as our literature

survey could ascertain, no attempts have been made to

investigate the effect of Malaysian PML on the male

reproductive system. The purposes of the present study were

(i) to ascertain the scientific basis for the use of this

plant in the management of blood glucose/diabetic (ii) to

elucidate whether PML methanolic extract implies

reproductive hazards to male reproductive system.17

Physalis minima is an annual herb indigenous to many

parts of the tropics, including the Amazon. It can be found

on most conti-nents in the tropics, including Africa, Asia,

and The Americas. It grows up to 1 m high, bears small,

cream-colored flowers, and produces small, light yellowish-

orange, edible fruit some-times referred to as cape

gooseberry. The fruit is about the size of a cherry tomato

and like toma-toes, it contains many tiny edible seeds

inside. P. minima propagates easily from the many seeds the

fruit contains, spontaneous clumps of plants can be found

along river banks and just about anywhere the soil is

disturbed and the canopy is broken (allowing enough sun-

17
Daud D, et al., (2016) “Physalis minima Linn Methanolic Extract Reduces Blood Glucose Level
without Compromising Sperm Quality in Normoglycaemic Mice” retrieved November 19, 2018 from
www.japsonline.com/admin/php/uploads/1886_pdf.pdf
 26

light to promote its rapid growth). Plant derivatives with

hypogly-cemic properties have been used in folk medicine and

traditional healing systems around the world from very

ancient time. As per the ethnobotanical literature on

traditional phyto-therapy of Indian medicinal plants, the

species P. minima is consistently used by the tribal com-

munities for the treatment of diabetes as well as in modern

medicine. There is no any scientific evidence is available

of this plant to treat dia-betes. Therefore this work has

been taken with the aim of producing an inventory of this

plant used by traditional healers in Adilabad district of

Andhra Pradesh to treat diabetes.18

Inflammation is a pathophysiologic process mediated by

various signaling molecules produced mainly by leukocytes,

macrophages and plasma cells. Steroids are known to be the

best medicine used in treating acute inflammation, but have

side effects when used for long periods of time, such as

lowering the resistance of infection. Non-steroidal anti-

inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are also used to treat

inflammation, but they bring about side effects such as

gastrointestinal bleeding.Over-activation of the

18
Biology and Medicine (2013) “Evaluation of antidiabetic activity of medicinal plant extracts
used by tribal communities in rural areas of Warangal district, Andhra Pradesh, India”, , p.20-25, retrieved
May 16,2018 from www.biolmedonline.com.
 27

inflammatory mediators may contribute to gastric and

intestinal mucosal damage. Inflammation of the

gastrointestinal (GI) tract can affect the functioning of

the mucosal barrier, thereby influencing its protective

activity. Drug-induced damage to the GI tract has become a

global problem due to widespread as well as the

indiscriminate use of NSAIDs. Therefore, effective

management of GI ulceration would primarily depend on the

reduction of the aggressive factors, improved generation of

protective factors or a combination of both. Advances in

natural product chemistry have led to the purification and

characterization of a number of chemical compounds with

potent anti-ulcer activity. Physalis minima L (Indonesian

name as ciplukan) is wild vegetation found in the garden or

wetland. This herb is commonly known as the bladder cherry

and belongs to the Solanaceae family. P.minima is an annual

herb found throughout India, Baluchistan and Afghanistan,

Tropical Africa and Australia, and is reported as one of the

important medicinal plants in an Indian traditional system

of medicine. The plant majorly contains phenols, alkaloids,

steroids and flavonoids. Steroids of P.minima are physalin,

resin, alkaloids, saponin and sterol. It contains also fatty

acid. Several steroid compounds were found in the leaves of

 28

this plant, such as 13,14-seco-16,24-cycloste-roid consisted

of physalin B, 5, 6β-epoxyphysalin B, withaphysalin A,

withaphysalinB, physalin D and physalin L.Phospholipase A2

(PLA2) catalyzes hydrolysis of the sn-2 fatty acyl ester

bond of phosphoglycerides, releasing free fatty acids and

lysophospholipids. One of the fatty acids that can be

released from membrane stores by the activity of PLA2 is

arachidonic acid, the critical precursor for biosynthesis of

diverse eicosanoids, including prostaglandins, thromboxanes,

and leukotrienes. At least 15 human genes encode different

PLA2 isoenzymes, including both secreted and cytosolic

forms. PLA2 is now generally considered playing a major role

in various inflammatory diseases including Helicobacter

pylori-associated gastritis or duodenitis. Damage to the

gastrointestinal surface protection system and the breakdown

of complex membrane lipids activate PLA2, a key enzyme in

the production of inflammatory lipid mediator. High

concentrations of PLA2 have been reported in gastric mucosa.

None of the previous studies mentioned above revealed the

potential effects of Physalis minima L as an gastric anti-

inflammatory agent or its ulcer formation potential.

Therefore, this study will attempt to analyze the potential

effects of P.minima to reduce PLA2 activity as a marker of

 29

gastric inflammation. Besides, this study also compared the

potential side effect (ulcer formation) of P.minima with

aspirin as a standard NSAID. The hypothesis of this study is

that the methanolic extract of Physalis minima L (MEPM) can

reduce inflammation in the gastric mucosa and have minimal

side effects compared to NSAIDs.19

Antioxidant activity of ethanolic extract of Physalis

minima leaf was carried out for proving its utility in free

radical mediated diseases including diabetic,

cardiovascular, cancer etc. The ethanolic extract was

screened for in vitro antioxidant activity by nitric oxide

radical scavenging, DPPH scavenging, total antioxidant

assay, metal chelation, and iron reducing power activity at

different concentrations. Throughout the studies leaf

extract showed marked antioxidant activity. The antioxidant

activity of the leaf extract may be due to the

phytochemicals present in it. The antioxidant activity was

found to be concentration dependent and may be attributed

to the presence of bioflavonoids content in the leaf of

Physalis minima. Overall, the plant extract is a source of

natural antioxidants, which might be helpful inpreventing

19
Kalsum et. al, (2013) “Anti-inflammatory effect of Physalis minima”, J ExpIntegr Med., Vol.
3(4) , p.331-332 retrieved May 16,2018 from http://www.jeim.org.
 30

the progress of various oxidative stress mediated diseases

including aging.20

Diabetes mellitus is a complex and a diverse group of

disorders that disturbs the metabolism of carbohydrate, fat

and protein. The number of diabetes mellitus cases has been

increasing worldwide in recent years. In 2000, the world

health organization estimated a total of 171 million of

people with diabetes mellitus from the global population,

and this report projected to increase to 366 million by

2030.With a long course and serious complications often

resulting in high death rate, the treatment of diabetes

spent vast amount of resources including medicines, diets,

physical training and so on in all countries. Thus

searching for a new class of compounds is essential to

overcome diabetic problems. There is continuous search for

alternative drugs. Inhibition of alpha amylase and alpha-

glucosidase enzymes can be an important strategy in

management of post prandial blood glucose level in type 2

diabetes patient. The chosen medicinal plant namely as

20
Karpagasundari, C,.et al (2014) “Free radical scavenging activity of Physalis minima Linn. leaf
extract (PMLE)”, Journal of Medicinal Plants Vol. 2(4), p.59, Retrieved May 16, 2018 from
http//www.plantsjournal.com.
 31

Physalis minima leaf L belongs to the Solanaceae

family.Thus, objective of the present study is to

investigate the invitro antidiabetic activity of methanolic

extract ofPhysalis minima leaves.21

The bioactive components of Physalis minima leaves

have been evaluated using GCMS, HPLC, UV VIS and FTIR. The

chemical compositions of the extract of Physalis minima

leaves were investigated using Perkin-Elmer Gas

Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry, while the mass spectra of

the compounds found in the extract was matched by the

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

library. GC/MS analysis of extract of Physalis minima

leaves revealed the existence of Heneicosanoic acid

(25.22), Bicyclo [4.1.0] Hepta-2, 4-dien (27.41)

Octadecanoic acid (CAS), Stearic acid (31.19) and Octadeca-

9, 12-dienoic acid (32.02). HPLC profiles of Physalis

minima reported to contain four phenolic compounds, namely

Ellagic acid (4.13 min), Catechol (3.59 min), Gallic acid

21
Karpagasundari, C., et al (2015) ”In vitro atidiabetic activity of Physalis minima methanol leaves
extract”International Journal of Research in Plant Science retrieved May 16, 2018 from
http://www.urpjournals.com.
 32

(4.12 min) and Catechin (7.41 min). The UV- VIS profile

showed the peaks at 315.09 nm, 408.09 and 676.50 nm with

the absorption 0.247, 0.106 and 0.003 respectively. The

results of FTIR analysis confirmed the presence of phenol,

alkanes, aldehyde, secondary alcohol, amino acid, aromatic

amines and halogen compound. The results of this study

offer a platform of using Physalis minima leaves as herbal

alternative for various diseases.22

Physalis minima Linn. is widely used in the indigenous

system of medicine for the treatment of diuretic, fevers,

dropsy etc. In the present study, an attempt was made to

evaluate the phytochemical substances and antibacterial

activity in the plant parts of P.minima (stem, leaf and

unripe fruit). Phytochemical constituents like alkaloids,

anthraquinones, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, phenols,

quinones, reducing sugars, saponins, steroids, starch,

tannin and terpenoids of the stem, leaf and unripe fruit of

P.minima were examined using the extracts of chloroform,

diethyl ether, ethanol, ethyl acetate and methanol.

Alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenols, saponins,

22
Karpagasundari, C.,et al, (2014) ”Analysis of bioactive compounds in Physalis minima leaves
using GC MS, HPLC, UV-VIS and FTIR techniques” Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry
Vol.3(4),p. 196 retrieved May 16,2018 from http//www.phytojournal.com.
 33

steroids, tannins and terpenoids were present in all the

plant parts irrespective of the solvents used. Rich amount

of phytochemicals were observed in leaf extracts compared to

stem and unripe fruit. The antibacterial activity of

P.minima was studied using agar well diffusion method. The

activity was tested against Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis,

Citrobacter sp., Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli,

Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, P.

fluorescens and Staphylococcus aureus in its plant parts.

Leaf and stem extracts of all solvents invariably showed

moderate anti-bacterial activity. Enterobacter aerogenes and

Staphylococcus aureus were found to be more susceptible for

the extracts of P.minima. Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella

pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and P. fluorescens

strains showed resistance against the extracts of P.minima.

Overall anti-bacterial assay revealed that ethanolic extract

was found to be more effective than the other solvents used.

It can be concluded that the plant has some antibacterial

activity but there is need to do more tests to find new

compounds with potential to act against multi resistant

pathogenic bacteria.23
23
Dorcus, D. (2018) “Preliminary phytochemical and anti-bacterial studies on Physalis minima
Linn.” retrieved November 20, 2018 from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267943059_Preliminary_phytochemical_and_anti-
 34

Synthesis

The above mentioned literatures are similar to the

present study as they dealt on the efficacy of Pantug-

pantugan plant. This plant was quiet famous in some several

countries like Indonesia, Malaysia where they used this

plant as alternative medicines for some illnesses.

Local Related Literature

Physalis, a genus of the family Solanaceae consists of

about 100 species. Among these, Physalis minima has been

confused with P. angulata(putokan).Some compilations list

them as synonyms, as other list as separate species. In

Bangladesh, the two have long been misidentified. A critical

examination separates them as species. m erect, branched,

hairy annual herb, growing up to 0.8 meters high. The

branches are terete and often tinged with puple; the

ultimate ones slightly angular. Leaves are ovate, 6 to 12 cm

long, 4.5 go 7 cm wide, with pointed tips, rounded or

slightly heart-shaped base, nearly entire or faintly

undulately lobed margins. Flowers are solitary, axillary,

aboout 8 mm long. Corolla is pale yellow, with 5 large,

purple spots at the base inside. The fruit is round, fleshy

bacterial_studies_on_Physalis_minima_Linn
 35

and edible, about 1 cm in diameter. The inflated and

accrescent calyx is ovoid, aboout 3 cm long, 2 cm in

diameter, green, with 5 prominent and alternating slender

and purplish ribs. Common in open, waste places at low

altitudes up to 1,600 meters. Root is used as vermifuge.

Root extract used for fever.Decoction of roots also used for

diabetes.Poultice of leaves, oiled and heated, applied to

ulcers.Decoction of leaves used for gonorrhea; also,

diuretic.Used for colds and fever, swelling pain of the

throat, bronchitis.Fruit used for gout and also used to

infuse vigor.Plant paste made with rice water used to

restore flaccid breasts.Poultice of fruits used for

headaches and intestinal pains.Dosage: use 15 to 30 gms

dried material in decoction. Pounded fresh material may be

used as poultice or decoction of the same may be used as

wash for eczema infection.Juice of leaves, mixed with

mustard oil and water, used for earaches.24

Gooseberries thrive in changing seasons involving

frigid winters and humid summers, and they’re more shade-

tolerant than other fruits. The ripe fruits of this herb are

surrounded by a paper like covering that resemble a paper

24
Stuart G.,(2010) “ Philippine Medicinal Plants” retrieved November 18, 2018 from
http://www.stuartxchange.org/
 36

lantern. Here are the surprising benefits of this exotic

fruit you may want to know. Powerful Antioxidant – Cape

gooseberries have more antioxidants than goji berries,

broccoli, apples, pomegranates. Lots of Vitamin C – Cape

gooseberries contain twice the vitamin C of lemons. Thus

they have wonderful antioxidants that help to stave off

cardiovascular disease, strokes, and cancer. Vitamins – Cape

gooseberries also contain B Vitamins for good mood and

vitality, and Vitamin A antioxidant which is important for

good eyesight, immune function, and heal DNA damage. Anti-

Inflammatory – Cape gooseberries are high in anthocyanins

which help with the inflammation – pain, swelling, and

redness. Antibacterial – Extracts of cape gooseberries in

studies kill lots of gram negative and positive bacteria

including: E. Coli, Micrococcus luteus, Staph, Pseudomonas,

Enterococcus, many strains of Bacillus bacteria, and

Bordetella bacteria. Cancer – Some studies show that these

little berries may be able to help with lung cancer. Lung

Disease – Cape gooseberries have lots of anti-inflammatories

which are great asthma. And the dried berries can be made

into a nice tea that can be taken 3 times a day for lung

problems. Colds, Flues, and Laryngitis – Cape gooseberries

can be made into a tea, taking a handful of dried or fresh

 37

berries and steeping in hot water and taking this tea 3

times a day can help with colds, flues, and laryngitis.Cape

gooseberry juice is also said to improve skin tone, prevent

and restore hair loss, and rejuvenate for a general feeling

of well-being.25

Cape gooseberry is locally known as "gumbayas" in

Benguet, itlog-gagamba, and pantug-pantugan in Tagalog and

in the intemational market as uchuva, uvilla and physalis.

The scientific name is Physalisperuviana, Physalis minima

and Physalisangulata depending on the species. The fruit

belongs to the familySolanaceae and it is both a table and a

processing fruit according to the researcher. As reported,

Colombia produces some 12,000 tons each year from 800

hectares and exporting to Germany, Holland and France. The

fruit is consumedfresh by just removing the husk covering.

The husk does not only protect the fruit but also adds an

aesthetic and decorative touch to it. The fruit when fully

ripe has sweet and pleasant flavor and aroma exacting to the

taste. An added advantage is that the fruit can be stored

for a month or more. It can be harvested ripe with yellow-

25
Rodriguez J.,(2016) “Surprising Health Benefits Of Cape Gooseberry Better Known As Pantug-
Pantugan In The Philippines “ retrieved November 23,2018 from http://www.wattalyf.com/exotic-fruit-
and-its-benefits/
 38

orange color. As reported in the internet, physalis is high

in vitamin C. The raw fruits are bitter and can be an

appetizer or cooked like a vegetable. There are few

medicinal uses: tonic, diuretic, laxative, useful in

inflammations, enlargement of the spleen and abdominal

troubles, and extracts from the plant have shown anticancer

activity" The juice of the leaves, mixed with mustard oil

and water, has been used as a remedy for earache. The

mineral content of the fruit as represented by its ash, ts

l.2l6"h and the protein content is2.'15"/o. Some of the

important minerals of the fruit being reported are:

phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron with

percentage of 0.!08. 0 613, 0.024, 0.056, and 0.006%,

respectively. The researcher provided this writer uprooted

seedlings which were planted inside the greenhouse along the

edge where six plants survived. Ripe fruits were first

harvested in November 2008 and the harvest continued until

the end of June 2009. The total weight of the fruits

harvested and sold was 9.24 kg from the six plants with a

sale of Pl,l75. The selling price at first was P60.00 per

kilo, but the later harvests were sold at P120.00 per kilo

and consumers are asking for more. It was observed that the

plant is highly resistant to diseases as there was no

 39

disease infection throughout the life span. The pests

attacking the fruits were fruit flies, aphids inside the

calyx and the armyworm eating the berries. The fruits

contain seeds ranging from I 59 to 480 each and the main

stem can produce ll - 22 fruits. The average height of the

main stem reached inside the greenhouse was 246.25 cm,

although literatresrenorled .50 to 80 cm plant height of the

annual plant. The first harvested berries have an average

weight of 7.5g/piece. Towards the tip of the stem or as the

plant produced branches, berry weights were reduced to 5.5g

a piece. A kilogram of fruits contains about 133 to l8l

fruits.26

Pantug-pantugan (Physalis minima Linn) is the term used

for this plant here in the Philippines. It is found

throughout India, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Tropical Africa,

Singapore, Malaysia, and Australia. Here in the Philippines

26
Kudan S.,(2009) “CAPE GOOSEBERRY: Old Plantbul o New Discovery” retrieved November
24, 2018 from

www.bsu.edu.ph/files/Rangtay2009Vol10-1.pdf
 40

we found this plant throughout Babuyan Island, other parts

of Luzon, Mindanao and in Palawan. This plant reported as

one of the important medicinal plants in India.

