Logic Notes

Unit 6 (Inter. Logic Unit 1)

Introduction
Review Questions

1. How is logic a science?

a. In logic, people observe the mind as it reasons – as it draws conclusions from

premises – and from those observations discover the laws of reasoning which
God has placed in the minds of people.

2. How is it an art?

a. Logic provides people who study logic with practical skills to construct
arguments correctly as they write, discuss, debate, or communicate.

3. How is it a symbolic language?

Logic Notes 1
 a. Logic breaks down the language of arguments into symbolic form, simplifying
them such that the arrangement of the language, and thus the reasoning within
it becomes apparent.

4. What becomes more apparent about an argument when it is symbolized?

a. When an argument is symbolized, its logical structure will be revealed and can
be judged, and if needed, can be corrected as well using the rules of logic.

5. How does propositional logic differ from categorical logic?

a. In categorical logic, symbols which are usually in capital letters are used to
represent terms while in propositional logic, the letters are used to represent
entire propositions.

b. Categorical logic is a species of formal deductive logic that uses simple,

categorical propositions in its argument in which the basic unit of thought is the
terms. The validity of the argument is based on the relationship of the terms.

c. Propositional logic is a species of formal deductive logic that uses at least one
compound proposition in which the basic unit of thought is propositions. The
validity of the argument is based on the relationship of the propositions.

L. 1 Propositional Logic
Review Questions

1. What is a proposition?

a. A proposition is a statement that is declarative and has a truth value or has the
potential to have a truth value.

2. What is a truth-functional proposition?

a. A truth-functional proposition is a proposition whose truth value depends upon

the truth value of its component parts. This includes simple propositions as well
as their truth-value depends on their component part even though it doesn’t
have a logical operator.

3. Why is a self-report and a tautology not truth-functional?

a. A self-report or a tautology isn’t truth-functional because its truth value doesn’t

depend on its component parts. For a self-report, no matter the truth value of its

Logic Notes 2
 component parts, it will always be true while for a tautology, no matter the truth
value of its component parts, it will always be false.

i. Self-report

p ~p p v ~p

T F T

F T T

i. Tautology

p ~p p • ~p

T F F

F T F

4. What is a logical operator?

a. A logical operator is a word or phrase which combines or modifies simple

propositions to make a compound proposition.

5. How does a simple proposition differ from a compound proposition?

a. Simple proposition

i. Only has 1 subject and 1 predicate

ii. Can easily be translated into categorical propositions

iii. Only has one component part

iv. Doesn’t have any logical operators (Doesn’t include “not”)

b. Compound proposition

a. Has more than one subject and/or predicate

b. Can’t be easily/readily translated into a categorical proposition.

c. Has more than one component part

d. has at least one logical operator (doesn’t include “not”)

6. What is a propositional constant?

Logic Notes 3
 a. A propositional constant is a symbol that uses an upper-case letter which can
be any letter in the alphabet and is usually used to represent a single given
proposition.

7. What is a propositional variable?

a. A propositional variable is a symbol that uses only lower-case letters starting

from q and continuing throughout the alphabet and is usually used to represent
any or an unlimited number of propositions though is best used for patterns.

L. 2 Negation Conjunction, Disjunction

Review Questions

1. How is negation expressed in a sentence in regular English?

a. Negation is the logical operator that denies or contradicts a proposition.

Examples of words or phrases that are included in negation are not, it is false
that, it is not true that, it is not the case that, and so on.

2. What is the symbol for negation?

a. The symbol for negation is the tilde (~)

3. How does negation affect the truth value of the negated proposition?

a. A negated proposition will be a contradiction of the proposition.

b. Example

p ~p

T F

F T

4. What is a truth table? What do truth tables show?

a. A truth table is a listing of the possible truth values for a set of one or more
propositions.

b. Truth tables show how a compound proposition is affected by the truth values of
its component parts.

5. What is a defining truth table?

Logic Notes 4
 a. A defining truth table is a truth table that displays the truth values produced by a
logical operator modifying a minimum number of variables.

6. What English words express a conjunction?

a. A conjunction is one of the basic compound propositions with a logical operator

that joins two propositions. Examples of conjunctions are and, yet, but,
however, although, nevertheless, still, etc.

7. What is the symbol for conjunction?

a. The symbol for conjunction is the dot (•)

8. When is a conjunction true?

a. A conjunction is true if and only if both propositions are true. If one is false, then
the conjunction will be false.

p q p•q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

9. How is a disjunction expressed in regular English?

a. A disjunction is one of the basic compound propositions with a logical operator

that joins two propositions. In English, it is usually expressed using or, either/or,
neither/nor, etc.

