APSC252 Final Exam Formula Sheet

Pressure, temperature and specific volume

Pressure: 𝑃 = 𝐹/𝐴 Absolute temperature: 𝑇[𝐾] = 𝑇[°𝐶] + 273.15

Absolute pressure: Pabs=Patm+ ρgh

Gage pressure: Pgage=Pabs - Patm 𝕍 1
Specific volume: 𝑣=𝑚=𝜌 (𝕍: volume)

Two-phase mixture
𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟
Quality: 𝑥 =
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
Specific volume: 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥𝑣𝑓𝑔 = (1 − 𝑥)𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥𝑣𝑔 , 𝑣𝑓𝑔 = 𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓
Specific internal energy: 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥𝑢𝑓𝑔 = (1 − 𝑥)𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥𝑢𝑔 , 𝑢𝑓𝑔 = 𝑢𝑔 − 𝑢𝑓
Specific enthalpy: ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔 = (1 − 𝑥)ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑔 , ℎ𝑓𝑔 = ℎ𝑔 − ℎ𝑓
Specific entropy: 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑥𝑠𝑓𝑔 = (1 − 𝑥)𝑠𝑓 + 𝑥𝑠𝑔 , 𝑠𝑓𝑔 = 𝑠𝑔 − 𝑠𝑓

Compressed liquid (when tables are not available)

𝑣 ≈ 𝑣𝑓@𝑇 𝑢 ≈ 𝑢𝑓@𝑇 ℎ ≈ ℎ𝑓@𝑇 𝑠 ≈ 𝑠𝑓@𝑇

Ideal gas
EOS: 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 or 𝑃𝕍 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 (R: gas constant; 𝕍: volume; 𝑣: specific volume) (T in Kelvin)
𝑘𝑅 𝑅
Specific heats: 𝑐𝑝 = 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑅, 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑝 /𝑐𝑣 , 𝑐𝑝 = 𝑘−1 , 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑘−1
Specific enthalpy and specific internal energy: ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑅𝑇
𝑢 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑇 , ℎ = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇
Change in specific internal energy (assuming constant 𝑐𝑣0 ) 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝑐𝑣0 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
Change in specific enthalpy (assuming constant 𝑐𝑝0 ) ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 𝑐𝑝0 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
Change in specific entropy
0 0 ) 𝑃
• Accurate method 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = (𝑠𝑇2 − 𝑠𝑇1 − 𝑅ln 𝑃2
1
• Approximate method (assuming constant 𝑐𝑣0 and 𝑐𝑝0 )
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑣2
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝑐𝑝0 ln − 𝑅ln or 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝑐𝑣0 ln + 𝑅ln (T in Kelvin)
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑇1 𝑣1

𝑃𝑣 𝑃 𝑇
Compressibility factor: 𝑍 = ; reduced pressure and temperature: 𝑃𝑟 = , 𝑇𝑟 = 𝑇 (T in Kelvin)
𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑐 𝑐

Solid and liquid

Specific heats: 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑝 = 𝑐𝑣
Change in specific internal energy or specific enthalpy: ℎ2 − ℎ1 ≈ 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ≈ 𝑐(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑇2
Change in specific entropy: 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝑐ln (T in Kelvin)
𝑇1

1
Energy, work and heat

Total energy: 𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑢 + ½ 𝑚𝑉 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑧 (V: velocity)

Specific total energy: 𝑒 = 𝐸/𝑚 = 𝑢 + ½ 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧 (V: velocity)
Specific internal energy: 𝑢 = 𝑈/𝑚

Specific heat transfer: 𝑞 = 𝑄/𝑚

2
Boundary work: 1W2= ∫1 𝑃𝑑𝕍 (area under the P- 𝕍 diagram; 𝕍: volume)
Specific work: 𝑤 = 𝑊/𝑚
2 1
Spring work: 𝑊spring = ∫1 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = 𝐾(𝑥22 − 𝑥12 )
2
̇
Shaft power: 𝑊 = 𝑇𝜔 (T: torque)

Closed systems (control mass)

1st law: E2 − E1 = 1Q2 − 1W2 or U2 − U1 = 1Q2 − 1W2 (assuming KE=0, PE=0)
𝑄𝑘
2nd law: 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = ∑ + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 (𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 ≥ 0) (T in Kelvin)
𝑇𝑘

Volume flow rate and mass flow rate

Volume flow rate: 𝕍̇ = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔,𝑛 𝐴 = 𝑚̇𝑣 (𝕍: volume, V: velocity, 𝑣 : specific volume)
Mass flow rate: 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝕍̇ = 𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔,𝑛 𝐴