In India it is known by various vernacular names:

Kupanti, Budda, Budamma (Andhra Pradesh); Ban Tipariya

(Bengal); Parpoti, Popti (Gujarat); Tulatipati (Hindi);

GuddeHannu (Kamataka); NjodiNjotta (Kerala); Chirboti, Dhan

Mori (Maharshtra); Tholtakalli (Tamil Nadu); Wild gooseberry

(English); TankaariParpotikaa, Chirapotikaa (Ayurvedic);

Sodakkuthakkali (Siddha/Tamil). In Gujarat it is commonly

known as Popti, found on the bunds of the fields,

wastelands, a round the houses, on roadsides, etc. where the

soil is porous and rich in organic matter. Leaves are

petiolate (4.1 cm long), ovate to cordate, pubescent,

venation and undulate margins. Dorsal surface of the leaves

are dark green and the ventral surface is light green, 9.7

cm long and 8.1 cm broad. Flowers are pedicellate having 1.2

cm long pedicel, hermaphrodite, complete, solitary, small

companulate, 1.2-1.4 cm in diam; calyx gamosepalous, green

and persistent. Corolla is gamopetalous with five petals,

yellow ground in the middle of the corolla cup. Stamens

five, epipetalous, 6 to 7 mm long, having a black, 9 min

 41

long, having a yellowish stigma at the top and a yellowish

round ovary at the base. It bears flowers in summer. Fruits

are a berry, enclosed within the enlarged, 10-ribbed,

reticulately veined calyx, which is 4.1 cm long and 2.5 cm

broad, fully mature yellow coloured fruits are available in

autumn. The flowering and fruiting season of this plant

start from March-April and continues up toe and November.27

Synthesis

Those literatures mentioned above shows that this plant

already exist in our country and it also already introduced

the uses of this plant as a medicinal plant moreover, it

also discussed in this literature about the benefits of the

plant to the community.

Foreign Related Studies

In our present investigation, the crude methanol

extract and chloroform fraction of the whole plant of

Physalis minima Linn (Solanaceae) was investigated for anti-

inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activities in NMRI

mice and Wistar rats of either sex at 200 and 400 mg/kg,

respectively. Various established in-vivo model’s were used

27
Chothani, D. et al, December 2012, “Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources”, Vol.
3(4), p. 477 retrieved May 9, 2018.
 42

during the study. Both crude extract and chloroform fraction

showed marked anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities as

compared to a control at tested doses. The antipyretic

potential of the crude extract and chloroform were

insignificant in the Brewer’s yeast fever model. Therefore,

the whole plant of Physalis minima Linn could be considered

as a potential candidate for bioactivity-guided isolation of

natural anti-inflammatory and analgesic agents.Medicinal

plants have the potential to provide compounds of novel and

complex structures that are capable of interacting with

biological systems. The research into plants with alleged

folklore use as anti-inflammatory and pain relievers should

therefore be considered as a fruitful and logical strategy

in the search of new anti-inflammatory and analgesic drugs.

Although a large number of synthetic clinically useful anti-

inflammatory and analgesic drugs are available in the

market, but the search for new effective drugs with

meaningful safety profile remains vital. Physalis minima

Linn (Solanaceae) is a small herbaceous annual plant grown

as weed in crop fields. The plant has a bitter taste and is

used as tonic, diuretic, laxative, applied in inflammations,

enlargement of the spleen, ascites, and as a helpful remedy

in ulceration of the bladder. In the traditional system of

 43

medicine, the plant is extensively used for the treatment of

cancers because of cytotoxic activity and the leaves are

crushed and applied over snakebite site. Fruits of this

plant are used to cure spleen disorders. Alcohol extract of

leaves and callus of plant also showed significant

antimicrobial activity Similarly, oral dosing of the

Physalis minima Linn caused infertility in female albino

rats and showed significant antigonorrhoeal activity. The

abortifacient activity of Physalin-x isolated from P. minima

in female albino rats is also reported. The plants of genus

Physalis have been demonstrated diverse biological and

pharmacological activities and these including anti-

inflammatory, quinone reductase induction, immunomodulatory,

antitumor, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, and hypoglycemic

activities. Phytochemical studies of the plant indicatingthe

presence of steroidal lactones, physalins including

leishmanicidalphysalins and withanolides.28

Medicinal plants are plants that have at least one of

their parts (leaves, stem, barks or roots) used for

therapeutic purposes. The availability and relatively

28
Khan, M., et al,(2009) “Anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activities of Physalis
minima Linn” retrieved November 25, 2018 from
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14756360802321120?needAccess=true
 44

cheaper cost of medicinal plants make them more attractive

as therapeutic agents when compared to modern medicine.

World plant biodiversity is the largest source of herbal

medicine, and still, about 60-80% world population rely on

plant-based medicines which are being used since the ancient

ages as traditional health care system. India is endowed

with a rich wealth of medicinal plants, which ranked our

country in the list of top producers of herbal medicine.

Many medicinal plants were found to possess antibacterial,

antifungal and insecticidal properties against wide spectra

of organisms. Many active phytochemicals like flavonoids,

terpenoids, vitamins and alkaloids, etc. were found to be

responsible for these activities. With the advance in

phytochemical techniques, several active principles of many

medicinal plants have been isolated and introduced as

valuable drugs in the modern system of medicine.Antioxidants

are compounds that block the oxidative procedures and

thereby reduce the adverse effects of free radicals.

Antioxidants also protect the plants from damage caused by

abiotic stress. An imbalance between harmful free radicals

and defensive antioxidants leads to oxidative stress which

results in the development of chronic and degenerative

diseases such as autoimmune disorders, cancer, arthritis,

 45

ageing neurodegenerative and cardiovascular disorders. The

most common free radicals are hydroxyl (OH-), superoxide

anion (O2-) and nitric monoxide (NO-). Other molecules like

hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and peroxynitrite (ONOO-) also

generate free radicals through various chemical reactions.

The systemic screening of antimicrobial plant extracts

represents a continuous effort to find new compounds with

the potential to act against multi-resistant pathogenic

bacteria and fungi.The plant selected for the present study

is Physalis minima Linn, the wild Gooseberry or Sunberry or

Ground cherry, a pantrophical annual herb belonging to

Solanaceae family is distributed throughout India. The fruit

is edible, yellowish and encapsulated in the papery cover

which is a good source of vitamin C and is considered to be

a diuretic, purgative and used to relieve pain (analgesic

action) and cure spleen disorder.The notable medicinal

properties reported for the plant are antidiabetic,

antiallergic, antileprotic, antiperiodic, anticancer, anti-

spasmodic, antimalarial, immune modulators, alpha-

glucosidase inhibitory and anti neoplasatic activities due

to which Physalis plants were used for centuries as

medicinal herbs and recent studies have confirmed their

therapeutic properties. The plant is also used as tonic,

 46

laxative, applied in inflammations, enlargement of the

spleen and as a helpful remedy in ulceration of the bladder.

The leaves are crushed and applied over snake bite site to

avoid the adverse effects of venom.

Thus, the present study involves estimation of in

vitro total phenolics, flavonoids contents, antioxidant and

antimicrobial activities of various solvent extracts from

the medicinal plant Physalis minima Linn.On the basis of

results observed in the present study, it was clear that

hexane and ethyl acetate extract of Physalis minima leaf and

stem contains an abundant amount of phenolic and flavonoid

compounds which possess high antioxidant and free radical

scavenging activities. The antimicrobial properties of the

plant in the current study are mainly due to presence of

large amounts of flavonoid components. The phytochemical

constituents of this plant may be responsible for their

efficacy in the treatment of skin diseases. Further work has

to be carried out to isolate, purify and characterize the

 47

phyto constituents of this plant responsible for bioactive

study.29

Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is a chronic inflammatory

condition involving a group of disorders characterized by

ulceration in regions of the upper gastrointestinal (GI)

tract where parietal cells secrete pepsin and hydrochloric

acid. The most common sites are the duodenum and stomach,

where the major forms are duodenal and gastric ulceration. A

peptic ulcer disease is usually acidic and thus extremely

painful, peptic ulcers are the areas of degeneration and

necrosis of gastrointestinal mucosa exposed to acid-peptic

secretions, though they can occur at any level of the

alimentary tract. Gastric ulceration is believed to be the

result of constant confrontation in the stomach and upper

small bowel between acid-pepsin aggression and mucosal

defense.Gastric ulcers are caused due to imbalances between

offensive and defensive factors of the gastric mucosa. The

antiulcerogenic activity of many plant products is reported

29
Banothu, M. et al.,(2017) “IN VITRO TOTAL PHENOLICS, FLAVONOIDS CONTENTS,
ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITES OF VARIOUS SOLVENT EXTRACTS
FROM THE MEDICINAL PLANT PHYSALIS MINIMA LINN” retrieved November 25, 2017 from
https://innovareacademics.in/journals/index.php/ijpps/article/view/16635/10008?
fbclid=IwAR02h59dWWqeBF7x9AbWlAuxwBMJk_QpYttlDf-P0O4jZtJah58FJI_MMAM
 48