10. What is the difference between “inclusive or” and “exclusive or”?

a. Inclusive or basically means “This or that, or both” while exclusive or basically

means ‘This or that, but not both”. Usually, if it is not explicitly stated that
exclusive or is used, we should assume that the or meant is inclusive or.

11. How is each of them symbolized?

a. Both inclusive or and exclusive or uses vel (v)

b. Inclusive or

p q pvq

Logic Notes 5
 T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

b. exclusive or

p q pvq

T T F

T F T

F T T

F F F

12. When is a disjunction true?

A disjunction (assuming that it is inclusive or) is true if and only if one or both
component parts are true.

13. When should parentheses be used in symbolizing compound propositions?

a. Parentheses should be used when dealing with complicated compound

propositions in order to avoid ambiguity.

14. What is the difference between “not both” and both not”?

a. “Both” is usually a sign that shows that parentheses should be used. Not both is
symbolized as ~(p v q) since the word “not” comes before the word “both” so
the tilde will come before the parentheses. Both not is symbolized as (~p v ~q)
and can also mean neither/nor.

L. 3 Truth Tables for Determining Truth values

Review Questions

1. How many rows are needed to express all combinations of true and false for two
variables? For three variables? For n variables?

a. Four rows

b. Eight rows

c. 2^n rows (n= numbers of variables/letters)

Logic Notes 6
 2. How do we determine the number of columns a truth table needs?

a. By counting the numbers of characters in total which means variables/letters, as

well as logical operators, are included but parentheses (), brackets [], and {} are
not included as characters.

3. What is the general method for determining the truth values of a compound
proposition? How does this method differ for propositions using constants with
known truth values?

a. The general method for determining the truth values of a compound proposition
is by using truth tables. First, draw a horizontal line below the proposition(s).
Second, figure out the number of rows and columns needed. Third, fill in the
truth values of each variable first and make sure that its truth value is 50% false
and 50% true. Fourth, based on the truth values of the variables, fill in the truth
values of the logical operators. Fifth, circle the defining truth values which are
located under the outermost logical operator.

b. For propositions using constants with known truth values, the truth tables will
require only one row.

L. 4 The Conditional
Review Questions

1. What type of sentence does the conditional represent?

a. A conditional represents an if-then proposition. A conditional is one of the basic

compound propositions which claims that one of the components implies the
other.

2. What are some other names for the conditional?

a. Material implication and hypotheticals.

3. Which part of the conditional is the antecedent (hypothesis, conditional)?

a. The antecedent is the part of the conditional that implies and follows after the if.
Remember that it can be located at the front or back of the proposition.

4. Which part is the consequent (conclusion of a conditional proposition)?

a. The consequent is the part that is implied and follows after the then.

Logic Notes 7
 5. What is the symbol for conditional?

a. The symbol for the conditional/material equivalence/hypothetical is the

horseshoe ( ) ⊃
6. When is a conditional considered to be false?

a. A conditional is considered to be false if and only if the one implying is true and
the one implied is false.

p q p ⊃q
T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

7. Are conditionals in English with false antecedents actually truth-functional?

a. Yes, conditionals in English with false antecedents can actually be truth-

functional. An example is a proposition “ If plants are cats then they are living
creatures.” It is false that plants are cats but if plants are really cats (so the idea
is that we consider the true value of what if the antecedent is true even though
we know it is actually false) then the plants will be living creatures which is true
so it will be true then false. Another example is “If a cat is a dog, then it is a
table.” If a cat is really a dog, then it will be a table and so this false and false
proposition is true.

8. What are the ways to express conditionals?

a. Applied to the likelihood of behavior

i. If he walks while looking at his phone, then he will not see the incoming
cars.

b. Cause-and-effect relationship

i. The neighbors will complain if our dog doesn’t stop barking.

c. Implication by definition

i. Bob is a dog implies that Bob is a mammal.

d. Sufficient condition

Logic Notes 8
 i. Winning this competition is a sufficient condition for you to get a
scholarship.

9. What other compound proposition is by definition equivalent to the conditional?

a. ~(p • ~q) It is false that p but q

b. p ⊃ (p • q) If p then p and q
c. ~p v q either not p or q (Rule of material Implication)

d. ~p ⊃ ~q if something is not p then it must not be q (Rule of transposition)

10. What are several ways of expressing conditionals in English?

a. If p then q

b. When p, q

c. p implies q

d. p is sufficient for q

e. q is necessary for p

f. p necessitates q

g. p only if q (don’t get mixed up with if and only if since that is biconditional and
not the same thing)

11. What is the rule of transposition?

a. ~q ⊃ ~p if something is not q then it must not be p

L. 5 The Biconditional
Review Questions

1. What type of sentence does the biconditional represent?

a. Biconditional represents if and only if propositions.