Steady-state, steady flow through a control volume (open system)

Conservation of mass: ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚̇𝑒
1 1
1st law: 𝑄̇𝑐𝑣 + ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖 (ℎ𝑖 + 𝑉𝑖2 + 𝑔𝑧𝑖 ) = 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣 + ∑ 𝑚̇𝑒 (ℎ𝑒 + 𝑉𝑒2 + 𝑔𝑧𝑒 )
2 2
𝑄̇𝑐.𝑣.
2nd law: ∑ 𝑚̇𝑒 𝑠𝑒 − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖 𝑠𝑖 = ∑ ̇
+ 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 ̇
(𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 ≥ 0) (T in Kelvin)
𝑇

Applications of the conservation of mass and the 1st law in different steady-state, steady flow devices
(note: the following derived relations are valid only if the given assumptions can be applied.)
• Throttling valve: 𝑚̇𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑒 , ℎ𝑖 = ℎ𝑒 (assuming 𝑄̇𝑐𝑣 = 0, 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣 = 0, ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0)
1 1
• Nozzle and diffuser: 𝑚̇𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑒 , ℎ𝑖 + 𝑉𝑖2 = ℎ𝑒 + 𝑉𝑒2 (assuming 𝑄̇𝑐𝑣 = 0, 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣 = 0, ΔPE = 0)
2 2

• Mixing chamber: ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚̇𝑒 , 𝑄̇𝑐𝑣 + ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖 ℎ𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚̇𝑒 ℎ𝑒 (assuming 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣 = 0, ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0)

• Heat exchanger: 𝑚̇𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑒 (for each of the hot and cold streams, separately)

𝑄̇𝑐𝑣 + ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖 ℎ𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚̇𝑒 ℎ𝑒 (assuming 𝑊̇𝑐𝑣 = 0, ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0)

• Turbine: 𝑚̇𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑒 = 𝑚̇ , 𝑊̇𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 ) (assuming 𝑄̇𝑐𝑣 = 0, ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0)

• Compressor: 𝑚̇𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑒 = 𝑚̇ , 𝑊̇𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑒 − ℎ𝑖 ) (assuming 𝑄̇𝑐𝑣 = 0, ΔPE = 0, ΔKE = 0)

2
Processes
• Isobaric process: P=const
• Isochoric process: v=const
• Isothermal process: T=const
• Adiabatic process: heat transfer Q=0 (for closed systems) or 𝑄̇𝑐𝑣 = 0 (for control volumes)
• Reversible process: 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0 (for closed systems) or ̇
𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0 (for control volumes)
• Isentropic process: reversible adiabatic process
• Polytropic process: 𝑃𝕍𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (𝕍: volume)
Boundary work in a polytropic process
𝑃2 𝕍2 −𝑃1 𝕍1
o 1W2= (𝑛 ≠ 1)
1−𝑛
𝕍 𝕍 𝕍
o 1W2= 𝑃1 𝕍1 𝑙𝑛 𝕍2 = 𝑃2 𝕍2 𝑙𝑛 𝕍2 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝕍2 (𝑛 = 1) (T in Kelvin)
1 1 1

Heat engines
• Any heat engine
o Net work output: 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑄
o Thermal efficiency: 𝜂𝑡ℎ = = 1 − 𝑄𝐿
𝑄𝐻 𝐻
𝑇𝐿
• Carnot heat engine: 𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 1 − (T in Kelvin)
𝑇𝐻

Refrigerators
• Any refrigerator
o Net work input: 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿
𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿 1
o Coefficient of performance: 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅 = =𝑄 =𝑄
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 𝐻 −𝑄𝐿 𝐻 /𝑄𝐿 −1
𝑇𝐿 1
• Carnot refrigerator: 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅,𝑟𝑒𝑣 = =𝑇 (T in Kelvin)
𝑇𝐻 −𝑇𝐿 𝐻 /𝑇𝐿 −1

Heat pumps
• Any heat pump
o Net work input: 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻 1
o Coefficient of performance: 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑃 = =𝑄 = 1−𝑄
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑖𝑛 𝐻 −𝑄𝐿 𝐿 /𝑄𝐻
𝑇𝐻 1
• Carnot heat pump: 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑃,𝑟𝑒𝑣 = = 1−𝑇 /𝑇 (T in Kelvin)
𝑇𝐻 −𝑇𝐿 𝐿 𝐻

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