due to an increase in mucosal defensive factors rather than

decrease in the offensive factors. A number of anti-ulcer

drugs like gastric antisecretory drugs—H2 receptor

antagonists, anti muscarinic agents, proton pump inhibitors,

mucosal protective agents– carbenoxolone sodium, sucralfate

and prostaglandin analogues are available which are shown to

have side effects and limitations. Physalis minima is an

annual, herbaceous, upright plant that grows to a height of

15-45cm. and belongs to the plant family solanaceae. It may

be seen growing on the borders of cultivated fields and

wastelands. The leaves are simple, 2.5-6.5 cm. in length,

alternately arranged on the stem, ovate with serrate

margins. The matured plants may have fine hairs on them and

the yellow, solitary flowers arise from the axils. The

berry, which is 8mm. in diameter, is enveloped in an

enlarged loose calyx. The seeds are discoid or subreniform

and orange-yellow in colour. The plant has a various

medicinal uses as laxative, expectorant or promoting the

discharge of phlegm, strangury or slow and painful discharge

of urine, splenomegaly or the abnormal enlargement of the

spleen, ulcers, cough and bronchitis.Physalis minima is also

used as bitter, sweet, cooling, diuretic, laxative,

expectorant, appetising and tonic. It is useful in vitiated

 49

conditions of pitta, burning sensation, strangury,

splenomegaly, ascites, gastropathy, colic, ulcers, cough,

bronchitis, pruritus and erysipelas.

In the present study, we have studied the healing effect of

leaves extract of Physalis minima on ethanol induced and

Indomethacin induced ulcers in rats.30

The genus Physalis L. (Solanaceae) is originating from

the Andes, with tropical global distribution, occurring from

southern North America to South America. The majority of the

species is wild, but some species are cultivated in

countries such as Colombia, Mexico, China, Japan and

recently in Brazil. These countries has as main consumer

market the European countries, mainly of fresh fruits,

because its fruits are used as food and also in

pharmaceutical industry. Physalis is casually eaten and

occasionally sold in markets. Only recently has the plant

become an important crop; it has been widely introduced into

cultivation in other tropical, subtropical and even

30
Gupta, A., (2009)“ANTI-ULCER ACTIVTY OF ALCOHOLIC EXTRACT OF PHYSALIS
MINIMA LEAVES IN RATS” retrieved November 24, 2018 from
http://www.rguhs.ac.in/cdc/onlinecdc/uploads/04_P020_9404.doc
 50

temperate areas. It is grown in Egypt where it is known

locally as harankash or as is-sittil-mistahiya (the shy

woman), a reference to the papery sheath.

Physalisperuviana (physalis = bladder) have numerous common

name according to the country/or regions, as Cape gooseberry

(South Africa), Inca berry, Aztec berry, golden berry, giant

ground cherry, African ground cherry, Peruvian ground

cherry, Peruvian cherry, pokpok (Madagascar), (Hawaii),

rasbhari (India), pohaaguaymantopohaaguaymanto (Peru),

uvilla (Ecuador), uchuva (Colombia), harankash (Egypt), amur

en cage (France, French for love in a cage), and sometimes

simply physalis (United Kingdom).

In addition to this,

Physalisperuviana and Physalisangulata (Linnaeus) are native

to South America and in Brazil. P. angulata is a species

widely used in popular medicine as anti-coagulant, anti-

leukemic, anti-mutagenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic,

antiseptic, analgesic and treatment of diabetes, among

others. The researchers report that researches with several

species of genus Physalis have considerable importance,

reflecting its importance to the basic sciences such as

Botany, Chemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Genetics.

However, studies on insect pests associated with these

 51

plants are incipient. It listed 19 genes, belonging to 9

Families on Physalisperuviana L. Therefore, knowledge and

identification of species that may cause damage the culture

of Cape gooseberry are important to define efficient methods

of control, since plants of Cape gooseberry tomato may be

acting as a refuge for insects’ pest during the off-

season.In addition Sulfur element play a great role in plant

metabolism and supplying it to the soil caused reduction in

the soil pH, consequently enhance the solubility and

availability of many elements. Some investigators found

that, sulfur addition improved vegetables growth and their

yield. The researchers showed that Petroleum oil use for

controlling spider mites, aphids and scale insects; sulfur

controls mites (particularly eriophyid mites by inhibiting

respiration) on a range of crop

and Azadirachtin from neem effects insects in a variety of

different ways: as an anti-feedant, insect growth

regulator and repellent properties, uses Neem tree extracts

and formulations are used for control of whitefly, leaf

miners and other pests. As anti-feedant sensitivity varies

greatly between insects the overriding efficacy of neem

insecticide use lies in its physiological toxic effects. It

is now accepted that neem insecticides have a wide margin of

 52

safety for both user and consumer. In addition to this, the

researcher stated that, the neem tree has long been

recognized for its unique properties both against insects

and in improving human health. The widespread use of

synthetic compounds against pests has toxic effect on other

non target organisms in both lower and higher trophic

levels.Consumers worldwide are now strongly demanding

agricultural products grown with few or no chemicals. Many

farmers are aware of the dangers of excessive chemicals and

are now trying to replace chemicals with safe or organic

pesticides. In addition Cape gooseberry is consumed as a

fresh food. Hence, we try to sustainably protecting the Cape

gooseberry plant, from the main pests along the plant season

using some safe products.

Thus, this study aims for Survey of insects, mites, and

associated natural enemies and impact study of certain

selected safe materials on the main pests on Cape

gooseberryplants by safe materials such as Solfan, KZ-oil

and Achook.31

31
Afsah, A.,(2015) “Survey of insects & mite associated Cape gooseberry plants
(Physalisperuviana L.) and impact of some selected safe materials against the main pests” retrieved
November 25, 2018 from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0570178315000135#bi0005
 53

Synthesis

The researchers of Foreign Related Studies has been

made, it was observed that the current studies were focused

on the healing effects of leaf extract of Physalis minima

ethanol induced. It is also used for centuries as medicinal

herbs and recent studies have confirmed their therapeutic

properties.

Local Related Studies

Recently, there has been a surge in research on the

potential role of antioxidants in the treatment of

atherosclerosis, heart failure, liver dysfunction,

neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, and diabetes mellitus1.

Free radicals are reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated in

the body during normal metabolic functions or introduced

from environment. These species causes cellular damage by

reacting with the various biomolecules of body such as

membrane lipids, nucleic acid, proteins and enzymes. This

damage is the major contributor of many disorders like

Cancer, Hepatopathy, Cardiovascular diseases, inflammation,

diabetes mellitus, renal failure and brain dysfunction. Body

has itself antioxidant system which reacts with reactive

 54

species and neutralizes them. This natural antioxidant

system include enzymes like catalase, superoxide dismutase

and glutathione which protect the body from free radical

species and prevent oxidative stress. Synthetic antioxidants

like Butylated hydroxyl toluene and Butylated hydroxyl

anisole are carcinogenic in nature. So need of natural

antioxidant arises2. In ayurvedic system of

medicine Physalis minima Linn. (Country gooseberry) is an

annual, herbaceous, upright plant that grows to a height of

15-45 cm. it may be seen growing on the borders of

cultivated fields and wastelands. The plant distributed more

or less throughout India, Baluchistan, Ceylon- Afghanistan,

tropical Africa and Australia3. In India Physalis

minima available in the month of July-September. The whole

plant of Physalis minima used in the various medicinal uses

like the fruit is considered tonic, diuretic, dropsy,

urinary disease, purgative, goutand poultice of fruits used

for headaches, intestinal pains and used to cure spleen

disorders. Poultice of leaves oiled and heated, applied to

ulcer and gonorrhea. The roots are used as vermifuge,

fever, and decoction of roots also used for diabetes. The

drug is also used in snake-poison, inflammation, and

 55

Scorpion- sting7. The other uses of Physalis minima are

laxative, expectorant or promoting the discharge of phlegm,

painful discharge of urine, ulcer, cough and bronchitis.

From the literature review Physalis minima possesses many

Pharmacological activities like Anti-inflammatory, analgesic

and antipyretic, Antifertility, Antimicrobial activityand

new leishmanicidal9 has already been reported.32

Essential oil of Cymbopogoncitratus collected from

Brazil and Cuba was tested to a chemical characterization

and then was tested on the post-embryonic development

of Musca domestica. The chemical composition analysis by GC-

MS of the oils from Brazil/Cuba allowed the identification

of 13 and 12 major constituents respectively; nine of them

common to both. In the both oils, the main components were

the isomers geranial and neral, which together form the

compound citral. This corresponds to a total of

97.92%/Brazil and 97.69%/Cuba of the compounds identified.