2. What is the symbol for biconditional?

a. The symbol for biconditional is the triple bar ≡

3. How is the biconditional used to determine if two propositions are logically

equivalent?

Logic Notes 9
 a. The biconditional will be true if both of the propositions are logically equivalent
meaning that both of their truth values are either both false or both true.

4. How is it used to determine if two propositions are contradictory?

a. The biconditional will be false if the propositions have different truth values from
each other meaning that one is false and the other is true or vice versa.

5. What are the other meanings that the biconditional tells us?

a. p ⊃ q: p only if q
b. p ⊃ q: p if q

c. p if and only if q (which basically means “if p then q, if q then p” which is

material implication): (p ⊃
q) • (q ⊃ p)

d. p and q or both not p and q (Rule of material implication): [(p • q) v (~p • ~q)]

L. 6 Logical Equivalence
Review Questions

1. When are two propositions logically equivalent?

a. Two propositions are logically equivalent if and only if they have the same truth
values in a truth table.

2. What is a tautology?

a. A tautology is a proposition which is necessarily true for any condition because

of its logical structure.

p p ⊃p
T T

F T

3. What is a self-contradiction?

a. A self-contradiction is a proposition which necessarily false because of its

logical structure.

p ~p p • ~p

T F F

Logic Notes 10
 F T F

4. How is the biconditional used to determine if two propositions are logically

equivalent? How is it used to determine if two propositions are contradictory?

a. If the biconditional is a tautology as all defining truth values are true, then the
two propositions are logically equivalent to each other.

b. If the biconditional is a self-contradiction as all defining truth values are false,

then the two propositions are contradictory to each other.

c. If the biconditional is neither a tautology nor a self-contradiction, then the two

propositions are neither logically equivalent nor contradictory to each other.

5. What is the relationship between propositions in modern logic?

a. Propositions in modern logic:

i. Consistency

1. independence

2. logical equivalence

ii. Inconsistency

1. contradiction (contrariety already included here)

6. How can logical equivalence be differentiated from biconditional?

a. They can be differentiated from their context. If we are referring to a proposition

then it is biconditional but if we are referring to the relationship between
propositions it is logical equivalence.

L. 7 (Long) Truth Tables for Determining Validity

Review Questions

1. What is a valid argument?

2. How can a truth table be used to show that an argument is invalid?

a. If there is at least one row with true premises but false conclusion, then the
argument is deductively invalid.

3. How can a truth table be used to show that an argument is valid?

Logic Notes 11
 a. If there is at least one row with true premises and true conclusion without any
row having true premises and false conclusion, then the argument is
deductively valid.

4. Can an argument ever have true premises and true conclusion?

a. Yes, it can.

L. 8 Shorter Truth Tables for Determining Validity

Review Questions

1. What should be initially assumed about an argument when using a shorter truth
table to determine the argument’s validity?

a. The argument should be assumed to be invalid.

2. Explain the procedure for determining validity using a shorter truth table.

a. Assume that the argument is invalid – of which the premises are true but the
conclusion is false.

b. Working backwards, look for an inevitable contradiction

i. recall the method of reductio ad absurdum (I have no recollection of what

this means so don’t ask me)

3. What are the two results?

a. The argument is not as assumed since there is an inevitable contradiction. The

argument is deductively valid.

b. The argument is as assumed since there is no inevitable contradiction. The

argument is deductively invalid.

4. Compare the truth values of a long and short truth table.

a. When a shorter truth table is completed for an invalid argument, the truth values
found for the variables/constants are the same truth values from a row showing
to be invalid on the longer truth table.

L. 9 Using Assumed Truth Values in Shorter Truth Tables

Review Questions

Logic Notes 12
 1. Can all propositional arguments be analyzed for validity using a shorter truth table
of only one line?

a. No, not all propositional argument can be analyzed for validity using a shorter
truth table of only one line. Sometimes, variables/constants have too many
possibilities until we can’t determine the truth value of the proposition which is
why another trial must be done.

2. What must be done when a truth table has no “forced” truth value?

a. We must assume a truth value of one of the constants/variables. Usually we

assume the truth value of the constant/variable that appears the most.
Underline the truth values which you assigned to a particular constant/variable
before continuing to the next trial. If in the first trial you find no contradiction,
second trial isn’t needed but remember to still underline.

3. If a contradiction appears when a truth table is guessed while using a shorter truth
table, what must be done? Why?

a. If a contradiction appears, we must still keep going to the next trial since there’s
a possibility we might have made a bad assumption/guess so we must try the
other way.

4. What are all the possible results?

a. The argument is not as assumed since there is a contradiction in every single

trial. This argument is deductively valid.

b. The argument is as assumed since there is no contradiction in the first trial. This
argument is deductively invalid.

c. The argument is as assumed since there is no contradiction in the second trial.