The monoterpene myrcene, observed only in the sample of

Cuba, presented a large relative abundance (6.52%). The

essential oil of C. citratus (Brazil/Cuba) was dissolved in

DMSO and tested at concentrations of 5, 10, 25, 50, 75 and

32
Gupta, A, et al., “In-vitro Antioxidant Activity of Aqueous Extract of Physalis minima Linn.”
2010 Retrieved November 27,2018 fromhttp://rjppd.org/HTMLPaper.aspx?Journal=Research%20Journal
%20of%20Pharmacology%20and%20Pharmacodynamics;PID=2010-2-5-15
 56

100% and citral was prepared by mixing 16.8 mg with 960 µL

DMSO. Both essential oils and monoterpene citral were

applied topically to newly-hatched larvae (1µL/larva). The

results showed a lethal concentration (LC50) of 4.25 and

3.24% for the Brazilian and Cuban essential oils,

respectively. Mortalities of larval and newly-hatched larvae

to adult periods were dose-dependent for the two both oils

as for monoterpene citral, reaching 90%. Both essential oils

and citral caused morphological changes in adult specimens.

The use of chemical insecticides in pest control induces

insect resistance, and impact the environment through water

and soil contamination, becoming toxic to vertebrates.

Thereby, multiple worldwide efforts to use botanical

products to control insect vectors and pests appeared in the

latest years. Biopesticides offer an alternative to insect

control in which the damage to the environment is minimized,

reaching only target organisms, with a minimal residual

activity against predators, parasites and pollinator

insects, making its use appropriate in integrated pest

management programs.Plants and their natural enemies

(insects, bacteria or viruses) have undergone a co-evolution

process in which a new plant resistance character that

reduces enemy attack is developed. The essential oils are a

 57

type of metabolite with this function, characterized by

complex mixtures of monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids as

major metabolites. The number and quantities of compounds in

the essential oil produced by a single plant can change with

the environment characteristic, place of collection, plant

age and other conditions, but in general, the major

compounds remain as a significative chemical marker. Due to

the volatile, odorous and lipophylic characteristics of the

essential oils, they can be toxic to insects, induce

behavioral modifications, provoke direct disruption of

specific physiological routes related to neuroendocrine

system and in their reproduction. In addition, essential

oils have been shown to be relatively non-toxic to fish,

birds and mammals and easily biodegrade in the environment,

turning them into good biopesticides. Diptera Muscoid

presents a great medical-sanitary importance and is closely

related to animals and human environment, acting as an

important vector of pathogens, such as bacteria, protozoa

cysts and oocysts, helminthes, fungi and viruses, besides

being responsible for the production ofmyiasis in humans and

animals. The immature stages of some species of these flies

develop in animal and plant decaying organic matter such as

feces, garbage, corpses and carrion. Some studies revealed

 58

satisfactory results from the use of several essential oils

for insect management such as the cosmopolitan pest house

fly, Musca domestica L. malarian vector mosquito, Anopheles

gambiae Giles; parasitic mites of the honeybees bee Varroa

destructor Acari: Varroidae and the maize weevil

adults, Sitophilus zeamais Motschulky. The essential oil

of Cymbopogoncitratus (DC) Stapf (Poaceae), most known as

"lemongrass", is commonly used by folk medicine in many

countries. Native from India and Southeast Asia, it is

distributed in numerous tropical countries, including Brazil

There are several popular uses for this plant, including

treatment for stomach pains, diarrhea also having several

pharmacological activities such as anti-amoebic and as

antifungal). Also it has been reported as potentially useful

against insects). Recently, some studies revealed that C.

citratusessential oil and their main components (citral and

1.8 cineole), are important repellent and insecticide

against housefly, but these studies are focused mainly in

the instant effectiveness after application and not in long

time effect. As of today, no study considered the effect of

the essential oil in all the stages of the fly's life cycle;

that's why it became important to reveal the effect of those

essential oils in the post-embryonic development of M.

 59

domestica.This report describes the evaluation of the

chemical composition and insecticidal activity of C.

citratus essential oil collected in Brazil and Cuba and its

major compound (Citral) on the post-embryonic development

of M. domestica.33

The efficiency of wood vinegar mixed with each

individual of three plants extract such as: citronella grass

(Cymbopogonnardus), neem seed (Azadirachtaindica A. Juss),

and yam bean seed (PachyrhizuserosusUrb.) were tested

against the second instar larvae of housefly (Musca

domestica L.). Steam distillation was used for extraction of

the citronella grass while neem and yam bean were simple

extracted by fermentation with ethyl alcohol. Toxicity test

was evaluated in laboratory based on two methods of

larvicidal bioassay: topical application method (contact

poison) and feeding method (stomach poison). Larval

mortality was observed daily and larval survivability was

recorded until the survived larvae developed to pupae and

adults. The study resulted that treatment of wood vinegar

mixed with citronella grass showed the highest larval

33
Pinto Z., et al., (2015) ” Chemical composition and insecticidal activity of Cymbopogoncitratus
essential oil from Cuba and Brazil against housefly” retrieved November 27, 2018 from
http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1984-29612015000100005
 60

mortality by topical application method (50.0%) and by

feeding method (80.0%). However, treatment of mixed wood

vinegar and neem seed showed the longest pupal duration to

25 day and 32 days for topical application method and

feeding method respectively. Additional, larval duration on

treated M. domestica larvae was extended to 13 days for

topical application method and 11 days for feeding method.

Thus, the feeding method gave higher efficiency compared

with the topical application method.34

Neem (Azadiracha indica) is native of India and naturalized

in most tropical and subtropical countries are of great

medicinal value and distributed widespread in thr world. The

chemical constituent contain many biologically active

compounds that can be extracted from neem, including

alkaloids, lavanoids, triterpenoids, phenolic compounds,

caratenoids, steroids and ketones, biologically most active

34
Pangkanom , U, et al.,(2014) “Efficiency of Wood Vinegar Mixed with Some Plants Extract
against the Housefly (Musca domestica L.)” Retrieved November 28, 2018 from
https://waset.org/.../efficiency-of-wood-vinegar-mixed-with-some-plants-extract-againt-the-Housefly-
Musca-domestica-L.pdf
35 Fernandez, E. et al., (2018) “ The Insecticidal Efficacy of the Ground betel nut ( Areca
atechu L.) fruit against mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti)” Retrieved November 28, 2018
 61

compound is azardirachtin A-G and azadirachtin is more

effective.35

Synthesis

The researchers on Local Related Studies presents that

the extracted leaf of Pantug- pantugan (Physalis minima

Linn). The whole plant of Physalis minima used in the

various medicinal uses like the fruit is considered tonic,

diuretic, dropsy, urinary disease, purgative, goutand

poultice of fruits used for headaches, intestinal pains and

used to cure spleen disorders. Poultice of leaves oiled and

heated, applied to ulcer and gonorrhea. The roots are used

as vermifuge, fever, and decoction of roots also used for

diabetes. The drug is also used in snake-poison,

inflammation, and Scorpion- sting.

Foreign Botanical Description

Wild Cape gooseberry is commonly found on the bunds of

the fields, wastelands, around the houses, on roadsides,

etc., where the soil is porous and rich in organic matter.

It is an annual herbaceous plant having a very delicate stem

and leaves. It is found growing in the sub-Himalayas up to

35
 62

altitudes of 1,650 metres. It is also reported to grow in

Afghanistan, Baluchistan, tropical Africa, Australia.

Ceylon, etc. A small, delicate, erect, annual, pubescent herb,

1.5 metres tall; internodal length, 8.2 cm; more or less the

whole plant is pubescent. Leaves, petiolate (4.1 cm long), ovate

to cordate, pubescent, delicate, exstipulate, acuminate, having

reticulate palmate venation and undulate margins; dorsal surface

of the leaves, dark green and the ventral surface, light green;

9.7 cm long and 8.1 cm broad.

Flowers, pedicellate having 1.2 cm long pedicel,

hermaphrodite, complete, solitary, small companulate, 1.2 to

1.4 cm in diameter; calyx; gamosepalous, 5-toothed,

actinomorphic, green, persistent, downy; corolla,

gamopetalous with five petals, the petal cup, 1.1 to 1.3 cm

long, yellow, having five black spots on yellow ground in

the middle of the corolla cup; stamens, five, epipetalous, 6

to 7 mm long, having a black filament and greenish-yellow

anther lobes; style, black, 9 min long, having a yellowish

stigma at the top and a yellowish round ovary at the base.

Fruit, a berry, enclosed within the enlarged, 10-

ribbed, reticulately veined calyx, which is 4.1 cm long and

2.5 cm broad; berries, stalked (stalk, 2.2 cm long), almost

 63

round having a pinhead-sized depression at the end;

diameter, 1.4 to 1.6 cm; weight, 2.15 g; volume, 1.32 ml;

fully mature fruits primrose yellow 601/2 at full maturity.

Seeds, globose, Dresden yellow 64/3; weight and volume of

l00 seeds, 113 mg and 197 microlitres respectively.36

This study aimed to evaluate the insecticidal and

repellent effects of tea tree, Melaleuca alternifolia

(Myrtales: Myrtaceae), and andiroba, Carapaguianensis

(Sapindales: Meliaceae), essential oils on two species of

fly. For in vitro studies, free-living adult flies were

captured and reared in the laboratory. To evaluate the

insecticidal effects of the oils, adult flies of

Haematobiairritans (L.) and Musca domestica L. (both:

Diptera: Muscidae) were separated by species in test cages

(n = 10 per group), and subsequently tested with oils at

concentrations of 1.0% and 5.0% using a negative control to

validate the test. Both oils showed insecticidal activity.

Tea tree oil at a concentration of 5.0% was able to kill M. 

domestica with 100.0% efficacy after 12 h of exposure.

However, the effectiveness of andiroba oil at a

36
Parmar, C. et al, (2013) “Physalis minima”. p. 62–65. In: Wild Fruits. Kalyani Publishers, New
Delhi, India., retrieved May 13, 2018 https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/parmar/16.html.
 64

concentration of 5.0% was only 67.0%. The insecticidal

efficacy (100.0%) of both oils against H. irritans was

observed at both concentrations for up to 4 h. The

repellency effects of the oils at concentrations of 5.0%

were tested in vivo on Holstein cows naturally infested by

H. irritans. Both oils demonstrated repellency at 24 h, when

the numbers of flies on cows treated with tea tree and

andiroba oil were 61.6% and 57.7%, respectively, lower than

the number of flies on control animals. It is possible to

conclude that these essential oils have insecticidal and

repellent effects against the species of fly used in this

study.37

The antioxidant activity is increasing as there is

realization of that formation of reactive oxygen species

(ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) have been linked

in pathogenesis of several human diseases. Physalis

minima L. are commonly known as Country gooseberry, which is

widely used in the indigenous system of medicine for the

treatment of diuretic, fever and dropsy. The leaves aqueous

extract of the plant was studied for its invitro antioxidant

37
Klauck V., (2014) “Insecticidal and repellent effects of tea tree and andiroba oils on flies
associated with livestock.“ retrieved November 28, 2018 from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25171605
 65

activity by two methods viz DPPH radical scavenging assay

and Nitric oxide scavenging assay. Its free radical

scavenging activity was estimated by IC50 value and the

values at various concentrations 5 to 25mg/ ml. At 25mg/ ml

DPPH radical scavenging assay and Nitric oxide assay showed

maximum inhibition 92.30% and 75.41% These results clearly

indicate that aqueous extract of leaves of Physalis

minima is effective in scavenging free radicals and has the

potential to be a powerful antioxidant.

  Recently, there has been a surge in research on the

potential role of antioxidants in the treatment of

atherosclerosis, heart failure, liver dysfunction,

neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, and diabetes mellitus1.

Free radicals are reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated

in the body during normal metabolic functions or introduced

from environment. These species causes cellular damage by

reacting with the various biomolecules of body such as

membrane lipids, nucleic acid, proteins and enzymes. This

damage is the major contributor of many disorders like

Cancer, Hepatopathy, Cardiovascular diseases, inflammation,

diabetes mellitus, renal failure and brain dysfunction.

Body has itself antioxidant system which reacts with

reactive species and neutralizes them. This natural

 66

antioxidant system include enzymes like catalase,

superoxide dismutase and glutathione which protect the body

from free radical species and prevent oxidative stress.

Synthetic antioxidants like Butylated hydroxyl toluene and

Butylated hydroxyl anisole are carcinogenic in nature. So

need of natural antioxidant arises2. In ayurvedic system of

medicine Physalis minima Linn. (Country gooseberry) is an

annual, herbaceous, upright plant that grows to a height of

15-45 cm. it may be seen growing on the borders of

cultivated fields and wastelands. The plant distributed

more or less throughout India, Baluchistan, Ceylon-

Afghanistan, tropical Africa and Australia3. In

India Physalis minima available in the month of July-

September. The whole plant of Physalis minima used in the

various medicinal uses like the fruit is considered tonic,

diuretic, dropsy, urinary disease, purgative, goutand

poultice of fruits used for headaches, intestinal pains and

used to cure spleen disorders. Poultice of leaves oiled and

heated, applied to ulcer and gonorrhea. The roots are used

as vermifuge, fever, and decoction of roots also used for

diabetes. The drug is also used in snake-poison,

inflammation, and Scorpion- sting7. The other uses

 67

of Physalis minima are laxative, expectorant or promoting

the discharge of phlegm, painful discharge of urine, ulcer,

cough and bronchitis. From the literature review Physalis

minima possesses many Pharmacological activities like Anti-

inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic, Antifertility,

Antimicrobial activityand new leishmanicidal has already

been reported.38

The house fly, Musca domestica L. is a cosmopolitan

insect pest of both farm and house. This species is always

found in association with humans or activities of humans.

These are nuisance and can also transmit disease-causing

organisms. More than 100 pathogens are associated with the

house flies such as bacteria, protozoa, viruses and metazoan

parasites. The housefly is categorized as an important

contributing factor in the dissemination of various

infectious food-borne diseases, disease in humans and

animals, such as cholera, typhoid, shigellosis, bacillary

dysentery, tuberculosis and infantile diarrhea in human

populations. Management and control of Housefly relied upon

the use of chemical insecticides such as organochlorines,

organophosphates and pyrethroids. There are many

38
Gupta, A, et al., (2010) “In-vitro Antioxidant Activity of Aqueous Extract of Physalis minima
Linn.” retrieved November 27,2018 fromhttp://rjppd.org/HTMLPaper.aspx?Journal=Research%20Journal
%20of%20Pharmacology%20and%20Pharmacodynamics;PID=2010-2-5-15
 68

disadvantages associated with such synthetic pesticides like

it leads to development of resistance among insects,

ecological imbalances and harm to non-target organisms too.

In recent years, the application of several medicinal plant

products like plant extract and essential oil has drawn much

attention as effective alternatives to the synthetic

pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Essential oil interfere

with basic metabolic, physiological, and behavioral

functions of insects and some are known to affect growth,

development, reproduction, or survival of insects and

vectors. The mode of action of essential oil compounds is

not fully understood, but they elicit characteristic

neurotoxic symptoms including agitation,hyperactivity,

paralysis, and knockdown. In one of the study of Essential

oil on housefly, the insecticidal activity of 34 essential

oils, extracted from plants, was screened against Musca

domestica where the Pogostemoncablin essential oil proved to

be the most efficient at a lethal dose of 3μg/fly. After

topical application Oil of Mellisa officinalis and

Nepetacataria also shows promising adulticidal activity

against M. domestica i.e. LD50 24 and 23 μg/insect

respectively. These oils can also bare further investigation

for use in commercial preparation. In another study Peel

 69

oils of lemon, grapefruit and navel orange were tested for

insecticidal activities against M. domestica and it has been

found that the Grapefruit peel oil was more toxic to adults

of M. domestica while lemon oil was more toxic toHousefly

larvae. Thyme oil was having repellent action on Varroa

mite. Larvicidal efficiency was determined for thymol was

the lowest doses LD50 32.9 and 14.2mg/L for the third and

fourth instars of Culexquinquefasciatus. Clover leaf has

been studied and these oils shows potent insecticidal

activity against all stages of Trialeurodesvaporariorum,

these essential oils might be good candidates for naturally

occurring T. vaporariorum control agents. It has been

reported that the essential oils of lavender, can be used

successfully as repellents for neonate larvae of the codling

moth. Some oils, such as thyme herb oil, lavender flower

oil, lavender leaf oil showed very similar effects against

the larvae of T. pityocampa. Researchers, demonstrated

clover leaf oil showed good repellency at a concentration of

0.005mg/cm2 against Culexpipiens. In this way, number of

essential oils shows insecticidal properties against

different insect pest so that there is an increase interest

in developing plant origin insecticides. The objective of

the present study, was to assess the larvicidal,

 70

adulticidal, attractant/repellent, pupicidal bioassay of two

plant essential oils, Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) and clover

leaf (Eugenia caryophyllus) on Housefly, M. domestica.39

Local Botanical Description

Pantug-pantugan is an erect, branched, hairy annual

herb, growing 0.5 to 0.8 meter high. The branches are terete

and often tinged with purple, the ultimate ones slightly

angular. Leaves are ovate, 6 to 12 centimeters long, 4.5 to

7 centimeters wide, with pointed tip, rounded or slightly

heart-shaped base, nearly entire or with faintly undulately

lobed margins. Flowers are solitary, axillary, about 8

millimeters long. Corolla is pale yellow, with 5 large,

purple spots at the base inside. Fruit is round, fleshy and

edible, about 1 centimeter in diameter. Calyx is inflated,

accrescent, and ovoid, about 3 centimeters long, 2

centimeters in diameter, green, with 5 prominent and

alternating slender and purplish ribs.Found from the Babuyan

39
Chinchantere, J. (2018) ” BIOEFFICACY OF ESSENTIAL OILS OF THYMUS VULGARIS
AND EUGENIA CARYOPHYLLUS AGAINST HOUSEFLY, MUSCA DOMESTICA L.” retrieved
November 28 2018 from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259611576_BIOEFFICACY_OF_ESSENTIAL_OILS_OF_THY
MUS_VULGARIS_AND_EUGENIA_CARYOPHYLLUS_AGAINST_HOUSEFLY_MUSCA_DOMEST
ICA_L_J_M_CHINTALCHERE_S_LAKARE_AND_R_S_PANDIT_The_Bioscan_83_1029-
1034_2013_Supplement_on_Toxico
 71

Islands and northern Luzon to Mindanao and Palawan.Often

common in open, waste places at low altitudes, ascending up

to 1,600 meters.