This argument is deductively invalid.

L. 10 Shorter Truth Tables or Consistency

Review Questions
Warning: This lesson is about propositions not arguments

1. What does it mean that a set of propositions are consistent?

a. A set of propositions are consistent if and only if they can be true at the same
time (either because they are logically equivalent or because they are

Logic Notes 13
 independent).

2. How can a shorter truth table be used to determine the consistency of a set of
propositions?

a. Assume that the set of propositions are consistent which means that all the
propositions are true before working backwards.

3. What are the results?

a. The propositions are not as assumed since there is an inevitable contradiction.

The propositions are consistent.

b. The propositions are as assumed since there is no inevitable contradiction. The

propositions are inconsistent.

L. 11 Shorter Truth Tables for Equivalence

Review Questions

1. What does it mean that two propositions are equivalent?

a. If two propositions are consistent to each other, this doesn’t mean that they are
equivalent. Two propositions are equivalent if and only if they have the same
truth values in the truth table.

2. What is the method of using a shorter truth table to determine the equivalence of a
pair of propositions?

a. Assume that the two propositions are not logically equivalent – meaning that the
two propositions have opposite truth values (one will be T and the other will be
F)

b. If there is no contradiction, this means that the propositions are not logically
equivalent

c. If there is an inevitable contradiction, make a new trial and this time switch the
assigned truth values (one will now be F and the other will be T)

i. Remember to still assign the same truth values as you did in the first trial to
all the other characters/variables/constants

Logic Notes 14
 d. If a contradiction still occurs, then the propositions are logically equivalent but if
there is no contradiction, that means that the propositions are not logically
equivalent.

3. What are all the results?

a. The propositions are not as assumed since there is an inevitable contradiction

in every single trial. The propositions are logically equivalent.

b. The propositions are as assumed since there is no inevitable contradiction in

the first trial. The propositions are not logically equivalent.

c. The propositions are as assumed since there is no inevitable contradiction in

the second trial. The propositions are not logically equivalent.

4. How is this similar to using truth tables to determine validity?

a. In both, we have to assume that they are not want we want to confirm. For
logical equivalence, we have to assume that the propositions are not logically
equivalent and for validity, we have to assume that the argument is not valid.
Also, we sometimes have to use more than one trial in order to make sure our
assumption is correct. (Someone double check this I’m not sure)

L. 12 The Dilemma
Review Questions

1. What is a dilemma?

a. In general: A situation in which somebody must choose one of two or more

unsatisfactory alternatives.

b. In logic: A form of reasoning that involves two conditional(s) in its premise

which, though vlid, leads to two alternatives which are usually undersirable.

2. How is a standard constructive dilemma symbolized?

a. (p ⊃ q) • (r ⊃ s), p v r, ∴ q v s
3. How is a standard destructive dilemma symbolized?

a. (p ⊃ q) • (r ⊃ s), ~q v ~s, ∴ p v ~r
4. How does a destructive dilemma differ from a constructive dilemma?

Logic Notes 15
 a. Destructive dilemmas are a lot like modus tollens since for the consequent of
the first premise (q and s) we use negation on each one of them in the form of
disjunction and the conclusion is taken from the antecedent (p and r) but in the
form of disjunction and negation resembling modus tollens. On the other hand,
constructive dilemmas are a lot like modus ponens since the second premise
deals with the antecedent and the conclusion deals with the consequent.

b. Modus ponens: p ⊃ q, p, ∴q
c. Modus tollens: p ⊃ q, ~q, ∴ ~p

5. What are the three methods of escaping the horns of a dilemma?

a. Going between the horns of a dilemma

i. Deals with the second premise

ii. Provide one or more alternative disjuncts (antecedent of the first premise)
which discard any one of the two

b. Grasping (taking it) by the horn(s) of a dilemma

i. Deals with the first premise, particularly any one or both of the conditional
conjunct

ii. Provide one or more alternatives of consequent (in one or both of the
conditional conjunct of the first premise)

c. Rebuttal of the horns of a dilemma

i. Deals with the whole dilemma by providing a counter-dilemma

ii. Modify one alternative for each consequent in the first premise and also
alternative of disjuncts in the conclusion.

iii. Remember that you are basically looking at the dilemma through another
perspective without claiming that the dilemma is true or false.

6. Is it possible to use all three methods on every dilemma?

a. No, it isn’t possible to use all three methods on every dilemmas. Some
dilemmas can’t even be refuted by using one of the methods (example is law of
excluded middle). In other cases, it might be possible to use all three methods,
but not all of them will be a strong refutal to the dilemma.

Logic Notes 16
Logic Notes 17