Pantropic weed.40

Taxonomical Classification

Kingdom Plantae – Plants

Class: Magnoliopsida

Subclass: Asteridae

Superorder: Asteranae

Order: Solanales

Family: Solanaceae

Genus: Physalis l.

40
Stuart G.,(2010) “ Philippine Medicinal Plants” retrieved November 18, 2018 from
http://www.stuartxchange.org/
 Chapter III

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

This chapter is concerned with the description of the

research methods used in the study, instruments used, the

data gathering procedures and the statistical tools utilized

for the interpretation and analysis of data gathered.

Materials

This are the materials needed to execute this study.

Preparation of the Sample

Plastic bottles

Chopping board

Knife

Pantug-pantugan leaves

Pens

Yellow paper

Tripod

Wire gauze
 73

Alcohol lamp

Stirrer

Pan

Blender

Water

Measuring Tools

Mini Weighing Scale

Beaker

Erlenmeyer flask

Soaking

Containers

Extraction

Clean cloth

Containers

Funnel

Insecticidal Assay

Containers
 74

Houseflies

Stopwatch

Pantug-pantugan fly paper

Methodology

Collection of Experimental Specimen

Dense population of houseflies were collected in a

poultry located in Sta. Luciana, Cauayan City, Isabela.

Collection of Pantug-pantugan plant and Extract Preparation

Pantug-pantugan leaves were harvested at Mambabanga,

Luna, Isabela and in Daburrab, Cauayan City, Isabela before

the actual study. Two thousand grams of Pantug-pantugan

leaves were divided into three treatments with three

replications for each treatment. The four treatments are one

hundred twenty-five of Pantug-pantugan leaves over five

hundred milliliters, two hundred-fifty grams of Pantug-

pantugan leaves over five hundred milliliters of water,

three hundred seventy-five Pantug-pantugan leaves over five

hundred grams of water and five-hundred grams Pantug-

pantugan leaves over five hundred milliliters of water. All

of the Pantug-pantugan leaves are matured.

 75

Preparation of Experimental Set-up

We introduced the concentrations of the Pantug-pantugan

leaf extract homemade fly paper, the pens which contain ten

houseflies per container, the pens were maintained for one

hour and observations were made throughout the experiment.

The containers with houseflies were maintained in the

laboratory. In every designated period (15 minutes), dead

houseflies were observed.

Collection of Data

The data gathered were the number of mortality at a

given time interval. The time interval used is based on pre-

test observations conducted prior to the conduct of this

study which are as follows:

1. Mortality after 30 minutes of maintaining in the

container.

2. Mortality after 1hour of maintaining in the

container.

3. Mortality after 1 hour and 30 minutes of maintaining

in the container.

Experimental Design
 76

There were six treatments including the control

treatments; Control 1 Tap water and Control 2 commercialized

sticky flypaper and each treatment was done in three

replications.

The treatments were considered as follows:

T0 – tap water

T0 – sticky fly paper purchased in the market

T1 – 25% Pantug-pantugan leaf extract

T2 – 50% Pantug-pantugan leaf extract

T3 – 75% Pantug-pantugan leaf extract

T4 – 100% Pantug-pantugan leaf extract

The Least Significant Difference (LSD) Test was used to test

the treatment mean difference.

T0R1 T1R1 T2R1 T3R1 T4R1

T0R2 T1R2 T2R2 T3R2 T4R2

T0R3 T1R3 T2R3 T3R3 T4R3

Statistical Analysis
 77

The insecticidal property of Pantug-pantugan (Physalis

minima Linn.) leaf crude extract to Houseflies (Musca

domestica Linnaeus) was analyzed using ANOVA one way

analysis.
 78

Methodology

Schematic Diagram of Experimental Procedures

Fresh Pantug-pantugan leaf

Weighing

Fresh Chopped Pantug-pantugan leaf

T1 T2 T3 T4
125g fresh 250g fresh 375g fresh 500g fresh
finely chopped finely chopped finely chopped finely chopped
Pantug-pantugan Pantug-pantugan Pantug-pantugan Pantug-pantugan
leaf leaf leaf leaf

Osterization

Extraction

T1: 25% T2: 50% T3: 75% T4: 100%

(125g Pantug- (250g Pantug- (375g Pantugan- (500g Pantugan-
pantugan leaf pantugan leaf pantugan leaf pantugan leaf
extract) extract) extract) extract)

Application of Treatment

T0 T1 25% T2 50% T3 75% T4

control 100%

Application of Treatment
Observation
 79

T1 T2 T3 T4
(250 g (500 g (750 g (1000 g
Pantug- Pantug- Pantug- Pantug-
pantugan pantugan pantugan pantugan
leaf leaf leaf leaf
extract extract extract extract

Cage 1 Cage 2 Cage 3 Cage 4

R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3

Observation

Mortality

30 minutes 1 hour 1hr and 30min

hour

T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4

R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 R1

R2 R2 R2 R1 R2 R2 R2 R1 R2 R2 R2 R1

R3 R3 R3 R3 R3 R3 R3 R3 R3 R3 R3 R3

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION OF DATA AND ANALYSIS

 80

This chapter presents the data gathered from the

experiment made by the researchers including the analysis

and the interpretation of the results on the insecticidal

property of the plant extract of Pantug-pantugan (Physalis

minima linn.)

Observation

The houseflies that were put inside the 3 cages were

really active even though they stayed in a container for a

day before the experiment. After the researchers made sure

that every five houseflies were alive, the researchers

introduced the different treatment (Treatment 1: 25%,

Treatment 2: 50%, Treatment 3: 75%, Treatment 4: 100%) of

Pantug-pantugan leaves into cages containing the houseflies.

At first,the houseflies are actively flying into the cages

while the time of exposure to the extract passed, some of

the houseflies are already stuck on the flypaper. After an

hour has passed, every houseflies in the cage where the

pantug-pantugan leaves was, showed signs of mortality.

Treatment one (T1), Treatment two (T2), Treatment three (T3)

has significant difference it means they have different

mortality rate. There was a significant difference between

the treatment zero (T0), treatment one (T1), and treatment

 81

two (T2) in terms of mean mortality rate. Treatment zero

(T0) and treatment three (T4) has the same mortality rate.

Treatment two (T2), treatment three (T3), and treatment four

(T4) has the highest mean mortality rate after an hour.

Discussion of the Result

Table. Mortality rate of Pantug-pantugan (Physalis Minima

Linn.)

Test of Difference of the Three Treatments on Mortality rate

of Houseflies

30 Minutes

Treatment Mean

C1(Tap water) 1.33

C2(Baygon fly paper) 2

T1(25% of Pantug-pantugan) 2.33

T2(50% of Pantug-pantugan) 2.66

T3(75% of Pantug-pantugan) 2.66

T4 (100% of Pantug-pantugan) 3.33

1 Hour

Treatment Mean
 82

C1(Tap water) 2.33

C2(Baygon fly paper) 4.33

T1(25% of Pantug-pantugan) 4.33

T2(50% of Pantug-pantugan) 4.33

T3(75% of Pantug-pantugan) 4.33

T4 (100% of Pantug-pantugan) 5

1 Hour and 30 minutes

Treatment Mean

C1(Tap water) 1.67

C2(Baygon fly paper) 5

T1(25% of Pantug-pantugan) 4.67

T2(50% of Pantug-pantugan) 4.67

T3(75% of Pantug-pantugan) 4.67

T4 (100% of Pantug-pantugan) 5

Table shows the mortality mean after 1 hour and 30

minutes observation. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed the

significant result at 5 percent level of significance. With

respect to control Baygon flytrap there is no siginificant

difference with treatment 1 to 4. However, with respect to

 83

control water there is siginificant difference with all the

treatments.

Research studies revealed that C. citratus essential

oil and their main components (citral and 1.8 cineole), are

important repellent and insecticide against housefly, but

these studies are focused mainly in the instant

effectiveness after application and not in long time effect.

The chemical constituent contain many biologically active

compounds that can be extracted from neem, including

alkaloids, lavanoids, triterpenoids, phenolic compounds,

caratenoids, steroids and ketones, biologically most active

compound is azardirachtin A-G and azadirachtin is more

effective to eradicate insects. The same findings by Pinto,

et al and Paguirigan M. et al, the plant lemon grass and the

plant neem have essential oils, flavonoids, and alkaloids

that have the potential as insecticide.

According to the study of Chothani (2012) Pantug-

pantugan contains a bioactive constituent flavonoids,

alkaloids and essential oils as among others which are the

same bioactive constituents present on the foregoing natural

insecticides. Hence, the insecticidal property of pantug-

pantugan leaf crude extract could be attributed to the

presence of flavonoids, alkaloids and essential oils.

 84

Chapter V
 85

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter presents the summary of the findings,

conclusion and recommendations that are valuable to both the

researchers and to the people who will be benefited of the

study.

Summary of Findings

This study was conducted to determine the pesticidal

property of Pantug-pantugan (Physalis minima Linn.) leaf

extract on houseflies(Musca domestica) which specifically

aimed to determine the potential insecticidal effect of the

varying concentration.

The treatments used in the study were the following:25%

of Pantug –pantugan leaf extract (Treatment one); 50% of

Pantug-pantugan leaf extract (Treatment two); 75% of Pantug-

pantugan leaf extract (Treatment three); 100% of Pantug-

pantugan leaf extract.

The result of our study could be utilized at home in

eradicating houseflies that is environmental friendly at a

 86

cheaper cost. All will be benefited from this production

natural and cost effective.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of the study that Pantug-pantugan

leaf extract could be a potential source of natural

insecticide and its efficacy is comparable to commercially

available sticky flytrap paper that eradicate the population

of houseflies.

Recommendation

Based on the results obtained, the researchers

recommend the following:

1. Pantug-pantugan is a potential source in eradicating

houseflies.

2. An experiment should be well conducted.

3. Phytochemical assay should be conducted to isolate the

bioactive constituent present.

4. An experiment should be well conducted to create a new

drug out of this plant.

 87

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 92

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 93

APPENDICES

Test of Difference of the Three Treatment on Mortality Rate

of Houseflies after 30 minutes
 94

Critic
F
al
Source of Comput Decisi Interpretati
SS Df MS Value
Variation ed on on
Value
(α=5%)

Bet. 6.94 5 1.38888 Reject Significant

Groups 9 Ho
5.33 12
3.13 3.11
W/in
0.44444
Groups
4

Total 12.2 17
7

Post Hoc Analysis

Treatmen Mean Compariso Mean Critica Decisio Interpretatio

t n Differenc l Value n n
e
Control 1 1.33 Control 1 0.66 1.82 Accept Not
& Control Ho Significant
2
Control 2 2 Control 1 1 1.82 Accept Not
& T1 Ho Significant
T1 2.33 Control 1 1.33 1.82 Accept Not
& T2 Ho Significant
T2 2.66 Control 1 1.33 1.82 Accept Not
& T3 Ho Significant
T3 2.66 Control 1 0.67 1.82 Accept Not
& T4 Ho Significant
T4 3.33 Control 2 0.33 1.82 Accept Not
& T1 Ho Significant
    Control 2 0.67 1.82 Accept Not
& T2 Ho Significant
    Control 2 0.67 1.82 Accept Not
& T3 Ho Significant
    Control 2 1.33 1.82 Accept Not
& T4 Ho Significant
    T1 & T2 0.33 1.82 Accept Not
Ho Significant
    T1 & T3 0.33 1.82 Accept Not
 95

Ho Significant
    T1 & T4 1 1.82 Accept Not
Ho Significant
    T2 & T3 0 1.82 Accept Not
Ho Significant
    T2 & T4 0.67 1.82 Accept Not
Ho Significant
    T3 & T4 0.67 1.82 Accept Not
Ho Significant

Test of Difference of the Three Treatment on Mortality Rate

of Houseflies after 1 hour

Critic
F
al
Source of Comput Decisi Interpretati
SS df MS Value
Variation ed on on
Value
(α=5%)

Bet. 12.44 5 2.49 Reject Significant

Groups Ho
7.33 12 0.61 4.07 3.11
W/in
Groups

Total 19.7 17
7

Post Hoc Analysis

Treatm Mean Comparis Mean Critical Decision Interpretation

ent on Differe Value
nce
Control 2.33 Control 2 2.14 Accept Not
1 1 & Ho Significant
Control
2
Control 4.33 Control 2 2.14 Accept Not
2 1 & T1 Ho Significant
T1 4.33 Control 2 2.14 Accept Not
1 & T2 Ho Significant
 96

T2 4.33 Control 2 2.14 Accept Not

1 & T3 Ho Significant
T3 4.33 Control 2.67 2.14 Reject
1 & T4 Ho Significant
T4 5 Control 0 2.14 Accept Not
2 & T1 Ho Significant
    Control 0 2.14 Accept Not
2 & T2 Ho Significant
    Control 0 2.14 Accept Not
2 & T3 Ho Significant
    Control 0.67 2.14 Accept Not
2 & T4 Ho Significant
    T1 & T2 0 2.14 Accept Not Significant
Ho

    T1 & T3 0 2.14 Accept Not

Ho Significant
    T1 & T4 0.67 2.14 Accept Not
Ho Significant

    T2 & T3 0 2.14 Accept Not Significant

Ho

    T2 & T4 0.67 2.14 Accept Not Significant

Ho

    T3 & T4 0.67 2.14 Accept Not Significant

Ho

Test of Difference of the Three Treatments on Mortality Rate

of Mosquito After 1 hour and 30 minutes

Critic
F
al
Source of Comput Decisi Interpretati
SS df MS Value
Variation ed on on
Value
(α=5%)

Bet. 15.61 5 3.12 14.10 3.10 Reject Significant

Groups
 97

W/in 2.66 12 0.22 Ho

Groups

Total 18.2 17
7

Post Hoc Analysis

Treat Mean Comparis Mean Critic Decision Interpretation

ment on Differen al
ce Value
Contro 1.67 Control 3.33 1.29 Reject Significant
l 1 1 & Ho
Control
2
Contro 5 Control 3 1.29 Reject
l 2 1 & T1 Ho Significant
T1 4.67 Control 3 1.29 Reject
1 & T2 Ho Significant
T2 4.67 Control 3 1.29 Reject
1 & T3 Ho Significant
T3 4.67 Control 3.33 1.29 Reject
1 & T4 Ho Significant
T4 5 Control 0.33 1.29 Accept Not
2 & T1 Ho Significant
    Control 0.33 1.29 Accept Not
2 & T2 Ho Significant
    Control 0.33 1.29 Accept Not
2 & T3 Ho Significant
    Control 0 1.29 Accept Not
2 & T4 Ho Significant
    T1 & T2 0 1.29 Accept Not Significant
Ho
    T1 & T3 0 1.29 Accept Not
Ho Significant
    T1 & T4 0.33 1.29 Accept Not
Ho Significant
    T2 & T3 0 1.29 Accept Ho Not Significant

    T2 & T4 0.33 1.29 Accept Ho Not Significant

 98

    T3 & T4 0.33 1.29 Accept Ho Not Significant

RESULT OF RAW DATA

30 minutes

Control1 Control2 T1 T2 T3 T4
1 2 2 2 3 3
2 2 3 2 2 4
1 2 2 4 3 3

1 hour

Control1 Control2 T1 T2 T3 T4
2 5 5 4 5 5
3 4 5 5 3 5
2 4 3 4 5 5

1 hour and 30 minutes

Control1 Control T1 T2 T3 T4
2
2 5 5 4 5 5
3 5 4 5 4 5
2 5 5 5 5 5

Legends;

Control 1- tap water

Control 2- baygon fly paper

T1- 25% of pantug-pantugan leaf extract

T2- 50% of pantug-pantugan leaf extract

 99

T3- 75% of pantug-pantugan leaf extract

T4- 100% of pantug-pantugan leaf extract

PLATES
 100

Plate 1. Harvesting of pantug-pantugan plant.

 101

Plate 2. Separating the leaves from the plant.

Plate 3. Weighing the leaves of pantug-pantugan.

 102

Plate 4. Chopping of the leaves

sss

Plate 5. Extraction of the pantug-pantugan plant.

 103

Plate 6. Preparing the materials needed to make a sticky

flytrap

Plate7. Mixing all the ingredients in making sticky flytrap

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Plate 8. Putting the cooked sticky mixture to the paper

Pla

s
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Plate 9. The finish product, Pantug-pantugan sticky flytrap

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,l

Plate 10. The experimental set-up

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Plate 11. Counting of dead houseflies